Kato, Kurokawa, Saito - Number Theory I. Fermat's Dream S
Kato, Kurokawa, Saito - Number Theory I. Fermat's Dream S
M&THEMATICAL
MONOGRAPHS
Volume 186
Number Theory 1
Fermat’s Dream
Kazuya Kato
Nobushige Kurokawa
Takeshi Saito
Translated by
Masato Kuwata
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FUDAN BOO12090492443 B '!$
Preface ix
Notation xv
Chapter 0. Introduction
- Fermat and Number Theory ~
0.1. Before Fermat
0.2. Prime numbers and the sum of two squares
0.3. p = x2 + 2y2, p = x2 + 3y2,. . .
0.4. Pell’s equations
0.5. Triangular numbers, quadrangular numbers, pentagonal
numbers 8
0.6. Triangular numbers, squares, cubes 10
0.7. Right triangles and elliptic curves 11
0.8. Fermat’s Last Theorem 12
Exercises 14
Chapter 3. < 81
3.1. Three wonders of the values of the < function 81
3.2. Values at positive integers 84
3.3. Values at negative integers 89
Summary 99
Exercises 100
Index 153
Preface
This book was written in 1996, two hundred years after 1796,
which was a very fruitful year for the great Gauss, who made many
fundamental contributions to modern number theory. Gauss was in
his late teens at the time. On March 30 he discovered a method of
construction of a regular 17-gon. On April 8 he proved the quadratic
reciprocity law (see $2.2 in this volume), which he himself called a
gem. On May 31 he conjectured what would later be called “the prime
number theorem” concerning the distribution of prime numbers. On
July 10 he proved that any natural number can be expressed as a
sum of at most three triangular numbers (see 50.5). On October 1
he obtained a result on the number of solutions for an equation with
coefficients in a finite field, which had a great impact on mathematics
in later eras. All these contributions are discussed in these volumes,
Number Theory 1, 2, 3.
One, two, three, four.. . as naive as it is, the world of numbers
encompasses many wonders that fascinated young Gauss. A discov-
ery in one epoch induces a more profound discovery by the following
generation. A hundred years later, in 1896, the prime number theo-
rem was proved. After some 120 years, the quadratic reciprocity law
had grown into the class field theory. After 150 years, Andre Weil,
who had examined Gauss’s result of October 1, proposed the so-called
Weil conjectures. These conjectures influenced a great deal of alge-
braic geometry in the twentieth century. The brilliance of the gems
polished by Gauss has increased through the efforts of the mathemati-
cians of following generations. It is said that there is no unexplored
place on the earth any longer, but the world of numbers is still full of
mysteries. That makes us think of the profoundness and richness of
nature.
Wandering naively in the wonderland of numbers, we would like
to describe in this book the intricate world of numbers that modern
x PREFACE
The authors hope that the readers enjoy the wonderful world of
modern number theory through the book.
Our special thanks are due to Dr. Masato Kuwata, who not only
translated the Japanese edition into English but also suggested many
improvements on the text so that the present English edition is more
readable than the original Japanese edition.
xi
Objectives and Outline of these Books
Introduction
-- Fermat and Number Theory
xn + yn = Zn.”
Fermat’s Last Theorem had resisted a proof for more than 350 years.
Fermat (1601-65) wrote his “Last Theorem” around 1630 in the
margin of a book he owned. Fermat also left a phrase (‘1 found a
remarkable proof for this fact, but this margin is too narrow to write
it down.” In spite of the efforts of many people, the proof has not
been discovered.
In this chapter we focus on Fermat, who is considered to be a
“founder of modern number theory”. We review his work on number
theory, and see how his work has been developed and extended in
later eras. We introduce our treatment of Fermat’s work in this book
from a modern viewpoint.
5 / 4
13
12
17
15
4Lll 3 5’
/
Notice that in Figure 0.1 the prime numbers 5,13,17 are hy-
potenuses of right triangles. It can be shown, however, that there is
no right triangle having 21 (which is not a prime) as its hypotenuse,
even though 21 is congruent to 1 modulo 4. As we mentioned earlier,
right triangles whose sides are integers have been studied since an-
cient times. However, Fermat was the first to discover such relations
between prime numbers and right triangles.
5 = 22 + l2 = (2 + i)(2 - i),
13 = 32 + 22 = (3 + 2i)(3 - 2i),
17 = 42 + l2 = (4 + i)(4 - i).
Therefore, Propositions 0.1 and 0.2 are reflections of the fact that
as we extend the notion of numbers from Z to Zbi], the factorization
of a prime number in Z[i] is determined by its residue modulo 4.
One of the main themes of class field theory is the factorization of
prime numbers when we extend the world of numbers, and Fermat’s
6 0. INTRODUCTION
Propositions 0.1 and 0.2 may be called the “prelude to class field
theory”. We will come back to class field theory once again in $0.3.
