General Chemistry Course v5 PDF

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General Chemistry
Lorentz JNTSCHI
Creative Commons (CC) Attribution 3.0 Unported License

Course 1
Periodic system
Periodical properties
Electronic structure
http://vl.academicdirect.org/general_chemistry/periodic_system
Periodic system
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1 H He
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
6 Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
7 Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu AmCm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No
At the basis of the classification of the elements stays
the atomic number, Z representing the total number
of electrons in the atom and in same time the number of
protons in the nucleus
Elements in the periodic system are placed on vertical
columns the groups, and in horizontal rows the
periods. The succession in the periods is with respect to
the main levels of energy and to the electrons layers.
The period number is equal to the main quantum
number (of the layer being filled). The number of the
group represents the number of the electrons of this
layer being filled, and plays the main role in the
expression of the chemical properties. Thus, it exists a
similarity of the properties inside groups.
Chemical properties are determined by the atom's
tendency to reach as much as possible at stable electron
configurations and to use as many as possible the orbital
valences.
96Cm
87Fr 97Bk
86Rn 95Am
54Xe 55Cs 94Pu 64Gd 65Tb

88Ra 93Np 63Eu
36Kr 37Rb
66Dy 98Cf
85At 56Ba
92U 62Sm
53I 18Ar 19K
38Sr 67Ho
35Br 91Pa
89Ac 61Pm 99Es
10Ne 11Na 20Ca
17Cl 90Th 68Er
12Mg 60Nd 100Fm
9F 57La
2He 3Li 69Tm
59Pr
4Be 39Y 58Ce 101Md
84Po 52Te 34Se 16S 8O 1H 70Yb
21Sc 102No
71Lu 103Lw
7N
15P 22Ti 40Zr 72Hf 104Rf
6C 5B
33As 73Ta 105Ha
23V 41Nb
51Sb 14Si 74
13Al W
83Bi 30Zn 24Cr 42Mo
32Ge 29Cu
31Ga
48Cd
Mn Tc Re
50Sn 28Ni 25 43
49In 75
47Ag
26Fe
82Pb 80Hg 27Co
81Tl 46Pd
79Au 44Ru
45Rh
78Pt
Os
76
77Ir
The periodic "law" of chemistry recognizes that
properties of the chemical elements are periodic
functions of their atomic number (that is, the number of
protons within the element's atomic nucleus). The
periodic table is an arrangement of the chemical
elements ordered by atomic number in columns
(groups) and rows (periods) presented so as to
emphasize their periodic properties.
There are many different ways, sometimes ingenious, of
arranging the chemical elements according to which
properties are of particular interest but that shown here
is a standard form of the periodic table. The relative
merits of various other periodic table organizations is still
the subject of debate.
Atomic measures
Anion: atom or group of atoms containing more electrons
than protons consequence any negative charged
system is referred as anion; Cation: idem opposite
Atomic radius: measure of the relative dimension of the
atoms (see O2 and H2O)
Electron affinity: measure of the ability or tendency of a
atom to get electrons energetic concept formal
definition refers just one electron: X + 1e- X-1 + E.A.
Electronegativity: ability of a bound atom to attract
electrons; at the bond level, the electron may be shared or
transferred; there are many electronegativity scales.
Ionization potential: from energetic process leading to the
cation: X + I.P. X+ + 1e-; it exists also superior (or
supplementary) ionization potentials (ex. X+ +I.P.2 X2+ +
1e-)
Periodical tendencies
Refers the change of the atoms properties when moving
to another group or period
In period from left to right: I.P., E.A., electronegativity
increases; Dimension (radius) decreases;
In group from top to bottom: I.P., E.A., electronegativity
decreases; Dimension (radius) increases;
Stability factors refers the electrons taken or given
during the process of bond formation with the purpose of
stability increase:
Tendency to reach a configuration of a noble gas;
Tendency to loose all valence electrons (sometimes only p
sublevel electrons);
Tendency to keep: occupied, half occupied and unoccupied the
sets of the orbital
Temperature scale
~1859 ~1714 ~1732 ~1848
Rankine Fahrenheit Celsius Kelvin
671.67R 212F 100C 373.15 K

Water boils
Brine
freezes
Water freezes
(-17.8C
= 0F) 491.67R 32F 0C 273.15 K Mercury
freezes
(-38.8C
419.67R -40F -40C 233.15 K = -37.9F)
0R -459.67F -273.15C 0K
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
H He
1
14
Melting points of chemical elements [K] 1
Li Be B C N O F Ne
2
453 1551 2573 3820 63 55 54 24
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
3
371 922 933 1683 317 386 172 84
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
4
336 1112 1814 1933 2160 2130 1517 1808 1768 1726 1357 693 303 1211 1090 490 266 117
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
5
312 1042 1795 2125 2741 2890 2445 2583 2239 1825 1235 594 429 505 904 723 387 161
Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
6
302 1002 1963 2503 3269 3680 3453 3327 2683 2045 1338 234 577 600 545 527 575 202
Fr Ra Lr Rf
7
300 973 1900 2400
1194 1072 1204 1294 1441 1350 1095 1586 1629 1685 1747 1802 1818 1097
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No
1338 2023 2113 1405 913 914 1267 1610 1259 1173 1133 1800 1100 1100
Solid state and density
Plasma
Recombination
Ionization 104 Gas

NaCl
103
Gas Laser blast O2
Condensation 102
Deposition 101 He
Liquid
0
Vaporization 10
Liquid -1
T [K] Solid
10
[kg/m3]
Freezing 10-2
Sublimation 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104
Melting
Solid Temperature
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
H -3 He
1 Solid state density of chemical elements [kgm ]
88 214
Li Be B C N O F Ne
2
535 1848 2460 2267 1026 1495 1700 1444
3
968 1738 2700 2330 1823 1960 2030 1616
4
856 1550 2985 4507 6110 7140 7470 7874 8900 8908 8920 7140 5904 5323 5727 4819 4050 2155
5
1532 2630 4472 6511 8570 10280 11500 12370 12450 12023 10490 8650 7310 7310 6697 6240 4940 3640
6
1879 3510 9841 13310 16650 19250 21020 22610 22650 21090 19300 14190 11850 11340 9780 9196 6400 4400
Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn
7
2900 5000 9840 17000 21600 23200 27200 28600 28200 27400 24400 16800
6146 6689 6640 6800 7264 7353 5244 7901 8219 8551 8795 9066 9321 6570
10070 11724 15370 19050 20450 19816 13780 13510 14780 15100 13500 8840
Ionization potential
U
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
H He
1
13.6
First ionization potential [eV] 24.6
Li Be B C N O F Ne
2
5.4 9.3 8.3 11.3 14.5 13.6 17.4 21.6
3
5.1 7.6 6.0 8.2 10.5 10.4 13.0 15.8
4
4.3 6.1 6.6 6.8 6.7 6.8 7.4 7.9 7.9 7.6 7.7 9.4 6.0 7.9 9.8 9.8 11.8 14.0
5
4.2 5.7 6.2 6.6 6.8 7.1 7.3 7.4 7.5 8.3 7.6 9.0 5.8 7.3 8.6 9.0 10.5 12.1
6
3.9 5.2 5.4 6.8 7.9 8.0 7.9 8.7 9.1 9.0 9.2 10.4 6.1 7.4 7.3 8.4 9.5 10.7
7
3.9 5.3 4.6 6.0 6.9 7.9 7.7 7.6 8.3 9.9 10.6 12.0
5.6 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.6 5.6 5.7 6.2 5.9 5.9 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3
5.2 6.1 5.9 6.2 6.3 6.1 6.0 6.0 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7
Electronegativity
% of ionic character of "AB"
100
y=-14.6x+38; r2=0.9887
80
60
40
20
-2.23 2
y=126/(1+(x/2) ); r =0.9996
0
0.2 0.8 1.4 2.0 2.6 3.2
Difference between electronegativity of A and B
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
H He
1
2.20
Electronegativity [revised Pauling]
Li Be B C N O F Ne
2
0.98 1.57 2.04 2.55 3.04 3.44 3.98
3
0.93 1.31 1.61 1.90 2.19 2.58 3.16
4
0.82 1.00 1.36 1.54 1.63 1.66 1.55 1.83 1.88 1.91 1.90 1.65 1.81 2.01 2.18 2.55 2.96 3.00
5
0.82 0.95 1.22 1.33 1.60 2.16 1.90 2.20 2.28 2.20 1.93 1.69 1.78 1.96 2.05 2.10 2.66 2.60
6
0.79 0.89 1.27 1.30 1.50 2.36 1.90 2.20 2.20 2.28 2.54 2.00 2.04 2.33 2.02 2.00 2.20 2.20
7
0.70 0.90 1.31
1.10 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.13 1.17 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.25 1.10
1.10 1.30 1.50 1.38 1.36 1.28 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.30
Pauling Electronegativity Scale
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1 H He
2.1
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0
0.8 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.9 1.6 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.4 2.8
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 1.9 2.2 2.2 2.2 1.9 1.7 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.5
6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.4 1.9 1.8 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.2
Linus PAULING. 1932. The Nature of the Chemical Bond. IV. The Energy of Single
Bonds and the Relative Electronegativity of Atoms. Journal of the American
Chemical Society 54(9):3570-3582. doi: 10.1021/ja01348a011
Allred Rochow Electronegativity Scale
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1 H He
2.20
0.97 1.47 2.01 2.50 3.07 3.5 4.1
1.01 1.23 1.47 1.74 2.06 2.44 2.83
0.91 1.04 1.20 1.66 1.82 2.02 2.20 2.48 2.74
0.89 0.99 1.11 1.46 1.49 1.72 1.82 2.01 2.21
0.86 0.97 1.08 1.44 1.44 1.55 1.67
Louis A. ALLRED, Eugene G. ROCHOW, 1958. A scale of

electronegativity based on electrostatic force. Journal of Inorganic and
Nuclear Chemistry 5(4):264-268. doi: 10.1016/0022-1902(58)80003-2
Sanderson Electronegativity Scale
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1 H He
2.31
0.86 1.61 1.88 2.47 2.93 3.46 3.92
0.85 1.42 1.54 1.74 2.16 2.66 3.28 3.92
0.74 1.06 1.09 1.86 2.10 2.31 2.53 2.76 2.96 3.17
0.70 0.96 0.98 1.73 1.88 2.02 2.19 2.34 2.50 2.63
0.69 0.93 0.92 1.92 1.96 2.01 2.06
Tom R. SANDERSON, 1983. Electronegativity and bond energy. Journal of the

American Chemical Society 105(8):2259-2261. doi: 10.1021/ja00346a026
"super-atom" group electronegativity
Formula EG=AVAEA/VA Method [1]
Group Calculus (Revised Pauling scale) Result
-CH3 (42.55+32.20)/(4+3) 2.40
-CHO (42.55+12.20+23.44)/(4+1+2) 2.75
-OH (23.44+12.20)/(2+1) 3.03
-OCH3 (23.44+12.40)/(2+1) 3.09
EA: Electronegativity of (super)atom;
VA: valence of (super)atom;
EG: group electronegativity.
[1] Wu HANQING, 1997. Re-propose Organic and Inorganic Property
Values and Group Electronegativity for Drug and Biological Molecules
and Their Calculation through JavaScript and Application in QSAR
Studies. First International Electronic Conference on Synthetic Organic
Chemistry (ECSOC-1), www.mdpi.org/ecsoc/, September 1-30, 1997.
Diudea-Silaghi group electronegativity
Formula E V ,k = k + b (E A ) v k j (E A ) j b
j v,j v,j
Diudea-Silaghi [1]
Group Calculus (Sanderson scale) Result
-CH3 1+ 3
( 2.47)1 ((2.31)1 (2.31)1 ( 2.31)1 ) 2.349
-CHO 1+ 3
( 2.47)1 (( 2.31)1 (3.46) 2 ) 2.875
-OH 1+1
(3.46)1 ((2.31)1 ) 2.827
-OCH3 1+1
(3.46)1 (( 2.349)1 ) 2.851
bv,j: bond order of v with j;

k: number of bonds of V from G to others (G).
[1] Mircea V. DIUDEA, Ioan SILAGHI-DUMITRESCU, 1989. Valence

group electronegativity as a vertex discriminator. Revue Roumaine de
Chimie 34(5):1175-1182.
Groups to do
Group Group
-OF >C=O
-ONO -COOH
-OCl -CONH2
-OCN -COCl
-OH -CN
-NO2 -CHO
>NH -CCl3
-NCO -SCN
=NH -SH
-NCS -C(CH3)
-NH2 -CH3
>S(=O)2 >PH
>S=O -PH2
-CF3 -BH2
>C=O >BH
Atomic structure
"How many quantum numbers are necessary to describe
a given system?" - has no universal answer; for every
system seeking for the answer should be conducted and
is the prerequisite of the complete analysis of the
system. Obviously a quantified system requires at least
one quantum number. Chemical elements can be
described through their electronic structure using four
quantum numbers: n - principal quantum number (shell):
n = 0, 1, ...; l - angular quantum number (subshell): l =
0..n-1; m - magnetic quantum number (orbital): m = -l..l;
s - spine quantum number (spin): s = , a
representative example for the deploying of the energy
levels and filling of it with electrons being for the Mercury
Electronic levels Degeneracy
8s 2
7p
Electronic
6
10
6d
14
levels 5f
2
7s 6
6p
10
5d 14
2
4f
6
6s 10
5p
2
4d
6
5s 10
4p
2
3d
6
4s
3p 2
3s 6
2p 2
2s
1s 2
Electronic structure tree for Hg
Electronic shell Order of
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d10 filling (energy)
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10 4f14 5s2 5p6 5d10 5f14 5g18 6s2 appearance (quantum)
l (0..n-1) m (-l..l) s () n
=0 =0 = 1s2 =1
=0 =0 = 2s2 =2
=1 =-1,0,1 = 2p6
=0 =0 = 3s2 =3
=1 =-1,0,1 = 3p6
=2 =-2,-1,0,1,2 = 3d10
=0 =0 = 4s2 =4
=1 =-1,0,1 = 4p6
=2 =-2,-1,0,1,2 = 4d10
=3 =-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3= 4f14
etc. ...
Atomic properties
Valence is an atomic property (other atomic property: atomic
number Z) and it reflects the tendency of elements to "stabilizes"
their electronic structure; the path to stabilization tends to reach one
of the following (meta)"stable" structures: s2, p3, p6, d5, d10, etc. For
example, at C - carbon (Z=6): 1s2, 2s2, 2p2 1s2, 2s2, 2p6 :C4-
(CH4). There are main ("preferred"), secondary ("rare") and
elemental ("homoatomic" molecules) valences: H: +1 (HCl), -1 (LiH,
BeH2), 0 (H2); O: -2 (H2O, CaO), -1 (NaO-ONa), 0 (O2); Cl: -1 (HCl),
+1 (HClO), +3 (HClO2), +5 (HClO3), +7 (HClO4). Following address
locates a periodic system developed using a database and can be
queried for valences:
http://vl.academicdirect.ro/general_chemistry/periodic_system/ [1].
Chemical combinations classifies in homoatomic and heteroatomic;
also in binary, ternary, quaternary, etc. Following series gives
representatives according with these classifications: O2, O3, H2O
(binary combination!), H2SO4.
[1] Lorentz JNTSCHI, Delia M. GLIGOR, 2003. Periodic Systems
of Elements Information (Software). Online: AcademicDirect. URL:
http://vl.academicdirect.ro/general_chemistry/periodic_system/
Interaction models
(covalent bond model) The covalent bond model is a
representation of the chemical bond which assumes that
every bond is created when two (by two) atoms are put
together (by two by two atoms). It has as limit cases the
metallic bond (Me - metal; Men molecule; n metal
network), ionic bond (A, B chemical species with - see
below - different electronegativity; AB molecule; A+B-
separating of the electric charges; A+, B- ions) and
coordinative (such as: CaCl2, Ca2+: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
3d0 4s0; CaCl26H2O, Ca2+: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 -
antarcticite).
(hybridization models) Hybridization models are able to
explain the differences of the energies (at electronic
orbital levels) when they join together in chemical bonds
(see Representation of hybridization process).
Hybridization conserves the total number of energy
levels (orbital levels).
s *ss ss *ss s
Hybridization A A B B
process
s *sp sp *sp p
A A B B
p *pp pp *pp p
A A B B
p *pp pp *pp p
A B
A A A B
AB*
A
B
AB
Molecular orbital levels
Based on hybridisation the occurrence of molecular
orbital levels is explained (see Representation of
hybridization process). Under absence of energetic
excitation (of a energy transfer to the molecule) filling
with electrons of molecular energy levels is in increasing
order of the energy of the levels (see Diatomic
homomolecules of 2nd period). On molecular orbital
forming basis and ordered filling of them with electrons
the molecular stability are explained. A derived from
model of the molecular orbital levels is the bond order.
We count as bond order the difference between
occupied "bond" orbital levels (lower energy split of the
pair of orbital levels) and occupied "anti-bond" orbital
levels (upper energy split of the pair of orbital levels).
Bond order may take rational values, as in CC from
C6H6: 9(bonds)/6(atoms) = 3/2.
Diatomic molecules of 2nd period
Molecular Orbital eV
Anti-bonding Li2 Be2 B2 C2 N2 O2 F2
Unoccupied 30
Occupied 20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
1 0 1 2 3 2 1 Bond order
2.7 3.5 1.9 1.4 1.1 1.2 1.3 Distance
1.1 0.7 3.0 4.8 9.8 5.1 2.5 Energy (eV)
Energy H2O (eV)
80 77.5
60
40
Molecular O2p
34.8
orbital & 20
electron 0 OMO OMO OMO OMO UMO UMO

H1s -14.8
densities - -20
-15.9
-24.1
water
-40
-47.0
O2s
-60
1 2 3 4 5 6 MO
1 1* 3 2 2* 3*
Molecular orbital & electron densities - water
1 1* 3 2 2* 3*
Course 2
Abundance of elements;
chemical formulas; stoechiometry
Relative abundance of elements in
the Galaxy*
Relative (to Carbon) number of atoms
10000
1928
1000
157
100
10
1.7
1
1
0.1 0.17 0.18
0.04 0.05 0.06 0.06
0.01 S Fe Si Mg Ne N C O He H
*spectroscopy measurements, adapted from [Croswell K, 1996. Alchemy of the Heavens]

Structure of the Earth and of the atmosphere
0m Log scale Overhead

~2 m Exosphere 561 nm
Soil 800 km ASTM G173-03 solar spectral irradiance (Wm-2nm-1) vs.
(nm) at mean Earth-Sun distance and at Earth surface
20 m ~690 km 2.25
390 750
Ocean 350 km 2.00
Crust Thermosphere
10 km ~82 km
1.75 O3
+5 km ~51 km 1.50 O2
+10 km Mesosphere 1.25
30 km Stratosphere H2O
Ground level
~35 km 20 km
1.00
CO2
50 km ~17 km 0.75
Upper mantle Troposphere 0.50

60 km 7 km
Mantle ~2 km
0.25
390 750
~2890 km Planetary 0.00
~5100 km boundary 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250
~6378 km layer
Inner core 0m 573 nm
Core Underground Log scale
Atmosphere
-9 2 106m
7.5210 N/m
MM Log(VM)
T vT 3.5610-15 kg/m3
3.94 g/mol
105m
727 K 187 K
2318 m/s 370 m/s
5.07107 l/mol
104m
28.964 g/mol
3
10 m
4 2
7.9510 N/m 28.8 l/mol
1.01 kg/m3
275.15 K (2C)
102m
p 448.5 m/s
1.01105 N/m2
1.23 kg/m3 101m
288.15 K (15C)
458.9 m/s 23.6 l/mol
100m
Spread of the elements in the
atmosphere
Gas shell surrounding the Earth is the
atmosphere. Planetary boundary layer is
formed mostly from nitrogen (78%) and
oxygen (21%), along with others in small
quantities (H2O, Ar, CO2, Ne, He, CH4, Kr, H2).
Atmosphere composition
6
m
10
H
He
O
4105
N2
105
O2
0
0% 78% 99%
Soil composition
5 45 30 20
30 20 20 30
Organic Mineral Air Water
Organics for 1g of soil: Typical minerals of soil:
Bacteria: [3106, 5108] SiO2, CaCO3
Actinomycetes: [106, 2107] MAlSi3O8, M = Na, K, Ca
Fungi: [5103, 106] KAlSi3O10(OH)2
Yeast: [103, 106] K(Mg,Fe)3AlSi3O10(OH)2
Protozoa: [103, 5105] MSiO3, M = Mg, Mn
Algae: [103, 5105] (Mg,Fe)2SiO4
Nematodes: [101, 5103] Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2
Elemental composition at Earths surface
mg/kg
6 O Si Al Ca Fe K Mg C Na S Mn P N Zn Ni Cu Mo
10
Human body
Topsoil
105
Sediments
104 Crust
103
102
101
100
O Si Al Ca Fe K Mg C Na S Mn P N Zn Ni Cu Mo
% of elements in crust + upper mantle
Element O Si Al H Na Ca Fe
% of atoms 59.4778 20.4663 6.2294 2.8963 2.5455 1.8774 1.8471
% 59.48 79.94 86.17 89.07 91.62 93.49 95.34
Element Mg K Ti C F P Mn
% of atoms 1.8016 1.3739 0.1896 0.1724 0.0871 0.0801 0.0376
% 97.14 98.52 98.70 98.88 98.96 99.04 99.08
Element S Cl V Ba N Sr Li
% of atoms 0.0323 0.0291 0.0077 0.0076 0.0074 0.0071 0.0059
% 99.11 99.14 99.15 99.16 99.17 99.17 99.18
Element Cr Zr Ni Zn Cu B Ce
% of atoms 0.0056 0.0045 0.0032 0.0025 0.0023 0.0019 0.0009
% 99.18 99.19 99.19 99.19 99.20 99.20 99.20
In crust 15 elements, majority from the beginning of the

periodic system, with low Z, are about 99.8%. Most spread
elements in the crust: oxygen, silicon and aluminum, with
over 82%.
Observing space
We may see the observing space as possessing
a tree structure (see Structure of the observing
space) expressing the belonging relations
between the observables in deep picture being
given for the Universe (as whole space of
observation) and at surface (close to us as
observers) being placed the chemical
compounds - as form of representation of the
matter with composition (of atoms) and relations
(between them) well defined.
Structure of the observational space
Structure Property
-Universe Whole observing space
-Radiant energy Speed comparable with light
+Radiations such as , Differentiated through properties
-Matter Whole not relativistic observables space
-Body Speed much less than the light
-Materials ensemble Variable and discontinue (chemical) composition
-Material Variable and continue (chemical) composition
-Substance mixture Well defined composition
+Heterogeneous substance Variable (chemical) composition
-Solution Solid or liquid aggregation state
+Alloy Mixture of metals in solid or liquid aggregation state
-Homogenous substance Constant (chemical) composition
+Chemical compound Unique and well defined chemical structure
we may see that the observational space is intrinsic structured

Measurement vs. Mathematical
Measurement function
Observer Measurement
Observation Recording
Observable Observed (property)
(element)
Informational Space
Observing space (set possibly ordered)
(set)
Domain Codomain
f() Mathematical function SE, UQ

SE Serial b : (a,b) SE
UQ Uniquely (a,b), (a,c) UQ then bc
Measurement scales
Scale Type Operations Structure Statistics Examples
Binomial Logical "=", Boolean Mode, Dead/Alive
"!" algebra Fisher Exact Sides of a coin
(multi) Discrete "=" Standard set Mode, ABO blood group system
Nomi(n)al Chi squared Living organisms classification
Ordinal Discrete "=", Commutative Median, Number of atoms in molecule
"<" algebra Ranking
Interval Continue "", Affine space Mean, StDev, Temperature scale
"-" (one dimensional) Correlation, Distance scale
Regression, Time scale
ANOVA Energy scale
Ratio Continue "", Vector space GeoMean, Sweetness relative to sucrose
"-", (one dimensional) HarMean, pH
"*" CV,
Logarithm
Nanostructure design
L1 L2 L3 C L4 L5 L6 Layers: 6
Levels: 3
L1, , L6: Boron, Nitrogen,
Carbon
All combinations: 729
Distinct structures: 378
labeling isomorphism
Full factorial analysis:

2 out of 3 levels are independent e.g. B
and C or B and N or C and N;
Factors set
nL "*" C^nL_"*" 3-1^"*" "+" Meaning
6 0 1 1 1 Free term
6 1 6 2 12 "Lx"
6 2 15 4 60 "Lx*Ly"
6 3 20 8 160
6 4 15 16 240
6 5 6 32 192
6 6 1 64 64
Full factorial analysis terms 729 Total
Restricted Hartree-Fock 3-21G*
Energy Hartrees
Properties Spartan 10
MolVol Molecular volume 3
SurfA Surface area 2
Ovality Ovality dimensionless 1.234
HOMO Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital Energy eV
LUMO Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital Energy eV
Estimated polarizability: *10-30 m3
Lumo+Homo* eV; *:electronegativity= -HOMO + LUMO /2
Lumo-Homo** eV; **: hardness= -HOMO - LUMO/2
Do the decomposition of the property by `atom type` factors!
Factor analysis original software
Detect groups of equivalent factors -
Symmetry
Detect groups of irrelevant factors - Zeros
Leave-one-out on factors reducing of the
complexity of the factorial analysis
Results** - different distinct factors!!
Property Distinct* Grp. Zero Property Distinct* Grp. Zero
DipoleT_0 376 352 Lumo-Homo_0 353 375
EnergyHF_0 131 510 87 MolVol_0 175 512 41
EnergyHF_1 139 507 82 MolVol_1 167 530 31
EnergyHF_2 346 382 MolVol_2 372 356
HOMO_0 337 389 2 Ovality_0 46 516 166
HOMO_1 320 408 Ovality_1 51 590 87
HOMO_2 367 361 Ovality_2 56 645 27
LUMO_0 318 410 Polariz_0 349 379
LUMO_1 300 428 Polariz_1 316 412
LUMO_2 367 361 Polariz_2 371 357
Lumo+Homo_0 355 373 SurfA_0 221 477 30
Lumo+Homo_1 324 404 SurfA_1 202 520 6
Lumo+Homo_2 356 370 2 SurfA_2 368 360
_0: Boron and Nitrogen as factors; Carbon as reference
**from 378 observations
_1: Carbon and Boron as factors; Nitrogen as reference
& 729 full design records
_2: Nitrogen and Carbon as factors; Boron as reference *expected = 378
Turning back to chemistry
Structure Property
-Universe Whole observing space
-Radiant energy Speed comparable with light
+Radiations such as , Differentiated through properties
-Matter Whole not relativistic observables space
-Body Speed much less than the light
-Materials ensemble Variable and discontinue (chemical) composition
-Material Variable and continue (chemical) composition
-Substance mixture Well defined composition
+Heterogeneous substance Variable (chemical) composition
-Solution Solid or liquid aggregation state
+Alloy Mixture of metals in solid or liquid aggregation state
-Homogenous substance Constant (chemical) composition
+Chemical compound Unique and well defined chemical structure
Only the chemical compound has well defined structure

Pure substances
Almost all elements exists in nature only as
combinations. Exceptions are the noble gases and
metals.
Proportion of each element in a compound is well
defined by its oxidation state and we may relate it
with the oxidation numbers. Exception to this rule are
the alloys.
A pure substance is a substance with well defined
chemical composition. The chemical composition is
defined by the ratio of each element in the
compound. We name empirical formula the set of
lowest numbers being in the ratio of each element in
the compound. Sometimes empirical formulas are
enough, sometimes not.
Chemical formulas
Empirical formulas express the relative number
of atoms from each element in the compound.
Coming from experiment, if we determined the
(relative) mass of each element, we can use the
atomic masses of the elements to obtain the
empirical formula. For instance if a substance
contains 36.1% Ca and 63.9% Cl then because
M(Ca) = 40.08 and M(Cl) = 35.453 the ratio
between elements is Ca : Cl = 36.1/40.8 :
63.9/35.453 ~ 0.90 : 1.80 = 1 : 2 and thus the
empirical formula is CaCl2. Other examples of
empirical formulas: P2O5 (P:O = 2:5), CH (C:H =
1:1), CH2 (C:H = 1:2), Cl2PN (Cl:P:N = 2:1:1).
Molecular formulas
Molecular formulas give in full the number of
atoms from each element for one piece
(molecule) of the substance. We may recover
the molecular formula from empirical formula
when we know the molecular mass. Molecular
formula is a multiple of empirical formula.
Examples for molecular formula are: CaCl2
((CaCl2)1) P4O10 ((P2O5)2), C2H2 ((CH)2), C6H6
((CH)6), Cl6P3N3 ((Cl2PN)3). Again, sometimes
molecular formula provides not enough
information to uniquely determine a compound.
Rational and structural formulas
Rational 1-propanole 2-propanole ethyl-methyl-ether
Rationales H3C CH2 CH2 OH H3C CH CH3 CH3 O CH2 CH3
for C3H8O
OH
Structural ethene (ethylene) benzene acetylene

H H H H H C C H
C C C C
H H H C C H
C C
H H
Structure isomers. Two or more compounds are structural

isomers when possess same molecular formula and different
structural formulas (see above). Nonane (C9H20) have 35
isomers (http://ph.academicdirect.org/CCPNI_2007.pdf).
Geometry isomers
Two (or more) compounds are geometrical
isomers when has same structural formula and
different geometries. Particular cases are
classified as follows: H H
Enantiomers; example: CHClBrF C F F C
Diastereoisomers: Br Cl Cl Br
Cis-trans isomers; example:
Conformers; example - butane "Gauche g-" & "Gauche g+
H CH3 H3C CH3
trans-butena C C C C cis-butena
H3C H H H
Rotamers: example - butane "Anti"

Gauche g-
+
Anti
Gauche g+
Representation levels
Chlorophylls Porphine
Chlorophyll Ref. Molecular formula Present in e,HOMOH1,UMO & Spread [1]
NH N a [2] C55H72O5N4Mg Universal 1.84 ****
b [3] C55H70O6N4Mg Many plants 1.54 ***
d [4] C54H70O6N4Mg Cyanobacteria 1.38 **
N HN c1 C H O N Mg Different algae 1.33 **
[5] 35 30 5 4
c2 C35H28O5N4Mg Different algae 1.38 **
f [6] C55H70O6N4Mg Cyanobacteria 1.21 *
c1 c2 general structure
1
Lorentz JNTSCHI, Sorana D. BOLBOAC, Mugur C. BLAN, Radu E. SESTRA, 2011. Chlorophylls - natural
solar cells. BUASVM. Agriculture, 68(1):181-187.
2
James B. CONANT, Emma M. DIETZ, Carroll F. BAILEY, S. E. Kamerling, 1931. Studies in the chlorophyll series.
V. The structure of chlorophyll a. Journal of the American Chemical Society 53(6):2382-2393.
3
James B. CONANT, Emma M. DIETZ, Tyrrell H. WERNER, 1931. Studies in the chlorophyll series. VIII. The
structure of chlorophyll b. Journal of the American Chemical Society 53(12):4436-4448.
4
Hideaki MIYASHITA, Hisato IKEMOTO, Norihide KURANO, Kyoko ADACHI, Mitsuo CHIHARA, Shigeto
MIYACHI, 1996. Chlorophyll d as a major pigment. Nature 383(6599):402.
5
Harold H. STRAIN, Benjamin T. COPE, Geraldine N. McDONALD, Walter A. SVEC, Joseph J. KATZ, 1971.
Chlorophylls c1 and c2. Phytochemistry 10(5):1109-1114.
6
Min CHEN, Martin SCHLIEP, Robert D. WILLOWS, ZhengLi CAI, Brett A. NEILAN, Hugo SCHEER, 2010. A red-
shifted chlorophyll. Science 329(5997):1318-1319.
a b d f
Spread of
chlorophylls
Molecular topology - graph fragments
[Sz] 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 1 12 123 123
2 5 2 2 2 12 123 123
1 4 3 3456 3456 123 123 123
3 6 4 456 456 456 1234 1234
5 456 456 56 5 5
6 456 456 56 6 6
[cM] 1 2 3 4 5 6 [Mx] 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 2 3456 456 5 6 1 13456 12 123 12346 12345
2 1 3456 456 5 6 2 23456 12 123 12346 12345
3 1 2 456 5 6 3 23456 13456 123 12346 12345
4 1 2 123 5 6 4 23456 13456 456 12346 12345
5 1 2 123 1234 6 5 23456 13456 456 56 12345
6 1 2 123 1234 5 6 23456 13456 456 56 12346
[Cy] 1 2 3 4 5 6 [Cf] 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 123 123 1 1 1 12 12 12
2 123 123 2 2 2 12 12 12
3 123 123 3 3456 3456 123 123 123
4 456 456 4 456 456 456 1234 1234
5 456 456 5 56 56 56 5 5
6 456 456 6 56 56 56 6 6
Molecular topology - graph polynomials
Graph [G] Matrix ([M]) Polynomial Characteristic
Distance CP(Di;x)=8x3+8x2+14x1+6x0
3 2 Maximal CP(Mx;x)=20x5+6x3+4x2+6x0
[Ch] 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 x -1 -1 0 0 0
1 Complement of maximal CP(cM;x)=4x4+6x3+20x1+6x0 2 -1 x -1 0 0 0