TABLE 0.1
~
primes congruent to 1 or 3 modulo 8
We see that Propositions 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5 are reflections of how prime
numbers are factorized in Q(n) = {u + b&2 1 a, b E Q} (where
Q is the set of all rational numbers), Q(a), and Q(d), respec-
tively. Together with Proposition 0.2, we summarize the factorization
of prime numbers in Table 0.1.
Class field theory tells us the correspondence between the exten-
sions of the rational number field Q and the factorization of prime
numbers. Furthermore, it tells us the correspondence between the
extensions Q( J--r) and Q(a) and the factorization of prime ele-
ments of Q(&i) and Q(a). See Chapter 4 for details.
Class field theory is one of the summits attained by Teiji Takagi
around 1920 after contributions by Fermat, Gauss, Kummer, Weber,
Hilbert , and others.
Also, there is an interesting theory on the existence of rational
solutions to equations of the type a~’ + by2 = c (a, b, c are rational
numbers), such as x2 + y2 = 5, x2 + 2y2 = 7. We will discuss it in
Chapter 2.
n=x2+y2+z2+u2.
0.5. TRIANGULAR, QUADRANGULAR.. PENTAGONAL NUMBERS 9
. OQtsl
FIGURE 0.2. n-gonal numbers
5=22+12+02+02, 7=22+12+12+12,
15 = 32 + 22 + 12 + 12.
satisfy
n = x2 + y2 + z2 + u2
for each integer n > 0. Jacobi’s method uses the fact that the series
-g a(n)Fnz
n=O
is an automorphic form, and it is a typical example of applications of
automorphic forms to the arithmetic of quadratic forms.
Propositons 0.1-0.8 solve some of the problems of representing
integers or rational numbers by quadratic forms such as x2 + y2 and
x2 + y2 + z2 + u2. The arithmetic of quadratic forms grew out of these
questions.
respectively, we can prove Propositions 0.10 and 0.11 using the arith-
metic of iZ[J-“i] and Z[&i], respectively.
We can view Propositions 0.9-0.11 as solving the equations of the
form
xn + y” = zn
has the unique factorization property (i.e., the property that “any
nonzero element can be factored uniquely into the product of prime
elements” just as in Z), we can prove Fermat’s Last Theorem by
factoring z and z - <ky (Ic = 0, 1, . . , n - 1). Unfortunately, for most
n, Z[<J does not have a unique factorization property like Z or the
ring Z[i] that appeared in 30.2.
Kummer discovered that in Z[&] there is a law called the unique
factorization into prime ideals (see 34.2) which replaces the unique
factorization into prime numbers. His discovery pioneered algebraic
number theory (the study of rings such as Z[&]), and he managed to
prove Fermat’s Last Theorem for many n (94.4).
In the course of his work Kummer came close to discovering the
notion of p-adic numbers, and he discovered a mysterious relation
14 0. INTRODUCTION
Exercises
0.6. Show that there are infinitely many integers which are si-
multaneously both a triangular number and a square.
CHAPTER 1
The aim of this chapter is to introduce elliptic curves and the main
part of the proof of Mordell’s theorem, which plays an important role
in the arithmetic of elliptic curves.
(Ye),= ($)3Y;.
17
18 1. RATIONAL POINTS ON ELLIPTIC CURVES
are not elliptic curves since the cubic polynomials on the right-hand
side have a multiple root. This can be seen in Figure 1.2 as they are
graphically different from elliptic curves--each of them has a singular
point at (0,O).
In Figure 1.1 the points indicated by . are integral points (points
whose z- and y-coordinates are both integers) of each elliptic curve.
A point whose x- and y-coordinates are rational numbers is called
a rational point. Studying integral and rational points on a elliptic
curve was Fermat’s favorite theme, and as we will explain in the book,
it leads us to a profound part of mathematics.
The only integral points of elliptic curve in Figure 1.1 are the
points marked by the dots . . (For y2 = x3 + 1, this statement contains
Proposition 0.9. For y2 = x3 - 4, this statement corresponds to
Proposition 0.11. A proof of Proposition 0.11 will be given in $4.1.)
In general, it is known that an elliptic curve over Q has only a
finite number of integral points (Mordell, Siegel). Since y2 = x3 and
y2 = x2(x+1) are not elliptic curves, they may have infinitely integral
points. Indeed, (n3, n2) (n E Z) are integral points of y2 = z3, and
(n2 - 1, n(n2 - 1)) (n E Z) are integral points of y2 = x2(x + 1). This
suggests that the geometrical difference is related to the arithmetical
difference.
On the other hand, an elliptic curve over Q may have a finite or
infinite number of rational points. In Figure 1.1, all the rational points
of y2 = x3 -x are the points indicated by the dots . (Proposition 1.2),
and all the rational points of y2 = x3 + 1 are also the points indicated
20 1. RATIONAL POINTS ON ELLIPTIC CURVES
(i) There exists a triangle whose three sides are rational numbers
and whose area is d.