Szeged (unsymmetrical) CP(Sz;x)=4x4+14x3+4x2+8x1+6x0 3 -1 -1 x -1 0 0
4 Cluj (fragmental) CP(Cf;x)=4x4+6x3+12x2+8x1+6x0 4 0 0 -1 x -1 -1
Cycles (always symmetrical) CP(Cy;x)=12x3+24x0 5 0 0 0 -1 x -1

6 5 - (adjacency) (G;x)=1x6-7x4-4x3+11x2+12x1+3x0 6 0 0 0 -1 -1 x
http://l.academicdirect.org/Fundamentals/Graphs/polynomials/
http://l.academicdirect.org/Fundamentals/Graphs/cycles_count/
http://l.academicdirect.org/Fundamentals/Graphs/indices/
http://l.academicdirect.org/Fundamentals/Graphs/terminal_paths/
http://l.academicdirect.org/Fundamentals/Graphs/vertex_cutting/
Molecular geometry theory levels
Molecular mechanics uses the Newtonian mechanics to model molecular
systems and its main application is energy optimization [1].
The empirical or semi-empirical methods, including Austin Model 1
(AM1 [2]), CFF [3], Del-Re [4], Parameterized Model (PM3 [5],[6], PM6 [7]),
RM1 [8], Gasteiger [9],[10], Hckel [11],[12],[13],[14], Pullman [15],
Optimized Potentials for Liquid Simulations (OPLS [16]), MM+, Assisted
Model Building with Energy Refinement (Amber [17]) and Merck Molecular
Force Field (MMFF [18],[19],[20],[21],[22]), are widely implemented in
software, including MOPAC [23], Gaussian [24], SPARTAN [25],
HyperChem [26], ChemBioOffice [27], and MolecularModellingPro [28],
due to their speed.
[1] K. I. Ramachandran, Gopakumar DEEPA, Krishnan NAMBOORI, 2008. Computational Chemistry and Molecular Modeling: Principles and Applications. Berlin: Springer.
[2] Michael J. S. DEWAR, Eve G. ZOEBISCH, Eamonn F. HEALY, James J. P. STEWART, 1985. Development and use of quantum mechanical molecular models. 76. AM1: a new general purpose quantum mechanical molecular model. Journal of the
American Chemical Society 107(13):3902-3909.
[3] Jon R. MAPLE, Jeong M. HWANG, Thomas P. STOCKFISCH, Uri DINUR, Marvin WALDMAN, Carl S. EWIG, Arnold T. HAGLER, 1994. Derivation of class II force fields. I. Methodology and quantum force field for the alkyl functional group and alkane
molecules. Journal of Computational Chemistry 15(2):162-182.
[4] G. del RE, B. Pullman, T. Yonezawa, 1963. Electronic structure of the -amino acids of proteins: I. Charge distributions and proton chemical shifts. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 75:153-182.
[5] James J. P. STEWART, 1989. Optimization of parameters for semiempirical methods I. Method. Journal of Computational Chemistry 10(2):209-220.
[6] James J. P. STEWART, 1989. Optimization of parameters for semiempirical methods II. Applications. Journal of Computational Chemistry 10(2):221-264.
[7] James J. P. STEWART, 2007. Optimization of Parameters for Semiempirical Methods V: Modification of NDDO Approximations and Application to 70 Elements. Journal of Molecular Modeling 13(12):1173-1213.
[8] Gerd B. ROCHA, Ricardo O. FREIRE, Alfredo M. SIMAS, James J. P. STEWART, 2006. RM1: A reparameterization of AM1 for H, C, N, O, P, S, F, Cl, Br, and I. Journal of Computational Chemistry 27(10):1101-1111.
[9] Johann GASTEIGER, Mario MARSILI, 1980. Iterative partial equalization of orbital electronegativity - a rapid access to atomic charges. Tetrahedron 36(22):3219-3228.
[10] Johann GASTEIGER, Mario MARSILI, 1978. A new model for calculating atomic charges in molecules. Tetrahedron Letters 19(34):3181-3184.
[11] Erich HCKEL, 1931. Quantentheoretische Beitrge zum Benzolproblem - I. Die Elektronenkonfiguration des Benzols und verwandter Verbindungen. Zeitschrift fr Physik 70 (3-4):204-286.
[12] Erich HCKEL, 1931. Quantentheoretische Beitrage zum Benzolproblem - II. Quantentheorie der induzierten Polaritaten. Zeitschrift fr Physik 72(5-6):310-337.
[13] Erich HCKEL, 1932. Quantentheoretische Beitrage zum Problem der aromatischen und ungesattigten Verbindungen. III. Zeitschrift fr Physik 76(9-10):628-648.
[14] Erich HCKEL, 1933. Die freien Radikale der organischen Chemie - Quantentheoretische Beitrage zum Problem der aromatischen und ungesttigten Verbindungen. IV. Zeitschrift fr Physik 83(9-10):632-668.
[15] H. Berthod, C. Giessner-Prettre, A. Pullman, 1967. Sur les rles respectifs des lectrons et dans les proprits des drivs halogns des molcules conjugues. Application l'tude de l'uracile et du fluorouracile. Theor. Chim. Acta. 8(3):212-222.
[16] William L. JORGENSEN, Julian TIRADO-RIVES, 1988. The OPLS [optimized potentials for liquid simulations] potential functions for proteins, energy minimizations for crystals of cyclic peptides and crambin. Journal of the American Chemical Society
110(6):1657-1666.
[17] Scott J. WEINER, Peter A. KOLLMAN, David A. CASE, Chandra U. SINGH, Caterina GHIO, Guliano ALAGONA, Salvatore PROFETA, Paul WEINER, 1984. A new force field for molecular mechanical simulation of nucleic acids and proteins. Journal of the
American Chemical Society 106, 765-784.
[18] Thomas A. HALGREN, 1996. Merck molecular force field. II. MMFF94 van der Waals and electrostatic parameters for intermolecular interactions. Journal of Computational Chemistry 17(5-6):520-552.
[19] Thomas A. HALGREN, 1996. Merck molecular force field. III. Molecular geometries and vibrational frequencies for MMFF94. Journal of Computational Chemistry 17(5-6):553-586.
[20] Thomas A. HALGREN, 1996. Merck molecular force field. IV. Conformational energies and geometries for MMFF94. Journal of Computational Chemistry 17(5-6):587-615.
[21] Thomas A. HALGREN, Merck molecular force field. V. Extension of MMFF94 using experimental data, additional computational data, and empirical rules. Journal of Computational Chemistry 17 (1996) 616-641.
[22] Thomas A. HALGREN, 1996. Merck molecular force field. I. Basis, form, scope, parameterization, and performance of MMFF94. Journal of Computational Chemistry 17(5-6):490-519.
[23] David YOUNG, 2001. Appendix A (A.3.2 p.342, MOPAC) In: Computational Chemistry, New York: Wiley-Interscience.
[24] ***, 2004. Publishers Note: Sir John A. POPLE, 1925-2004. Journal of Computational Chemistry 25(9):v-viii.
[25] David YOUNG, 2001. Appendix A (A.1.6 p.330, SPARTAN) In: Computational Chemistry, New York: Wiley-Interscience.
[26] Hypercube, 2002. HyperChem7 (software). Website: http://www.hyper.com/
[27] CambridgeSoft, 2010. ChemBioOffice2010 (software). Website: http://www.cambridgesoft.com/software/chembiooffice/
[28] ChemSW, 2007. MolecularModellingPro (software). Web: http://www.chemistry-software.com/modelling/13052.htm
Molecular geometry theory levels
A series of ab initio methods were developed (for example STO-
3G, 3-21G, 6-31G*, 6-31G**, Gradient, MP2, Hamiltonian, Huckel,
CNDO, INDO, etc. [62]) although, the time-consuming calculations is
a major barrier in their utilization. A very good software (which I
recommend) for ab initio calculations is Massively Parallel
Quantum Chemistry Program (abbreviated as MPQC). The MPQC
program computes properties of atoms and molecules from first
principles using the time independent Schrdinger equation [1]. The
version 2.3.1 released on 2006-03-22 was used [2] under a
FreeBSD operating system platform.
[1] Joseph P. KENNY, Curtis L. JANSSEN, Edward F. VALEEV, Theresa L.

WINDUS, 2008. Components for integral evaluation in quantum chemistry. Journal of
Computational Chemistry 29(4):562-577.
[2] Michael BANCK, Mike COLVIN, Curtis JANSSEN, Joe KENNY, Matt LEININGER,
Ida NIELSEN, Ed SEIDL, Edward VALEEV (P.I.), Toon VERSTRAELEN, 2006.
MPQC-2.3.1: The Massively Parallel Quantum Chemistry Program (software, open
source). Website: http://www.mpqc.org/
Massively Parallel Quantum Chemistry
Program (mpqc) & SAPF
Conv. mol. no HOMO LUMO GAP SCF Nucl_Rep
No CID
Cycles atoms (eV) (eV) (eV) (Hartrees) (Hartrees) From:
1 5994 18 53 -0.3580 0.1145 0.4725 -962.4 2074.8 Quantum Mechanics
2 107845 26 47 -0.2982 0.0766 0.3748 -995.9 1948.6 Study on a Series of
3 250948 58 61 -0.3257 0.0864 0.4121 -1264.8 2991.8
4 5757 61 44 -0.2948 0.1441 0.4390 -845.3 1623.4 Steroids Relating
5 9904 17 46 -0.3551 0.1170 0.4721 -846.5 1675.9 Separation with Structure
6 6446 21 53 -0.3547 0.1196 0.4743 -1098.3 2395.5
7 5858 23 52 -0.3549 0.1184 0.4734 -924.6 1954.8 Radu E. SESTRA,
8 227107 13 52 -0.3508 0.1040 0.4548 -1383.5 2279.2 Lorentz JNTSCHI,
9 13327 12 54 -0.3513 0.1033 0.4546 -1496.2 2525.9 Sorana D. BOLBOAC
10 538883 26 51 -0.3589 0.0969 0.4558 -998.2 2129.5
11 5281034 21 56 -0.3360 0.1102 0.4462 -1038.4 2285.3 (accepted paper)
Complete
mpqc optimization: CLHF 6-31G* (ab-initio) optimization 36771
No. of
"adapted"
with mpqc SAPF
SAPF adaptation: For hRf = retardation factor 30 cycles descriptors
with mpqc 36775
Adaptation Min/Max Value
Absolute variance of the descriptor value
minimum 0.02 20 cycles
36798
relative to the measured property with mpqc
Deviation from normality
maximum 2.00
relative to measured property 10 cycles 37879
Determination between descriptor value with mpqc
minimum 0.02
and measured property 35500 36000 36500 37000 37500 38000 38500
Course 3
Minerals
Physical and chemical properties
Chemical reactions
Minerals
Mineral class Examples
Native Diamond, coal, S, Au, Ag, Cu, Pt, Pd
Halogenated NaCl (also known as salt, common salt, table salt
or halite), KCl, CaF2, KClMgCl26H2O
Oxides and Al2O3, AlO(OH), Al(OH)3, Fe2O3, FeO, Fe3O4,
hydroxides MnO2, TiO2, SnO2, SiO2, UO2, U3O8
Sulfides, arsenides FeS2, PbS, ZnS, HgS, CuS, Sb2S3, Bi2S3, MoS2,
CuFeS2, NiAs, CoAsS
Carbonated CaCO3, MgCO3, CaCO3MgCO3, FeCO3, MnCO3,
Cu2(CO3)(OH)2, Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2
Nitrates NaNO3, KNO3
US National Museum of Natural History images (October 2005)

Zeolites
MAl2Si3O102H2O
M=Na2, K2, Ca, Mg
Beryl (Be3Al2(SiO3)6)
Heliodor
(some V replaces Al)
Emerald
(Be3Al2(SiO3)6)
Riesling
(some V & Fe replaces Al)
Aquamarine
(some Fe replaces Al)
Morganite
(some Mn replaces Al)
Corundum (Al2O3)
Sapphire
Sapphire
Sapphire Sapphire
Corundum is a crystalline form of

Al2O3 (blue) with traces of iron
(green), vanadium (yellow), titanium
(orange) and chromium (red)
Ruby
Amethyst (some
Fe4+)
Rose quartz (some
Mn+7 & Ti4+)
Smoky (some Si)
Citrine (some
Fe3+)
Quartz
Milky (some CO2,
H2O) (SiO2)
Topaz (Al2SiO4(F,OH)2)
Native & S2-
O2- & CO32-
X - & SO4 2-
PO43-, AsO43-, VO43-
SiO44-
Physical and chemical properties
Activation Energies Environmental Fate Isoelectric Point
Activity Coefficients Equilibrium Constants Kinetic Data
Adsorption and Adsorption Coefficients Expansion Coefficient
Lattice Energies Antoine Coefficients and Constants
Explosive Properties Log P Atomic Mass Constant Exposure
Limits Luminescence Atomic Radius Extinction Coefficient
Melting Point Avogadro's Constant Flammability Molar
Absorptivity Bioconcentration Factor Flash Point Molecular
Weight Biodegradation Free Energy NFPA Chemical Hazard
Labelling Bohr Radius Freezing Point Octanol/Water Partition
Coefficient Boiling Point Friction Coefficient Optical Rotation
Boltzmann Constant Fundamental Physical Constants
Oxidation-Reduction Potentials Bond Energies G-Factors
Oxidation States Bond Lengths/Bond Angles Gas Law Ozone
Depletion Potential Compressibility Gibbs Free Energy Partition
Coefficients Conductivity Global Warming Potential Phase
Diagrams Conversion factors Half Life Physical Properties,
General Corrosion Hazard Ratings, Code and Reactions pK
Critical Properties Heat Capacity Proton Affinity Crystal
Structure and Space Groups Heat of Combustion Radii Debye-
Huckel Coefficients Heat of Dilution Rate Coefficients
Decomposition Rate Heat of Formation Rate Constants
Degradation Heat of Fusion Refractive Index Density Heat of
Hydration Solubility Dielectric Constant Heat of Ionization
Space Group Diffusion (Molecular) Heat of Mixing Specific
Gravity Dipole Moment Heat of Neutralization Specific Heat
Dissociation Constant
Heat of Polymerization Specific Rotation Distribution Coefficient
Heat of Reaction Stability Constants Electrical Conductivity
Heat of Solution Surface Tension Electrical Resistivity Heat of
Sublimation Tensile Strength Electrode Potentials Heat of
Transformation Thermal Conductivity Electron Affinity Heat of
Transition Thermal Diffusivity Electron Binding Energies Heat of
Vaporization Thermal Expansion Electron Configuration
Henry's Law Constants and Coefficients Thermodynamic
Properties Electronegativity Internuclear Distance Vapor
Pressure Enthalpy Ionization Constant Virial Coefficient
Enthalpy of... Ionization Energy Viscosity Entropy Ionization
Heat Young's Modulus Ionization Potential
NaOH H2O
Heat of solution
NaOH(s) NaOH(aq)
NaOH(aq) Na+ + HO-

MgO
HCl(aq)
Heat of reaction
MgO(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2O
MgCl2(aq) Mg2+ + 2Cl-
Thermometer
Flash point
Open cup
open cup method Flash point checker
Heater
Electrode potential V
U
R
A
Zn
Closing circuit method Cu
ZnSO4
Chemical reactions
The simplest reactions are of forming of
compounds from elements. For instance: C + S
CS2
Terms in the left of are the reactants and
terms in the right of are products
A problem is to establish the coefficients the
ratio between the participants; for the above
example: C + 2S CS2
Other case is when reactants are
homomolecues. For instance: H2 + O2 H2O
and with coefficients: H2 + O2 H2O
If are imposed that all coefficients be integers,
then: 2H2 + O2 2H2O
Establishing the coefficients of the reactions are
the subject of stoechiometry.
Conservation laws
Stoechiometry is based on conservation laws for
the electrons and for the atoms.
Electrons conservation: in a reaction the total
number of electrons given by the atoms (or atom
groups) equals with the total number of the
electrons taken by the atoms. Exception is when
electrical current is involved (subject of
electrochemistry) when partial reactions not obey
this principle, but the global reactions obey.
Atoms number conservation: in a reaction the
number of atoms from each species which enters
in the reaction is equal to the number of atoms
which result from the reaction. Exception is for
nuclear reactions and in this case only the total
rest mass is conserved.
Algebraic method
Are labeled as unknowns the coefficients of the reaction:
aKMnO4 + bHCl cKCl + dMnCl2 + eH2O + fCl2
It considers only the atoms number conservation. Please
see that we have 5 equations and 6 unknowns; let us
express all depending on one of them. Let be e the
independent one. Then (after calculation): (K ) a = c
(Mn ) a = d
a = e/4; b = 2e; c = e/4;
(O) 4a = e
d = e/4; e = e; f = 5e/8, (H) b = 2e

Let be placed it in the initial equation: (Cl) b = c + 2d + 2f
(e/4)KMnO4+(2e)HCl (e/4)KCl+(e/4)MnCl2+(e)H2O+(5e/8)Cl2
The coefficients are natural expressed when are integers
and do not have a common divisor greater than 1. A
simple arithmetic give thus e = 8 as unique solution.
Coefficients of reactions: algebraic
method
App for: Cu + HNO3 Cu(NO3)2 + NO + H2O
Alg0. reaction: (a)Cu + (b)HNO3 (c)Cu(NO3)2 + (d)NO + (e)H2O

Alg1. assumptions: a, b, c, d, e natural not null numbers;
Alg2. conservation laws: (Cu): a=c; (N): b=2c+d; (H): b=2e; (O): 3b=6c+d+e;
Alg3. system of equations; going with consecutive substitutions: c=a; b=2a+d; b=2e;
3b=6a+d+e; b=2e; 2e=2a+d; 6e=6a+d+e; d=2e-2a; 6e=6a+2e-2a+e; 3e=4a
e=4, a=3; d=2, b=8, c=3
Alg4. reaction: 3Cu + 8HNO3 3Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O ;
Oxidation state; oxidation number
An often used concept is the oxidation number
(O.N.) and is equal with the negative number of
electrons required that the atom (or group of
atoms; species) to be taken to become neutral.
Is a formal concept, because charged species it
exists only in certain environmental conditions.
Along with this concept are used too the concept
of oxidation (when during reaction electrons are
taken) and of reduction (when electrons are
given). Oxidation decreases O.N. and reduction
increases O.N.
Rules establishing the oxidation state
Electronegativity (elements, groups) and chemical activity
(metals) provide a set of priority rules:
1. When are molecules of same element (homomolecules) the
oxidation state is 0 (for instance Li in solid state, F2, O2,
etc.);
2. Alkali (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr) have oxidation state +1;
3. Fluorine have -1;
4. Oxygen have -2; exception is with F (ex. OF6), peroxids (ex.
NaOONa, Na2O2) and superoxids (ex. KO2);
5. Hydrogen have +1; exception: hydrides of more chemical
active metals (Li, K, Ca, Na, Fe, Zn, etc.);
6. Alkaline earth metals (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra) have +2;
7. Halogens (Cl, Br, I, At) have -1; electronegativity based rule
8. For covalent bonds of Carbon (organic compounds)
belonging of the electrons again is established on
electronegativity; a special case here delocalized bonds
as in benzene conventionally fractional number accepted
(9/6=1.5 for C in benzene).
Oxidation numbers method - steps
Writing of the molecular formulas for reactants

and products;
Identification of the O.N. changed during
reaction;
Writing of the equations for oxidation and
reduction;
Electronic balance electrons conservation;
Atoms balance number of atoms conservation;
At the end of this steps coefficients are identified.
Example: Hydrochloric acid reaction with kalium permanganate
(source of chlorine in the lab). Steps:
Reactants: KMnO4, HCl; Products: KCl, MnCl2, H2O, Cl2;
Oxidation numbers:
KMnO4 O.N.(K) = +1; O.N.(O) = -2; O.N.(Mn) = +7;
HCl O.N.(Cl) = -1; O.N.(H) = +1;
KCl O.N.(Cl) = -1; O.N.(K) = +1;
MnCl2 O.N.(Cl) = -1; O.N.(Mn) = +2;
H 2O O.N.(H) = +1; O.N.(O) = -2;
Cl2 O.N.(Cl) = 0;
The elements changing its oxidation state are Cl (-1 0) and Mn
(+7 +2)
Cl is oxidized, Mn is reduced; the changes in their oxidation state
are expressed by:
Cl1 1e Cl0
Mn+7 + 5e Mn+2
Because the final state of Cl is as Cl2 we should express this in the
partial reaction too:
2Cl1 2e Cl20
Mn+7 + 5e Mn+2
Electrons balance: we must find the least common
multiple of electrons given and taken; here is 10; the
reactions are multiplied so that the electrons balance
be accomplished:
5 2Cl1 2e Cl20
2 Mn+7 + 5e Mn+2
These two divisors becomes the coefficients of the
implied species:
2KMnO4 + (?)HCl (?)KCl + 2MnCl2 + H2O + 5Cl2
Interrogation denotes that till now we do not possess
enough information - in fact more exactly first ? is
(10+x+4) when the second ? is (x). A remark: even
at previous stage the atom conservation principle
were applied (for manganese and here for chlorine).
Same principle applies for the rest of atoms.
It is easily to observe that following the known values we
are able to provide values for the unknown ones.
Thus, for K: 2K (reactants) 2K (products), thus:
2KMnO4 + (?)HCl 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + H2O + 5Cl2
For Cl: 2+22+52 (products) 16 (Cl, in reactants) and:
2KMnO4 + 16HCl 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + H2O + 5Cl2
For H: 16H (reactants) 8H2 (in products):
2KMnO4 + 16HCl 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
Only O remained. If the algorithm were correctly applied,
then with oxygen we are able to check the balance. Indeed,
24 O in reactants and 8 O in products.
This final remark lead us to rationalize that the sistem of
equations applying both principles is over-determined
contains more equations than necessary. It may be
considered that the number of atoms conservation is
enough (electrons conservation provide one equation
more). True.
Coefficients of reactions: oxidation
numbers method
ON0. assumptions: Cu=Cu0; HNO3=H+(NO3)-=H+N5+(O2-)3; NO=N2+O2-; Cu(NO3)2=Cu2+((NO3)-)2;

ON1. changes (reactants products): Cu: Cu0 Cu2+ ; N(in NO produced): N5+ N2+ ;
ON2. coefficients (conserving no. of e-): 3Cu0 -32e- + 2N5+ 3Cu2+ + 2N2+ - 23e-;
ON3. reaction: (3)Cu + (2+?)HNO3 (3)Cu(NO3)2 + (2)NO + (?)H2O;
ON4. unknowns (x,y): (3)Cu + (2+x)HNO3 (3)Cu(NO3)2 + (2)NO + (y)H2O;
ON5. conserving no. of N atoms: 2+x = 32 + 2 x = 6;
ON6. reaction: (3)Cu + (2+6)HNO3 (3)Cu(NO3)2 + (2)NO + (?)H2O;
ON7. unknown (y): (3)Cu + (2+6)HNO3 (3)Cu(NO3)2 + (2)NO + (y)H2O;
ON8. conserving no. of O atoms: 83 = 36 + 2 + y y = 4;
ON9. reaction: (3)Cu + (2+6)HNO3 (3)Cu(NO3)2 + (2)NO + (4)H2O;
ON10. checking (for no. of H atoms): 8 = 42; ;
Ion electron method
Exploits the fact that most of the reactions occurs in
aqueous environment when dissociation occurs.
Both reactants and products are existing ions and
molecular species in solutions. Two partial balanced
equations are written. Steps:
Identification of the oxidant and of the conjugate reducer;
Writing and balancing of the partial reactions;
Charge equalizing between these partial reactions;
Summing of the partial reactions. Example:
Premises: HNO3(aq) H+(aq) + NO3-(aq); Cu(NO3)2(aq) Cu2+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq);
Partial reactions (half-reactions, in aq., implies H+, e-, H2O):
HNO3 + (3H+ + 3e-) NO + 2H2O;
Cu0 + H2O Cu2+ + (2e- + 2H+);
3Cu0 + 2HNO3 (+6e-) 3Cu2+ + 2NO (+6e-);
Global reaction: (3)Cu + (2+x)HNO3 (3)Cu(NO3)2 + (2)NO + (y)H2O;
Continues with identification of the unknowns algebraically.
Coefficients of reactions: ion-electron
method
IE0. assumptions: HNO3(aq) H+(aq) + NO3-(aq); Cu(NO3)2(aq) Cu2+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq);

IE1. half-reactions (aqueous, implies presence of H+, e-, H2O):
HNO3 + (3H+ + 3e-) NO + 2H2O;
Cu0 + H2O Cu2+ + (2e- + 2H+);
3Cu0 + 2HNO3 (+6e-) 3Cu2+ + 2NO (+6e-);
IE2. reaction: (3)Cu + (2+x)HNO3 (3)Cu(NO3)2 + (2)NO + (y)H2O;
IE3. go to ON5;
Applications: equalize following reactions
AgNO3 + H2O + I2 AgI + AgIO3 + HNO3

Cr2(SO4)3 + NaOH + Br2 Na2CrO4 + NaBr + Na2SO4 + H2O
Cu + HNO3 Cu(NO3)2 + NO + H2O
H2CrO4 + NO + H2SO4 K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + H2O
H2SeO3 + FeSO4 + H2SO4 Se + Fe2(SO4)3 + H2O
HNO3 + FeSO4 + H2SO4 Fe2(SO4)3 + NO + H2O
K2Cr2O7 + FeSO4 + H2SO4 Fe2(SO4)3 + K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3
+ H2O
K2Cr2O7 + H2S + H2SO4 Cr2(SO4)3 + K2SO4 + S + H2O
K2Cr2O7 + HNO2 + H2SO4 Cr2(SO4)3 + K2SO4 + HNO3 + H2O
K2Cr2O7 + KBr + H2SO4 Br2 + K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + H2O
Course 4
Hydrogen, Oxygen, Water

Hydrogen
http://l.academicdirect.org/Education/Training/Mendeleev/
SELECT * FROM `MendeleevSystem` WHERE 1 AND (0 OR `Number` = '1')
Symbol: H
Discovery: Hydrogen was first recognized as an element by Cavendish in 1766,
and named by Lavoisier.
Appearance Hydrogen is a colourless gas.
Source Hydrogen is found in the sun and most of the stars, and is easily the most
abundant element in the universe. The planet Jupiter is composed mostly of
hydrogen, and there is a theory that in the interior of the planet the pressure is so
great that metallic hydrogen is formed from solid molecular hydrogen. On this
planet, hydrogen is found in the greatest quantities in water, but is present in the
atmosphere only in small amounts - less than 1 part per million by volume.
Hydrogen is prepared commercially by several methods; electrolysis of water,
decomposition of hydrocarbons, displacement from acids by certain metals, action
of steam on heated carbon, and action of sodium or potassium hydroxide on
aluminum.
Uses Large quantities are used in the Haber Process (the production of ammonia
for agricultural use) and for the hydrogenation of oils to form fats. It has several
other uses, including welding and the reduction of metallic ores, and liquid hydrogen
is important in cryogenics and superconductivity studies as its melting point is just
above absolute zero.
1s1 configuration and ionization stability implies that the

hydrogen to form, in most of the cases, covalent bonds.
Ions H+ & :H- are unstable chemical this fact are
expressed with the term very reactive
Thus, due to the intense electrostatic field surrounding
the proton, the proton it cannot exist alone in same
solution with polar molecules, or species which can be
polarized it reacts instantly with them.
In water, H+ ion stabilizes becoming hydronium ion -
H3O+, and in ammonia become ammonium ion, NH4+,
the coordinative bond being due to a pair of NH3
unbonded electrons.
Formal: H+ + H2O H3O+, H= -1093 kJmol-1
Actually exists more than one hydronium species
containing 3-12 water molecules, most likely being:
(H2O)4H+, but for simplicity all are written as H3O+
Hydrogen have three isotopes : protium,
deuterium, and tritium: 11H, 12H (noted D) i 13H
(noted T). Of course the mass of D is twice of
the mass of protium and the mass of tritium is
three times than of protium. 99.985% from
crusts hydrogen is protium and only 0.015% is
deuterium. This is the reason for which the
atomic mass of the hydrogen is fractional
(1.008). Heaviest isotope - tritium - is -
radioactive, having the halving time T1/2 = 12.26
years, passing to helium. It can be used without
danger as radioactive tracer shows the
manner in which a succession of chemical
reactions or technological stages are deployed.
Obtaining of the hydrogen
From low-mass hydrocarbons. In the industrial
processes of gasoline refining, hydrogen is the
secondary product. Thus, during synthesis of the
octane, C8H18, starting from small molecules,
hydrogen are obtained too:
2C2H6 + C4H8 C8H18 + H2
Other procedure is to crack hydrocarbons
breaking of the larger to smaller hydrocarbons
it results hydrogen and unsaturated
hydrocarbons. For instance:
C12H26 C5H10 + C4H8 + C3H6 + H2
Other methods uses along with hydrocarbons,
water vapors and catalysts. Thus, for methane:
CH4 + H2O CO + 3H2
Product (CO + H2 mixture) is known as gas of
synthesis because can be used as raw material
in a series of industrial syntheses, such as of the
methyl alcohol (or methanol). With a second
catalytic reaction the carbon oxide may be
converted with water vapors to carbon dioxide
and hydrogen phenomena being known as the
reaction of water gas:
CO + H2O Fe/Cu500C CO2 + H2
Fe/Cu - fer activated with copper.
Chemical properties of hydrogen.
Reactions with nonmetals
HF
SiH4 HCl
F2
Si Cl2
C O2
CH4 H2 H2 O
P4 s8
N2
PH H2 S
3
NH3
Chemical properties of hydrogen.
Reactions with metals
LiH
+Li
+Na
MgH2 +Mg H2 NaH
+Ca
CaH2
With other metals does not react, but may associate,
through specific interactions, to give interstitial metallic
hydrides, very similarly to alloys
H absorption on Pt
face-centered cubic
Pt
close-packing of equal
spheres: /32 0.7405 d(Pt,Pt) = 0.277nm
d(Pt,Pt) = 0.277nm
H2 d(Pt,Pt) = 0.277nm
d(Pt,Pt) = 0.277nm d(Pt,Pt) = 0.277nm