(ii) There exist three squares of rational numbers that form an
arithmetic progression of difference d.
(iii) There exists a rational solution to y2 = x3 - d2x other than
(x, y) = (0,O) and (fd, 0).
Bd={(u,u,w)EKxKxKIu2+d=u2, v2+d=w2},
Cd = {(x, y) E K x K ) y2 = x3 - d2x, y # O}.
Then there exist bijections between any two of Ad, Bd, and Cd.
We now have seen that Proposition 0.13 and Proposition 1.2 are
equivalent.
Next we show that any two of m, n, m-n and m+n are relatively
prime. The only thing we worry is that m - n and m + n may not
be relatively prime. But a common factor of these two divides both
2m = (m - n) + (m + n) and 2n = (m + n) - (m - n), and thus it
must be 2. Since m - n and m + n are both odd, 2 is not a common
factor either.
24 1. RATIONAL POINTS ON ELLIPTIC CURVES
It now follows from the case Ic = 2 in Lemma 1.7 below that all
ofm,n,m-nandm+naresquares. Thus,ze=z,sc-l=y
and 20 + 1 = 9 are all squares of rational numbers.
QUESTION 2. Prove Lemma 1.7. (Hint: Factor each a, into the product of
prime numbers).
Here the greatest common divisor of the numerator and the denom-
inator is at most 4. (Reason: It is easy to show that the common
prime factor of the numerator and the denominator is at most 2, and
thus the greatest common divisor is a power of 2. If r2 + s2 is even,
both r and s must be odd. Thus, both r2 and s2 are congruent to 1
modulo 4, and r2 + s2 is congruent to 2 modulo 4. This implies that
(r” + s2)2 is not divisible by 8.) Hence, we have
p+Y
<
FIGURE 1.3
the coordinates of Q are (52, ~2). First we assume 51 # x2. Then the
line passing through P and Q is given by the equation
1 ~2 - YI 2 b
(14 x3 = - ~ ---x1-22,
a ( x2 - Xl > a
y3 = _ 92 - Yl
-53 +
Y2Xl - 511x2
lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll
F(,lDAN
11111
lllll
lllll
l~llllll~lllll
BOO12090492443 B km
28 1. RATIONAL POINTS ON ELLIPTIC CURVES
curves
y2 = x3 - 2, y2 = x3 + 1, y2 = 53 - 4, g = x3 _ 2
ffpq4 I M3w%).
Since H(Po) > M, we obtain Hi < H(Po)4. Thus, we have
ff(Pl) < H(h). Th e minimality of H(Po) implies that PI belongs
to the subgroup generated by {P E E(Q) 1 H(P) < Ad}. Since PO
equals either 2Pl + Qz or 2Pl - Qi, PO also belongs to the subgroup
generated by {P E E(Q) 1 H(P) 5 hl}, which is a contradiction.
This proves Proposition 1.13. 0
y2 = (x-u)(x-b)(x-c).
by
d(P) =
- - -
(x-a, x-b, x-c) ZfP # 0, (a, O>> (h 01, Cc, 01,
((u-b)(a-c), a-b, a-c) ifP=(a,O),
~-~__
(b - a, (b - a)(b - c), b - c) if P = (b,O),
(c-u, c-b, (c-a)(c-b)) ifP=(c,O),
ifP=O.
I (Ll, 1)
(For this implies that 23 - a and (51 - U)(XZ - u) represent the same
element in Cjx/(a”)2.) If y = AZ + /L is the equation of the line
passing through P and Q, then
(x-u)(x-b)(x-c)-(Xx+p)2=0
is the equation for the x-coordinates of the points of intersection be-
tween the line and the elliptic curve. Thus, we have
(x - u)(x - b)(x - c) - (Xx +p)2 = (x-x1)(x-x2)(x - 23).
Letting x = a, we have
(x1 - u)(m - u)(x3 - u) = (Au + p)2 E (uyy2.
This completes the proof. 0
y2 = ax3 + bz2 + cz + d.
sI _ ds, t) t’ = h(s,t)
f (% t) ’ f (% t) ’
where f (5 T), s(S, T) and h(S, T) are polynomials of two variables
with Q coefficients whose total degree with respect to S and T is 2.
For rational numbers u and u define the height H(u, V) of the pair
1.3. MORDELL’S THEOREM 37
(2) Let f(S, T), s(S, T) and h(S, T) be polynomials in two vari-
ables with Q coeficients. Suppose that the total degree with
respect to S and T of each off (S, T), g(S, T) and h(S, T) is
no greater than a given natural number d. Then there is a
positive real number C such that
case (iii) it suffices to define f(S, T), g(S, T) and h(S, T) as follows:
f(S,T) = S2 - 4T;
This can be seen from the addition formula (1.2) for the points on an
elliptic curve.
In order to complete the proof of (IIB), it remains to prove Lem-
mas 1.16, 1.17 and 1.18. We prove them in order of increasing diffi-
culty. (The proof of Lemma 1.16 is the hardest, but the others are
relatively easy.)
This follows from the fact that the inequality 11+xyl 2 1 - (i) 2 >
i holds when 1x1 < $, and IyI < i. 0
g(x) i$obimi,d-i
- =
fCx) z$oaimind-i.
Therefore, we have
Hence we have
I c . H(s, t)d.
cl (VP(T) + c2V)dT) = R
(1.6)
c3(T)f(T) + c4(T)g(T) = RTd+“.
Let C be 2(e + 1) times the largest of the absolute values of all the
coefficients of c3 (T) (j = 1,2,3,4). For any rational number II: satis-
fying f(x) # 0, we show that Hi 5 C. H . Write x = E in
lowest terms. Set
d d e
f(T) = c aiTi, g(T) = c biTi, ~1 (T) = C CijT’.
i=O i=O a=0
1.3. MORDELL’S THEOREM 41
Then
d
f(x)nd = -jy aimind-z, g(z)nd = c bimzndei,
i=O z=o
cj (x)ne = 2 cijminee2
a=0
are all integers, and by (1.6) we have
From (1.7) we see that the greatest common divisor of f (x)nd and
g(x)nd divides both Rndte and Rmdte, and thus it divides R since
m and n are relatively prime. It follows from
(1.8)
that
Also from the fact that f(T) and g(T) are relatively prime we see
easily that f ($) Td and g ($) Td are relatively prime polynomials
with Q coefficients. Therefore, there exist polynomials VI(T) and
212(T) with Q coefficients satisfying
Summary
Exercises
2.1. Conies
x2 + y2 = z2
45
46 2. CONICS AND P-ADIC NUMBERS
A the lights of 2
T/prime numbers+
1” t.,
,,” n:‘” s the light &
5 thz/Zght $ + of 3 T-
(GY) - &?
1 - t2 2t
t.
1+ t2 ’ 1+ t2 > -
(c) Conies that have a rational point. Let a, b and c be
nonzero rational numbers. If the conic
ax2 + by2 = c
has at least one rational point, we can obtain all the rational points
by the same method as above. If Q(xe, ye) is its rational point, we
have the correspondence
two roots. Since it is a rational root, we see that the other root is also
rational in view of the relations between the roots and the coefficients
of the equation. That is why P is a rational point.
We can avoid the exceptions, i.e., the part “at most 2 elements”,
in the above one-to-one correspondence in the following way. We put
X = { ratio (3~ : y : z) ( 5, y, z E Q,
(2, y, z) # (O,O, O), ax2 + by2 = cz2}.
‘;T’“Ub+
2.2. Congruence
(2) Let p be a prime number. (In this case we often use the
notation F, instead of iZ/pZ.) The group IF: consisting of
the nonzero elements of F, is a cyclic group of order p - 1.
(3) Let a be an integer. The image of a in Z/mZ is an invertible
element in Z?/mZ if and only if a is relatively prime to m.
(4) (Chinese Remainder Theorem) Let m = pyl . . .p:r be the
prime factorization of m. ( We assumepl, . . . ,p, are distinct
prime numbers.) Then there is a natural isomorphism
Z/miZ-+Z/p~‘Z x . . . x Z/pFrZ.
(The map from left to right is given by regarding an integer
mod m as an integer modpz” for each i.) In other words, if
an integer ai is given for each i = 1,. . . , r, there exists an
integer b satisfying
b E ai mod p&’ (i= l,...,r)
(the surjectivity of the map from left to right); and if b’ is
another integer satisfying the same equations, we have b E b’
mod m (the injectivity of the map).
(b) Quadratic reciprocity law. The field iF5 has a square root
of -1. Indeed, since we have 22 = 4 z -1 mod 5, 2 is a square root of
-1 in Fs. By contrast, we can verify that iF7 does not have a square
root of -1. In fact, if p is an odd prime number, F, has a square root
of -1 if and only if p z 1 mod 4. For which prime numbers does there
exist a square root of 5 in IF,? How about a square root of 3? The
answers to these questions are given by the quadratic reciprocity law
proved by Gauss in 1796. We introduce first the quadratic residue
symbols.
Let p be an odd prime and a an integer prime to p. The quadratic
residue symbol (%) E {f 1) is defined as follows. If there exists a
square root of a in IF, (i.e., there exists an integer x satisfying z2 E a
mod p), define (E) = 1, and if there is no such x, define (E) = -1.