d(Pt,Pt) = 0.275nm d(Pt,Pt) = 0.277nm
d(Pt,Pt) = 0.275nm d(Pt,Pt) = 0.268nm
0.74 (H:Pt)max
Reduction character of the hydrogen
With many combinations, organic included, hydrogen
have a reduction character, similarly with the one from
the reaction with nonmetals (oxidants). Due to this
character, hydrogen is industrially used in the reaction
for copper (or other metals) reduction: Cu2+(aq) + H2(g) =
Cu(s) + 2H+(aq)
Thus, after extracting as cooper sulfate of the cooper
from ore, though bubbling of hydrogen, metalic cooper
may be separated. About 1/3 from all industrial hydrogen
is used for such kind of reductions. The necessary
condition for this reduction is that the redox potential ()
of the metal to be positive.
Also, a large number of oxides can be reduced with
hydrogen to metals, by using a high temperature, and
thus serving to the obtaining of the metals. For instance,
wolfram trioxide reduces to metal via: WO3 + 3H2 W +
3H2O
LiAlH4
2M + yH2O Li + Al M + xHCl
MClx
M2Oy
O C
C O
H3C OH H2 HO CH
C C
C C
C C C C
On another hand, a large quantity of hydrogen is used in
the alimentary industry for hydrogenation of vegetable oils
(they have a isolated double bond in a saturated chain, R,
from a fatty acid (R-COOH):
H2 + -CH2-CH= CH-CH2- -CH2-CH2 CH2 -CH2-
The process is a reduction too. Due to this treatment the
oils (liquid fats), containing double bonds, become solid
fats (margarine) due to the fact that din cauza faptului c,
embedding better, the interactions between chains are
stronger
Hydrogen is used in the industry practice due to the
catalytic hydrogenation reactions; one important is
hydrogenation of nitrogen, carbon oxide and natural oils:
nitrogen (Haber procedure);
Carbon oxide: CO + 2H2 CH3OH (methanol);
Unsaturated oils to saturated ones for margarine.
All below mentioned reactions are with catalysts and using
energetic conditions.
Alternative sources of energy
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell
(PEMFC)
Solid Electrolyte Cell Fuel or Ion Exchange
Membrane Fuel Cell (IEMFC)
The anodes are expensive because of
platinum. One thus seeks to decrease the
quantities of Pt used: large progress was
made making pass the content of 4 mg/cm2 to
0.1 mg/cm2 but it would seem that one cannot
decrease still much this content.
Hydrogen fuel cell
The negative ions
Proton exchange membrane (electrons) are retained
by the catalyst of H+
(usually Platinum) at
Catalyst Catalyst anode.
Only H+ are mobile and
Air free to transport the
positive load through
+ H+ the membrane
H O2 consisting of an organic
compound.
At the surface of
H2 H2O cathode (usually Nickel)
water are produced.
(+): H2
2H+ + - - (-): O2 +
4H+ + 4e-
+ 2e- e H2O
Oxygen
Oxygen is the first element of group 16 and have the
following electronic configuration 2s22p4; is the second
element by the electronegativity, after fluorine
Oxygen is the most spread in the nature (46.59%) in air
in free state (20.9% volume), n water (88.89%) and in
crust being part of the most rocks and ores (46.6%).
Existence of the oxygen makes happen the occurrence
of the superior life forms on Earth. Oceans cover of
the Earth surface. In crust, oxygen are found as oxy-
salts silicates and alumino-silicates, carbonates,
sulfates, nitrates, nad as oxides.
It has 3 isotopes: 16O (99.759%), 17O (0.0374%), 18O
(0.239%). Through fractioned distilling of water till 97%
we may concentrate 18O and 4% 17O. 18O uses as tracer
in the reactions involving oxygen. 17O has nuclear spine
and may serve in (magnetic) resonance studies, for
instance to make distinction between the complex fixed
water and the water from solution: Co(NH3)5H2O.
Allotropic states. Oxygen has two allotropic states: O2
di-oxygen, and O3 tri-oxygenor ozone.
Reaction of forming O3 from O2 is endothermic and its
reverse is exothermic:
3O2 2O3 H = +8.1 kJmol-1
2O3 3O2 H = -142 kJmol-1
O3 results also from thermal dissociation of O2 at over
1500C, when O2 dissociates in 2 atoms of O with which
O2 leads to O3.
The action of the ultraviolet radiation (UV) on O2
produces traces of O3 in the upper atmosphere
(stratosphere). Highest concentration of ozone are about
25Km altitude. The presence of the ozone is of vital
importance for protecting Earths surface on excessive
exposure to UV radiations.
Methods obtaining O2
Industrial
Fractioned distilling of liquid air. O2 have b.p. = -182.9 C
and N2 have b.p. = -195.7 C, and thus may be easily
separated one to each other. Oxygen are kept in steel tubes
at pressures of about 150 atm.
Acidic or alkaline water electrolysis. For instance NaOH
15-20% solutions, by using cathode of Fe and anode of
graphite. At cathode are separated H2 and at anode are
separated O2.
In lab
Small quantities of O2 can be obtained from thermal
decomposition of some combinations:
- oxides: 2HgO O2 + 2Hg, 3MnO2 O2 + Mn3O4
- peroxides: 2BaO2 O2 + 2BaO
- salts: KClO33/2O2 + KCl, 2KMnO4 O2 + MnO2 + K2MnO4
Other way is from some redox reactions, such as:
4MnO4- + 12H+ 5O2 + 4Mn2+ + 6H2O
Ionomolecular species of oxygen
O2 + O2 O2 - O22-
Name cation dioxygen superoxide peroxide
Bond order 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0
dO-O (nm) 0.112 0.121 0.135 0.148
Binding energy (KJmol-1) 641 493 0 210

Burns
Some elements reacts energetically with oxygen with
releasing of a lot of heat and light (live burns). These
reactions are even more violent in pure O2 than are in
air. From nonmetals, phosphorus, carbon and sulfur
burns easily in O2, and between metals Mg, Al, Fe (when
are heat to incandescence).
Burn of fossil coals and of hydrocarbons is the main
source of heating.
Burn of H2 or hydrocarbons with O2 or air is a explosive
reaction (the mechanism is of chain-reaction type,
through free atoms and radicals, with a initiation phase
with spark or flame).
Oxidation of the halides to elementary halogen:
SiCl4 + O2 2Cl2 + SiO2
MgCl2 + O2 Cl2 + 2MgO
2AlBr3 + 3/2O2 3Br2 + Al2O3
Oxidation of sulfides (roasting), metallurgy important:
2FeS + 7/2O2 Fe2O3 + 2SO2
ZnS + 3/2O2 ZnO + SO2
Oxidation of inferior oxides:
CO +1/2O2 CO2
2FeO + 1/2O2 Fe2O3
SO2 + 1/2O2 SO3 (with catalysts)
NO +1/2O2 NO2
Oxidation of covalent hydrides (of nonmetals):
2HX + 1/2O2 X2 + H2O, X = Cl, Br, I
SH2 + 1/2O2 S + H2O
2NH3 + 3/2O2 N2 +3H2O
CH4 + O2 CO2 + 2H2O
In water, there are many possible reactions of chemical
dissolving of oxygen:
O2 + 4H+ + 4e- 2H2O, 0 = +1.229 V
O2 + 2H2O + 4e- 4OH-, 0 = +0.401 V
O2 + 2H+ + 2e- H2O2, 0 = +0.682 V
O2 + H2O + 2e- OH- + HO2-, 0 = -0.076 V
Oxygen biochemistry
Existence of the oxygen in terrestrial
atmosphere is essential for life on Earth. Most of
the oxygen from atmosphere are produced
during photosynthesis process by green plants,
in which the chlorophyll converts the solar
energy into the chemical energy synthesizing
sugars:
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
This is a endothermic reaction which may occur
only in the presence of the light. Living
organisms consumes the oxygen from
atmosphere as in following reaction:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O
Oxides
Ionic, covalent-ionic, and covalent

Ionic:
Elements from groups 1 and 2 provides
oxides with predominant ionic bonds
Metals of the d and f blocks, in lower oxidation
states, lead to ionic oxides, having a alkali
character; crystallizes in ionic networks
O2- ion exists only in solid state;
In water presence hydrolyses: O2- + H2O
2OH-
Covalent:
Are the oxides of the nonmetals and have a acidic
character
The molecules are simple, for instance CO, CO2, NO, NO2,
SO2, SO3
Some transitionally metals may have covalent character in
their higher oxidation states
Soluble ones in water provide acids: SO2 + H2O = H2SO3
Insoluble ones reacts with alkali providing salts:
Sb2O5 + 2OH- + 5H2O = 2[Sb(OH)6]-
Covalent-ionic:
When combines with the rest of the elements
Have intermediary properties (amphoters):
Al2O3 + 6H+ = 2Al3+ + 3H2O
Al2O3 + 2OH- + 3H2O = 2[Al(OH)4]-
()-Quartz structure
Belongs to the family of di-coordinated oxygen. These
oxids, with general formula R2O, have angular molecules.
The angle between the two R-O bonds depends on R. For
instance, the angle increases here:
H2O < (CH3)2O < Si-O-Si (quartz).
Bronzes
Cathegory of non-stoechiometric compounds with
perovskitic structure with general formula: AxBO3 where B:
W, Mo, Nb, Ta, V and A: Li, Na, K, Pr.
Structure of tetragonal tungsten bronzes:
O O
O B O
B O O B
O O
O A O
O B B O
O O
O B O
O O
Phosphorus oxides
P4O10 (P4O9)3
Oxyacids
H2SO4, H2SO3, HNO3, HNO2, HClO4, HClO3, HClO2, HClO

Water physical properties
b.p. 100 C
m.p. 0 C
Vapor pressure (at 0C) 4.68 atm.
Vaporization latent heat (LV, at 100C) 2219.85 Jmol-1
Melting latent heat (LM, at 0C) 334.5 Jmol-1
Dielectric constant (at 25C) 78.54
Cryoscopic constant 1.86 C
Ebullioscopic constant 0.52 C
Superficial tension 72.7 dyncm-1
Ice
Hexagonal
Hexagonal d(OH)=172pm
not to scale d(OH)=285pm
to scale
Cubic
Were found no less than 15 phases of ice.
At pressures till up about 1000 atm. and for
temperatures till down about -200C ice
adopts two crystal structures, both close-
packed: hexagonal (at upper
temperatures) and cubic (at lower
temperatures).
Water properties: pH
As following diagram shows, pH ranges from 0 to 14, with
7 being neutral. pHs less than 7 are acidic while pHs
greater than 7 are alkaline (basic). You can see that acid
rain can be very acidic, and it can affect the environment
in a negative way. Other data: http://www.iapws.org/release.htm
16
In solid state: p H 2O (4C) = 19.7
15.5
15 1 atm.
Liquid Gas
14.5
14
13.5
p H 2O
13
12.5
p H 2O = 10.87 4.1 e t / 93 D2O
12
0.639
11.5 H2 O
t(C)
11
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250
pH scale
-9.3 ~ HI 0 HCl Acid rain
Battery acid
1 (1M)
Lime
2 Lemon
"Cola"
3 Vinegar
Adult fish die
Increasing 4 Tomatoes
Fish reproduction affected
acidity 5 Bananas
Potatoes Normal range precipitation
6 Urine
Cow milk Stream water
Neutral 7
Sea water Blood
8
Baking soda
Increasing 9
alkalinity H3BO3 (1M) Juvenile fish die
10
Mg(OH)2 Adult fish die
11 50C
H2O2 NH4OHsat
12 0C
Ca(OH)2
13 NaOH
KOH (1M)
38 ~ KNH2 14
Indicator Color low Range Color high
Picric acid 0.6-1.3
pH indicators Thymol 'blue'
2,4-dinitrophenol
0.6-1.3
0.6-1.3
Methyl 'yellow' 2.9-4.0
Bromophenol 'blue' 3.0-4.6
pH Congo 'red' 3.0-5.0
Methyl 'orange' 3.1-4.4
Bromocresol 'green' 3.8-5.4
mV Methyl 'red' 4.3-6.2
Azolitmin 4.5-8.3
Bromocresol 'purple' 5.2-6.8
Bromothymol 'blue' 6.2-7.6
Phenol 'red' 6.4-8.0
Toluylene 'red' 6.8-8.0
Cresol 'red' 7.2-8.8
Naphtholphthalein 'blue' 7.3-8.7
Thymol 'blue' 8.0-9.6
Phenolphthalein 8.3-10.0
E (H + / H 2 ) + E ref E 0 ref Thymolphthalein 8.3-10.0
pH = Alizarine 'yellow' 10.1-12.0
ln(10) RT / F
Picrylnitromethylamine 10.8-13.0
Cyanidin <3.0 7.0-8.0 >11
Course 5
Alkali & alkaline earth metals

Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr
Due to the shielding of the positive nuclear
charge by the intermediary shells, the electron of
valence interacts weakly with the nucleus
(excepting Li): M M+ + 1e-;
Natural state: All are too active to exist in free
state. Combinations of them are spread, often
together with Na. Na (clark: 2.64%) and K (clark:
2.35%) are from the 10 most present ones in the
crust. See water contains important levels of
them (1.14% Na, 0.04% K). Na and related
compounds are obtained from NaCl, extracted
from mineral ores or see water.
Electrolytic procedure
to obtain metallic Na NaCl(aq)
from melt and NaOH
from aqueous solution Cl2(g)
W - + Graphite Hg (l)
C Na
Cl2 H2 O
+ H2(g)
Na
NaCl NaOH (aq) Hg + Na (l)

Anode central positioned is from graphite and
cathodes half circular surrounds the anode.
Anode reaction: Cl- Cl + e- (Cl + Cl Cl2)
Cathode reaction: Na+ + e- Na
Melted sodium less dense than the electrolyte
rises to the surface, being conducted to an
exterior tank.
Chlorine (gaseous) are separately collected.
All alkali elements are separated through
electrolysis of their melts either from their
chlorides or hydroxides. Before electrolysis the
salts are purified by recrystallization from hot
solutions.
Physical properties
Z 3 11 19 37 55 87
Symbol Li Na K Rb Cs Fr
Mass (g/mol) 6.94 23.0 39.1 85.5 133 223
m.p. (C) 181 98 64 39 28 27
b.p. (C) 1347 883 774 688 678 677
(gcm-3) 0.53 0.97 0.86 1.53 1.87 1.87
Electronegativity (Pauling) 0.98 0.93 0.82 0.82 0.79 0.70
Ionization (eV) 5.39 5.14 4.34 4.18 3.90 3.94
Reduction 0 (V) -3.04 -2.71 -2.93 -2.92 -3.08 N/A
Have typical for metals characters: metallic
luster (in fresh cut), silvery white appearance
(except cesium - golden), conductors for heat
and electricity (better one has only Ag, Cu, Al,
Au);
Hardest is Li; Na are easily cut with the knife and
K is plasticine-like;
Vapors of alkali are intensely colored, easily
recognizable: Li dark pink, Na - yellow, K
bright red, Rb violet, Cs blue, Fr - green
(qualitative recognition).
Above and near to their boiling points about 1%
of their vapors are diatomic molecules which
proofs the existence of the covalent character in
their bonds
Chemical properties
In air and oxygen: reactive; thus Na and K loose their
sheen staying in the air fast; Rb and Cs burns in air; =>
Li, Na, K are kept covered with paraffin; Rb, Cs, Fr in
evacuated glass ampoules; Combinations: Na + O2
Na2O; Na2O + H2O 2NaOH; NaOH + CO2 Na2CO3;
At hot occurs Na2O2 (NaOONa) peroxide and
superoxides - KO2 (Rb, Fr)
In water: releases the hydrogen upon contact with
water; More energetically become the reaction from Li to
Fr:
M(s) + HOH(l) M+(aq) + HO-(aq) + 1/2H2(g)
With other metals: at worm conditions leads to alloys or
intermetallic compounds. At cold, Hg with Na mixes in a
blend sodium amalgam denoted Na(Hg) with solid
state at room temperature for over 2% Na
Chemical reactions
NaOH + H 2
NaNH 2+ H 2
H2O
NH
3
K2[TaF7] HCl
Ta Na NaCl + H 2
+NaF+KF MO
TiCl 4
Ti + NaCl M + Na 2 O
Uses
NaCN, KCN (electrolytic processes);
Na2O2 (oxidant) indoor air renewal (Na
pigboats; Li lighter - spacecrafts):
Na2O2(s) + CO2(g) Na2CO3(s) + 1/2O2(g)
Na: with Ti (TiCl4 + Na) is thermal agent in
nuclear reactors (high thermal conductivity, low
melting point); monochromatic lamps (with
vapors of Na); alloying element (in small
quantities)
Na-K: liquid thermometers for high temperatures
(replacing Hg);
Rb, Cs: has special use for cathodes in solar
cells
Lithium ion polymer batteries
Anode (Li2TiO3) -
Organic material, low
production cost durability (20 years, 9000
90 milliamp hours per cycles), safety, -50 to
gram after 50 70C operating
charge/discharge temperature
cycles
Cathode (1,2,4-Trihydroxyanthraquinone) +
Complex coordinative combinations
Inorganic Components of Detergents
Builders and Other Additives
Complex (or condensed) Phosphates
These have a lower alkalinity than trisodium
phosphate. The commonly used complex
phosphate are:
Tetrasodium pyrophosphate Na4P2O7
Sodium tripolyphosphate Na5P3O10
Sodium tetraphosphate Na6P4O13 (hygroscopic)
Sodium hexametaphosphate (NaPO3)6
(hygroscopic) Na Na Na Na
Carbonates O O O O
Soda ash (sodium carbonate) Na2CO3
Oxygen Releasing Compounds P P
Sodium Perborate Na2B2O4(OH)4 O O O
dibenzo-18-crown-6 representative of a
class of alkali complexes
O
CH2 CH2 O O
O CH2
CH2 N ONa
Ca
N ONa
O O
M O
O
O O O
CH2 O CH2 Hexa-coordinated

Ca2+ in EDTA
CH2 CH2
Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra
Most spread elements of this Beryl

group are the Calcium and
the Magnesium. Beryllium is
rare in the crust (610-4 %)
being mainly found along
with Aluminum with which
is chemically similar in
chrysoberyl (BeAlO4) and in
a silicate - beryl
(Be3Al2Si6O18). Emeralds are
a variety of beryl. Ionization reaction for the
group: M M2+ + 2e-
Perovskite
CaTiO3 perovskite
group
MIIMIVO3, MIV: Ti, Zr,
Hf; MII: Ca, Sr, Ba,
Zn
MIMVO3, MV: Nb, Ta;
MI: Li, Na, K
MIIMVO6, MV: Nb, Ta;
MII: Ca, Sr, Ba
Ca: blue
Ti: pink
O: red
Spinel
Mg: pink
Al: blue
O: red
MgAl2O4 Spinel group - MIIMIII2O4

MIII = Al, FeIII, CoIII, CrIII, MnIII, Ga;
MII = Mg, Fe, Co, Ni, Zn, Cd, Cu
Magnesium (2.3% in crust) are found as magnesite
(MgCO3), dolomite CaMg(CO3)2, brucite Mg(OH)2,
carnallite (KClMgCl26H2O), olivine (Mg,Fe)2SiO4 and other
valuable minerals. Chlorophyll is a organic complex having
as central ion the magnesium.
Calcium (3.4%) is one of the crust most 10 spread
elements too. The main mineral is CaCO3 with different
amorphous and crystalline varieties (including calcite,
aragonite and vaterite as pure calcium carbonate minerals).
CaSO42H2O known as gypsum is important variety too.
Strontium (0.02%) are found as SrCO3 and SrSO4 and
barium (0.04%) as BaSO4 or mixed with BaCO3.
Radium is extracted from Uraninite (UO2, with small
amounts of Ra - 0.14 g Ra/ton derived from the decay of
Uranium equilibrium ratio being Ra/U ~ 3.710-7.
Obtaining Be & Mg
Beryllium are commonly separated from beryl after
melting with fondants. After treatment with sulfuric acid a
series of soluble sulfates (of Be, Al, Alkali) are treated
(with (NH4)2SO3 for precipitating Al) and then Be are
recrystallized as BeSO4, treated with NH4OH to give
Be(OH)2 and finally BeO results after calcining.
Magnesium are economically efficient extracted from sea
water as depicted.
MgCl2 CaO+MgO
2+ -
Mg(OH)2 + CaSO4 + Ca + 2Cl
MgSO 4
HCl
3 electrolysis
MgCl2 /2H2O Mg
Two step Ca electrolysis
Graphite + - W - +
Cl2 C C
Al2O3
Al2O3
CaCl2
Ca
CaSn3
Sn CaSn3
Calcium is obtained from electrolysis of the CaCl2 in a

Al2O3 crucible.
The other elements (Strontium and Barium) has more
dedicated extraction techniques and uses (see next).
Obtaining of Sr and Ba
C HCl
SrSO4 SrCO3 SrCl2nH2O
tC electrolysis
Na
SrO Sr
C Na2CO3
BaSO4 BaS BaCO3
tC
Al
Ba BaO
Physical properties
Z 4 12 20 38 56 88
Symbol Be Mg Ca Sr Ba Ra
Mass (g/mol) 9.0 24.3 40.1 87.6 137.4 226.1
M.p. (C) 1280 657 850 757 710 700
B.p. (C) 2967 1102 1439 1364 1638 1140
(g/cm3) 1.85 1.74 1.54 2.61 5.5 6
Ip (eV) 18.1 15.1 11.9 10.9 10.0 10.2
0 (V) -1.69 -2.35 -2.87 -2.89 -2.90 -2.92
The general rule of monotony has almost always
exceptions (see for instance m.p. for Mg).
In non-oxidized state all solid states of the
elements from 2nd group are white-silver colored
(exception Be - white-gray).
Ionization energies degreases in group (from top
to bottom) being tree times higher than of the
corresponding alkali.
Redox potentials (0), all negative, are few less
negative than of the alkali and thus alkaline
earth elements are less chemical active than the
alkali.
Chemical properties & reactions
MX2
MC2 X2
MO
Only berilium and magnesium Be2C
may be kept in the air safely. C O2
Rising the temperature in air S2
produces a bright crust on all P4
N2 MS
due to a mixture of oxide and M3P2
nitride formed on the surface.
At Be and Mg the oxide at the M3N2
surface creates a protective
shell which protects the metal to
be oxidized in depth.
Uses
Magnesium is far the most industrial used element as
precursor for obtaining of other less active metals as well
as alloying component. Beryllium follows it as importance
and the third comes Calcium.
Most important alloys are magnalium (Al main
component, 2%Mg, smaller amounts of Co, Ni, Pb),
duralumin (Al main component, 4.4%Cu, 1.4%Mg,
0.6%Mn) both for the car wheel bag, elektron (94-
95%Mg, small amounts of Al, Zn, Mn) incendiary
bombs, magnesium-zirconium alloys (Mg main
component, 3%Zn, 0-7%Zr) for aircraft parts.
Beryllium is a hard, mechanical resisting element, light,
with high melting point and corrosion resistant. It passes
these properties to their alloys. Bronzes of Be (Cu main
component, 2%Be, smaller amounts of Ni) are steel-like
properties but with some better improvements for
instance no sparks at hits, important property in
flammable environments.
Mg based alloys for structural components
Data N.-Am. Die Cast. Ass. A-3-10-06 standard
Mechanical properties Manufacturability RE Rare earths (50% Ce, 25% La, 15% Nd)
IS Impact strength (J)
Density Vehicle Safety
HD Hardness, Brinell hardness number
structural
Homogeneity component Cost YS Yield strength (MPa)
El Elongation (%)
Chemical resistance Working regime TE Thermal expansion (m/mK)
TC Thermal conductivity (W/mK)
Alloy of Mg AZ81 AZ91 AM60 AM50 AM20 AS41 AE42 AE44
Al 8 9 6 5 2 4 4 4
Additives (%)
Zn 0.7 0.7 6
Mn 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.4
Si 1
RE 2.5 4
Oth <0.07 <0.15 <0.35 <0.35 <0.25 <0.20 <0.30 <0.03
IS N/A 2.2 6.1 9.5 N/A 4.1 5.8 5.5
HD 72 75 62 57 47 75 57 56
Properties
YS 150 160 130 120 105 140 140 140

El 3 3 7 8 10 6 9 9
TE 25 25 25.6 26 26 26.1 26.1 26.2
TC 51 72 62 62 60 68 68 68
Mg alloys advantage for vehicles parts
Door inner Wheel core Steering column
Engine
Lift gate
Seat frame
Instrument panel
Transfer case
Mg alloys use reduces the weight with:
65% (replacing Fe alloy) for instrument panel & car seat frame;
40% (replacing Al alloy) for lift gate & steering column;
30% (replacing different other alloys) for wheel core, door inner & transfer case;
20-70% (replacing different other alloys) for engine.
Magnesium Oil and Sports Medicine
With magnesium oil, the concentrate can simply be
applied to the skin or poured into bath water, and in
an instant we have a powerful medical treatment.
http://magnesiumforlife.com/transdermal-
magnesium/magnesium-oil/
Beryllium uses
X-ray apps: Beryllium window (FMB Oxford, 2009)

James Webb Space Telescope
Gold coated beryllium reflector
Mass: 6 times less than Hubble
Mirror: 5 times larger than Hubble
One panel 1.75 2.4 5.4

Height (m)
Human Hubble mirror James Webb mirror

2015 - the earliest possible launch date
F-35B Aircraft (photo from www.jsf.mil) and
many other aerospace vehicles rely on
electrical and mechanical components made
of beryllium alloys.
Calcium is used in small quantities together
with Pb in alloys for bearings, increasing their
hardness. Extraction of other elements (Si,
Ti, Cr, U, Pt) uses Mg and Ca. Be, Mg, Ca
uses for extraction in slag - of S and O
from the melt in metallurgy.
Be, Mg and Ca chlorides are deliquescent
eat (absorbs) water from environment till
become from solid a saturated solution use
for humidity control.
Calcium
uses
CaCl2 - dust control CaSO4H2O

CaCO3 - paints for unpaved roads - medical apps Ca3(PO4)2 - fertilizers
CaC2 - carbide Ca(CH3COO)2 Ca, Mg, Vitamins

- welding - foods additive - pharmaceutical CaO - building industry
In industry carbonates are a source of oxides (CaO or
MgO) for obtaining of oxide materials. Lime is involved in the
following reactions:
CaCO3 CO2 + CaO (from ore)
CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2 (for painting the wall)
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 H2O + CaCO3 (on the wall, in time)
White marble is a allotropic form of CaCO3.
Nitrites, M(NO3)2 are obtained from Epsom salt for bath

carbonates and are used in
pyrotechnics.
Sulfates, MSO4 excepting of Be are
found in nature. Some hydrates of
them are important ones:
MgSO47H2O (Epsom salt) and
CaSO42H2O (gypsum).
Sources of Ca & Mg in foods
Goat cheese Quinoa
Goat yogurt Dairy Grains Wheat
Goat milk Rye
Hijiki Potatoes
Brown algae Sea vegetables Vegetables Spinach
Red algae Foods rich Carrot
Sardines in Ca & Mg Beans
Salmon Seafood Legumes Soybeans
Mackerel Lentils
Mutton Hazelnuts
Chicken Animals Nuts & seeds Sunflower
Turkey Walnuts
Course 6
p3-p6 block (groups 15 - 18)

p block
p1 p2 p3 p4 p5 p6
2 B C N O F Ne
3 Al Si P S Cl Ar
4 Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
5 In Sn Sb Te I Xe
6 Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
- 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6
e ns np ns np ns np ns np ns np ns np
N, P, As, Sb, Bi
The group 15 is important for the two life-supporting

elements: nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), first being
indispensable in the proteins and enzymes composition.
Phosphorus is essential for nervous tissues, bones, and cell
cytoplasm. Nitrogen has important applications as fertilizer
(NH4NO3) and in surface treatment (nitriding, for hardening
the surface). On the opposite, arsenic (As) and antimony
(Sb) and its compounds are toxic, biological organisms
having the tendency to confound As with P and S, and the
presence of the As in place of P and S block the normal
biological mechanisms. Sb has far less toxicity than As, but
is still toxic.
Separating air through distillation
H2, He Temperature control
Air
-60C
-1992 -1892 -1841

N2 C Ar C O2 C
Separating of N through distillation
Obtaining nitrogen by Claude procedure is based on
successive condensations and air detention which results in
a sufficient decrease its liquefaction temperature which is
strictly necessary. Liquid air is then sent some rectification
column which is inserted into the middle of them and at the
top, some liquid nitrogen, obtained by condensation (bp = -
195.8 C), flows from top to bottom on some plates, while
gas (evaporated air) rises bottom up. Such liquid separates
top with lower boiling - nitrogen - and the base less volatile
liquid oxygen (bp = -183 C). Traces of oxygen that remains
in nitrogen generally be removed by passing over copper
glow when there is reaction: 2Cu + O2 2CuO
Phosphorus allotropes
Black Violet
White Red
N, P chemical properties
Li3N
NO PX5
Li Nitrides
O2 M H2S + H3PO4
X2 PH3
H2SO4 H2
B CH4
BN N2 HCN + H2
- O2
P4
PH3 + PH2O2 NaOH P4 P4O6, P4O10
Si
H2 HNO3 Al
Si3N4 PN M
I
H3PO4 +NO AlP

NH3
I
M3 P
N, P - Uses
Nitrogen is transported, is gas state, under pressure, in
bottles at about 150 atm, or as liquid, at very low
temperatures (77K). Its main use is for obtaining of ammonia
about of ammonia serves to obtain fertilizers. Other
applications include organic compounds, explosives, and
plastics. It uses also as inert gas or protection gas in modern
electronics, chemistry, metallurgy, and even for inflating tires
due to its small coefficient of dilatation with temperature.
Surface treatment are often done with nitrogen from
ammonia rather than from N2.
Phosphorus is used for matches, incendiary bombs, smoke
grenades, and tracer rounds. Even if is an undesired element
in steels, and in general in alloys, small quantities are
present along with Fe, Cu and Sn. An example is
phosphorus bronzes. In steels, a certain level of P
concentration assures machinability for cutting and wear
resistance.
Nitrites and nitrates
95pm 96pm
143pm 141pm
118pm 120pm
121pm
HNO2 HNO3 CL-20: hexaazaisowutzitane
CL-20: C6H6N12O12(s) 6N2(g) + 3CO(g) + 3CO2(g) + 3H2O(g)

Explosions
TNT: 2C7H5N3O6(s) 3N2(g) + 7CO(g) + 5H2O(g) + 7C(s)
TriNitroToluene (TNT)
TNT is explosive for two reasons. First, it contains the
elements carbon, oxygen and nitrogen, which means that
when the material burns it produces highly stable
substances (CO, CO2 and N2) with strong bonds, so
releasing a great deal of energy. This is a common feature
of most explosives; they invariably consist of many nitrogen
or oxygen containing groups (usually in the form of 2, 3 or
more nitro-groups), attached to a small, constricted organic
backbone. O 2N
HNO3
NO2
H2SO4
toluene O 2N TNT
Ammonia & nitric acid chemical properties
NH4Cl + N2
2+
[Cu(NH 3)4] Cl2 N2 + H2O
Cu2+ O2
+ - HA O2
NH4 A NH 3 o
NO + H 2O
Pt; 1000 C CO2 + NO2
CuO Nitro-
Na cellulose C HIO3 + NO
Cellulose
Cu + N 2 + H2O NaNH 2 + H2 I2
H+
N2 + 3H2 Nitro- Glycerin Mg
glycerin HNO3 Mg(NO 3)2 + H2
(H2SO4)
MII
C6 H 6 Sn
(H2SO4)
C6H5-NO2 M(NO3)2 + NO
Sn(OH)4+ NO
Phosphorus oxyacids
H3PO2 H3PO3 H3PO4