For example, since we have O2E 0, l2 = 42 E 1, 22 s 32 E 4 mod 5,
we see that
(k) = (f!) = 1, (g) = (X) = -1.
b prime to p, we have
-1 1 Zfp=l mod4,
= (-p
(-1 P -1 ifpz3 mod4.
if a > 0 or b > 0,
(a,bb= if a < 0 and b < 0.
there exist real numbers II: and y such that ax2 + by2 = 1.
z
(PI = { f / a, b E Z, b is not divisible by p}
54 2. CONICS AND P-ADIC NUMBERS
a a mod pn
(a, b E Z, b is not divisible by p).
b H bmodp”
Here we used the fact that b mod pn is invertible in Z/pniZ. This
homomorphism can also be understood in the following way. The
natural homomorphism Z/p% + Z(,) /pnZc,) is an isomorphism, and
the above homomorphism is nothing but the composition
For an element 2 in Zc,), its image in Z/pnZ will be written 2 mod pn.
The set of all the units in iZ(,), denoted by (77,~~))x, is the set
{ % 1 a, b E Z, a, b are not divisible by p }. Any nonzero rational
number can be written uniquely as pmzl (m E Z, u E (Zc,)) “).
For a prime number p and a, b E Q” , we define the Hilbert symbol
(a, b)P as follows. Write
a = piu, b =pjv (i,j E z, %V E (q,,Y),
and put
r = (-l)i3a3b-” = (-1)‘ju3Ci E (ZC~))~.
If p # 2, we define
(a,b), = (T),
PROOF OF THEOREM 2.5. The fact that (a, b)V is equal to 1 ex-
cept for a finite number of v follows from the fact that a, b E (FE(,))’
for all but a finite number of primes p and Proposition 2.4(4-l). In
order to show that the product for all the V’S is 1, it suffices to show
it in the following cases (i)-(iii), since we have to prove it only for
each prime factor of a and b and for -1 thanks to Proposition 2.4(l),
(2) and (3).
(i) a and b are two distinct odd prime numbers.
(ii) a is an odd prime number, and b = -1 or 2.
(iii) a = -1, and b = -1 or 2.
2. CONICS AND P-ADIC NUMBERS
In case (i),
0 -b
a
a
ifv=a,
if v = b,
(a, b)v = 0b
(q+k$
ifw=2,
1 for other U.
Thus, the fact n,(a, b)v = 1 is in this case nothing but the quadratic
reciprocity law (Theorem 2.2(l)).
In case (ii), it follows from Proposition 2.4 that
-1 ifv=a,
(-1
(a, -l)v = (-r)+ if u = 2,
i
for other v;
2-
if ‘u = a,
0
1 for other v.
Thus, the fact n, (a, b)v = 1 is in this case nothing but the supple-
mentary laws (Theorem 2.2(2) and (3)).
As for case (iii), a calculation shows that
if z1 is 2 or 03,
(-1, -l)v = ,’
otherwise;
(-1,2), = 1 for all v.
For each prime number p we can interpret (a, b)P in the same manner.
Namely, for each p there is an extension field Qp of Q, and for a, b E
Q” we have
(a, b)P = 1 _ th ere exist x, y E U& satisfying ax2 + by2 = 1.
Qp is called the p-udic number field, and its elements are called p-adic
numbers. In this section we introduce the p-adic number fields, which
are very important objects in number theory.
The p-adic numbers were originally introduced by Hensel around
1900. In the long history of mathematics a number meant a real
number, and it is only relatively recently that we realized that there is
a world of p-adic numbers. It is as if those who had seen the sky only
during the day are marvelling at the night sky. The mathematical
scenery is completely different. Q, emits “the light of prime number
p” in the night sky as if it were a star that we could not see because
of the sun, or the real number field R, which emits “the light of real
numbers” during the day. Just as there are countless stars in the
night sky, there is one U&, for each p. What each star is to the sun
is what each Q, is to W. Just as we can see space objects better at
2.4. p-ADIC NUMBER FIELDS 59
1 26
51 .
a00 31
@(zj
2 n = 1 - 5 + 52 - 53 +. . . + (-5)“,
the sequence (x~)~>I diverges in the ordinary sense in the world of
real numbers, but we can show that it converges 5-adically to i. In
general, for a rational number a # 1, we have
an+l
1+a+a”+...+al’-A=--
l-a’
Replacing a by -5, we have
1 (-l)n5n+l
X71 6 6 .
Thus, as n + 00, we have
2x’=& if-l<x<l
z=o
in the world of real numbers, but formula (2.9) is correct in the sense
of 5-adic convergence.
g c’ = & (padically);
i.e., if we put zrL = CFzo cz, the sequence (z,),> 1 converges padically to &
Ii,.=;> IP21p=$.
The p-adic absolute value expresses well that the sequence p, p2, p3, . . .
converges to 0. (All the arguments in this section work well if we
replace the definition of Ialp by lalp = T”‘~P(~) for any T satisfying
0 < T < 1. However, it turns out that T = b is the most natural
choice, as we will explain at the end of subsection (c).)
From properties (2.6) and (2.7) of ord, we see that
(2.10) I4 = MP . I%
(2.11) la+ bl, 5 max(lal,, lblP) (In particular, (a+ bl, i Ialp + IblP).