As, Sb, Bi chemical properties
3+
H3AsO3, Sb4O6, Bi As4O6, Sb4O6, Bi2O3
H3AsO5, Sb2O5,
MX3 MX5
O2
HNO3 M
-
AsO3- + H2 OH H2
M (As, Sb, Bi) H3As, H3Sb
Na +
S
H
Na3M M2S3
3+ 3+
H3AsO3, Sb , Bi
As, Sb, Bi - Toxicity
As, Sb and all their combinations including oxides and salts
are toxic. Bi is not toxic, but their compounds, with some
exceptions, are. Volatility of As and its compounds coupled
with the toxicity makes that As to be a very dangerous
element. As and their compounds may occurs as pollutants of
water and air. As in the case of Hg, As may be transformed
by bacteria in methyl-derivatives, even more toxic and
mobile:
Methyl-cobalt-amine = B12 vitamin
H3AsO4 + 2H+ + 2e- H3AsO3 + H2O
H3AsO3 + B12 CH3AsO(OH)2 methyl-arsenic acid
CH3AsO(OH)2 + B12 (CH3)2AsO(OH) di-methyl-arsenic acid
(CH3)2AsO(OH) + 4H+ + 4e- 2H2O + (CH3)2AsH - dimethylarsine
Sulfur allotropes
Over 30 (more than any other element)
A mixture of allotropes mainly contains S8 with small amounts of S6 & S7.
S6 S8 S7
S18
S12
Sulfur: chemical properties
SO2
SF6 H2S
F2 O 2 H2
Cl2 Si, C
S2Cl2 S SiS2, CS2
II
M P
I
M
MS P 4S 3
M2S
Sulfur biochemistry
Sulfur is an essential constituent, even in minor quantities, to
proteins, and amino-acids such as cysteine and methionine.
In both proteins and enzymes sulfurs is found as SS
bridges. Vitamin B1, coenzyme A and many other organics
contains S (for instance mustard and garlic). Sulfur based
fermentations made by some anaerobic microorganisms
which in their oxidation processes reduces the sulfates to
sulfides (SO42- to S2-) play an important role in formation of
oil reserves.
It exists bacteria which process sulfur as other process
oxygen and it survives to temperatures till 150C.
Sulfur-based living organisms
Riftia pachyptila
worm (till 2m long)
lives from 1Km to
10Km in ocean
deep, near black
smokers and is in
symbiosis with
Hyphomicrobium
sulfonivorans
dimethylsulfone (CH3)2SO2 CH3SH methanethiol
Assimilation of formaldehyde
NADH + H+
NAD+ + H2O 1 1 H2O + O2
H2O2
dimethylsulfoxide (CH3)2SO HCHO+ H2S
NADH + H+
NAD+ + H2O 1 CH3SO3H methanesulfonate
NADH + H+ + O2
dimethylsulfide (CH3)2S
NADH + H+ + O2 1 NAD+ + H2O
NAD+ + H2O 1 HCHO+ H2SO3
methanethiol CH3SH +HCHO
S, Se, Te - Uses
Sulfur has uses mainly as combinations. On large scale are produced
sulfuric acid (90% of sulfur involved in). About 60% from sulfuric acid is
for production of fertilizers. Sulfites, bisulfites and SO2 are used in large
quantities as bleach. Elemental S are used to obtain CS2 (precursor of
CCl4) and viscose fibers. An important application is on rubber
vulcanization. Other applications includes obtaining of fungicides,
pesticides and gunpowder (a mixture of KNO3 75%, C 15%, S
10%).
Selenium is used for glass discoloration (and a mixture of Cu, S & Se for
coloring the glass in red colors range). Applications include photocopy
machines, image capturing (thin film of Se on Al support) and photovoltaic
cells. Selenides are used for toning in photographies development.
Adding of Se in steels and alloys generally increases the resistance to
corrosion. In small quantities is a part of some enzymes. Large quantities
are toxic.
Tellurium is used as alloying element for steels and non-ferrous alloys
(with Cu, Ag, Pb) to color in blue the glasses, in photography
development as well as for rubber vulcanization.
Trophic chain, biomass & energy conversion
Lipids; Proteins; Medium to Carbohydrates; Small to

large sized organic molecules medium sized organic molecules
O2 Air
H2 O
0
C-II
10
101
1
Carnivores
10
102
2
Herbivores, Rodents
10
H2O
103
CO2 104
Plants
103
Others+ Na+ K+ Mg2+ Ca2+ NH4+ Si(OH)4 H2PO4- SO22- NO3- Others-
Soil
Halogens physical properties
Property F Cl Br I At
M.p., C -220 -101 -7 114
B.p., C -188 -35 59 183
Solubility, in water, at 20C - 0.09 0.21 0.002
Electronegativity (Pauling) 4 3 2.8 2.5 2.2
0 reduction potential, V 2.87 1.36 1.07 0.54 0.3
Dissociation energy, kJmol-1 157 244 193 15.1 116
Atomic radius, nm 6.4 9.9 11.1 21.8 -
Ionic radius, nm 13.3 18.1 19.6 -
All halogens have an characteristic unpleasant,

toxic smell. All solves in organic solvents.
Halogens chemical properties
X'X (X'X3,X'X5, X'X7)
HX + HXO
COX 2 X2' + HX X2'

H2O
CO HX'
C(Si)
MXn M X2 CX4 (SiX4)
SO2
SO2X2 X2 NH3
N2 + HX
(H2SO4) S(Se,Te)
2-
S2O3 P
H2S (Se, Te)
(As, Sb) SX4 (EX6)
OH-
S4O6
2- H2SO4 + HX
PX3
(H+ + X-) + XO-
Halogens uses
Fluorine is used to obtain industrial CFC (chloro-
fluorocarbons - abbreviated CFC) substances important for
generating aerosols and as refrigerants and foaming agents
(to obtain porous polymers). A certain range of CFC has
found applications as artificial blood (colorless). May also be
used in industrial synthesis of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE
short, a polymer known under the trade name Teflon ),
which according to the number of units in the chain can be a
lubricant (oil) or mechanically and thermally resistant plastic,
gaskets used (even at high pressures) or as an agent that
prevents adhesion (for example PTFE coated dishes). All
elemental fluorine is synthesized UF6 - an intermediary
necessary to separate the isotope 235U used in nuclear
plants.
Halogens - uses
Chlorine is used for organic synthesis: trichlorophenol is a
disinfectant; vinyl chloride for producing polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) - one of the most used polymers. Also serves to
obtain sodium hypochlorite, household disinfectant and
bleaching agent; CaCl2 - brine for refrigeration plants, ice
and dust control on roads, and desiccation. Chlorine gas was
first used warfare; chlorine derivatives serve the same
purpose today, eg mustard gas (Cl-(CH2)2-S-(CH2)2-Cl). It is
used less and less for drinking water treatment and disinfect.
All of chlorine summarizes some important industrial
solvents: chloroform - CHCl3, carbon tetrachloride - CCl4. It
can be taken into account that 111-trichloroethane and
perchloroethylene (Tetrachloroethylene) are industrial
solvents used in degreasing or dry cleaners. Chloroform -
CHCl3, was the first general anesthetic used in surgery.
Today other halogen derivatives (eg CF3-CHBrCl) took his
place as anesthetics. In addition, ethyl chloride, C2H5Cl, is a
local anesthetic.
Halogens - uses
Bromine: many organic synthesis, for example getting 1,2-
dibromoethane, a gasoline additive that prevents sudden
burning gasoline, octane rating boosting, bromo-chloro-
methane (CH2BrCl) synthesis - liquid used to fight fire - in the
presence of heat forms a curtain of heavy gas (high density),
covering the flame preventing combustion.
Iodine in the form of alcoholic solution with potassium iodide
serves as a disinfectant and fungicide in the treatment of
superficial lesions and certain skin diseases. Also the
presence of iodine in bulbs (known as halogen bulbs) causes
an increase in the brightness & extension of service life. For
instance the decomposition of gaseous tungsten chloride on
incandescent tungsten filament is on exactly where it should
be (thinner places) because there due to the thermal effect of
electric current, filament temperature is higher. Iodoform
(CHI3) on the other hand, is a much used disinfectant -
whose synthesis is also used iodine.
Chemical lasers
Continuous wave chemical laser (USPTO 3688215, 29 Aug 1972)
Dilution control H2+FHF+H+ Optical control
Inert gas F- Flow control Cooling control
H2 Au Mirrors
F F
- + 4000K 2000K Cooling agent Optical control 10 torr

MgF2
Heating control Flow control HF, H2 Lens
Inert gas: N2, He (.54 moles/s) F-: SF6, NF3 (SF6: .037 moles/s) H2: H2, D2 (1 moles/s)
Input energy: 30 kW Chemical energy: 4 kW Laser energy: 0.5 kW
The entity that has the property right to the patent: United States of America
(He), Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn
Inert?
In 1962 the British Bartlett and Lohman were synthesized
through reaction the xenon hexacloroplatinate:
Xe(g) + PtF6(g) Xe[PtF6](s)
The discovery was suggested by an oxidation reaction of
oxygen (in a series of attempts to get more energetic
oxidizers) ie:
O2(g) + PtF6(g) O2[PtF6](s)
The author of the discovery noted that the ionization
energy of molecular oxygen (O2) is very close to the of
Xe. Experimental attempt was a success - xenon behave
similar with molecular oxygen.
Center of hottest stars
109
Center of Sun,
nuclear reactions
107
105
Electronic/chemical energy
Temperature, K
Surface of Sun, hottest boiling points

103
Organic life
Liquid air
magnetism
Electronic
101 Liquid 4He
Universe Superconductivity
Superfluid 4He
10-1
Superfluid 3He
10-3 magnetism
Nuclear
10-5 Lowest T of condensed matter

3He phases diagram
p[MPa] Superfluid phase "A" Solid (body centered cubic)

4
Liquid
3
3
He
2
1
Superfluid phase "B" Gas
0
10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101 T[K]
Noble gases physical properties
http://www.lps.ens.fr/~caupin/fichiersPDF/PhysicaB_2003_3
29-333_380-381.pdf, Very fast growth and melting of 4He
crystals He (at 2.5 MPa ~10 atm.): -272.2 C (0.95 K)
Gas I.P. H.v. M.P. B.P. Radius Solubility

(eV) (kJmol-1) (oC) (oC) (nm) (mgl-1)
He 24.58 0.08 - -269.0 12.0 13.8
Ne 22.56 1.7 -248.6 -246.0 16.0 14.7
Ar 15.75 6.5 -189.4 -186.0 19.1 37.9
Kr 14.00 9.1 -157.2 -153.6 20.0 73
Xe 12.13 12.7 -111.8 -108.1 22.0 110.9
Rn 10.75 18.1 -71 -62 - -
Noble gases - uses
Helium has the lowest boiling point of all liquids used in
freezing known for obtaining extremely low temperatures
(superconducting necessary studies or lasers) and the gas
thermometers such temperatures. It was also used as
cooling gas in some nuclear reactors or gas chromatographic
analyzers bearer. Also used to replace nitrogen pressure
cylinders containing "air" divers necessary because helium is
less soluble in blood than nitrogen. Such a sudden pressure
release dissolved nitrogen bubbles would block blood flow,
causing death by "gas embolism". Because solubility lower
risk of these accidents is reduced when using helium instead
of nitrogen. He-Ne lasers are already widely used for red
light (633 nm). Helium has been used, easily and
nonflammable, to give aircraft lifts.
Noble gases - uses
Large quantities of argon is used for making protective
atmosphere especially in researching new materials industry
and chemical compounds. Thus welding stainless steel,
titanium, magnesium or aluminum and titanium production by
Kroll and IMI processes are the main consumers of argon.
Somewhat smaller quantities consumed and growth
processes of silicon and germanium crystals. Also used for
incandescent bulbs with argon, the argon or argon-nitrogen
mixtures, is used to protect the incandescent tungsten - thus
extending filament life. Argon for the same purpose but is
used for fluorescent tubes and Geiger-Mller counters
needed for radioactivity measurements. Also, the "torches"
based on argon plasma used in spectral analysis is
consuming argon.
Noble gases - uses
Neon is used in small amounts for advertising lighting
(fluorescent lamps) which presents in rarefied gas
conditions, a red-orange color. To obtain other colors various
mixtures with other inert gases are used.
Krypton gives the tubes in which they occur lightning, a
white light-intensive applications finding and warning lights at
airports. An element that appears and fission reactions
(nuclear bombs) presence is an indication of nuclear activity
on a planetary scale.
Xenon lamps are used in such automotive halogen lamps or
flash (flashes) used in photography, giving a white light, very
intense, even small size, allowing photography in artificial
light.
Course 7
d1-d5 block
Elements groups
3 (d1) 4 (d2) 5 (d3) 6 (d4) 7 (d5) 8 (d6) 9 (d7) 10 (d8) 11 (d9) 12 (d10)
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
4
Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
5
Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd
57-71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
6
La-Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg
89-103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
7
Ac-Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
Transition elements, period 4, oxidation state - rule?
Element Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
Electronic d1s2 d2s2 d3s2 d5s1 d5s2 d6s2 d7s2 d8s2 d10s1 d10s2
Structure
Oxidation I I
Numbers II II II II II II II II II II
III III III III III III III III III
IV IV IV IV IV IV IV
V V V V V
VI VI VI
VII
Mn the element with highest number of oxidation states

between the elements of first period of transition metals.
Transition elements complex combinations
Transition elements have a propensity to form complex
combinations with molecules or ions able to donate electron
pairs (e.g. NH3, H2O, CN-, X-, etc.). Usually in oxidation state
III complexes are more stable than those in oxidation state II.
At higher oxidation state elements occurs only in complex
combinations - Fe (VI), Co (VI), Ni (IV). In complex
combinations achieved a higher number of links than the
corresponding to formal valence. Also form complexes in
unusual oxidation states (zero or negative), for example
metal carbonyls (Mo(CO)6) or ferrocene (Fe(C5H5)2) - all
containing metal in 0 oxidation state).
Coordinative bonds with no oxidation state
Fe(C5H5)2 Mo(CO)6
Charge distribution with Spartan 10

Transition elements a source of color
If photons of a particular
478 nm
wavelength are absorbed
by matter, then when we 447 nm 509 nm
observe light reflected
from or transmitted through
416 nm 540 nm
that matter, what we see is
the complementary
color, made up of the 385 nm 571 nm
other visible wavelengths
remaining. For example
beta-carotene has 726 nm 602 nm
maximum absorption at
454 nm (blue light),
695 nm 633 nm
consequently what visible
light remains appears 664 nm
orange.
Complementary colors
Visible spectra
385 416 447 478 509 540 571 602 633 664 695 726
absorption
transmission
385 416 447 478 509 540 571 602 633 664 695 726
Absorption vs. Transmission

Compound/Ion Color Name #R-G-B
Colors of transition
3-
(MnO4) (aq) DarkBlue #00008B
Cu2+(aq) MediumBlue #0000CD
ions
2+
(VO) (aq) Blue #0000FF
(MnO4)2-(aq) DarkGreen #006400
Cr3+(aq) Teal #008080
The most important source CuCl22H2O DarkTurquoise #00CED1
of color at transition Fe2+(aq)

2+
DodgerBlue #1E90FF
(Cu(NH3)4) (aq) RoyalBlue #4169E1
elements is the existence of 2+
(Ni(NH3)6) (aq) MediumSlateBlue #7B68EE
incomplete levels d and f. 3+
V (aq) DarkSeaGreen #8FBC8F
Ni2+(aq)
The ions of these elements
LightGreen #90EE90
(MnO4)-(aq) DarkViolet #9400D3
can promote electrons from NiCl26H2O PaleGreen #98FB98
one level to d, another level (CuCl4)2-(aq)
3+
YellowGreen #9ACD32
Fe (aq) Chocolate #D2691E
d with higher energy, 2+
V (aq) Lavender #E6E6FA
leading to absorption in 3+
Ti (aq) Violet #EE82EE
Zn2+(aq)
visible. CoCl26H2O
AliceBlue
Magenta
#F0F8FF
#FF00FF
(Cr2O7)2-(aq) Orange #FFA500
MnCl24H2O LightPink #FFB6C1
2+
Co (aq) Pink #FFC0CB
3+
(Co(NH3)6) (aq) Gold #FFD700
+
(VO2) (aq) Yellow #FFFF00
Co complexes
Ligands Co3+ complex Absorbed Seen
6(I-) [Co(I)6]3- 800 nm pale yellow
6(Br-) [Co(Br)6]3- 770 nm yellow
6(Cl-) [Co(Cl)6]3- 740 nm lime
6(F-) [Co(F)6]3- 700 nm green
6(HO-) [Co(OH)6]3- 650 nm sky blue
4(OH2); 2(HO-) [Co(OH2)4(OH)2]1+ 620 nm blue
6(H2O) [Co(OH2)6]3+ 600 nm violet
5(NH3); 1(Br) [Co(NH3)5(Br)]2+ 540 nm brown
5(NH3); 1(Cl) [Co(NH3)5(Cl)]2+ 522 nm red
5(NH3); 1(OH) [Co(NH3)5(OH)]2+ 502 nm carmine
5(NH3); 1(OH2) [Co(NH3)5(OH2)]3+ 487 nm orange
6(NH3) [Co(NH3)6]3+ 472 nm gold
5(NH3); 1(NO2-) [Co(NH3)5(NO2)]2+ 456 nm yellow
6(NO2-) [Co(NO2)6]3- 365 nm light yellow
6(NC-) [Co(CN)6]3- 310 nm pale yellow
Octahedral, tetrahedral & square planar complexes
d(x2-y2) d(z2) d(x2-y2)
d(yz) d(xy) d(xz)

d(xy)
Oh Td D4h
d(z2)
d(yz) d(xz)
d(yz) d(xy) d(xz) d(x2-y2) d(z2)
Interstitial compounds
Crystalline networks of transition elements are generally
compact and contain tetrahedral or octahedral gaps, where
can enter small volume nonmetallic atoms (H, B, C, N)
forming interstitial compounds, which are usually non-
stoechiometric (with variable composition). These
combinations - carbides, nitrides, borides - melts at very high
temperatures (TiC - 3140C, ZrC - 3430C, HfC - 3890C),
have very good hardness (8 to 10 on the Mohs scale) and
some are extremely inert to chemical attack. Because of
these properties have special technical applications (see
discussed refractory ceramics).
Scandium, Yttrium, Lutetium, Lawrencium
Scandium is apparently a much more
Chemical properties abundant element in the sun and certain stars
M2O3 than on earth. Scandium iodide, along with
sodium iodide, when added to a modified
form of mercury-vapor lamp, produces a form
of metal halide lamp. This lamp is a white light
O2 source with high color rendering index that
sufficiently resembles sunlight to allow good
Cl2 acid color-reproduction with TV cameras.
MCl3 M M3+ About 31 ppm of the Earth's crust is yttrium
(28th) - 400 times more common than silver.
N2 H2 Lunar rock samples collected during the
American Apollo Project have a relatively high
content of yttrium. Even if Yttrium has no
LaN MHx (LaH2,9) known biological role, tends to concentrate in
the liver, kidney, spleen, lungs, and bones of
humans. With up to 700 ppm, the seeds of
woody plants have the highest known
concentrations.
Lawrencium synthesis
Lutetium aluminium garnet (Al5Lu3O12) has
been proposed for use as a lens material in
98Cf + 5B 103Lr high refractive index immersion lithography.
Lutetium tantalate (LuTaO4) is the densest
known stable white material (9.81 g/cm3). The
only denser white material is thorium dioxide,
(10 g/cm3), but the thorium radioactive.
Titanium, Zirconium, Hafnium, Rutherfordium
Metals are very resistant to chemical agents
Chemical properties at moderate temperatures due to the
formation of a protective oxide layer on the
MO2 surface. At room temperature are not
attacked by acids or bases. Have the
property of absorbing gases (H2, O2, N2) are
MxHy O2 t MX4
X2 therefore used to produce advanced vacuum.
H2 Titanium has many uses: has the advantage
600 that it is stronger than steel, more light and
M
HF N2 with greater corrosion resistance, keeping its
t
C MN mechanical properties at high temperatures.
H2[MF6] Zirconium is used in the manufacture of
chemical equipment, and nuclear technology
MC because it absorbs neutrons.
Hafnium is used in the construction of
Rutherfordium synthesis nuclear reactors and nuclear submarines.
80% TiC and 20% HFC mixture is highly
98Cf + 6C 104Rf refractory (m.p. 4215 C). ZrO2+15%Y2O3
gives an intense white light and is used in
specialty lamps (Nernst lamps).
Titanium alloy with 6% Al and 4% V has good mechanical properties and
is used for gas tanks (H2, O2, F2) and missiles. The fortunate combination
of the basic characteristics of titanium finds in the aerospace industry its
applicability. 90% of current production of titanium is used in the
construction of supersonic aircrafts and spaceships.
F2 fighter - titanium and its alloys uses

Shell Hood
Friction tape of the wing
Girder
Exhaust Frames
nozzle Piloting channel
Mother Russia gigantic statue
Memorial Park, Kiev, Ukraine
Is a gigantic titanium female figure -108
meters (40 m - pedestal & 68 m - figure),
to compare - Statue of Liberty in New York
has the size of 100 meters (65m + 35 m).
Sword was shortened after independence
in 1991.
Historians say this statue was initially
proposed to be built atop Mount
Poklonnaya in Moscow.
The construction of the statue made of
titanium in Kyiv turned out to be a
complicated task. Employees of the Kyiv-
based ProektStalKonstruktsiya R&D
Institute were interested in the experience
regarding the reconstruction of the Statue
of Liberty in New York.
Was completed on May 9, 1981. Soviet
leader Leonid Brezhnev paid a special
visit to Kyiv for the unveiling of the great
monument.
Vanadium, Niobium, Tantalum, Dubnium
Vanadium is used especially for
Ferrovanadium (Fe-V alloy) - for improved
Chemical properties
mechanical properties, increased hardness,
M2O5 corrosion and shock resistance. Vanadium
MF5 pentaoxide, V2O5, is a good catalyst for
MxHy oxidation reactions (such as for obtaining of
F2 O2
H2 H2SO4 - catalyst for oxidation of SO2 to SO3).
VCl4 Nb and Ta have high capacity for electron
Cl2 N2
NbCl5 V, Nb, Ta MxNy emission, and are able to absorb gases at
TaCl5 NaOH C hot. Alloys with Nb, Ta, and NbC are
top Br2, I2 thermoresistant, thermostable, hardly
MxCy attacked by acids, and mechanically
NaMO3, Na3VO4 superhard.
VX3, NbX4 Ta replaces Pt, Au, Ag and their alloys in the
construction of chemical apparatus resistant
Dubnium synthesis to concentrated acids or bases such as heat
exchangers, pumps, valves. Ta catalyses
98Cf + 7N 105Db making synthetic diamonds from graphite
(pressure ~ 1 GPa and temperatures of about
2200 C. Ta wires are used in surgery.
[V18O30]12+ cage, part of [V18O42]12- cage
[V18O42]12- properties (Spartan '10)
Chromium, Molybdenum, Tungsten, Seaborgium
Chemical properties
W possess highest elemental
Cr2O3, MO3 m.p. (3380 C).
CrX3,
MoX6, Cr2S3, MoS2, WS2 Cr dissolve in diluted acids (HCl,
X2 t, O2 H2SO4), while W is dissolved
WX6 t, S
C only in HF+HNO3 mixture
WC, W2C Se, Te MSe2, MTe2
M (eliminating NO in place of H2).
M = Mo, W
In HNO3 Cr are covered with a
CO NaOH + NaNO 3 protective layer of oxide.
molybdates, At normal temperature, Cr, Mo
M(CO)6 wolframates
and W are resistant to air and
moisture.
Seaborgium synthesis Cr reacts only at high
temperatures with non-metals:
98Cf + 8O 106Sg O2, X2, N2, S, B, C. Mo and W
reacts bit harder.
W is highly resistant to acids.
Cr-W-Co-C super hard high-speed tool steel
C Cr W Mo V Co Si Mn Fe
1.7-4.1% 3-10% 1-20% 1-15% 1-15% 15% 2% 1% remaining
Carbon 0.1C-Ceq0.6; Ceq=0.06Cr+0.033W+0.063Mo+0.2V
Molybdenum 18%W+2Mo40%
Steel (88%-98%) above mixture and (2-12%) G1, G2, or G3
G1 nitrides of M, M= Ti, V, Zr, Nb, Hf, Ta
G2 carbides of M, M= Ti, V, Zr, Nb, Hf, Ta
G3 carbonitrides of M, M= Ti, V, Zr, Nb, Hf, Ta
Hardness HRC71 (ASTM E18 & EN ISO 6508)
USPTO US4880461 (Norimasa UCHIDA, November 14, 1989)
Chromium - uses
Chromium is alloying element for special steels, giving better
mechanical properties and high corrosion resistance.
Alloys of Cr with Ni and Cu have uses in the manufacture of
thermocouples.
Electrolytic chromating is one of the most effective methods
of protecting metals against corrosion.
Dichromates (especially of sodium, cheaper) and chrome
alum is used in tanning (process of treating skins of animals)
and as a mordant (to fix the dyes) in dyeing.
Dichromates are used as oxidants in organic chemistry.
Some combinations of Cr have important uses as pigments,
producing beautiful and very stable colors.
Chromium pigments
O O O 2-
O O Cl
O Cr O Cr O Cr O
O Cr O Cl Cr
O Cr O O O O
O O n O Cl
O O O Cl O Cr
O Cr O KO Cr O Cr OK Cl Cr6H2O
Pb O O O Cl
MoCl2 MoCl3 MoCl4 MoCl5 MoCl6

Molybdenum - uses
MoS2 is used as a solid lubricant and a high-pressure high-
temperature antiwear agent. It is a semiconductor -
electronics applications.
MoSi2 is electrical conductor (ceramic with use for heating
elements operating at temperatures above 1500 C in air).
MoO3 is used as an adhesive between ceramics and metals.
PbMoO4 + PbCrO4 + PbSO4 is an orange pigment used for
ceramics and plastics.
(NH4)6Mo7O244H2O (yellow-green) is fertilizer.
Molybdenum enzymes in plants and animals catalyze the
oxidation and sometimes reduction of certain small
molecules, as part of the regulation of nitrogen, sulfur and
carbon cycles. All molybdenum-using enzymes so far
identified in nature use the molybdenum cofactor.
Molybdenum cofactor
O
O S
Mo
S
C N C
N C
C C
C
C C C
C
N N N O
O
Keggin structures
[AM12O40]n,
A = P5+, Si4+, B3+
M = Mo, W
The first Keggin anion,
(NH4)3[PMo12O40] (ammonium
phosphomolybdate), was first
reported by Berzelius in 1826.
J.F. Keggin with the use of X-
ray diffraction experimentally
determined the structure of
Keggin anions in 1934.
Keggin anions uses as
catalysts in hydration,
polymerization and oxidation.
Manganese, Technetium, Rhenium, Bohrium
MnO2
MnX2 Mn(OH)2
O2
Mn chemical properties
X2 H2O (Tc, Re similar) Bohrium synthesis
HX Mn C
97Np + 20Ca 107Bh
MnX2 N2 Si Mn3C
Mn3N2 Mn3Si
O.N. -3 -2 -1 0
Compound MnH3 MnH2 H[Mn(CO)5] (CO)5Mn-Mn(CO)5
Color White/Colorless White/Colorless White /Colorless
O.N. 0 +1 +2 +3
Compound Mn(OH2)6 Br[Mn(CO)5] MnCl2 MnF3
Color
O.N. +4 +5 +6 +7
Compound MnO2 K3MnO4 K2MnO4 KMnO4
Color
Manganese - uses
The most of the manganese

usage is in the industry producing
ferroalloys (as additive for
improving the properties, or for
conducting different processes
ferromanganese - MnO2+Fe2O3 -
serves as deoxidizer for steel).
Other uses are in construction,
machinery, and transportation
with manganese demand of
about 29%, 10%, and 10%,
respectively (in US, in 2008).
Other uses includes production of The corrosion-resistant aluminum
dry cell batteries, in plant alloys (with over 95% Al) have
fertilizers and animal feed, and manganese content of 1-1.5% and
as a brick colorant. are used for beverage pots.
Gasoline burn catalyst
A supplement to
the gasoline
additive
tetraethyllead to
increase the fuel
octane rating
Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl

Technetium and Rhenium - uses
Technetium is the lowest atomic number element without any stable
isotopes; every form of it is radioactive. From the 1860s through 1871,
early forms of the periodic table proposed by Dimitri Mendeleev
contained a gap (Tc, Z=43) between Mo (Z=42) and Ru (Z=44). The
discovery of element 43 was finally confirmed only in December 1936.
Tc is primarily artificial, only trace quantities existing in nature, even if its
most stable isotope have the half-life greater than the second one of
manganese (T1/2(98Tc)=4.2 mil. years > T1/2(53Mn)=3.7 mil. years).
Tc use come from the following chain of nuclear reactions: 98Mo + 1n
99Mo; 99Mo 99mTc (66h); 99mTc 99Tc+ (6h); =140500eV. A lot of
radiopharmaceuticals are based on technetium for imaging and functional

studies of the brain, myocardium, thyroid, lungs, liver, gallbladder,
kidneys, skeleton, blood, and tumors (an unstable isotope, 99Mo decays
in a stable one, 99Tc (T1/2=210000 years) without emitting dangerous
particles, only a photon).
Re free element has the third-highest melting point and highest boiling
point of any element. Rhenium is added to high-temperature alloys for jet
engine parts (70% of the worldwide rhenium production). Another major
application is platinum-rhenium catalysts, which are primarily used in
making lead-free, high-octane gasoline.
Lockheed Martin F-35B Lightning II
Single-seat, single-engine, fifth generation of multirole fighters under
development to perform ground attack, reconnaissance, and air defense
missions with stealth capability (Released on 18 December 2007).
Newer single-crystal third generation alloys contain 6% of rhenium; they
are used in the F-35 engines.
Course 8
d6-d10 block
Iron, Ruthenium, Osmium, Hassium
Cobalt, Rhodium, Iridium, Meitnerium
Nickel, Palladium, Platinum, Darmstadtium
MC, M3C
MS, FeS2 C O2 MO, M2O3
S X2
MSi, MSi2, M2Si M MX2, FeX3, CoX3
Si B
M2P, MP2 P CO M2B, CoB, NiB
Mm(CO)n
Hassium synthesis Meitnerium synthesis Darmstadtium synthesis
96Cm + 12Mg 108Hs 83Bi + 26Fe 109Mt 82Pb + 28Ni 110Ds

Fe, Co, Ni, Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir, Pt spread
Inner core is mainly a Ni-Fe alloy. Fe is 4th element by spread
in the crust (6%, as oxides, sulfides and carbonates): Fe2O3 -
hematite, Fe3O4 - magnetite, FeS2 - pyrite, FeCO3 - siderite.
Nickel is about 700 times less spread than Fe as (Fe,Ni)9S8
(pentlandite), NiS (millerite), NiAs (nickeline).
Cobalt is about 3 times less spread than Nickel as CoAsS
(cobaltite), CoAs2(safflorite) and CoAs3 (skutterudite).
The rest of the elements (Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir, Pt) may be
found as free metals and rarely combined with S, Se, and Te.
Palladium is about 5000 times less spread than Cobalt,
Platinum is about 2 times less spread than Palladium,
Osmium is about 2 times less spread than Platinum,
Ruthenium is about 2 times less spread than Osmium,
Rhodium is about 1.5 times less spread than Ruthenium, and
Iridium is about 1.5 times less spread than Rhodium.
Iron + Carbon and Iron phase diagrams
Name Phases Remarks
C Graphite 100% carbon
Fe2C -Fe2C -Fe2C
Fe2.2C -Fe2.2C pseudo-hexagonal iron carbide
Fe7C3 Fe7C3 Ekstrm-Adcok iron carbide
Fe2.4C -Fe2.4C Fe2C+Fe3C
Fe2.5C Hgg carbide -Fe2C5
Fe3C Cementite -Fe3C
Fe3C -Fe3C hexagonal iron carbide
Solid solutions (C%wt 2%)
-Fe+C -Fe+C Austenite (stable), face-centered cubic (FCC)
Martensite (metastable), body-centered tetragonal (BCT)
Solid solutions or pure iron (Cwt0.3 at 723C, Cwt0.06 at 20C) t(C)
Ferrite -Fe body-centered cubic (BCC) 1400C t 10-10.1 10-5.9 10-5.2 10-2.8
2000
-Fe obsolete term for the paramagnetic -Fe (g) (l)
-Fe face-centered cubic (FCC) 1800
-Fe body-centered cubic (BCC) tC 912 1538 1600
-Fe hexagonal close-packed (HCP), unstable, high pressure only -Fe (s, CCC) 1400
1394
-Fe (s, FCC) 1200
- austenite - 1000
910 800
-Fe (s, BCC) 600
- ferrite - 400
200
10-12 10-10 10-8 10-6 10-4 10-2 1 p(bar)
Hemoglobin and Myoglobin
Hemoglobin (abbreviated Hb) is the iron-containing oxygen-
transport metalloprotein in the red blood cells. Hemoglobin in
the blood carries oxygen from the respiratory organs (lungs or gills) to the
rest of the body where it releases the oxygen to burn nutrients to provide
energy to power the functions of the organism, and collects the
resultant carbon dioxide to bring it back to the respiratory organs to be
dispensed from the organism. The hemoglobin molecule can bind & carry
up to four oxygen molecules.
Myoglobin (abbreviated Mb) is an iron-containing and oxygen-
binding protein found in the muscle tissue and it is related to hemoglobin,
which is the iron-containing and oxygen-binding protein in blood.
Myoglobin is a single-chain globular protein of 153 or 154 amino acids,
containing a heme (iron- containing porphyrin) and a mass of about
17,700 g/mol (with heme), and is the primary oxygen-
carrying pigment of muscle tissues. High concentrations of myoglobin in
muscle cells allow organisms to hold their breaths longer. Diving
mammals such as whales and seals have muscles with particularly high
myoglobin abundance.
Heme A Heme B
N N
Fe
N N
A heme consists of an iron ion contained in the center of a large heterocyclic

organic ring called porphyrin. Hemes are components of hemoglobin; they are
also components of other hemoproteins (such as is Myoglobin).
Hb vs. Mb
Hb carry 4 hemes and Mb store 1 heme. Each heme can bind one ligand
(O2, CO, CO2, NO, etc.). H + mL HLm; mHb 2.8-3.0 (max.=4)
Kd = [H][L]m/[HLm]; q = [binding sites occupied]/[total binding sites];
q=[HLm]/([HLm]+[H])==1/(1+Kd/[L]m);
f(x) = 1/(1+a/xm), a(Hb:Mb)2.5:1; m(Hb)2.9; m(Mb)=1
1
q=f(x)
0.75
f(x)=1/(1+1/2.5x) f(x)=1/(1+1/x2.9)
Myoglobin Hemoglobin
-Higher affinity for ligands 0.5 -Lower affinity for ligands
-Good for storage -Bad for storage
-Bad for transport -Good for transport
0.25
[L]=x
0 1
Hemoglobin oxygen binding
H + L HL k1 v1=k1[H][L] [H]=x; [HL]=y; [HL2]=z
HL + L HL2 k2 v2=k2[HL][L] k1=a; k2=b; [L]=c
H: d[H]/dt=-v1 d[H]=-k1[H][L]dt x& = acx
HL: d[HL]/dt=v1-v2 d[HL]=(k1[H][L]- k2[HL][L])dt y& = acx bcy
HL2: d[HL2]/dt=v2 d[HL2]=k2[HL][L]dt z& = bcy
Cases Initial Iterative [HL] 1 + [HL 2 ] 2
m=
#1: a=1<4=b x0=1; y0=0; z0=0; xn+1=xn-act [H ] + [HL] + [HL 2 ]
#2: a=1=1=b c=16 yn+1=yn+(acxn-bcyn)t y 1 + z n 2
#3: a=4>1=b t=0.01 zn+1=zn+bcynt mn = n
m: H saturation with L (simplified case, only 2 ligand sites) x n + yn + zn
m#1/m#2 > 1
1.5 positive
Pick-up
cooperative
binding (a<b)
Transport
m#2/m#2 = 1
1.0
non-cooperative
Release binding (a=b)
m#3/m#2 < 1
time (arbitrary units) negative
0.5 cooperative
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 binding (a>b)
Coenzyme F430 & B12 vitamin
NiC42N6O13H50 CoC63N14O14PH89
(C5H5)M(C5H5) IR spectra (cm-1)
(C5H5)Cr(C5H5) (C5H5)Fe(C5H5) (C5H5)Ni(C5H5) (C5H5)Ru(C5H5 (C5H5)Os(C5H5)
1500 1000 0500 1500 1000 0500 1500 1000 0500 1500 1000 0500 1500 1000 0500
(C5H5)M(C5H5) - molecular modeling & UV-VIS
(C5H5)M(C5H5) properties (Spartan '10, DFT, RBLYP, 6-31G* + LANL2DZ>Kr, Vacuum)
Formula C5H5CrC5H5 C5H5FeC5H5 C5H5NiC5H5 C5H5RuC5H5 C5H5OsC5H5
Energy (a.u.) -1427 -1650 -1891 -481 -478
EHOMO (eV) -8.62 -3.68 -2.50 3.69 8.43
ELUMO (eV) 3.05 -0.86 -0.60 3.86 10.46
(nm) 106 440 653 7293 611
Absorbed light
Visible color
Dipole Moment (debye) 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.05 0.07
Pt. Group D5d D5 D5d D5d D5d
2
Area ( ) 192 180 198 196 195
3
Volume ( ) 171 170 173 174 174
Ovality (dimensionless) 1.29 1.21 1.32 1.30 1.29
Accessible Area (2) 140 133 156 259 283
min(ElPot) (kJ/mol) -118 -92 -143 -329 -460
min(LocIonPot) (kJ/mol) 48.5 34 17.4 2.6 7.1
3
Polarizability ( ) 52.5 54.5 55.0 55.5 55.0
Zero Point Energy (kJ/mol) 473 434 462 427 427
0
S (J/mol, 298.15K) 350.1 348.5 378.9 363.5 368.3
0 0
H , G (a.u., 298.15K) -1427 -1650 -1890 -481 -478
Cv (J/mol, 298.15K) 143.5 156.5 161.9 165.9 166.2
Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir, Pt, Ag, Au - extraction
Finding the orebody and creating access to it
Breaking the orebody and harvesting the ore by mining
Transport the ore to the processing and refining site
Processing
Refractory ore treatment:
M2Sn + nO2 2M + nSO2
Solubilization (leaching):
M(s) + KCN(aq) + O2(air) + H2O K[M(CN)n+1](aq) + KOH
Concentrating:
Adsorption with carbon
C(s)-K[M(CN)n+1](s) K[M(CN)n+1](aq)
Re-solubilization (re-leaching)
Refining (>95%)
Reduction: Mn+(aq) + nH2(g) M(s) + 2nH+(aq)
Solubilization (with aqua regia 3HCl+1HNO3, excepting Ru, Os, Ir):
Ag(s) + M(s) + nH+ + HNO3 AgCl + Mn+ + NO2 + H2O
2Rh3+ + 6NaHSO4 Rh2(SO4)3 + 3Na2SO4 + 6H+
Ru + Os + 8Na2O2 + 2H2O Na2[RuO4(OH)2] + Na2[OsO4(OH)2] + 6Na2O
Iridium is the most corrosion-resistant metal known; Ir + F2 IrF6
Electrolytic refining (>99%)
Platinum Metals Reviews (http://platinummetalsreview.com)
journal (open access)
Patents, January 2012 (Issue 1)
Producing Iridium-Containing Catalysts
Ruthenium-Based Carbene Catalyst
Platinum-Palladium in Exhaust System
Palladium-Bismuth Catalyst
Hydrogen Production Apparatus
Osmium in a Series of Penetrator Rods
Ru, Rh,
Osmium(II) Arene Azo Anticancer Complexes
Palladium-Based Dental Alloy
Pd, Os,
Bridged Ring Metal Complexes for photoconversion
Patents, October 2012 (Issue 4)
Ir, Pt -
Carbon Supported Palladium Catalyst
Ruthenium-Carbene Complexes
uses
Manufacture of Vinyl Chloride
Saccharifi cation of Biomass Materials
Hydrogenation of Vegetable Oil
Lean-Burn Engine Oxidation Catalyst
Oxygen Evolution Catalyst
Os and Ru Analyte Sensor
Novel Platinum Nanoparticles
Manufacturing Osmium Membrane
Copper obtaining and use
Copper can be found as native or combined (as CuS2 - chalcocite,
CuFeS2 - chalcopyrite). Separating Cu from Fe is conducted with silica
(see the image).
Cu2+ are water-soluble, and serves at low concentration as
bacteriostatics, fungicides, and wood preservatives as well as is an
essential trace nutrient to all higher plant and animal life. At high
concentrations are poisonous to higher organisms. The main places
where copper is found in animals are liver, muscle and bone.
Applications of copper includes electrical wires - 60%, roofing and
plumbing (pipes) - 20%, and industrial machinery - 15%. When a higher
hardness is required then are alloyed (5% of total use) in brass and
bronze. A small part is used in production of nutritional supplements and
fungicides in agriculture.
O O O O
O Si O Si O + CuFeS2 + 2O 2 2SO 2 + Cu + O Si O Fe O Si O
O O O O
glass ore heating slag

Copper, Silver, Gold chemical properties
Cu, Ag and Au have positive standard reduction potential, so they do not
react with water and remove hydrogen from hydracids. Noble character
grows from Cu to Au, while for alkali reactivity increases. Chemical
inertness of Au is similar to that of platinoids.
Cu reacts with HNO3 differently depending on concentration (Ag only in
concentrated):
3Cu + 8HNO3 (diluted) 2NO + 3Cu (NO3)2 + 4H2O
Cu + 4HNO3 (concentrated) 2NO2 + Cu (NO3)2 + 2H2O
Cu and Ag reacts with concentrated H2SO4 at heat:
Cu + 2H2SO4 CuSO4 + SO2 + 2H2O
Cu oxidizes slowly in moist air covering herself with a greenish film:
2Cu + H2O + O2 + CO2 CuCO3Cu(OH)2
Au reacts with HNO3 and H2SO4 only in the presence of catalysts (HCl,
MnO2, HIO3)
With halogens: Cu(II), Ag(I), Au(III) + X2 CuX2, AgX, AuX3
Cooper acetate
Copper acetate
adopts the "paddle-
wheel" structure
seen also for Rh(II)
and Cr(II)
tetraacetates.
The uses are as
catalyst or oxidizing
agent in organic
syntheses.
Polymer composite textures design
Cu-S-PNIPAM
Ag2-S-PNIPAM
Cu-S-PNIPAM-MAA
Ag2-S-PNIPAM-MAA
Cu & Ag: metal sulfide-polymer composite microspheres with different textures

P=poly; NIPAM-MAA=N-isopropylacrylamide-co-methacrylic acid
Chlorophyll [Fe4S4]-ferredoxins
N
S Fe S
N Mg N 3 S Fe S
S Fe S
S Fe S
N

Fe, Cu, Mg Light to chemical energy
biological role
N N
6 N Fe N S Cu S
N N
Plastocyanin
Cytochrome f
Silver - uses
AgCdO is withstand arcing and is used in high-voltage
contacts. Small devices, such as hearing aids and watches,
use AgO batteries (long life & high energy-to-weight ratio).
Another usage is high-capacity Ag-Zn and Ag-Cd batteries.
By sputtering along with other optically transparent layers,
silver is applied to glass (layer of 10-15 nm thick), creating
low emissivity coatings used in high-performance insulated
glazing. Solar reflectors may use Ag as the reflective coating.
Ag readily absorbs free neutrons and is used to make control
rods regulating the fission chain reaction in nuclear reactors,
as an alloy (80% Ag, 15% In, 5% Cd).
Silver ions and silver compounds show a toxic effect on
some bacteria, viruses, algae and fungi, but without the high
toxicity to humans which gives a wide range of medical
applications.
Gold - uses
As gold is a good reflector of electromagnetic radiation such as infrared
and visible light as well as radio waves and can be manufactured so thin
that it appears transparent.
Therefore it is used in some aircraft cockpit windows for de-icing or anti-
icing by passing electricity through it, for the protective coatings on many
artificial satellites, in infrared protective faceplates in thermal protection
suits and astronauts helmets. Gold is used as the reflective layer on
some high-end CDs and automobiles may use gold for heat shielding
(such as in the engine compartment).
Some gold salts do have anti-inflammatory properties and are used as
pharmaceuticals in the treatment of arthritis and other similar conditions.
Gold based injections have been explored as a means to help to reduce
the pain and swelling of rheumatoid arthritis and tuberculosis.
Gold alloys are used in restorative dentistry, especially in tooth
restorations, such as crowns and permanent bridges. The gold alloys
slight malleability facilitates the creation of a superior molar mating
surface with other teeth and produces results that are generally more
satisfactory than those produced by the creation of porcelain crowns.
Zinc, Cadmium, Mercury, Copernicium
(M=Zn, Cd):
M + 2HX MX2 + H2
2M + O2 (tC) 2MO
Zn + NaOH + H2O Na2[Zn(OH)4] + H2
Hg:
3Hg + 8HNO3(conc) = 3Hg(NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O
Hg + 2H2SO4 = HgSO4 + SO2 + 2H2O
2Hg + O2 (0-400C) 2HgO
2HgO (t>400C) 2Hg + O2
Copernicium synthesis
82Pb + 30Zn 112Cn

Zn, Cd properties
Zinc is a bluish gray metal, which tarnishes in air, covering it with a
protective layer of oxide. It is quite brittle at ordinary temperatures but
becomes malleable at 100-150C, it can be pulled sheets, but above
200C becomes brittle again.
Cadmium is similar to zinc, it differ in melting point (lower than cadmium).
It begins to sublime at 160 C. Reactivity is lower than cadmium zinc.
Cadmium has a good capacity to alloying.
Mercury is liquid at room temperature and emits vapor even at this
temperature. Liquid mercury has a considerable vapor pressure at room
temperature, therefore its surface should be protected, (with toluene) to
avoid toxic fumes issue. Surprisingly, Hg is soluble both in polar solvents
and non-polar (a saturated solution of Hg in water contains 610-8 gHg/g).
Mercury has the ability to form alloys with many metals, called amalgams.
The easiest is amalgamates Na, K, Ag and Au, something harder Zn, Cd,
Sn, Pb, Cu. Not amalgamate Mn, Fe, Co and Ni, so iron is used for
making containers for mercury. Amalgamation is by simple mixing of cold
metal.
Zn, Cd, Hg - uses
Zinc is produced in large quantities world production over 7 million tons /
year and are mainly used to protect iron from corrosion. This can be done
by plating (electroplating cover) by immersion in molten zinc metal (so-
called "hot galvanizing"), or zinc powder coating and heating. Large
quantities of zinc is used as sheet ("galvanized"). Use more objects cast
zinc. Zinc alloys are also widely used, most notably brass (Cu-Zn with 20-
50% Zn alloy). Electrodes of dry batteries are made of zinc. Of zinc
compounds, zinc oxide, ZnO (zinc white) is used more as a pigment and
zinc chloride, ZnCl2, for treating textiles and cleaning metal surfaces
(metal oxides dissolve).
Cadmium is mainly used to protect steel against corrosion by galvanized.
It is also used as a neutron absorber in nuclear reactors, batteries (Ni-
Cd). With low melting point, cadmium uses for solders and fuses. CdS is
a major yellow pigment used in painting.
Mercury is used in the largest quantity as electrode in electrolytic cells for
the production of NaOH and chlorine. It is also used in mercury vapor
lamps in meters (thermometers, manometers), and in the extraction of
precious metals (gold and silver). Organic-mercury compounds have
fungicidal activity and is used in agriculture, being very toxic.
Cd, Hg - biochemistry
While zinc is an important element for life, its congeners, Cd and Hg, are
highly toxic. The main sources of cadmium zinc are their melts, from
where cadmium gases can escape. By ingesting cadmium are
accumulated in the kidneys causing its disorder and also can replace Zn
in enzymes and preventing their function.
Mercury combinations are considered among the most toxic minerals.
Mercury vapors are toxic causing dizziness and disorders of the brain
and/or lungs. Mercury is cumulative poison and having no biological role,
no clearance mechanism in the body. It has both local corrosive action
(the mouth, intestine, kidney) and general toxic action. The most
important industrial sources of mercury are toxic acetaldehyde and vinyl
chloride (monomer to manufacture PVC) factories, where Hg compounds
are used as catalysts as well as on production of electrolytic NaOH and
Cl2, where the mercury use as cathodes.
A greater toxicity are organic combinations of metallic mercury (alkyl and
aryl mercury compounds).
Mercury accumulation
Eagle
2
310 ppm
Pike
5100 ppm
Minnow
100 ppm
Plankton
510-2 ppm
Water
10-4 ppm
Chemical elements in human body
Rank % Elemental composition by mass
1 O 65 9.5 Cl 0.15 19 Br 2.9E-4 28 As 2.6E-5 37 Sb 1.1E-5
2 C 18 11 Mg 0.05 20 Pb 1.7E-4 29 Sn 2.4E-5 38 Li 3E-6
3 H 10 12 Fe 6.0E-3 21 Nb 1.6E-4 30.5 Se 1.9E-5 40 Co 2E-6
4 N 3 13 F 3.7E-3 22 Cu 1.0E-4 30.5 Hg 1.9E-5 40 Cr 2E-6
5 Ca 1.4 14 Zn 3.2E-3 23 Al 8.7E-5 32 Mn 1.7E-5 40 Cs 2E-6
6 P 1.1 15 Si 2.0E-3 24 Cd 7.2E-5 33 I 1.6E-5 42 Ag 1E-6
7.5 S 0.25 16 Zr 6.0E-4 25 B 6.9E-5 34 Ni 1.4E-5
7.5 K 0.25 17.5 Sr 4.6E-4 26 Ce 5.7E-5 35.5 Ti 1.3E-5
9.5 Na 0.15 17.5 Rb 4.6E-4 27 Ba 3.1E-5 35.5 Mo 1.3E-5
Rank % Elemental composition by atoms number
1 H 63 10 Cl 0.024 19 Al 1.5E-5 28 Ba 1.2E-6 37.5 Cr 9E-8
2 O 24 11 Mg 0.007 20 Cu 1.0E-5 29 I 8E-7 37.5 As 9E-8
3 C 12 12 Si 5.8E-3 21.5 Pb 4.5E-6 30 Sn 6E-7 37.5 Sb 9E-8
4 N 0.58 13 F 1.2E-3 21.5 Cd 4.5E-6 31 Ce 4E-7 40.5 Se 5E-8
5 Ca 0.24 14 Fe 6.7E-4 23 B 3.0E-6 33 Zr 3E-7 40.5 Mo 5E-8
6 P 0.14 15 Zn 3.1E-4 24 Nb 1.7E-6 33 Ti 3E-7 42 Ag 9E-9
7 S 0.038 16.5 Sr 3.3E-5 26 Ni 1.5E-6 33 Co 3E-7
8 Na 0.037 16.5 Rb 3.3E-5 26 Mn 1.5E-6 35 Cs 1E-7
9 K 0.033 18 Br 3.0E-5 26 Li 1.5E-6 37.5 Hg 9E-8
Metal containing enzymes
Enzymes\Element Ca Na K Mg Fe Zn Sr Rb Al Cu Pb Cd Nb Ni Mn
Hydrolases 2752 1265 231 1437 184 2451 9 9 0 30 7 99 0 148 429
Transferases 593 553 213 1762 9 896 6 0 0 11 7 59 0 59 368
Oxidoreductases 545 413 217 394 412 758 6 0 0 473 5 41 0 105 203
Lyases 168 348 108 498 27 747 1 1 0 8 2 10 0 23 121
Ligases 36 35 25 263 0 327 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 18 51
Isomerases 47 90 14 203 7 87 0 0 3 1 1 8 0 19 117
The Research Collaboratory for Structural Bioinformatics (RSCB), www.rcsb.org
Query on December 27, 2012
See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_enzymes for their role

Single linkage tree diagram for 10 elements based on their occurence in enzymes
"1-Pearson r" distances (data from www.rscb.org on December 27, 2012)
Ca
Na
Zn
Cd
Mn
Mg
Ni
Fe
Cu
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30

Tree diagram for metal containing enzymes
"1-Pearson r" single linkage distances (www.rscb.org, Dec 27, 2012)
Hydrolases
Oxidoreductases
Transferases
Isomerases
Lyases
Ligases
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30

Course 9
f block
Lanthanoids and actinoids - separating
Because almost perfect likeness of the chemical and
electrochemical properties, lanthanides and actinides
separation, one by one, pure, is very difficult. Earliest
attempts were based on separation by fractional
crystallization of double salts of nitrates, hydroxides or
decomposition of fractional oxalate - these processes were
long and about 20,000 operations required to obtain pure
samples from a single element. Today, the separation is
made easier due to the emergence of ion exchangers. Thus,
a column of cathion, RH, apply a solution consisting of a
mixture of salts of all lanthanides. Heavier ions are less bulky
stronger will be complexed by citrate ion and will spend a
period of time in solution and obviously, a shorter phase
resin. In other words, less bulky ions will migrate faster along
the column, coming first in the column.
Sample: mixture of lanthanoids and actinoids
Problems: Pressure control
Similar mass
Similar charge
Resin column
Sample
+
Eluent Temperature control
-
Separating
lanthanoids
and actinoids On-line spectra
analyzer with
separating control
Solution:
Process Eluent: Alcohol + HCl/HNO3 mixture
optimization Resin: alternate copolymer of phenylene and
substituted pyridine rings
Mass spectrometry
R C
S
P
E B
N
+
U
Applying an electric potential U can create a flow of positive ions to the negatively
charged electrode and a flow of electrons to positively charged electrode, the flow of
positive ions is passed through a region of magnetic field B and suffer deviations from
the straight path, the screen photosensitive C positive electrical charge carriers are
separated according to the ratio m/q where m is the mass and q is the charge of the
wearer. The method used to determine the quantitative composition of samples.
Mobile phase (eluent) optimization
HNO3:H2O:CH3OH 1:0:9 4:0:6 3:5:2
Lu Yb Tm Y Er Ho Dy Tb Gd Eu Sm Nd Pr Ce La
0.9
0.7
0.5
0.3
0.1
60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540 600 660
Lanthanoids chemical properties
LnX 3
Ln2S3 LnH 2
S2 X2
H2
N2 O2 Ln2O3
LnN Ln
(CeO2 - exc.)
H2O acizi-H +
CO2 La3+ + H2
Ln(OH) 3 + H2
Ln2(CO3)3 + H2
Las & Acs thermodynamic properties
Symbol La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Z 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
6s 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
4f 0 1 3 4 5 6 7 7 9 10 11 12 13 14 14
5d 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Radius CN=6 (pm) 103 101 99 98 97 96 95 94 92 91 90 89 88 87 86
Radius CN=8 (pm) 122 120 118 116 114 113 112 111 110 108 107 106 105 104 103
Hsub (kJ/mol) 431 420 357 327 318 207 177 398 389 290 301 312 232 156 428
Gsub (kJ/mol) 323 318 257 227 157 108 81 288 277 188 198 215 134 61 313
MM3+ (kJ/mol) 34563530363337013709387140363749 3802389938233934404541943887
Symbol U Np Pu Am Cm
Z 92 93 94 95 96
6s 2 2 2 2 2
4f 3 4 6 7 7
5d 1 1 0 0 1
Radius CN=6 (pm) 103 101 100 98 96
Radius CN=8 (pm) 116 114 112 111 109
Hsub (kJ/mol) 531 465 343 284 387
Gsub (kJ/mol) 425 358 237 178 281
3+
MM (kJ/mol) 36273702376938473774
Ln3+ 4fn ground level colour g [J(J+1)]1/2 obs
Ce 1 2F
5/2 colourless 2.54 2.3-2.5
Pr 2 3H
4 green 3.58 3.4-3.6
Nd 3 4I
9/2 lilc 3.62 3.5-3.6
Pm 4 5I
4 pink 2.68 -
Sm 5 6H
5/2 yellow 0.85 1.4-1.7
Eu 6 7F
0 pale pink 0 3.3-3.5
Gd 7 8S
7/2 colourless 7.94 7.9-8.0
Tb 8 7F
6 pale pink 9.72 9.5-9.8
Dy 9 6H
15/2 yellow 10.65 10.4-10.6
Ho 10 5I
8 yellow 10.6 10.4-10.7
Er 11 4I
15/2 rose-pink 9.58 9.4-9.6
Tm 12 3H
6 pale green 7.56 7.1-7.5
Yb 13 2F
7/2 colourless 4.54 4.3-4.9
Lu 14 1S
0 colourless 0 0
Lanthanides apps
Superconductors: LaO1-xFxFeAs become superconductor at
T ranging from 26K to 43K(at 4GPa); SmO1-xFxFeAs at 55K;
most of the discovered superconductors are copper-based;
Strong permanent magnets: SmCo5, ~150 kJ/m3 (maximum
energy density); Sm2Co17, ~160 kJ/m3; Nd2Fe14B, ~270
kJ/m3; comparing: SrFe, ~35 kJ/m3; AlNiCo HDD (812%
Al, 1526% Ni, 524% Co, up to 6% Cu, up to 1% Ti, Fe is
the rest) ~ 35 kJ/m3;
Optoelectronics: the incorporation of Eu3+ & Dy3+ ions to
heavy metal glass materials increases red & yellow/blue
luminescence;
Tunable microwave resonators: (x)A1/2Ln1/2TiO3(1-
x)NaNbO3 (A = Na, Li; Ln = La, Nd, Sm) tunable as
microwave resonators through changing the values of x;
X-ray screens, neutron detectors, alpha particle scintillators;
for X, n0, & detectors: Gd2O2S:Ln, Ln = Tb - green (peak
at 545 nm), Ln = Eu - red (627 nm), Ln = Pr - green (513
nm)
Rare-earth magnets
NdFeB strong permanent magnets
Nd2Fe14B Remanence Coercivity Intrinsic H BH max t max Comparison
(std) (Br, T) HcB (kA/m) HcJ (kA/m) kJ/m3 C Magnet kA/m T
N35 1.17-1.21 868 955 263-287 80 BaFe12O19 360 0.4
N38 1.21-1.25 899 955 287-310 80 Co10Fe7Ni4Ti2CuAl 50-150 0.6
N40 1.25-1.28 923 955 302-326 80 Fe50Ni10Al2Nb 50 1.2
N42 1.28-1.32 923 955 318-342 80 MnBi 370 0.5
N45 1.32-1.38 876 955 332-366 80 Ce(CuCo)5 450 0.7
N48 1.38-1.42 835 876 366-396 80 SmCo5 1000 0.8
N50 1.38-1.45 835 876 374-406 80 Sm2Co17 600 1.1
N52 1.44-1.48 836 876 390-422 80 Nd2Fe14B 1100 1.2
N35M 1.17-1.21 868 1114 263-287 100
N38M 1.21-1.25 899 1114 287-310 100
N40M 1.25-1.28 923 1114 302-326 100
N42M 1.28-1.32 963 1114 318-342 100
N45M 1.32-1.38 995 1114 332-366 100
N48M 1.37-1.42 1018 1114 358-390 100
N50M 1.40-1.45 1042 1114 374-406 100
N28AH 1.04-1.10 772 2786 207-231 220
N30AH 1.08-1.17 812 2786 223-255 220
N33AH 1.14-1.22 851 2786 247-279 220
N35AH 1.17-1.25 876 2786 263-295 220
Magnetic levitation apps
S EM S EM N EM N
N N S N S N S S
S N S N S N
S N S N S N
Car Max. Speed Weight Load Magnets Power supply

"MagneMotion" 160 km/h 5000 kg 2000 kg (40%) PM & EM 480V AC
"MagLev GA" 160 km/h 11350 kg 5250 kg (46%) PM 600V DC
"CDOT 200" 160 km/h 25370 kg 12172 kg (48%) EM 3000V DC
http://www.fta.dot.gov/documents/FTA_LowSpeedMaglev_LessonsLearned.pdf
Diceric human lactoferrin
UF4 separating of 235U and
238U isotopes
UH 3 UO 2
500oC
HF C2Cl4F2
H2O
UF 4 UF 4.nH2O (n=1,2,5)
F2 +Q
100oC
Al 900oC
UF 5 H2 F2
F2 ClF 3 UF 3
+Q
UF 6 Na3UF 6
3NaF
U extraction
In the dry process, uranium oxide concentrates are first
calcined (heated strongly) to drive off some impurities,
then agglomerated and crushed. For the wet process,
the concentrate is dissolved in HNO3. The resulting
solution of UO2(NO3)26H2O is fed into a countercurrent
solvent extraction process, using tributyl phosphate
dissolved in kerosene or dodecane. The uranium is
collected by the organic extractant, from which it can be
washed out by diluted HNO3 and then concentrated by
evaporation. The solution is then calcined in a fluidised
bed reactor to produce UO3.
Purified U3O8 from the dry process and UO3 from the wet
process are then reduced in a kiln by hydrogen to UO2:
U3O8 + 2H2 3UO2 + 2H2O & UO3 + H2 UO2 + H2O
This reduced oxide is then reacted in another kiln with
HF to UF4: UO2 + 4HF UF4 + 2H2O
The UF4 is then fed into a fluidised bed reactor or flame
tower with F2(g) to produce UF6: UF4 + F2 UF6
235U enrichment
UF6
UF6 is passed through a porous

barrier material; the lighter 235
molecules containing 235U penetrate UF6
the barrier slightly more rapidly, and
with enough stages significant
separation can be accomplished
Actinides apps: nuclear power
Concrete Reactor feeding control
UO2 D2O; absorbs neutrons
H2O vapors; heat transfer
Electrical power
Tanks
Heating
Steel
H2O; heat transfer

WC; reflect neutrons
BeO; absorbs neutrons
Chain reaction control
Radiochemistry
http://l.academicdirect.org/Education/Training/Geiger/test2/
144
10 1 86 Li
1) B + n ->
5 0 + 42He + 28MeV
235 216
1 236 1 7 Tl
2) 92 U + n -> 0 92 U -> 3( n) + 0 + 8936Kr + 177MeV
4
224 220 2 n
3) 88 Ra -> 86 Rn +
1
220 2
4) 86 Rn -> + 21684Po
234
6 Pa
5) -> 147N + 0-1e
4
14 2 He
6) C ->6 + 147N
212
212 0 81 Rn
7) 83 Bi -> -1 e+
236
8) 92 U -> 23490Th + 42He + 00
1
90 90 -1
9) 38 Sr -> 39 Y+ + 00
220
84 Tl
10) -> 23491Pa + 00
Radiations
radiations He2+;
radiations e- (-; positrons, +);
radiations electromagnetic (such is the light),
with much smaller than X rays;

Pb shirt N
F
239
Pu + v
S
B
Cyclotron
Ca2+
B
~
f (Hz) Ca20+
+
U (V)
-
Fission & fusion
1 4 22 n+
0n 2He 10Ne 41 0 n
21 18
10Ne 8O
249 267
97Bk 107Bh
4
2He
2 1
1H 0n
240 236 3 4
94Pu 92U 1H 2He
Fission Fusion
Crystallography
In the growth of a crystal particles are arranged in rows and
orderly and symmetrical networks. The shortest distance
between corresponding points of an infinite sequence is
called shifting the shortest or fundamental translation. In the
crystal structure, it is the distance between atoms.
Strings, flat networks and three-dimensional networks are
considered infinite. In most crystals, the distance between
atoms is 3-5 and in only 1 mm3 volume is then about 1021
particles, which provides practical infinity assumption.
Considering a linear displacement of a point (source) until
observable and measurable properties of that point are again
the same (destination) get a basic translation. One of the
features of a basic shift is that it is the lowest point translation
that makes repeating properties. Constant movement is
usually marked with a.
Crystalline nets
Structure of halite (NaCl)
model scheme
Elementary cells
A pair of elementary translations nonparallel iteration
scheme defines homologous points in a plane. A 3-
necoplanar basic translation of the first 2 generates a
three-dimensional network of homologous points.
Constants of the 3 basic movements usually is denoted
a1, a2 and a3. Parallelepiped of elementary translations
(a1, a2, a3) form the basic cell, (a1, a2, a3) = (a, b, c).
Z
c
b
a Y

X
Chemical formula vs. crystal structure
Reds: (nx-1)(ny-1)(nz-1)
z
x Blacks: nxnynz
y Ratio: (1-nx-1)(1-ny-1)(1-nz-1) 1
Polyhedra Polyhedra count for given
number of vertices (or faces)
4 1 9 2606 14 1496225352
5 2 10 32300 15 23833988129
6 7 11 440564 16 387591510244
7 34 12 6384634 17 6415851530241
8 257 13 96262938 18 107854282197058
Polyhedra count for given number of edges
6 1 12 12 18 4199 24 5623571 30 10204782956
7 0 13 22 19 13384 25 19358410 31 36249143676
8 1 14 58 20 43708 26 67078828 32 129267865144
9 2 15 158 21 144810 27 233800162 33 462669746182
10 2 16 448 22 485704 28 819267086 34 1661652306539
11 4 17 1342 23 1645576 29 2884908430 35 5986979643542
Counting Polyhedra, Grard P. Michon & Stuart E. Anderson, 2000-