If we define the p-adic metric d,(a, b) by
&(a, b) = la - bl,,
then d, satisfies
(2.12) d,(a, b) 2 0, d,(a, 6) = 0 if and only if a = b;
1.4,1.41,1.414,1.4142,. + fi @ Q.
The world of rational numbers is an incomplete world where sequences
such as the one above may not have a limit even if it “should con-
verge”. From this point of view lR is an extension of Q where all the
sequences that “should converge” in the ordinary sense do converge.
(We will lat,er define the meaning of “should converge” precisely.)
With respect to padic convergence, the world of rational numbers
is also incomplete, where some sequences that “should converge” may
not have a limit. Q, is an extension of Q constructed so that all the
sequences that “should converge” do converge with respect to p-adic
convergence. In this regard both Iw and Q, are extensions introduced
with the same motivation. We first review the precise definition of R,
and then we introduce the definition of Q,.
As we stated in the Introduction, 50.1, ancient Greek mathemati-
cians agonized over the problem “What are the real numbers with
respect to the rational numbers?” (“How should we define the real
numbers precisely based on the rational numbers?“), and it is only in
the nineteenth century that this problem was finally solved. Here, we
introduce the definition of the real numbers as the limits of sequences
that “should converge”. This definition is due to Cantor at the end
of the nineteenth century.
A sequence of rational numbers (xn)+i that “should converge”
is defined to be a sequence satisfying condition (C) below. Such a
sequence is called a Cauchy sequence.
(C) For any given rational number E, we can choose a natural
number N such that
m,n 2 N implies IX, - 2,1 < E.
In the world of rational numbers, a sequence that converges to
a rational number (in the ordinary sense) is a Cauchy sequence, but
there are Cauchy sequences such as 1.4,1.41,1.414,1.4142,. . . that
do not converge to a rational number. In the world of real numbers,
however, a sequence is a Cauchy sequence if and only if it converges.
Cantor’s idea is to reverse the direction and define a real number to be
“the Cauchy sequences that converge to that number”. To be precise,
let S be the set of all the Cauchy sequences of rational numbers,
64 2. CONICS AND P-ADIC NUMBERS
Z(,) + p”Z,, which shows that the map Z~,)/p’“Z&) --f Z,/p”Z,
sends z to a. Thus this map is surjective.
To show (5), it suffices to show that Z and Zc,) are dense in Z,.
But, this follows from (2) and (4). 0
It is easy to see that this map is the inverse of the map in Lemma 2.11.
2~;+3~1+4~5+2~5”+4~5”+1x5”+~~~.
Examining the argument given above carefully, we see that the p-adic
expansion is unique since each c, is uniquely determined.
2 cnpn (m E Z, c, E S)
71=?7l
in a unique manner.
2 5 (written exp(z))
n=O
converges if and only if x E pZ, in the case p # 2, and it
converges if and only if x E 422 in the case p = 2. (That
means the exponential function in Q, does not converge on
all of Q,, as compared to the case o.f Iw or C.)
2 (-1Y-1
n=l
n (t - 1)” (written log(t))
ord,(n!) = e
is1 [1
F ,
= nerd,(x) - ord,(n!),
But they are given by Lemma 2.15(2). (Note that & < 1 if p # 2,
and 5 = 1 if p = 2.) The proof of (3) is similar to the case of IR or
c.
Next we show (4). By Lemma 2.15(3), if x E pm&,, we have
exp(x) E l+p’“Z,, since ord, (5) > m for n > 1; and if t E l+p”Z$,,
we have log(t) E pm&,, since ord, (-l)+‘v _> m for 72 2 1.
( >
We can prove log(exp(x)) = x, t = exp(log(t)) for x and t in these
domains of convergence in just the same way as the case of Iw or @. q
(b) Structure of Q,“.
PROOF. First, from the fact that Z?i = Ker(ord, : Q,” -+ Z) and
ord,(p) = 1, (1) fo11ows easily. If p # 2, then (3) follows from the
2 5. MULI’IPLICATIVE STRUCTURE OF THE p-ADIC NUMBER FIELD 73
fact that 1 + pZ, E pZ, via exp and log, and the fact that the map
Z, + pZ, given by a H pa is an isomorphism. If p = 2, then (3)
follows from the fact that 1 + 4& ” 422 via exp and log, and the fact
that iz2 ” 422.
Let us prove (2). Since the kernel of izz -+ IF: is 1 + pZ,, it
suffices to show that the composition map G -+ IF: is a bijection.
For injectivity, it suffices to show that G n (1 + pZ,) = { 1). This
is trivial if p = 2, since G = (1). If p # 2, it follows from the fact
that 1 + pZ, E Z, does not have any element of finite order except
for the identity. We now prove that G + lFi is surjective. This is
trivial if p = 2, since IF,X = (1). If p # 2, let a E “p” and let u E Z,
be an element whose image in IF, is a. Since up-’ = 1, we have
up--l E 1 +pz,. Put
u = exp 5 log(uP-l)
( >
and w = uu-I. Then we have w E G, because we have up-’ =
exp(log(uP-I)) = up-l. Since v E 1 +pZ,, the image of w in ‘Fc is
equal to a. cl
QUESTION 11. Show that there exists a square root of -1 in U& if and only
ifp=l mod4.