2001, upd. 2002 http://home.att.net/~numericana/data/polycount.htm
Polyhedra count depending on vertices
and faces number
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
4 1
5 11
edges = 6 12 2 2
vertices +
7 2 8 11 8 5
faces - 2
8 2 11 42 74 76 38
9 8 74 296 633 768
10 5 76 633 2635 6134
11 38 768 6134 25626
Polihedra (1)
Polihedra (2)
Polihedra (3)
Course 10
Boron group
Carbon group
p block
p1 p2 p3 p4 p5 p6
2 B C N O F Ne
3 Al Si P S Cl Ar
4 Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
5 In Sn Sb Te I Xe
6 Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
- 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6
e ns np ns np ns np ns np ns np ns np
Boron
Crystalline structure: a structure repeating a icosahedra
(12 vertices and 20 faces); 7 allotropic forms, binding
different the icosahedra;
Natural state: Clark: 510-3%. Its presence is essential to
plant growing; minerals: borax Na2B4O710H2O, kernite
Na2B4O74H2O, borocalcite CaB4O74H2O and colemanite
Ca2B6O115H2O
Obtaining: Na2B4O7 HClNaCl H3BO3 QH2O B2O3 MgMgO B -
a brown amorphous solid solution of boron and boron oxide
are obtained. High purity boron are obtained from electrolysis
of kalium tetrafluoroborate KBF4 or thermal decomposition of
diborane: B2H6 Q 2B + 3H2
Purification: procedure Van Arkel de Boer:
B + I2 Q BI3 Q B + I2
Aluminum
Crystalline structure: metal, hexagonal-compact;
Natural state: Clark: 7.45%; many minerals; bauxite,
AlO(OH) industrial way to obtain aluminum; corindon,
Al2O3 and its colored varieties (due to ions impurities): rubine
(Cr), saphire (Ti), topaz (Ni); hydrargilite Al(OH)3; spinel
MgAl2O4; criolite Na3[AlF6];
Obtaining electrolytic:
CO2
Graphite
CO2
Al2O3
ZrC
+
Al
Graphite 5V
Steel -
Obtaining of alumina (Al2O3)
Bauxite
NaOH H2O (grinded and calcined) Mud (Fe2O3, SiO2, TiO2)
NaOH Alkaline decomposition Decantation and filtration

40% (3-5 atm, 160-180C)
Cooling, dilution and Sodium aluminate
Filtration treatment with CO2 Na+ + [Al(OH)4(H2O)2]-
Al(OH)3 Calcination (1200C) -Al2O3

Boron and aluminum chemical properties
AlX3
AlO2- + H2 or
[Al(OH)4(H2 O)2 ]- + H2 BX3
X2 Al2 O3
HBO2- + H2 B2O3
alkali O2
X2
HCl N2 alkali O2
AlCl3 + H2 Al AlN
HNO3 N2
Oxides S H3BO3 + NO B BN
C
Metals Al2S3 P4O10 S
(Aluminothermy)
C
Al4 C3
P4+B2O3 B2 S3
B4C
Boron and aluminum physical properties
Property B Al
I.P.(1), eV 8.30 5.95
I.P.(2), eV 25.15 18.82
I.P.(3), eV 37.92 28.44
0M3+/M (V) -0.73 -1.67
(g/cm3) 2.4 2.7
M.p. (C) 2300 660
B.p. (C) 2550 2500
Atomic radius (pm) 90 143
Covalent radius (pm) 843 1214
Van der Waals radius (pm) 192 184
Boron and aluminum - uses
Boron: uses as alloying element in steels (giving a
increasing of impact resistance); in alloys provide hardness
and corrosion resistance; metal borides have good
mechanical and chemical properties; in nuclear plants is
used to control fission neutrons energy;
Aluminum: after iron most used element; cheep, light,
corrosion resistant, keeps in time its properties, may be can
be drawn into sheets and wires, good thermal conductivity; at
relative to the density is the best electrical conductor;
From aluminum light and mechanical resistant alloys are
designed and used in constructions and vehicles. Have good
alloying properties with iron, silicium, magnesium, copper
and zinc.
Boron and aluminum complex combinations
Al Ga R
O O C O
CH (-) CH
B HC Al
CH O O CH N
O C O
R
Al/3 3
Boron likely provide tetra-covalent combinations; have a
series of di-hydroxyl and poly-hydroxyl combinations such as
glycerol or mannitol (6 -OH); Aluminum provides complexes
with -di-ketones;
Borazole B3N3H6 named inorganic benzene:
3LiBH4 + 3NH4Cl B3N3H6 + 3LiCl + 12H2
Boron nitride BN some of its allotropes possess
properties diamond-like;
Ga, In, Tl chemical properties
EX3 TlX, TlX3
X2 Alloy X2
E2S3 EN Tl2O3
S NH3 M O2
Ga,In Tl
S
O2
H2SO4 H2SO4 Tl2S3
H2O
Tl2SO4
E2(SO4)3 E2O3
Ga, In, Tl physical properties
Property Ga In Tl
I.P.(1), eV 6.0 5.8 6.1
I.P.(2), eV 20.4 18.8 20.3
I.P.(3), eV 30.6 27.9 29.7
0M3+/M (V) -0.52 -0.34 0.72
0M+/M (V) - -0.25 -0.34
(g/cm3) 5.93 7.29 11.85
M.p. (C) 29.8 156 449
B.p. (C) 2070 2100 1390
Atomic radius (pm) 135 167 170
Covalent radius (pm) 1223 1425 1457
Van der Waals radius (pm) 187 193 196
Ga, In, Tl - uses
Galium: obtaining low-melting alloys used as electrical fuses.
Being non-toxic and melting down, it also serves as heat
transfer medium in nuclear industry heat exchangers as
liquid thermometers for high temperatures and as a means of
vacuum sealing technique. Also used to obtain compound
semiconductors GaAs and GaP.
Indium: have the property to reflect most of the visible
spectra very useful for mirrors in this range. Production of
alloys for bearings (self-lubricating eg, In-Pb), some power of
reflection mirrors (similar to Ag, but more resistant to
corrosion).
Talium: obtaining special bottles, increasing the refractive
index of the glass or the manufacture of catalysts.
Group 13. Chemical bonds
Group 13 gives compounds
with covalent bonds MX3 (M X X
= B, Al, ) which are
deficient in electrons are M X M X
not quite stable and
stabilization occurs through X X
electrons transfer from inside
or outside of the molecule. If
the electrons comes from X X
atoms of same type, it results
dimers or polymers; if comes M X M X
from atoms of other type then
donor-acceptor compounds X X
are obtained and have Td or
Oh symmetry.
Coordinative compounds and dimers
H
H F
H B H
H N B F
H B H
H F
H
Br Cl
Br Ga Br Cl Al Cl
Br Ga Br Cl Al Cl
Br Cl
Group 14. Physical properties
Element Covalent radius Oxidation Electronegativity M.p. B.p.

(nm) state (Pauling) K K
C 7.7 -IV, II, IV 2.55 3800 4300
Si 11.7 - IV, IV 1.90 1687 3173
Ge 12.2 - IV, II, IV 2.01 1211 3093
Sn 14.0 - IV, II, IV 1.96 505 2875
Pb 14.6 - IV, II, IV 2.33 601 2022
Group 14: Bond lengths
Bond Length (pm) Bond Length (pm) Bond Length (pm)

NN 110 F-H 92 C-H 109
CN 116 O-H 96 Si-H 148
CC 120 N-H 101 Ge-H 153
C=O 123 C-H 109 C-O 143
C=N 128 F-C 135 Si-O 163
C=C 134 O-C 143 Ge-O 173
C-O 143 N-C 147 C-Si 186
N-N 145 C-C 154 Si-Si 326
C-N 147
O-O 148
C-C 154
Carbon allotropes
Natural
Amorphous
Graphite
Cubic diamond
Synthetic
Polyyne (-CC- polymer)
Graphene (single layer of graphite)
Hexagonal diamond (also found in meteorites)
Fullerenes (pentagons and hexagons of carbon atoms)
Nanotubes (hexagons of carbon atoms)
Carbon nanofoam (hexagons and heptagons of carbon
atoms)
Glassy carbon (spatial disordered hexagons of carbon
atoms)
Graphene & Polyyne
Diamond: cubic & hexagonal
Diamond: close-packed
hexagonal close-packed cubic close-packed (ccp)
(hcp)
Hexagonal diamond Cubic diamond; Platinum
("Lonsdaleite") face-centered cubic (fcc)
Carbon and oxygen
It forms a series of gaseous components with the oxygen: carbon
monoxide, C=O, carbon dioxide, O=C=O, carbon suboxide, O=C=C=O,
tricarbon dioxide O=C=C=C=O, and tetracarbon dioxide
O=C=C=C=C=O. It has also been obtained by flash vapor pyrolysis of
2,4,6-tris(diazo)cyclohexane-1,3,5-trione (C6N6O3) the pentacarbon
dioxide O=C=C=C=C=C=O which is stable up to -96 C, when it
polymerizes. Other non-linear molecules are depicted:
O O O
O O
C C O C
O O
O O O C O
O
C O O
O O O O
C C C C
O O O O O O O
Boron Carbide is one of the hardest materials known,
ranking third behind diamond and boron nitride. It is the
hardest material produced in tonnage quantities. It has no
clear repetitive structure. It have a ratio Boron:Carbon
varying from 23:2 to 19:6. Below are given two possible
arrangements in which a part of boron atoms are replaced
by carbon atoms.
B:C B:C
12:0 18:0
11:1 16:2
10:2 14:4
Boron nitride
Hexagonal form is a good lubricant
Cubic close-packed form is thermal and Hexagonal
chemical stable; hardness inferior only
to diamond
Hexagonal close-packed has never
been synthesized but is likely to be
harder than the cubic close-packed form
Cubic close-packed Hexagonal close-packed

Silica polymerization
Quartz
Glass
6
4, 6
4, 6, 10
Zeolites
5, 8 4, 8 4, 6, 12
Zeolites formation
Si4O8 NaAlSi3O8H2O
Zeolites have the ability to act as
Zeolites uses
catalysts for chemical reactions which
take place within the internal cavities. An
important class of reactions is that
catalysed by hydrogen-exchanged
zeolites, whose framework-bound protons
give rise to very high acidity. This is
exploited in many organic reactions,
including crude oil cracking, isomerisation
and fuel synthesis.
Because of their unique porous properties, zeolites are used

in a variety of applications with a global market of several
milliion tonnes per annum. In the western world, major uses
are in petrochemical cracking, ion-exchange (water softening
and purification), and in the separation and removal of gases
and solvents. Other applications are in agriculture, animal
husbandry and construction. They are often also referred to
as molecular sieves.
Zeolites Adsorption & Separation
The shape-selective properties of zeolites are also the basis for their use
in molecular adsorption. The ability preferentially to adsorb certain
molecules, while excluding others, has opened up a wide range of
molecular sieving applications. Sometimes it is simply a matter of the size
and shape of pores controlling access into the zeolite. In other cases
different types of molecule enter the zeolite, but some diffuse through the
channels more quickly, leaving others stuck behind, as in the purification
of para-xylene by silicalite.
This is exploited in a major way in water softening, where alkali metals
such as sodium or potassium prefer to exchange out of the zeolite, being
replaced by the "hard" calcium and magnesium ions from the water. Many
commercial washing powders thus contain substantial amounts of zeolite.
Commercial waste water containing heavy metals, and nuclear effluents
containing radioactive isotopes can also be cleaned up using such
zeolites.
Ca2+, Mg2+,
Ion exchangers Na+, K+, H+
Polystyrene sulfonate
Zeolites can also serve as
oxidation or reduction O
catalysts, often after S O
-
K+
metals have been O
introduced into the O
framework. Examples are S O
-
the use of titanium ZSM-5
O Ca2+
in the production of O
caprolactam, and copper -
S O
zeolites in NOx
decomposition. O
Silica copolymerization
(C,H,N,O,S,P)
O Si O + 3H (C,H,N,O,S,P)
HO Si (C,H,N,O,S,P) + OH2
(C,H,N,O,S,P)
Silica powder Organics
Organic-silica compounds Water
(SiO2) (possibly polymer)
(C,H,N,O,S,P)
O Si O Si O + OH2
2O Si O + 2H (C,H,N,O,S,P)
(C,H,N,O,S,P)
Organic-silica compounds contains Si-C bonds. In well controlled conditions,
are obtained cyclosiloxanes (rings with 3-6 Si atoms, which oxidants used
in waterproofing of buildings, cars, and shoes).
Silicones are compounds with special properties, well valuable in technique
and include silicone oil, grease, rubber, resin, and caulk.
Comparing it with organic polymers the silicones have better thermal
stability it can be used in warm environments. It have chemical inertia
resisting to oxidation, to water and wide range of chemical agents.
CH3 CH3 CH3 Silicones O Si CH3 CH3
CH3 Si O Si O Si CH3 CH3 Si O Si O Si CH3
CH3 CH3 CH3 O Si CH3 CH3
n CH3 CH3 n
(H3C)3SiO Si O Si O Si(CH3)3
CH3 C20H61
a b
With 20n500 & C/Si>2 are silicone oils. Apps include lubricants,
dielectrics, hydraulic liquids. See for instance US Patent no. 8355209 /
Jan. 15, 2013.
With 900n2000 & C/Si>2 are silicone greases, used as lubricants too.
See for instance US Patent no. 8017684 / Sept. 13, 2011.
With 6000n60000 & C/Si~2 are silicone rubbers. See for instance US
Patent no. 8344067 B2 / Jan. 1, 2013.
With C/Si<2 are silicone resins (bakelite-like). See for instance US
Patent no. 8334022 / Dec. 18, 2012.
Copolymers with about 1% long organic chains are silicone caulks. See
for instance US Patent no. 5783719 / Jul. 21, 1998.
Ge, Sn, Pb chemical properties
MX4, MX2 MH4

X2 H2
GeO2
MS2 S O2
MS Ge, Sn Pb SnO2
PbO
C2H5Cl HNO3
HCl
Pb(C2H5)4 GeO2, H2SnO3, Pb(NO 3)2
GeCl4, SnCl4, H2[PbCl4]
Course 11
Organic chemistry
Hardness & hard materials
Alkanes Gauche g-
General structure
R H
Functional group
+
None
Example
CH3CH2CH2CH3
Name
n-Butane +
n-Butane isomers Anti
Rotamers:
"Gauche g-"
"Gauche g+"
Conformer:
"Anti" +
Gauche g+
Alkanes structural formula isomers
n = 1; CH4 1 (CH4)
n=2; C2H6 1 (CH3-CH3)
n=3; C3H8 1 (CH3-CH2-CH3)
n=4; C4H10 2 (butane (3 geometry isomers) & 2-methyl-propane)
n=5; C5H12 3
n=6; C6H14 5
n=7; C7H16 9
n=8; C8H18 18
n=9; C9H20 35
In general? Hard problem see Open Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences

http://oeis.org
n OEIS: A000602 (http://oeis.org/A000602)
A000602=A000022+A000200 (n>0)
A000602, A000022, A000200: No explicit formula!
A000602, A000022, A000200: No explicit recurrence formula!
Substituted alkanes
General structure Example
R G CH3HgCH3; CH3CdCH3
Functional group Name
G dimethylmercury; dimethylcadmium;
Example Remarks:
CH3HgA; CH3CdA; A=anion CH3HgCH3 is one of the strongest
known neurotoxins;
CH3CdCH3 is toxic too
Name Example
"A"-methylmercury; "A"- CH3ZnCH3
methylcadmium;
Remarks: Remarks:
[CH3Hg]+ is a bioaccumulative CH3ZnCH3 is spontaneously combustible
environmental toxicant; [CH3Cd]+ is
toxic too
Haloalkanes
General structure: R-X Functional group: X
Example: CH3Cl Name: Methyl chloride; chloromethane
Remarks: It is toxic and extremely flammable. It is an intermediate in the
production of silicone polymers. CH3CH2I uses in alkylation:
RH + ICH2CH3 R-CH2-CH3 + HI
Example: CH2Cl2 Name: Methylene chloride
Remarks: It is widely used as a solvent. It is not miscible with water, and is
miscible with many organic solvents. It is widely used as a paint stripper and a
degreaser.
Example: CHCl3 Name: Chloroform
Remarks: Chloroform is a solvent (relatively unreactive, miscible with most
organic liquids, conveniently volatile)
Example: CCl4 Name: Carbon tetrachloride
Remarks: Carbon tetrachloride uses as a dry cleaning solvent, and as a refrigerant.
Carbon tetrachloride is one of the most potent hepatotoxins (toxic to the liver, it
causes fulminant necrosis).
Alcohols
General structure: R-OH Functional group: OH
Example: CH3-OH Name: Methanol; methyl alcohol
Remarks: Methanol is produced naturally in the anaerobic metabolism of
many varieties of bacteria. Methanol is a common laboratory solvent.
Methanol uses to obtain formaldehyde, and from there into products as
diverse as plastics, plywood, paints, explosives, and permanent press textiles.
In addition to direct use as a fuel (alternative to gasoline), methanol is used as
a component in the transesterification of triglycerides to yield a form of
biodiesel.
Example: CH3-CH2-OH Name: Ethanol; ethyl alcohol
The largest single use of ethanol is as a motor fuel (alternative to gasoline)
and fuel additive. Ethanol is the principal psychoactive constituent in
alcoholic beverages, with depressant effects on the central nervous system.
Long-term use by ingestion can result in serious liver damage. Ethanol is used
in medical wipes and antibacterial hand sanitizer gels. Ethanol kills most
bacteria and fungi, and many viruses by denaturing their proteins and
dissolving their lipids, but is ineffective against bacterial spores.
Ethers Example: crown ethers
General structure: R-O-R' Functional group: O
Example: CH3-CH2-O-CH2-CH3 Name: Diethyl ether
Remarks: It is solvent and anesthetic.
Polyethers: compounds with more than one ether group
"12-crown-4" "15-crown-5" "18-crown-6"
Affinity for Li+ Affinity for Na+ Affinity for K+

Thiols General structure: R-SH Functional group: SH
Example: CH3-SH Example: CH3-S-CH3 Example: CH3-S-S-S-CH3
Name: Methanethiol Name: Dimethyl sulfide Name: Dimethyl trisulfide
Remarks: Methanethiol is found Remarks: Dimethyl sulfide Remarks: Dimethyl
in the blood and brain of humans has a characteristic cabbage- trisulfide is found in
and animals as well as in plant like smell; is available (in volatiles from cooked
tissues. Methanethiol is disposed low concentration) as a food onion, leek, broccoli, and
of through animal feces and it has additive to impart a savory cabbage, and is the
an extremely strong and repulsive flavor; Beetroot, asparagus, unpalatable aroma of aged
smell; it is toxic, having as points cabbage, corn and seafoods beer and stale Japanese
of attack the respiratory system, produce dimethyl sulfide sake.
lung, and central nervous system. when cooked.
Alkynes General structure: RCCR Functional group: CC

Example: HCCH Name: acetylene; ethyne Remarks: About 20% of
H H acetylene is consumed for
C C [] C [] C C [] oxyacetylene gas welding and
1 (CH)2 1.205 1 (CH)2 1.067 5 (CH)2 180 cutting.
2 (CH2)2 1.331 4 (CH2)2 1.088 4 (CH2)2 121.9 pKa ranges (RH R- + H+)
3 (CH)6 1.385 2 (CH)6 1.072 3 (CH)6 120 Alkynes Alkenes Alkanes
4 (CH3)2 1.531 5 (CH3)2 1.096 2 (CH3)2 111.4 pKa24 24pKa48 48pKa
5 C(CH3)4 1.540 3 C(CH3)4 1.085 1 C(CH3)4 110.6 H2O Arenes H2
bonds lengths and angles from simple to triple bond pKa=15.7 30pKa43 pKa=35
Alkenes General structure: RC=CR Functional group: C=C
Example: CH3-CH=CH-CH3 Name: 2-butene Isomers: "cis-" & "trans-"
H CH3 H3C CH3
C C C C
HC H H H
trans-2-butene: 3 :cis-2-butene
Example: H2C=CH-CH3 Example: H2C=CH2 Example: CH2=CH-CH2-CH3
Name: Propene Name: Ethene; Ethylene Name: 1-Butene
Remarks: Propene is Remarks: It is a colorless Remarks: It is highly flammable and
produced naturally by flammable gas with a readily forms explosive mixtures with
vegetation, particularly faint sweet and musky air.
certain tree species. It is a odor and is an important
product of combustion, natural plant hormone,
from forest fires and used in agriculture to H2C CH2 N N
Pt H2C CH
cigarette smoke to motor force the ripening of +
Cl Cl H3C CH2
vehicle and aircraft fruits with a niche use as H2C CH2
Na Na
exhaust. With a relatively anesthetic. O O
short half-life, it is not Al
O O
Al O
O Si
bioaccumulate, therefore O O
with low acute toxicity O O
from inhalation.
Arenes (Aromatic compounds) General structure: Aryl-H Functional group: Aryl
Example: Ph-H (C6H6) Example: C6H5-CH3 Example: (CH3)C6H4(CH3)
Name: Benzene Name: Toluene Name: Xylene (dimethylbenzene)
Remarks: Natural constituent Remarks: A common Structures: (3 Isomers)
of crude oil; is highly solvent; can be used as an
flammable liquid with a sweet octane booster in gasoline
smell with carcinogen fuels used in internal
potency; about 80% is used for combustion engines and
production of ethylbenzene, for removing the cocaine
cumene, and cyclohexane. from coca leaves in the o-(ortho-) m-(meta-) p-(para-)
production of Cola syrup.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH's) Example: C14H10
Remarks: Phenanthrene is
found in cigarette smoke.
Anthracene is a component of
coal tar. Phenanthrene is more
stable than anthracene. Name: Phenanthrene Name: Anthracene
Aldehydes General structure: R-COH Functional group: COH
Example: H2CO Example: CH3CHO Name: Acetaldehyde
Name: Formaldehyde Remarks: Acetaldehyde occurs widely in nature
Remarks: It has an important (coffee, bread, ripe fruit, and is produced by plants
series of polymers. as part of their normal metabolism) and is produced
1,3,5-trioxane polyoxymethylene on large scale industrially.
O Remarks: paraldehyde is
H2C O an anticonvulsant,
n O O
O O hypnotic and sedative.
In resin manufacture,
O serves as preservative.
Remarks: polyformaldehyde is a O Remarks: metaldehyde
thermoplastic used in precision is used as a pesticide
parts that require high stiffness, O O against slugs, snails, and
low friction, and dimensional other gastropods.
stability. O
Ketones General structure: R-COR' Functional group: CO
Example: (CH3)2CO Example: (CH3)(CO)(CH2)(CO)(CH3)
Name: Acetone; propanone Name: Acetylacetone
Remarks: Acetone is Remarks: Acetylacetone exists in two tautomeric
produced and disposed of forms that rapidly interconvert. It is useful for
in the human body through synthesis of metal complexes.
normal metabolic O OH
processes; is normally
present in blood and urine;
serves as solvent (of
polystyrene,
O O
polycarbonate, and some
polypropylenes)
OH O
OV(CH3COCH2COCH3)2
Carboxylic acids General structure: R-COOH Functional group: COOH
Example: HCOOH Remarks: Formic acid occurs naturally, most notably
Name: Formic acid in the venom of bee and ant stings.
Example: CH3COOH Remarks: Acetic acid is the main component of
Name: Acetic acid vinegar.
Example: HOOCCOOH Remarks: It is used as a mordant in dyeing processes,
Name: Oxalic acid and in bleaches, especially for pulpwood.
Example: C4H6O6 OH OH
Name: Tartaric acid
HOOC CH2 CH2 COOH
Found in grapes, bananas
Example: C6H8O7 COOH
Name: Citric acid
HOOC CH2 C CH2 COOH
Found in lemons, oranges,
limes OH
Example: C9H8O4
COOH
Name: Acetylsalicylic acid
Aspirin is used in the treatment O C CH3
of a number of conditions, O
including fever, pain, and
inflammatory diseases
Anhydrides General structure: R(CO)O(CO)R' Functional group: OC-O-CO
Example: (CH3CO)2O; Ac2O, Ac=(CH3CO) Name: Acetic anhydride
Remarks: Is a widely used reagent in organic synthesis.
HO O HO O
O OH
OH + O O +O
O
O
Salicylic acid Ac2O Acetylsalicylic acid HAc
Example: C4H2O3 and its dimmer Name: Maleic anhydride
O O O O Remarks: cyclobutane
tetracarboxylic dianhydride
(maleic anhydride dimer) is
O ;2 O O O used in the production of
polyimides and as an alignment
O O O O film for liquid crystal displays.
Poly- Remarks: Anhydride bonds in aromatic polyanhydrides are water-labile - the
anhydrides polymer chain breaks apart at different reaction rates at the anhydride bond.
Resulted carboxylic acid groups are easily metabolized and therefore
biocompatible. Applications include releasing of physically entrapped or
encapsulated drugs by well-defined kinetics.
Esters General structure: R(COO)R' Functional group: COO
Remarks: Naturally occurring fats and oils are the fatty acid esters.
Example: EtOAc; Et=CH2CH3; Ac=CH3CO Name: Ethyl acetate
Remarks: Ethyl acetate, with a characteristic sweet smell (like pear drops) and
is used in glues, and decaffeinating tea and coffee (is manufactured for use as a
solvent). Ethyl acetate is the most common ester in wine.
Inorganic General structure: compounds derived from the condensation of
esters RCOOH and R'OH. Examples:
Li
O O O O
B
O O O
O O
O P O Apps include Li ion cell batteries with
O high temperature stability (until 302C),
It is used as a plasticizer and a fire high power density, and long shelf life as
retardant. well as super-capacitors.
See http://www.arl.army.mil/www/pages/556/0933TFSPurifiedLiBOB.pdf
Amides General structure: R(CO)NR'R'' Functional group: OCN
Remarks: Amides are used in nature and technology as structural materials.
O CH3 Example: (CH3)2NCHO Name: Dimethylformamide; DMF
Remarks: DMF is a solvent with low evaporation rate; is used
HC N
in the production of acrylic fibers and plastics and as a solvent
CH3 in peptide coupling for pharmaceuticals, in the development
and production of pesticides, and in the manufacture of
O
adhesives, synthetic leathers, fibers, films, and surface coatings.
H2N C Example: Remarks: Acrylamide is used to
H2C CH (H2CCH)(CO)NH2 synthesize polyacrylamides
Name: Acrylamide; Remarks: One of the properties of
O Acrylic amide polyacrylamide is to flocculate solids
Example: in a liquid and find its uses in
H2N C wastewater treatment, papermaking,
polyacrylamide
H2C CH pesticides, cosmetics, sugar
n manufacturing, and soil conditioning.
Nitriles General structure: RCN Functional group: CN
Example: H3CCN Name: acetonitrile
Acetonitrile is used mainly as solvent for purification of butadiene in refineries.
Example: (CH3)2CHCN Name: Isobutyronitrile
It is used as organic solvent, for producing insecticides, and as gasoline additive.
H3C O Example: C5H5NO2 Example: C5H5NO2 H5C2 O
Name: Methyl cyanoacrylate Name: Ethyl cyanoacrylate
O C O C
(MCA) (ECA)
H2C C Remarks: MCA and ECA are colorless liquids with low H2C C
N C viscosity, being used as the main component of certain N C
glues. Both polymerizes rapidly in presence of moisture.
Example: NCCCCN Name: Dicyanoacetylene
Dicyanoacetylene is liquid which can explode to carbon
powder and nitrogen gas. It burns in oxygen with a bright
blue-white flame at a temperature of 5000 C - hottest
flame of any chemical.
Amines
General structure: R3N Functional group: N
Example: H2NCH3 Example: HN(CH3)2 Example: N(CH3)3
Name: Methylamine Name: Dimethylamine Name: Trimethylamine
Methylamines are gases with strong odor similar to fish; are used as
building blocks for the synthesis of many compounds.
Example: (C6H5)3N
Name: Triphenylamine
Remarks: Triphenylamine derivatives have
useful applications in electric conductivity and
N electroluminescence, and they are used in
organic light-emitting diodes.
Triphenylamine derivative for solar cells
N N
Cyclodextrins Sugar molecules bound together in a ring.
-cyclodextrin may bound with

C.N.=6 such as to Selenium
-cyclodextrin -cyclodextrin may
may bound with bound with C.N.=8
C.N.=7 such as to such as to
Iodine Osmium
Hardness
In mineralogy, hardness commonly refers to a material's

ability to penetrate softer materials. An object made of a hard
material will scratch an object made of a softer material -
Scratch hardness conducted with sclerometer.
Also known as dynamic or absolute hardness, rebound
hardness measures the height of rebound of an indenter
dropped onto a material using an instrument known as a
scleroscope - Rebound, dynamic or absolute hardness.
In materials science, hardness is the characteristic of a solid
material expressing its resistance to permanent deformation.
- Indentation hardness.
Hardness with sclerometer
M
d
Sclerometer - a mineralogist's (usually) instrument used to
measure the hardness of materials. The instrument is designed
to determine the degree of hardness of a given mineral by
applying pressure on a moving diamond point until a "scratch"
has occurred.
Hardness with scleroscope (intender)
Knoop Vickers Brinell Rockwell
136 D
140
136
17230'
130
[F]=N; [D] = [] = mm
F
H K = 0.01423 2

F
H V = 0.001854 2 H B =

2F
D
(D D2 2 ) F {600, 1000, 1500}
1 H R = 100 182
Hardness scales
Brinell BS EN ISO 6506 Parts 1, 2, 3, and 4: 2005,
Metallic materials - Brinell hardness test
Knoop ISO 4545 Parts 1, 2, 3, and 4: 2005, Metallic
materials - Knoop hardness test
Rockwell BS EN ISO 6508 Parts 1, 2, and 3: 2005,
Metallic materials - Rockwell hardness test (scales A, B,
C, D, E, F, G, H, K, N, T)
Vickers BS EN ISO 6507 Parts 1, 2, and 3: 2005,
Metallic materials - Vickers hardness test
Mohs A scale to measure hardness was devised by
Austrian mineralogist Frederick (Friedrich) Mohs in 1822
Barcol ASTM D2583-95 e1:2001, Standard Test Method
for Indentation Hardness of Rigid Plastics by Means of a
Barcol Impressor
http://courses.washington.edu/me354a/chap5.pdf
Ultra-hard advanced materials -CN
In 1989, Marvin Cohen and his graduate student Amy
Liu (then at UC Berkeley) devised a theoretical model to
predict a crystal's stiffness. Cohen's model clearly
indicated that a carbon nitride crystal should be stiffer
(and possibly harder) than diamond. The race was on to
obtain the stuff in crystalline form and measure its
properties. Some early efforts by the team of Yip-Wah
Chung (Northwestern University) resulted in a layered
composite of titanium nitride and carbon nitride (a so-
called superlattice) which was, surprisingly, almost as
hard as diamond. Estimates from proposed molecular
structure indicate the hardness of beta carbon nitride
should also be greater than diamond. This material has
not yet been successfully synthesized.
Ultra-hard advanced materials - CC
In the December 4th,
2005 issue of The
Jerusalem Post,
Professors Eli Altus,
Harold Basch and
Shmaryahu Hoz, with
doctoral student Lior
Itzhaki report the
discovery of Polyyne,
a material 40 times
harder than diamond.
It is a superhard
molecular rod,
comprised of acetylene
units.
Ultra-hard advanced materials
centered faces cubes crystallized C60
C60-Fullerene at 153 K, C60
crystallizes in a face
centered cubic
arrangement -
H-B Burgi, E Blanc, D
Schwarzenbach,
Shengzhong Liu, Ying-jie
Lu, M M Kappes, J A
Ibers, Angew Chem Int Ed
Engl 1992;31:640
Ultrahard fullerite
Ultra-hard advanced materials - ADNRs
Synthetic diamond (Lonsdaelite allotrope) obtained by
submitting to 2400K and 5-7 GPa crystals synthesized by a
chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process was found to be at
least 50% harder than natural diamond.
Ultrahard fullerite (C60) were found to be harder than
diamond, and which can be used to create even harder
materials, such as aggregated diamond nanorods.
Aggregated diamond nanorods, or ADNRs, are an
allotrope of carbon believed to be the least compressible
material known to humankind, as measured by its isothermal
bulk modulus; aggregated diamond nanorods have a
modulus of 491 gigapascals (GPa), while a conventional
diamond has a modulus of 442 GPa (hardness 1.11 times
than diamond). ADNRs are also 0.3% denser than regular
diamond. The process to produce the substance consists in
compressing the C-60 molecules to 2-20 GPa, and heating
to 300-2500 K. ADNRs is a series of interconnected diamond
nanorods, with diameters of between 5 and 20 nanometres
and lengths of around 1 micrometre each.
Hardness relativity
C allotrope Hardness (GPa)
CCP Diamond 1003; 1675
HCP Diamond 1524
Ultrahard fullerite 29030
ADNRs 31040
wurtzite-BC2N 792
BC2N (with same arrangement of CCP as diamond) possess an anisotropy
due to the non-uniform charge distribution (B have 3 valence electrons and
N have 5). Consequently, this leads to electrostatic effects at surface much
higher than of diamond with other materials like iron, nickel and even silicon
in a tribological environment. This seems to be a plausible reason why
BC2N was found as an efficient cutting tip to machine ferrous alloys and
silicon in comparison to a diamond tip. Same explanation should be given
for the unexpected polyyne hardness compared with diamond.
Fullerene, nanotube & nanofoam
Number of fullerenes
n Fullerenes n Fullerenes
<20 0 34 6
20 1 36 15
22 0 38 17
24 1 40 40
26 1 42 45
28 2 44 89
30 3 46 116
32 6 48 199

2n A007894 (http://oeis.org/A007894)
Nanocages
Course 12
Ceramics
Semiconductors
Superconductors
Ceramics types
Structural (for constructions)
bricks, pipes, floor and roof tiles
Refractories
kiln linings, gas fire radiants, steel and
glass making crucibles
Whitewares
tableware, cookware, wall tiles, pottery
products and sanitary ware
Technical (engineering, advanced, special)
tiles used in the Space Shuttle program,
gas burner nozzles, ballistic protection,
nuclear fuel uranium oxide pellets,
biomedical implants, coatings of jet
engine turbine blades, ceramic disk
brake, missile nose cones
Technical ceramics
Oxides
alumina, beryllia, ceria,
zirconia
Nonoxides
carbide, boride, nitride,
silicide
Composite materials
particulate reinforced,
fiber reinforced,
combinations of oxides
and nonoxides
BeO: Formation of BeO from beryllium and oxygen releases the highest
energy per mass of reactants for any chemical reaction, close to 24Mj/kg.
Technical ceramics for apps
Porcelains for high voltage

Ceramics with special electric properties
Ceramics with special magnetic properties
Ceramics with special thermal properties
Porcelains for high voltage
With increasing of long distance electricity transportation at
high voltage, high voltage insulators needs increased. High
voltage insulators must have very good electrical insulating
properties so as to have good mechanical properties
(resistance);
Composition of porcelains for low voltage does not differ
much from that of the high voltage for. They are the areas of
application switches, lamp sockets, fuse blocks and handles.
The advantage of ceramic insulators which frequently
indicate their use, are superior electrical properties, absence
of creep or deformation under stress at room temperature
and greater resistance to environmental changes. One of the
great advantages of ceramics as insulators is the fact that
they are not sensitive to the minor changes in composition,
fabrication, techniques, and firing temperature.
High voltage isolators
% Feldspar (KAlSi3O8 + NaAlSi3O8 + CaAl2Si2O8) Quartz (SiO2) Clay
SiO2 [43-69] Support 98 [50-70]
Al2O3 [18-37] 1 [20-35]
K2 O [0-17] 1 1
CaO [0-12] 1 1
Na2O [0-20] 1 1
Insulator [20-25] [15-20] [55-65]
Lock
Al balls
Lock
HV conductor
Ceramics with special electric properties
Electrical breakdown voltage (in volts per millimeter of
thickness) is an important factor in high stress conditions,
where ceramics loss is irreversible; the values of these
voltages ranges from 100 V/mm to 200 V/mm;
Volume resistivity (, expressed in cm), at different
temperatures; most ceramics have about 1014 cm at room
temperature; this value decreases with increasing
temperature; at 900C falls in 103-107 cm range;
Dielectric constant ' (the ratio of the capacity of a
condenser which has insulating material the ceramics and
the capacity of the condenser having air); ' for ceramics are
from 4 to 10, but rutile (TiO2) have 100;
The temperature coefficient of ', d'/dT;
The frequency coefficient of ', d'/d;
Loss factor '' (the energy lost in ergs per cubic centimeter
per cycle of oscillation) is important for high frequency uses;
BaTiO3: Dielectric constant ' and loss factor ''
Dielectric constant Loss factor
Excepting the peak at 190C (see figure) have relatively low loss factor.
Ferroelectrics
These materials joins good dielectric constants with low electrical loss
factors.
For example, if a ferroelectric material is placed between the plates of a
capacitor, and electric field strength increases resulting charge will not
be proportional as in simple dielectrics (behaves hysteresis cycles).
Most ferroelectric materials are with perovskite-like structure.
Elementary cell contains 3O2-, 1M2+ and 1Ti4+. R is usually Ba2+ (Ca2+,
Mg2+, Sr2+, Rb2+, Cd2+ can be added to provide a wide range of
ferroelectric properties).
E
0
P polarization
E electric field
Ferromagnets
All ferromagnetic materials possess an irreversible
relationship between the applied field H and magnetization
induced B. This causes hysteresis, revealed to all magnetic
materials: the crystals that are formed in these magnetic
materials contain entities (quantum elementary units of
volume). When is not magnetized, the magnetic fields is
random. When is partially magnetized, there are some
alignment, but by no means all. But when it is saturated
magnetic, all fields are aligned.
It is used for surface magnetic disk drives (diskettes, hard
disks). For example, floppy drives 3.5 "and 1.44 MB must be
applied magnetic field of 300 Oersted to achieve a correct
writing. It is therefore the saturation magnetic field.
Overcoming this field is also prohibited, as it affected
neighboring areas on which there is writing field.
Magnetic memories
H = 0 A/m H = 12 kA/m H = 24 kA/m

Magnetic hysteresis
H (A/m)
BS
BR
-HC
B(T)
0
HC
-BR
-BS
Magnetic hysteresis - explanation
This diagram is represented with applied field (H) on the abscissa and
induced magnetization (B) on the ordinate. From the point of no magnetic
conditions (0) relationship between H and B evolves as S-shaped curve
(with an inflection point) to the point of maximum magnetic intensity
applied HS, the induced magnetization is +BS. If now applied field
decreases, the magnetization evolves curves 2, 3 and 4 intersect ordered
in BR (remanent magnetization) abscissa in -HC (field strength
cancellation of residual magnetization) and if continuous -HS
magnetization to magnetization will then -BS. Reapply now increasing
magnetic field will cause the magnetization to evolve curves 5, 6 and 7,
with the same meaning for point -BR, +HC and +BS. Even if it stops
applying the magnetic field for a long time curve from 0 to +BS will not
ever be followed ceramic material unless it is previously demagnetized.
This can be done for example by heating above the Curie temperature.
The second quadrant, or demagnetization curve is very important for
materials used in the manufacture of permanent magnets.
Curie temperature: the temperature at which a material loses its magnetic
properties
Ferrites
These lightweight magnetic materials have a spinel structure:
MFe2O4 where M can be Mg, Ni, Co, Cd, Zn or Mn. Antenna
wires are used, magnetostrictive materials, memory cores,
components of deflection cathode-ray tubes and
transformers.
Must have both good physical and electrical properties and
these properties should be uniform both mass component
and from one component to another. These ceramic
magnets are valuable in high-frequency transformer cores
due to a very low hysteresis losses. Special ferrites with
square-shaped hysteresis as shown, are used as memory
elements in high-speed computers.
Computer memories: hysteresis loop and
structural elementary cells
H (A/m)
Mn
Zn
Fe
B(T)
0 O
(optimized) MnxZn1-xFe2+O4 Mn0.25Zn0.75Fe2O4

Permanent magnets
Pb(Fe,Mn)12O19 is long known to have magnetic properties.
This mineral is the basis of any permanent ceramic magnet
with a few exceptions. Compounds were synthesized to
replace Pb with Ba and Sr in the matrix structure. BaFe12O19
ideal structure is almost similar to the spinel structure.
Ceramic permanent magnets have high levels of remanence
(Br) and coercive force (HC)
N S
Radioceramics
Were manufactured several types of ceramic able to deliver
streams of high frequency radio waves with minimal
distortion. The materials used are alumina, corrindonite and
sintered glass of silicon oxide. It is essential that the porosity,
if any, should be evenly distributed and therefore have very
low tolerances surface. A problem that arises here is the
large size required for these ceramic bodies.
50 22 16 8 4
SiO2 M2O M2O3 MO Other
%wt
Typical
%at
composition
for a
radioceramic
Li Na K Rb Cs B Al Y Mg Ca Sr
18 26 33 12 11 32 58 10 56 13 31
Piezoelectics, pyroelectrics and ferroelectrics
476% KNbO3 I (A) R()
0.060.04% LiNbO3
0.060.035% SrTiO3
0.0030.002% BiFeO3
F (N)
526% NaNbO3
Piezoelectric: 100-200 pC/N
Piezoelectric
I (A) R()
Pyroelectric
Ferroelectric t (C)
U(V)
Conductor ceramics
Some of the most guarded secrets of Corning Glass Co. was the tinning
materials for the oxide electrodes used in kinescope tubes. Production
patents were issued in the United States on this issue: 1952 (SnO2, 0.5-
5% As, Bi, Sn, firing at 1400 C, = 2cm-3) 1963 (+0.5-5% V2O5, firing
at 1300-1500 C, = 1cm-3), 1966 (+0.1-0.5% CuO, ZnO 0.5-1%, 0.3-
1.2% SnO2, = 1cm-3). Even so, problems contact terminals is
always a problem. Magnesium titanate (MgTiO4) is used for resistors
requiring high currents and stability.
U (V)
Air Exhaust
ZrO2 sensor
used to monitor
automobile O2 O2
exhaust gases.
ZrO2 membrane
Termistors
Large positive temperature A thermistor is a type of
coefficient thermistors finds resistor whose resistance
many applications in varies significantly with
thermostats and thermal temperature, more so than in
switches. Barium titanate standard resistors.
doped with a rare metal used Resistance
in the manufacture of fine
Negative temperature coefficient thermistor
granules which are then
sintered in ceramic. For this, Positive temperature coefficient thermistor
lanthanum is folost in
Resistance temperature detectors
quantities of 0.001 to 0.005
Thermocouples
molar percent. Barium titanate
can be precipitated, then Resistors
mixed with rare metal and
heated in a controlled Temperature
atmosphere at 1400 C.
Heating ceramics
Nonmetal electric heating elements consist of silicon carbide
and molybdenum oxides. Rod-shaped or spiral tube CSi
elements are widely used for electrical heating at high
temperatures. They can be used at temperatures of 1600 C
for short periods and 1500 C under continuous working.
MoSi2O6 heating elements can be used at temperatures of
100 C - 200 C above the limit of SiC elements and are
used for elements exposed to high temperatures in furnaces.
Heating elements as oxides of zirconium and thorium
become conductors when are heated to red. Furnaces built
with these elements are capable of temperatures of 2000 C
in air.
U(V)
Refractory ceramics
A refractory material is one that Compound Density (g/cm3) Melting (C)
retains its strength at high HfC 12.8 3900
temperatures. TaC 14.5 3800
Ultra high temperature ceramics ZrC 6.6 3400
are good choices for several HfN 13.9 3385
extreme applications: thermal HfB2 11.2 3380
protection materials on hypersonic
aerospace vehicles or re-usable ZrB2 6.1 3245
atmospheric re-entry vehicles, TiB2 4.5 3225
specific components for TiC 4.9 3100
propulsion, furnace elements, TaB2 12.5 3040
refractory crucibles, etc. This ZrN 7.3 2950
family of ceramic compounds is TiN 5.4 2950
made of borides, carbides, and TaN 14.3 2700
nitrides such as ZrB2, HfB2, ZrC,
HfC, TaC, HfN which are SiC 3.2 2545*
characterized by high melting * dissociates
points.
Solid state electronic bands
1
(1)
(a)
Conduction band
1 2
(2)
(b) Forbidden band
1 2 3 Valence band
(3)
(c)
1 2 3 4
(4)
(d)
Conduction band
Overlapping
Valence band
()
(e)
Molecular orbital formation and transformation in bands in solids

Conductors, semiconductors and isolators
E Semiconductor
Anti-bond
band
Bond
band
Isolator Conductor
Conductors vs. semiconductors and isolators
Populating the allowed bands with electrons in solids
E E E E
T = 0K T = 0K T > 0K T > 0K
Conductor Isolator Conductor Isolator
Ge-Si alloy forbidden band
0 20 Si(%) 100
1.2
1.0
Gap energy (eV)
0.7
100 80 Ge(%) 0
Doped semiconductors
Ge Ge Ge Ge
As Ga
Ge Ge Ge Ge
E E E E
T=0K T>0K T=0K T>0K

As in Ge Scond. 'p' Ga in Ge Scond. 'n'
Superconductivity
In 1908 the Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes was
able to liquefy helium (normal boiling point 4.6 K). He
reduced pressure by boiling it reached a temperature of 1.15
K. While studying properties of these temperatures from 4.1
K found that mercury undergoes a transition state in which
the properties are different. The most striking change is the
electrical resistance, that decreases sharply to 0. This
condition is called superconductivity. Many elements are
superconducting.
The best superconducting (superconductivity occurs at a
higher temperature) are: Nb (9.2 K), Tc (8.2 K), Pb (7.21 K),
La (6.1 K), V (5.2 K), Ta (4.4 K) , Hg (4.15 K), Sn (3.72 K),
(3.40 K).
Metals with the highest conductivity at room temperature (Li,
Be, Cu and congeners) are superconducting good (these
superconductivity appears below 0.2 K).
Superconducting phase transition
T = Ts (superconducting critical temperature)
cV (specific heat) (resistivity)
a 1 / T
, a >1 cT 3 , c < 1
arbitrary units
bT, b < 1
0
0 1 2
The Meissner effect
N S N S
The Meissner effect is an expulsion of a magnetic field from a

superconductor during its transition to the superconducting
state. Walther Meissner and Robert Ochsenfeld discovered
the phenomenon in 1933 by measuring the magnetic field
distribution outside superconducting tin and lead samples.
[Meissner W, Ochsenfeld R, 1933. Ein neuer Effekt bei Eintritt
der Supraleitfhigkeit. Naturwissenschaften 21(44):787-788.]
high-temperature superconducting MAGLEV
Superconducting magnetically levitated vehicle
S EM S EM N EM N
N N S N S N S S
Superconductor grid Superconductor grid Superconductor grid
S N S N S N
This system is based on the Meissner effect that bulk high-

temperature superconductors levitate above and below a
permanent magnet. The system uses liquid helium and
nitrogen to cool the superconductor.
Super-magnets
U < 1V + -
U
+ -
Superconductor Bc2 Temperature
Nb3Sn 22T 4K
V3Ga 20T 4K
V3Si 21T 4.2K
Nb79(Al73Ge27)21 21T 14K
YBa2Cu3O7-x 10T 77K
B
Void
N2 He
In T(K)I(kA)
50 0.4
Ag (Cu) 4.2 2.8
YBa2Cu3O7-x B(T) ~ I(kA)

High temperature superconductors
Formula TS (K) Formula TS (K)

YBa2Cu3O7 92 Tl2Ba2CaCu2O8 108
Bi2Sr2CuO6 20 Tl2Ba2Ca2Cu3O10 125
Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8 85 TlBa2Ca3Cu4O11 122
Bi2Sr2Ca2Cu3O6 110 HgBa2CuO4 94
Tl2Ba2CuO6 80 HgBa2CaCu2O6 128
HgBa2Ca2Cu3O8 134
The first superconductor found with Tc > 77 K (nitrogen boiling

point) is yttrium barium copper oxide (YBa2Cu3O7-x)
High temperature superconductors crystal structure
Hg Hg
Hg Ba Ba
Ba Cu Cu
Cu Ca Ca
O HgBa2CuO4+ O HgBa2CaCu2O6+ O HgBa2Ca2Cu3O8+
Course 13
Advanced materials
Polymers & plastics
Reactions & mechanisms
Biomolecules
Advanced materials
Materials: :Applications
ZnO Bionic Superhydrophobic Surfaces
WO3 Organic Light-Emitting Diodes
Fe3Al Thin-Film Transistors
Copper Sulfide Superconductors
Barium Titanate Liquid Crystals
Protein Particles Solar Cells
Peptide Nanorings
Carbon Nanotubes
Magnesium Diboride
Fullerene Nanoparticles Example from the content
of Adv Mater 2006;18(6)
Hybrid (organic-inorganic) solar
"p" cells "n"
Semiconductors
Antireflective layer
Electrical
wires grids
Bi-layer Bulk heterojunction

S S S
O
n n
N N n
S
CdS 10.9 1.1
CdSe 5.8 0.62 O
Si 18.9 0.35 CdSe 13.9 0.48
TiO2 4.8 0.87
ZnO 5.2 0.75 Image: Donor CdS 3.0 0.85
PbS 1.0 0.42 Table: Acceptor, DC [mA/cm2], E [V] PbS 0.1 1.0
Nanostructure design for apps
Apps: converting
solar energy
200 300 400 500 600 700

Spartan 10 Hartree-Fock STO-G +UV-VIS (excited state) Calculated UV-VIS spectrum nm
Nanostructure
design for apps
Map operations (on C26 fullerene)
Map(C26) Dual(C26) Medial(C26) Stellation(C26)
Truncation(C26) Leapfrog(C26) Quadrupling(C26) Capra(C26)

Polymers
Polymer=[Monomer]n; natural & synthetic
Repeated unit:
A single structural unit are repeated
homopolymers
Two different structural unit are repeated
copolymers
Three different structural unit are repeated
terpolymers
Number of repetitions:
Short polymers: n50 (ex. peptides; n>50
proteins)
Usual: 103n104
Long: 105 < n
Mi
Copolymers
Alternating monomer units: A-B-A-B-A-B-etc; general
formula: [AB]m;
Periodic groups of monomer units: AAABBAAABBetc;
general formula: [AmBn]p;
Random or statistically determined arrangement of
monomer units; no general formula, only ratios and rules
of arrangement (AABAAABABBBAetc);
Block groups of monomer units: AAAAAABBBBBBBetc;
general formula: [AmBnetc];
Graft (grafted polymers): with one of the above rule but
with tree structure with/without cycles:
A A
A B A B A B A B
B B
A B A B A
Polymers properties
Polymers only in rare cases posses a regular alternation
of the two monomers and less often a deterministic
length. Therefore solid state polymers are generally
amorphous substances.
Certain properties have a clear rule of variation with
number of units; impact resistance and viscosity
increases; chemical stability decreases; other properties
are strongly dependent of the type of monomers; for
instance boiling point of alkanes, silanes and silicones
increases with the chain length.
Si O H + HO Si OH Si O Si O H + H2O
Si O H + HO Si Si O Si + H2O
Natural sources of polymers
Latex is a natural polymer of isoprene.
Typically, a small percentage (up to 5% of dry ONO 2
mass) of other materials, such as proteins,
n fatty acids, resins and inorganic materials
(salts) are found in natural rubber. Discovered O
in 1736. Rubber - latex vulcanization (thermal O
treatment with sulfur) discovered in 1839.
Guncotton. Obtained nitrating cellulose
through exposure to nitric acid. Discovered in O 2NO ONO 2
n
1832. Precursor of celluloid ("plasticized"
with camphor, in 1880).
Galalith (Plastic buttons from shirts) is a
synthetic plastic material manufactured by the
interaction of casein (about 80% of the
proteins in cow milk) and formaldehyde.
Discovered in 1897.
Bakelite. Formed from an elimination reaction
of phenol with formaldehyde. Discovered in
O 1907. OH
Polylactide. Derived from cornstarch, tapioca n
O
n roots, or sugarcane. Discovered in 1932.
Biopolymers
Cellulose is the most Different plants Drying time
common biopolymer. 1.0
About 33% of plant
dry matter is 0.8
OH
cellulose.
Cotton contains 90% 0.6
cellulose while wood O
about 50%. 0.4
O water/total ratio
0.2
HO OH cellulose/total ratio
n
Peptide (20AA): Ala- AA Formula AA Formula AA Formula
Arg-Asn-Asp-Cys- His C6H9N3O2 Cys C3H7NO2S Asn C4H8N2O3
Glu-Gln-Gly-His-Ile- Ile C6H13NO2 Gln C5H10N2O3 Asp C4H7NO4
Leu-Lys-Met-Phe- Leu C6H13NO2 Pyl C12H21N3O3 Glu C5H9NO4
Pro-Ser-Thr-Trp-Tyr- Lys C6H14N2O2 Orn C5H12N2O2 Gly C2H5NO2
Val
Met C5H11NO2S Pro C5H9NO2 Aib C4H9NO2
DNA strain:
Phe C9H11NO2 Sec C3H7NO2Se Cit C6H13N3O3
(A=Ala; C=Cys;
G=Gly; T=Thr) Thr C4H9NO3 Ser C3H7NO3 Dha C3H5NO2
CTTTTCATT Trp C11H12N2O2 Tau C2H7NO3S Gaba C4H9NO2
CTGACTGCA Val C5H11NO2 Tyr C9H11NO3 Hcy C4H9NO2S
ACGGGCAAT Arg C6H14N4O2 Ala C3H7NO2 Hyp C5H9NO3
Synthetic polymers (1/2)
Monomer, polymer & its uses
Polyacrylonitrile. NC C6H5 Polystyrene.
Ultra filtration Disposable cutlery,
membranes, hollow H 2C CH H2 C CH housings; flow if heated
fibers for reverse Polypropylene. Poly-1-butene. above 100C, behavior
osmosis, fibers for Packaging and labeling, Pressure piping, exploited for plastic
textiles, oxidized reusable containers, flexible packaging, models, molding, and
flame retardant fibers laboratory equipment, water heaters, hot melt extrusion
H3C textiles, banknotes adhesives C2H5
H C CH Cl HO
2 H C CH
2
Polyvinyl chloride. H2C CH H2C CH Polyvinyl alcohol. Hard
Pipes for residential Polyacrylic acid. Polyvinyl acetate. contact lens solution as
sewerage and water Disposable diapers and Component of widely lubricant
supply systems for to thicken, disperse, used glue type (wood
HOOC suspend and emulsify glue, white glue, H3COC O
pharmaceuticals and carpenter's glue, school
H2C CH cosmetics glue) H2C CH
Synthetic polymers (2/2)
Monomer, polymer & its uses
Polyoxymethylene. CH2 O CH2 CH2 Polyethylene.
Precision parts that Packaging (plastic
Polytetrafluoroethy Polydimethylsiloxane.
require high stiffness, bag, plastic films,
lene. Teflon; water Silicones; inert, non-toxic
low friction and membranes,
and water-containing and non-flammable;
excellent dimensional containers
substances do not contact lenses, medical
stability including bottles)
wet it; very low devices, elastomers;
F F CH3
friction coefficient present in shampoos
C C against any solid (makes hair shiny and Si O
slippery), lubricating oils,
F F CH3
and heat-resistant tiles
Poly(methyl H3COOC HC CH Polybutadiene.
methacrylate). Synthetic rubber
Lightweight and H2 C CH H 2 C CH for automobile tires
shatter-resistant H3C
alternative to glass
Nylon 6. Bristles for toothbrushes, surgical sutures, strings for
H2C C4H8 acoustic and classical musical instruments (guitars, sitars, violins,
violas, and cellos), threads, ropes, filaments, nets, tire cords, and
HN OC hosiery and knitted garments
Polymers apps
Rheological fluids - suspensions of non-conducting particles
in an electrically insulating fluid at which viscosity changes
reversibly by an order of up to 100,000 in response to an
electric field. Apps: flexible electronics (rollable screens and
keypads), shock absorbers (bulletproof vests).
Thermoplasts - pliable or moldable above a specific
temperature, and reversible return to solid state upon
cooling. Apps: gluings, plugging holes in asphalt and walls
Elastomers transverse elasticity modulus does not change
appreciably and has values in the range 1..10 daN/cm2.
Apps: rubbers, flexible control devices, seals, adhesives and
molded flexible parts
Duroplasts elasticity modulus does not change
appreciably and has values over 100 daN/cm2. Being light,
flexible, and strong are recommended for apps exploiting
these qualities.
Plastic materials
Polymers are mixed with auxiliary materials in order to obtain plastics:
plasticisers: minimize polymer intramolecular forces of attraction which
add irreversibly changes the physical properties of polymers;
stabilizers: mitigate or eliminate reactions that cause degradation;
packing materials (such as dust, threads, fibers, paper, textiles) - modify
certain physicochemical properties;
reinforcement materials - fillers that increase resistance;
dyes - organic and inorganic pigments;
lubricants - is applied on surfaces to facilitate separation of plastics and
metals;
antistatic substances - prevent accumulation of electrostatic charges;
flame retardants - increase the fire resistance;
fungistatic agents - increase resistance to the action of microorganisms
on auxiliary materials;
blowing agents - to obtain porous plastics;
odorization agents - to cover the inadequate smell due to chemical
constitution, auxiliaries or oxidation processes;
Reaction types and conservation laws
Type Reaction Example
Rearranging AB cyclopropane propene
Combustion CaHbNcOd + (a+ /4- /2)O2 (a)CO2 + (b/2)H2O + (c/2)N2
b d
CaHbSf + (a+b/4+3f/2)O2 + (116f-b/2)H2O (a)CO2 + (f)[H2SO4115H2O]

CaHbPe + (a+b/4+5e/2)O2 (a)CO2 + (b/2-3e/2)H2O + (e)H3PO4
Synthesis A + B AB 8Fe + S8 8FeS
Decomposition AB A + B H2CO3 H2O + CO2
Displacement AB + CD AD + CB Pb(NO3)2 + 2KI PbI2 + 2KNO3
Conservation Law Exceptions

Mass Total ("rest") mass before and Reaction between "heavy particles"
after reaction are equal (bradyons) of matter and antimatter
Number For each species (element) the Fission and fusion reactions
of atoms number of atoms before and
after reaction are equal
Electric The total number of electrons Reactions involving induced electric
charge before and after reaction are current (electrolysis, electrochemical cells)
equal
Elementary reactions
An elementary (chemical) reaction is when one or more
of the chemical species react directly to form products in
a single reaction step and with a single transition state.
R 1 + R 2 + ... + R m P1 + P2 + ... + Pn ,
= k[R 1 ] [R 2 ] ... [R m ]
Example:
2A + B A + C (C=B+A)
d[A]/dt=-k[A]2[B]; d[B]/dt=-k[A]2[B]; d[C]/dt=k[A]2[B];
To solve:
&& & 3 &
AA 2A + k A A = 0
2
Iterative approach
Example (again): 2A + B A + C
dt t; d[A]/dt (An+1-An)t; d[B]/dt (Bn+1-Bn)t
d[A]/dt=-k[A]2[B] An+1 = An + (-kAn2Bn)t
d[B]/dt=-k[A]2[B] Bn+1 = Bn + (-kAn2Bn)t
[A]t=0=A0; [B]t=0=B0;
A B C D E
n1 iterative A1, B1; A2, B2; 1 n [A] [B] t k
=A2+1 2 0 2 1 0.001 1
3 1 1.996 0.996
=B2-$E$2*(B2^2)*C2*$D$2 4 2 1.992 0.992
5 3 1.988 0.988
=C2-$E$2*(B2^2)*C2*$D$2 6 4 1.984 0.984
7 5 1.980 0.980
8 6 1.976 0.976
9 7 1.973 0.973
10 8 1.969 0.969
http://l.academicdirect.org/Education/Training/reaction_kinetics/
Elementary Reaction Simulator

In 1864, Peter Waage pioneered the development of chemical kinetics by formulating the law of mass action, which
states that the speed of a chemical reaction is proportional to the quantity of the reacting substances.
Reaction Type: First rate constant: Second rate constant: type reaction rate
null order X2(R) -> X1(P) dP = kdt (until [X2]=0)
first order X1(R) -> X2(P) dR = -kRdt
Initial concentration: Observation Time: Number of divisions: second order X1(R) -> X2(P) dR = -kR2dt
200
third order X1(R) + X2(R) + X3(R) -> X4(P) dP = kR1R2R3dt
dX1/dt = k2X2-k1X1
opposed X1(R) <-> X2(P)
Extra data dX2/dt = k1X1-k2X2
dX2/dt = k1,2X1-k2,3X2
B Concentration: (for third order & opposed) X1(R) -> X2(P)
consecutive dX1/dt = -k1,2X1
X2(R) -> X3(P)
C Concentration: (for third order) dX3/dt = k2,3X2
dX1/dt = -k1,2X1-k1,3X1
X1(R) -> X2(P)
Submit parallel dX2/dt = k1,2X1
X1(R) -> X3(P)
dX3/dt = k2,3X1
Michaelis-Menten mechanism
1. Writing of elementary reactions; writing of reaction rates equations
(1): S + E k1 C, v(1) = k1se (2): C k2 S + E, v(2) = k2c (3): C k3 P + E, v(3) = k3c
2. Applying of atoms conservation principle
(S): s& = v ( 2) v (1) (E): e& = v ( 2 ) + v (3) v (1) (C): c& = v (1) v ( 2 ) v (3) (P): p& = v (3)
3. Suppositions and notations
s(0) = s0 e(0) = e0 c(0) = 0 p(0) = 0 e = e0 - c
4. Equations to solve
s& = k 2 c k1s(e 0 c) c& = k1s(e 0 c) (k 2 + k 3 )c
5. General case
implicit equation phases dy x y xy
has no analytical solution! space =b
dx x + ay + xy
explicit equations; substitutions: 0<a<1 k2 k2 + k3 k1s c

a = ; b = ; x = ; y =
t = k1e 0 , initial time b>0 k 2 + k3 k1e 0 k2 + k3 e0
x& = x + ay + xy ; y& = b( x y xy) ;
6. Solving numerically (i=1..n)
x0 = 3 xi+1=xi+(-xi+axi+xiyi) =10-2 1 2 3 4 250 50 10 4
a { , , , } b { , , , }
y0 = 0 yi+1=yi+b(xi-yi-xiyi) n=3000 5 5 5 5 25 25 25 25
7. Excel sheet:
A B C D E F
1 x0= 3 i xi yi
2 y0= 0 =0 =B1 =B2
3 = 1.0e-2 =D2+1 =E2+$B$3*(-E2+$B$4*E2+E2*F2) =F2+$B$5*$B$3*(E2-F2-E2*F2)
4 a= 0.2
5 b= 10
Lindemann - Hinshelwood mechanism
(1): R + R R* + R, v(1)=k1[R]2 R* + R R + R, v(2)=k2[R][R*] R* P, v(3)=k3[R*]
2. Applying of atoms conservation principle (unknowns [R] = x; [R*] = y; [P] = z):
(R): x& = v (1) + v ( 2 ) (R*): y& = v (1) v ( 2 ) v (3) (P): z& = v (3)
r(0) = r0 r*(0) = 0 p(0) = 0 k1 = a k2 = b k3 = c
x& = ax 2 + bxy y& = ax 2 bxy cy z& = cy
5. Wrong approach
The search for an analytical solution is unsuccessfully.
6. Solving numerically (i=1..n)
x0 = 3 xi+1=xi+(-axi2+bxiyi) -2 a=10-1
=10
y0 = 0 yi+1=yi+(axi2-bxiyi-cyi) b=10-2
n=3000
z0 = 0 zi+1=zi+cyi c=10-3
7. Excel sheet:
A B C D E F G
1 x0= 1 i xi yi zi
2 y0= 0 =0 =B1 =B2 =B3
3 z0= 0 =D2+1 =E2+(-B$1*E2^2+ =F2+(B$1*E2^2- =G2+B$3*F2*B$4
B$2*E2*F2)*B$4 B$2*E2*F2-B$3*F2)*B$4
4 = 1e-2
5 a= 1e-1
6 b= 1e-2
7 c= 1e-3
(1): R P, v(1) = k[R][P]
2. Applying of atoms conservation principle (unknowns [R] = x; [R*] = y; [P] = z):
(R): r& = v(1) = k1rp (P): p& = v(1) = k1rp
[R] = r [P] = p k1 = a r+p=r0+p0=b r(0)=r0 p(0)=p0
Autocatalysis p& = a (b p)p r& = ar(b r )
5. Approach - exists analytical solution
mechanism p& = a (b p)p
dp 1
= adt ln
p
= at + c
p
= e b ( k1 t + c )
p( b p) b bp bp
b b
p= b ( k1 t + c )
= bk1t bc
1+ e 1+ e e
6. Constants "b" and "c" - from initial values of the concentrations (at time = 0).
1 p(0) 1 p p r r
ln = a 0 + c ln 0 = c ; bc = ln 0 ; bc = ln 0 ; e bc = 0
b b p(0) b r0 r0 p0 p0
7. Analytical solution and its interpretation
r +p if p0 = 0 then p = 0 and thus no evolution
p = p( t ) = p0 ( r00+ p0 ) k10t ; r = r0 + p0 - p
r0e + p0 if r0 = 0 then p = p0 and thus no evolution
8. Plot of p0 0 i r0 0 case (numerical application, using MathCad)
1
if p0 = 0.1; r0 = 0.9; k1 = 0.2 then 1
0.9
1
p( t ) = 0.2 t 1 0.8
9e +1 t 0.7
and 9e. 5
1 0.6
1 0.5
r ( t ) = 1 0.2 t 1
1
9e +1 t
0.4
5 0.3
9 .e 1
0.2
0.1
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25
0 t 25
Lotka - R + X 2X, v(1) = k1rx

x& = v(1) - v(2) = k1rx - k2xy
X + Y 2Y, v(2) = k2xy Y P, v(3) = k3y
y& = v(2) - v(3) = k2xy - k3y