QUESTION 12. Show that if p # 2, there exist exactly three quadratic ex-
tensions of U& Determine all three quadratic extensions of Q5.
If p # 2, define
(a,b),= (yq,
and if p = 2, define
“Let a, b E Q”. The following conditions (i) and (ii) are equiva-
lent.
(i) ux2 + by” = 1 has a solution in Q.
(ii) ax2 + by 2 = 1 has a solution QV in for all primes u and
21 = m.”
Clearly, (i) implies (ii). So, all we need to prove is that (ii) implies
(i).
Let u,b E QX, and suppose ax2 + by2 = 1 has a solution in Qv
for all primes u and u = co. We need to prove that it has a solution
in Q.
If we multiply a and b by the square of a rational number, it does
not affect the existence of a solution in Q to ax2 + by2 = 1. Thus,
we may assume that a and b are square-free integers. We prove the
statement by induction on max(lal, lb\).
If either a or b is 1, ux2 + by” = 1 clearly has a solution in Q.
2.6. EtA’I’IONAL POINTS ON CONICS 77
r‘J - a = bc, c E z.
(The last inequality is due to the fact that Ibl > 2.) By Lemma 2.21
below, all we need to consider is the case ax* + cy* = 1. If Ial < lbl,
we can use the inductive hypothesis (since ICI < lbl). If Ial = lbl, we
can reduce to the case Ial < lbl, since /c( < Ibl. 0
PROOF. Define f : X -+ Y, g : Y -+ X by
Summary
2.1. If a conic defined over the rational number field has a ra-
tional point, it has infinitely many rational points, and we can de-
scribe them explicitly. (However, the main theme of the chapter is
not this, but 2.2 and 2.3 below.)
2.2. For each prime number p there is an extension field of the
rational number field called the p-adic number field. Each p-adic
number field is considered to be as important as the real number
field. The p-adic number field has a notion of convergence as does
the real number field, but the properties of convergence are quite
different from those in the real number field.
2.3. A conic defined over the rational number field has a rational
point if and only if its equation has a solution in the real number
field and in the Q, for all prime numbers p. The existence of a
solution in Q, can be determined by the Hilbert symbol, which is
related to the quadratic residue symbol.
Exercises
2.3. Find ords(4n - 1) (n E Z). (Hint: Use exp, log in the 3-adic
number field to get 4” - 1 = exp(nlog(4)) - 1, then use Proposi-
tion 2.14(4).
EXERCISES 79
The formula
(3.1)
7r3
(3.4) 1-$+&$+&&+... =E’
Xl
82 3. c
(3.6) l-~-;+~+L~-iL+~
= 5 log(1 + v5)
are the formulas on the values of a class of functions called < func-
tions. These formulas reveal their secrets as we study them more and
more. In this section we introduce < functions and three interesting
properties on the values of < functions. Define
This function c(s) is called the Riemann C function, named after Rie-
mann who made important contributions to the study of this function
in t,he 19th century. The formulas (3.1) and (3.3) may be expressed
as
respectively, and thus they may be regarded as formulas for the values
of the Riemann < function C(s). Let N be a natural number and
(Z/NZ)x be the multiplicative group of units in the ring Z/NZ. A
homomorphism from (Z/NZ) ’ to the multiplicative group of nonzero
complex numbers Cx
x : (Z/NZ)X + Cx
L(s,x) = 2 9
n=l
(a) C(2). We first g’ive one of the proofs Euler gave to the fol-
lowing theorem of Euler.
THEOREM 3.1.
C(2) = g .
(3.7) -=fi(l-$),
sin(7rz)
TX
n=l
we have
T2
left-hand side of (3.7) = 1 - 31x2 + terms of degree 4 or higher.
Therefore, we have
&1
hi(t) = JLiL
2(1 - t) ’
r-1
(hl (t)) (r > 1).
For example
t + t” t + 49 + t”
(3.8) b(t) = (1 ” t)2 > b(t) = (1 _ tj3> b(t) = (1 - ty .
For any integer T greater than or equal to 1 we have
h7.(t) E Q t, L
[ 1-t 1.
86 3. c
(1)
w=-f&.(-&+-J-).
nEz
(2) If r 2 2, then
h,(t)
=(r-l)!.
(-&>T-c
nEZ
(x:c
PROOF. Take $& log( ) of both sides of (3.7), and we have
Prom Theorem 3.4 we deduce the formulas (3.2), (3.4), and (3.5)
in 53.1.
3.2. VALUES AT POSITIVE INTEGERS 87
EXAMPLE 3.5.
l-;+;+-L+...
27G
=&. (-4 > . ; . (hi(i) - h&.3))
+$().;.(3&2L)
2?ri 1 lr
0
zz
4 ‘?=4.