P , v(4) = k4p
p& = v(3) + v(4) = k3y + k4p
Volterra 3. Solving numerically (i=1..n)

x0 = 3
y0 = 0
xi+1 = xi(1+(k1r-k2yi))
yi+1 = yi(1+(k2xi-k3))
=10-2
k1=3
k2=4
k4=3
mechanism
n=5105 r=1
z0 = 0 pi+1 = pi+(k3yi-k4pi) k3=5
7. Excel sheet:
A B C D E F G
1 x0= 1 i xi yi pi
2 y0= 1 =0 =B1 =B2 =B3
3 p0= 0 =D2+1 =D2*(1+(B$5*B$4 =E2*(1+(B$6*D2- = F2+(B$7*E2
-B$6*E2)*B$9) B$7)*B$9) -B$8*F2)*B$9
4 r= 2
5 k1= 3
6 k2= 4
7 k3= 5
8 k4= 3
9 = 1e-4
8. Plots:
x y p
3.5 2.5
3 2
2.5
2
1.5 y=y(x)
1.5 1
1
0.5
0.5
0 0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Remarks: the y=y(x) equation is almost impossible to be extracted analitically, but we may extract
it aproximately (numerically). Thus, for the simulated mechanism above, the y=y(x) equation is:
(x-1.32)2+0.824(y-1.57)2 = 0.350.05
1. Writing of elementary reactions and of reaction rates equations ([R]=r, [X]=x, [Y]=y, [P]=p):
R X, v(1) = k1r X + 2Y 3Y, v(2) = k2xy2 Y P, v(3) = k3y
2. Applying of atoms conservation principle (unknowns [X] = x; [Y] = y):
(X): x& = v(1) - v(2) = k1r - k2xy2 (Y): y& = (2) - (3) = k2xy2 - k3y (P): p& = k 3 y
3. Approach (simplifying r = 1, k1 = 1 and k3 = 1):
x& = 1-k2xy2 y& = k2xy2-y
4. Solving numerically (i=1..n): Case 1 Case 2
Brusselator
k2 = 0.88 xn+1 = xn+(1-k2xnyn2) =10-2 x0 = 1.5 x0 = 2
yn+1 = yn+(k2xnyn2-yn) n=10000 y0 = 2 y0 = 2.5
5. Excel sheet:
A B C D E F G H
mechanism 1 k2= 0.88

2 = 1e-2 i
3 Case 1 =0
xi
=B4
Case 1
yi
=B5
Case 2
xi yi
=B7 =B8
4 x0= 1.5 =D2+1 =D3+(1-B$1*D3*E3^2)*B$2 =E3+(B$1*D3*E3^2-E3)*B$2
5 y0= 2
6 Case 2
7 x0= 2
8 y0= 2.5
6. Phases plot (n=1000):
y(2) vs. x(2) y(1) vs. x(1)
4
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
7. Intermediaries plots (n=5000):

x(1) x(2) y(1) y(2)
3 3
2.5 2.5
2 2
1.5 1.5
1 1
0.5 0.5
0 0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
8. Simulation analysis
Not for any values the attractor appears. For a given k2 (such is 0.88) exists minimum values of x0
and y0 (x0-min, y0-min) from which periodical oscillations occurs and the system tends to the attractor.
1. Writing of elementary reactions and of reaction rates equations ([X]=x, and idem for the rest of):
A+YX X+YP A + X 2X + Z 2X Q ZY
v(1) = k1ay v(2) = k2xy v(3) = k3ax v(4) = k4x2 v(5) = k5z
2. Applying of atoms conservation principle (unknowns [X] = x; [Y] = y, [Z] = z):
(X): x& = k1ay k 2 xy + k 3ax 2k 4 x 2 (Y): y& = k1ay k 2 xy + k 5 z (Z): z& = k 3ax k 5 z
3. Solving numerically (i=1..n, after a long series of substitutions and rescaling):
xn+1 = xn+(qyn-xnyn+xn(1-xn))/ x0=0.2
= 8e-3 q=2e-3 =1e-3
Oregonator yn+1 = yn+(-qyn-xnyn+fzn)/
4. Excel sheet:
zn+1 = zn+(xn-yn)
y0=1
z0=0.3
=1e-1 f=1 n=19800
mechanism A B C D
1 q= 8e-3 i
2 = 1e-1 =0
xi
=B6
E
yi
=B7
F
zi
=B8
F
3 = 2e-3 =D2+1 =IF(D2+(B$1*E2-D2*E2 =IF(E2+(-B$1*E2-D2*E2+ =IF(F2+

+D2*(1-D2))*B$5/B$2>0, B$4*F2)*B$5/B$3>0, (D2-F2)*B$5>0,
D2+(B$1*E2-D2*E2+ E2+(-B$1*E2-D2*E2+ F2+(D2-F2)*B$5,0)
D2*(1-D2))*B$5/B$2,0) B$4*F2)*B$5/B$3,0)
4 f= 1
5 = 1e-3
6 x0= 0.2
7 y0= 1
8 z0= 0.3
5. Intermediaries plots (n=1000):
6. Phases plot (z = z(x,y); 3D plot, MathCad7):
x y z
100
10
1
0.6
0 5000 10000 15000 20000
0.1
0.8
1
log10y 1 0.01
0
1.2
log10z
log10x 0
0.001
1 1
1.4
2
Cells functions
Feeding Copying Multiplication
Signaling
Mutation
Enzyme action
When A binds to When A leaves

E then is no A E S E then is room
room for S to for S to bind to E
bind to E too and the S is
and the S is no processed
more processed
Blue biotechnology
Translucent isolator
Air
Tank
Nutrients
Acquisition, storage, retrieval of
sensor's data
Sensor1: Global Sensor2: Diffuse Intranet switch Clients Internet switch Clients
Acquisition Server Storage Server Retrieval Server
IP: 172.27.211.4 IP1: 172.27.211.1 IP: 193.226.7.203
Acquisition software IP2: 193.226.7.211 MySQL client
MySQL client MySQL server Web server
ADC *Co Ethernet Ethernet1 Ethernet2 Ethernet
S1 S2 Intranet Internet
Eth Eth Eth Eth1 Eth Eth

ACQ ACQ O ACQ ACQ O
DRS DSS 7 #3 7
#1 #2 #4
Com USB Eth2 6 USB USB 6
5 5
ADC WS3 WS2 WS1
5 6 7 O
UT Cluj USAMV Cluj Reghin
Course 14
Methods & models

Structure activity/property relationships
Ideal gas: the surface of possible states
p
p=nRT/V
T
Chemical separation methods
pH=0.5;
HCl(dil) KOH NH3 + NH4Cl H2S
H2S (exs)
Pp: CoS,
MnS, ZnS,
Pp: Bi2S3, Sol: SbS2-, Sb(OH)4-, NiS, Fe2S3,
Sol: Mg2+, Pp: Hg2Cl2, HgS, PbS, HgS2-, AsO2-, AsS2-, Al(OH)3,
Na+, K+ AgCl, PbCl2 CuS, CdS Sn(OH)62-, SnS32- Cr(OH)3
H2O; NH4Cl; (NH4)2CO3 CH3COOH
Pp: BaCO3, SrCO3, CaCO3, MgCO3
H2S schema
NMR
R
S RF Out
EM A
RF D
RF In RF In
S: Sample; RF: Radio Frequency

EM: Electromagnet; D: Detector
A: Analyser; R: Recorder
Spectroscopy
Liquids - surface tension (1/3)
Liquids tend to take the form of minimum area with

maximum number of molecules in the liquid and
interactions between neighbors. Surface tension of liquids
is the force that tends to minimize the surface of a liquid. In
liquids, the distance between molecules is small and the
scope of intermolecular forces is of the order of 10-6 cm.
The force with which a unit of a liquid layer is drawn
inwards internal pressure or pressure fluid is molecular.
Surface tension of liquids at 293 K
Substance Benzene Mercury Methanol Water

(10-3N/m) 28.86 472 22.6 72.75
Distribution of attraction forces in a liquid
Necessary work for surface variation by an d infinitesimal
amount is proportional to d: dw = d
Liquids - surface tension (3/3)
Liquid droplets tend to be spherical, spherical
ensuring minimum surface/volume ratio. From this
we can also provide mathematical relationship
transformation applying Gauss - Ostogradsky
integral over the volume V of a body to the surface
S of the body and with the condition of minimum
we arrive at the fact that the position vector is
collinear with the surface normal at any point of the
surface S - it is obvious (geometric) the sphere.
r r r r r r r
rdV = r ndS = min . r n = 0 r n
V S
Polar solvents
The most known polar Separation of charges in
the water molecule
solvent is water. Water
molecule has an Stratification of the water
asymmetric electronic molecules in the liquid phase
structure. Oxygen Dissociation in aqueous
strongly electronegative solution
element, moving toward
him so that electrons of
hydrogen atoms of water
molecule is a polar
molecule with polar
negative charge near the
oxygen atom and
negatively charged pole
near the hydrogen
atoms.
Ammonia in water
Pattern Arrangements for OxN20-xH50
O or N Nr Cluster H2O NH3 H3O+ HO- [+/-]/H2O Reaction of formation N/(N+O) %
+
H 1 O2N18 2 18 8 0 +(8)/(2+8) 18NH3 + 10H2O O2N18H50 + 8H3O 18/28=64.3
2 O4N16 4 16 6 0 +(6)/(6+4) 16NH3 + 10H2O O4N16H50 + 6H3O+ 16/26=61.5
3 O5N15 5 15 5 0 +(5)/(5+5) 15NH3 + 10H2O O5N15H50 + 5H3O+ 15/25=60.0
4 O6N14 6 14 4 0 +(4)/(4+6) 14NH3 + 10H2O O6N14H50 + 4H3O+ 14/24=58.3
5 O8N12 8 12 2 0 +(2)/(2+8) 12NH3 + 10H2O O8N12H50 + 2H3O+ 12/22=54.5
6 O10N10 10 10 0 0 (0)/(0+10) 10NH3 + 10H2O O10N10H50 10/20=50.0
-
7 O12N8 12 8 0 2 -(2)/(2+12) 8NH3 + 14H2O O12N8H50 + 2HO 8/22=36.4
-
8 O14N6 14 6 0 4 -(4)/(4+14) 6NH3 + 18H2O O14N6H50 + 4HO 6/24=25.0
-
9 O15N5 15 5 0 5 -(5)/(5+15) 5NH3 + 20H2O O15N5H50 + 5HO 5/25=20.0
(O,N)20H50 -
10 O16N4 16 4 0 6 -(6)/(6+16) 4NH3 + 22H2O O16N4H50 + 6HO 4/26=15.4
-
11 O18N2 18 2 0 8 -(8)/(8+18) 2NH3 + 26H2O O18N2H50 + 8HO 2/28=07.1
t(C) (N/(N+O))sat Kb Kw pH Calculus based on observed data

-5 -15
0 0.460 1.3710 1.1410 12.5 w := 5.48 10
14
n := 1.89 10
5
f := 0.179 x := 10
3
y := 10
12
Given
10 0.401 1.5710-5 2.9310-15 12.1 2
n ( 1 x) x 2 y w x 2 y
1f 1f
x ( x + y) y ( x + y) vec := Find( x, y)
20 0.334 1.7110-5 6.8110-15 11.6 f f
30 0.279 1.8210-5 1.4710-14 11.3 9.3 10 3 (

vec ) + ( vec )
T
0
T
1
vec = pH := log
3 w
z := z = 2 10
40 0.232 1.8610-5 2.9210-14 10.9 10 1 f ( T) 0
1
2 ( vec )
z
1.2 10 vec
T
50 0.179 1.8910-5 5.4810-14 10.6 f pH = 10.6
NH4+4H2O
Model, distances (pm) and angles () O-H 95

N-H 101
OH 208
H-O-H (95,95) = 105
H-N-H (101,101) = 109
H-OH (95,208) = 113
Restricted Hartree-Fock 6-31G* Charge=+1; Solvation=Water (SM8)

F-6H2O
Model, distances (pm) and angles () HF HFH
179 (179,184) = 77
182 (184,187) = 85
183 (182,183) = 85
184 (179,183) = 86
185 (185,187) = 87
187 (183,184) = 88
(179,182) = 89
(184,185) = 89
(179,185) = 90
(183,187) = 93
(182,185) = 98
(182,187) = 109
(179,187) = 162
(182,184) = 165
(183,185) = 177
Restricted Hartree-Fock 6-31G* Charge=-1; Solvation=Water (SM8)
Cl-5H2O
Model, distances (pm) and angles () HCl HClH
265 (281,307) = 67
274 (274,307) = 76
281 (281,284) = 82
284 (274,284) = 82
307 (265,307) = 89
(274,281) = 96
(265,274) = 101
(265,284) = 129
(284,307) = 140
(265,281) = 146
Restricted Hartree-Fock 6-31G* Charge=-1; Solvation=Water (SM8)
Li+4H2O
Model, distances (pm) and angles () LiO OLiO

193 (193,196) = 99
194 (194,200) = 104
196 (196,200) = 110
200 (193,200) = 111
(194,196) = 116
(193,194) = 117

Na+5H2O
Model, distances (pm) and angles () NaO ONaO

231 (234,239) = 84
234 (236,239) = 85
235 (231,239) = 88
236 (231,235) = 93
239 (235,236) = 94
(234,235) = 97
(231,234) = 100
(234,236) = 123
(231,236) = 135
(231,235) = 178
K+6H2O
Model, distances (pm) and angles () OK OKO
278 (285,293) = 58.1
279 (281,285) = 79.0
281 (284,293) = 79.1
284 (278,281) = 80.8
285 (281,284) = 81.3
293 (279,293) = 86.2
(279,285) = 86.3
(278,279) = 92.5
(278,284) = 94.4
(281,293) = 100.5
(279,284) = 121.6
(284,285) = 127.8
(278,285) = 128.8
(279,281) = 157.1
(278,293) = 173.0
6 O-H in & 6 O-H out
Most
probable
clusters in
water
d(Li,O) = 1791 pm
O12N8H50; stable O12Li8H18; stable
O14Na6H26; instable O15K5H29; stable
d(Na,O) = 27546 pm
d(K,O) = 2704 pm
NaCl aqueous solution
H2O
- + - +
HO Na Cl H
Electrolysis in water
Element F O Cl H Li Na
Electronegativity 3.98 3.44 3.16 2.20 0.98 0.93
Electrode Reaction -U+
Cathode (-): ox + ne- red H2 Cl2
Anode (+): red - ne- ox
Reactions & potentials V
2Li+ +2e- 2Li(s) -3.04
2F- F2(g) + 2e- -2.87
2Na+ +2e- 2Na(s) -2.71
2H2O H2O2 + 2H+ + 2e- -1.78
HO- 1/2O2(g) + H+ + 2e- -1.73
2Cl- Cl2(g) + 2e- -1.36
H2O 1/2O2(g) + 2H+ + 2e- -1.23
2H2O + 2e- H2(g) + 2HO- -0.83
H2O2 O2(g) + 2H+ + 2e- -0.70
2HO- 1/2O2(g) + H2O + 2e- -0.40 Na+, Li+ H+, Cl-, HO-, O2-, F- (aq)
2H+ + 2e- H2(g) -0.00
Linear regressions
Linear( x , y )
(x1,y1) (xi,yi) (xn,yn)

B.p. vs. H.f. of normal alkanes
1436(35)
B _ P ~ 1142(30) 0.752 ( 0.013 )
H_F
1 +
191.5(9)
500
B_P
400
C12
C30
300 C11
C20
200 C8
C7 C10
100
C4 C9
0 C3 C6
0 50
C5 100 150 200 250
-100
C2 -H_F
-200
C1
Image from: Studia Universitatis Babe-Bolyai. Series Chemia LV(4):61-68.
URL: http://studia.ubbcluj.ro/download/pdf/581.pdf
Plants photosystem II
PA
C7 C6
PN C5 PF C5
C3 C1 C2
C8
PE PH
C3 PJ C3 C3
PK C8
C8
C3 C3
C3 C3 C3
PI C3 PZ
PV C3 C3 PL
C3 C3 PU C3 PB C3
C3 C3 C3 C3
C3 C3 C6
C3 PX C3 C3 PM PT
C3 PC C3 C4
C3
C8 C3 C3 C8 C4 PO C3
C3 C3 C3 C8 C3
C8
C1
PD
PAPX: different proteins C3: chlorophyll A C5: haem like C8: -carotene
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Structure/mmdb/mmdbsrv.cgi?Dopt=s&uid=26605
Chlorophylls - natural solar cells
Chlorophylls are small molecules containing a Magnesium
atom responsible for conversion of the solar energy into
chemical energy and represent the engine of any vegetal
living organism. A in-vitro approach of molecular design was
conducted on the series of six chlorophylls in order to relate
the chemical properties with their natural occurrence.
By combining many reports
on chlorophylls, we may Chlorophyll ChemSpider ID Occurrence
conclude that their a 16736115 universal
b 16739843 many plants
occurrence is not equal, and
d 16736116 cyanobacteria
this diversity may be arisen f 2763140 cyanobacteria
from a long evolution and c1 391649 different algae
adaptation process. Table c2 17229531 different algae
gives a guess about the
occurrence of chlorophylls.
Chlorophylls
molecular
models
A B D
C2 C1 F
Chlorophylls molecular analysis
Method: Extract from PM3 structure models the Molecular
Orbitals calculate energies of electronic transitions
(OMO-UMO)
Analysis: Relate occurrence with e-
density(HOMO)*Entropy(UMO)
Results: showed that the in-vitro molecular orbital states of
chlorophylls are in good agreement with the observed
natural occurrences of chlorophylls
Observed HOMO Estimated
Occurrence HUMO occurrence Observations
Probability to be different from the mean of
a universal 1.84 **** {1.54, 1.38, 1.21, 1.33, 1.38} is over 99.9%
b many plants 1.54 *** {1.38, 1.21, 1.33, 1.38} is over 99.4%
d cyanobacteria 1.38 ** Probability to be different one to each other
c1 different algae 1.33 ** is less than 22%
c2 different algae 1.38 **
f cyanobacteria 1.21 * {1.84, 1.54, 1.38, 1.33, 1.38} is over 96.1%
Polarity vs. polarizability
Polarity is separation of electric charge leading to an electric
dipole or multipole and its moment in the molecule.
Polarizability is measure the change in electron distribution
in response to an applied electric field.
Dipole
Permanent: independent of the environment
Induced: when one molecule with a permanent dipole
induces a dipole in other molecule
Dipole moment: the product of magnitude of charge on a
molecule and the distance between two charges of equal
magnitude with opposite sign.
The electronic polarizability is the ratio of the induced dipole
moment of an atom to the electric field that produces this
dipole moment (DM/E).
Polarity & polarizability: two series of molecules
H2 LiH BeH2
BH3 CH4
NH3 OH2 FH
HF LiF BeF2
BF3 CF4
NF3 OF2 F2
40
35
30
25
20
Polarity & 15
polarizability: 10
5
values 0
H2 LiH BeH2 BH3 CH4 NH3 OH2 HF
HF LiF BeF2 BF3 CF4 NF3 OF2 F2
0
5
10
15
20
25
30 Isotropic Anisotropic Polarity
Polarizability Polarizability Dipole moment
35
(10-30 m3) (10-30 m3) (10-30 Cm)
40
London dispersion forces
Molecules without dipole and
without exterior polarization
field still interact due to the
nonsymmetrical charge
distribution surrounding the
nucleus. The forces keeping
together the atoms are called
London dispersion forces.
Only for Helium (1s2 2s2)
these forces are so small, that
liquid helium surrounds all
surfaces of the vessel in
which are kept.
Bibliography
for General Chemistry

Periodic system; Periodical properties;
Electronic structure
Delia M. GLIGOR, Lorentz JNTSCHI, 2005. Periodic
System of Elements Database and Its Applications. Oradea
University Annals, Chemistry Fascicle 12: 180-194.
Ossi HOROVITZ, Costel SRBU, Horia F. POP, 2000.
Rational classification of chemical elements. Cluj-Napoca:
Editura Dacia.
Mircea V. DIUDEA, Ioan SILAGHI-DUMITRESCU, 1989.
Valence group electronegativity as a vertex discriminator.
Revue Roumaine de Chimie 34(5):1175-1182.
Lorentz JNTSCHI, 2004. MDF - A New QSAR/QSPR
Molecular Descriptors Family. Leonardo Journal of Sciences
3(4): 68-85.
David YOUNG, 2001. Appendix A (A.1.6 p.330, SPARTAN)
In: Computational Chemistry. New York: Wiley-Interscience.
Abundance of elements;
chemical formulas; stoechiometry
Lorentz JNTSCHI, 2012. Structure vs. Property: Algorithms and Models.
Habilitation Thesis in Chemistry (principal), Mathematics (secondary) and
Informatics (secondary). CNADTCU: Bucharest.
Lorentz JNTSCHI, 2012. Structure vs. Property: Algorithms and Models:
Habilitation Thesis Presentation. Defended on Sept. 24. Cluj-Napoca:
Babe-Bolyai University.
Lorentz JNTSCHI, Sorana D. BOLBOAC, Mugur C. BLAN, Radu E.
SESTRA, 2011. Chlorophylls - natural solar cells. BUASVM. Agriculture
68(1):181-187.
Lorentz JNTSCHI, 2000. Prediction of Physical, Chemical and
Biological Properties using Mathematical Descriptors. Philosophy Degree
Thesis in Chemistry (PhD Advisor: Prof. Dr. Mircea V. DIUDEA). Cluj-
Napoca: Babe-Bolyai University.
Radu E. SESTRA, Lorentz JNTSCHI, Sorana D. BOLBOAC, 2012.
Quantum Mechanics Study on a Series of Steroids Relating Separation
with Structure. JPC - Journal of Planar Chromatography - Modern TLC
25(6):528-533.
Minerals; Physical and chemical properties;
Chemical reactions
Lorentz JNTSCHI, Mihaela L. UNGUREAN, 2001. Special
Chapters of Chemistry for Automatics (in Romanian). Cluj-
Napoca: UTPres.
Elena M. PIC, 2009. Principles and Experiences in
Chemistry. Cluj-Napoca: UTPres.
Hydrogen, Oxygen, Water

Liana T. MARTA, 2003. Inorganic chemistry for engineers (In
Romanian). Cluj-Napoca: UTPres.
Gavril NIAC, 2001. Physical Chemistry (In Romanian). Cluj-
Napoca: UTPres.
Lorentz JNTSCHI, 2003. Microbiology and Toxicology.
Phytochemistry Studies (in Romanian). Cluj-Napoca: Amici.
Alkali & alkaline earth metals
p3-p6 block (groups 15 - 18); d1-d5 block; d6-
d10 block
Horea I. NASCU, 1991. General chemistry and technical
analysis. Bucharest: Editura Didactica si Pedagogica.
Lorentz JNTSCHI, 2005. Microbiology and Toxicology and
Phytochemistry Studies (in Romanian). Cluj-Napoca:
AcademicDirect.
Lorentz JNTSCHI, Mihaela Ligia UNGUREAN, 2001.
Physical Chemistry. Molecular Kinetic and Dynamic (in
Romanian). Cluj-Napoca: Mediamira.
f block
Lorentz JNTSCHI, 2002. Chemical and Instrumental
Analysis (in Romanian). Cluj-Napoca: UTPres.
Lorentz JNTSCHI, Sorana Daniela BOLBOAC, 2003.
Applied Chemical and Instrumental Analysis (in Romanian).
Cluj-Napoca: AcademicDirect.
Lorentz JNTSCHI, Horea I. NACU, 2009. Analytical and
Instrumental Chemistry (in Romanian). Cluj-Napoca:
AcademicPres.
Mihaela L. UNGUREAN, Lorentz JNTSCHI, 2003.
Interactive Students Training and Evaluation Software For
Radioisotopes. Studia Universitatis Babes-Bolyai, Physics
XLVIII(1 - Special Issue): 274-277.
Boron group; Carbon group
Sorana BOLBOAC, Lorentz JNTSCHI, 2013. Porphyrin
photovoltaic functionalization of the fullerene. Nano-Science
in Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry and Biology (21st
March, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, Oral presentation, 14:40-
15:00).
Lorentz JNTSCHI, 2013. Cyclic Polyynes. Nano-Science in
Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry and Biology (21st March,
Cluj-Napoca, Romania, Oral presentation, 14:20-14:40).
Mircea V. DIUDEA, Csaba L NAGY, 2012. C 20-related
structures: Diamond D 5. Diamond and Related Materials 23:
105-108.
Lorentz JNTSCHI, Sorana D. BOLBOAC, 2010. The
relationship between energy calculations and boiling points
of n-alkanes. Studia Universitatis Babe-Bolyai. Series
Chemia LV(4): 61-68.
Ceramics; Semiconductors; Superconductors
Napoca: UTPres.
Traian PETRIOR, Lelia CIONTEA, 2004. Properties of
ceramic materials. Cluj-Napoca: UTPres.
Advanced materials; Polymers & plastics
Reactions & mechanisms; Biomolecules
Napoca: UTPres.
Violeta POPESCU, 2005. Polymeric materials and the
environment (In Romanian). Cluj-Napoca: Mediamira.
Lorentz JNTSCHI, 2003. Kinetic Biochemistry. Leonardo
Journal of Sciences 2(2): 1-40.
Methods & models; Structure activity/property
relationships
Lorentz JNTSCHI, 2000. Prediction of Physical, Chemical
and Biological Properties using Mathematical Descriptors.
Philosophy Degree Thesis in Chemistry (PhD Advisor: Prof.
Dr. Mircea V. DIUDEA). Cluj-Napoca: Babe-Bolyai
University.
Lorentz JNTSCHI, 2010. Genetic algorithms and their
applications. Philosophy Degree Thesis in Horticulture (PhD
Advisor: Prof. Dr. Radu E. SESTRA). Cluj-Napoca:
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine.
Lorentz JNTSCHI, 2012. Structure vs. Property: Algorithms
and Models. Habilitation Thesis in Chemistry (principal),
Mathematics (secondary) and Informatics (secondary).
CNADTCU: Bucharest.

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54Xe 55Cs 94Pu 64Gd 65Tb

671.67R 212F 100C 373.15 K

Ionization 104 Gas

Louis A. ALLRED, Eugene G. ROCHOW, 1958. A scale of

Tom R. SANDERSON, 1983. Electronegativity and bond energy. Journal of the

bv,j: bond order of v with j;

[1] Mircea V. DIUDEA, Ioan SILAGHI-DUMITRESCU, 1989. Valence

electron 0 OMO OMO OMO OMO UMO UMO

*spectroscopy measurements, adapted from [Croswell K, 1996. Alchemy of the Heavens]

0m Log scale Overhead

Upper mantle Troposphere 0.50

In crust 15 elements, majority from the beginning of the

we may see that the observational space is intrinsic structured

f() Mathematical function SE, UQ

Full factorial analysis:

Only the chemical compound has well defined structure

Structural ethene (ethylene) benzene acetylene

Structure isomers. Two or more compounds are structural

Rotamers: example - butane "Anti"

1 Complement of maximal CP(cM;x)=4x4+6x3+20x1+6x0 2 -1 x -1 0 0 0

4 Cluj (fragmental) CP(Cf;x)=4x4+6x3+12x2+8x1+6x0 4 0 0 -1 x -1 -1

Cycles (always symmetrical) CP(Cy;x)=12x3+24x0 5 0 0 0 -1 x -1

[1] Joseph P. KENNY, Curtis L. JANSSEN, Edward F. VALEEV, Theresa L.

US National Museum of Natural History images (October 2005)

Corundum is a crystalline form of

NaOH(aq) Na+ + HO-

open cup method Flash point checker

Alg0. reaction: (a)Cu + (b)HNO3 (c)Cu(NO3)2 + (d)NO + (e)H2O

Writing of the molecular formulas for reactants

ON0. assumptions: Cu=Cu0; HNO3=H+(NO3)-=H+N5+(O2-)3; NO=N2+O2-; Cu(NO3)2=Cu2+((NO3)-)2;

IE0. assumptions: HNO3(aq) H+(aq) + NO3-(aq); Cu(NO3)2(aq) Cu2+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq);

AgNO3 + H2O + I2 AgI + AgIO3 + HNO3

Hydrogen, Oxygen, Water

1s1 configuration and ionization stability implies that the

d(Pt,Pt) = 0.277nm d(Pt,Pt) = 0.277nm

Name cation dioxygen superoxide peroxide

Bond order 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0

dO-O (nm) 0.112 0.121 0.135 0.148

Binding energy (KJmol-1) 641 493 0 210

Ionic, covalent-ionic, and covalent

H2SO4, H2SO3, HNO3, HNO2, HClO4, HClO3, HClO2, HClO

Alkali & alkaline earth metals

NaCl NaOH (aq) Hg + Na (l)

CH2 O CH2 Hexa-coordinated

Most spread elements of this Beryl

MgAl2O4 Spinel group - MIIMIII2O4

Calcium is obtained from electrolysis of the CaCl2 in a

YS 150 160 130 120 105 140 140 140

X-ray apps: Beryllium window (FMB Oxford, 2009)

One panel 1.75 2.4 5.4

Human Hubble mirror James Webb mirror

CaCl2 - dust control CaSO4H2O

CaC2 - carbide Ca(CH3COO)2 Ca, Mg, Vitamins

Nitrites, M(NO3)2 are obtained from Epsom salt for bath

p3-p6 block (groups 15 - 18)

The group 15 is important for the two life-supporting

-1992 -1892 -1841

H3PO4 +NO AlP

HNO2 HNO3 CL-20: hexaazaisowutzitane

CL-20: C6H6N12O12(s) 6N2(g) + 3CO(g) + 3CO2(g) + 3H2O(g)

H3PO2 H3PO3 H3PO4