EXAMPLE 3.6.
1-;+;+-i+...
EXAMPLE
=
3.7.
(--I.--27ri
3
1
2 A=-
i n-
3&’
=& ( >
-4
2Ti 3 1
. 5. (h&) - h3(i3))
=~.(-~)“+.(+-$) (from(3.8))
=-. 1 27ri 3 1
z. (-q = g.
2 (-3 4
THEOREM 3.8. Let r be a positive even integer. We have
72
6
EXAMPLE 3.11
irJ
90 .
REMARK 3.12 Theorem 3.8 does not say anything about c(3),
C(5). C(7), 1‘(g), .: . Apkry proved that C(3) is an irrational number
in 1978. It is cori,jectured that c(5), c(7), c(9), are also irrational
numbers, and if r is an odd integer at least 3, C(r) cannot be expressed
as the product or sum of rational numbers and 7r unlike the case where
T is even. But these conjectures have not been proved.
zzzN’ x(m)
c m’.’
CE,(iv)(m) E Q.
In particular, we have C(m) E Q for any nonpositive integer m.
L a(N)(O)= -; + ;,
<@+l) = -& + ; - ;,
&q-2) = -& + ; - Jp.
This follows from Example 3.20 and the fact ~~=“=, x(a) = 0 (see
Question 3).
1+2+3+.. . + (x - 1) = :(X2
1+ 2” + 32 + . + (x - 1)2 = ; x3 - Es2 + ix
( >
eD(f(4) = f-(x + 1)
94 3. c
(3.18) D = (8 - 1) 2 $I-.
n=O
Operate (3.18) on zT and use the formula
and we obtain
for any natural number 2. Find the right-hand side when z = 5/2. (If we let
r
2 = f in this formula, the left-hand side does not make sense, but it seems like
the sum of i from 1 to ?j.)
((-5) = - l ((-7) = l
22 x 32 x 7’ 24X3X5)
691
<(-9)=- l <(-11) =
22 x 3 x 11’ 23X32X5X7X13’
C(-13) = -A,. “.
~$,,.~=$dz=l+--&
n=l
This shows that the series C,“=, 9 converge absolutely, and, for
any c > 1, they converge uniformly in the domain Re(s) > c. Since
the limit of a uniformly convergent sequence of holomorphic functions
is again holomorphic, Proposition 3.15(l) is proved. 0
If s is a natural number,
r(s) =
IXe-“p
we hzve I’(s) = (s - l)!.
f.
l?(s) has an
analytic continuation to a meromorphic function on the entire plane.
We denote this extended function by I’(s) also. Then it is known
that I’(s) has the following properties. r(s) is holomorphic except for
s = 0, -1. -2, -3, . , where it has a pole of order 1. I’(s) does not
have a 0. For m > 0 we have
x==e-(s+n)uUs
*u t
We let u = ~
=J’0 n=o
c L7C+n’ >
eCsu du
(, Gus;.
=r
In other words, we have
S-l
was, 4 = JX f(s, u)du, where p(s,u) = &u .
0
We write
mN+n
s
(@$+n)‘-&=-
smN -dx,
xs+l
Therefore, we have
As for the third mystery, we will discuss in 54.4 that some arith-
metic information of the field obtained by adjoining a 691st root of
unity to the field Q is related to the fact that in Example 3.23 the
numerator of <( -11) has the prime factor 691. In $4.3 we also dis-
cuss the arithmetic meaning of the values L(l,x) and L(0, x) for the
Dirichlet character satisfying x( -1) = -1.
For the second and third mysteries, see Chapter 10 in Volume 2.
The values of C functions appear in many areas of mathematics
in an unexpected way, and they do not ceaseto mystify us.
Summary
3.3. The value at an integer of such a function called the < func-
tion has some mysterious arithmetical properties. (We will see later
that it is related to the p-adic numbers and the ideal class group
defined in Chapter 4.)
Exercises
S a=
c33ET=-log(l
71=1
n
- c‘“) 8 .
(4.1)
k=O
where & is the primitive n-th root of unity cos (%) + isin (s), and
(k is the Ic-th power of &. Both sides of (4.1) are in a product form,
and we are tempted to apply the law of unique factorization to both
sides of the equation. However, the formulas contain the number &,
which is not a rational number, and thus Kummer was obliged to
examine whether or not the law of unique factorization holds in the
world of numbers containing such numbers as Cn.
A finite extension of the rational number field Q is called an alge-
braic number field. For example, Q(<,) is an algebraic number field.
Algebraic number theory is a subject which studies how the unique
factorization property for the natural numbers can be generalized (in
a modified way, if necessary).
Even if a question is posed within the rational number field, it
may not be answered within the rational number field, and it is often
necessary to go to the world of algebraic number fields in order to
answer the question. As a matter of fact, Kummer obtained a signif-
icant results to Fermat’s Last Theorem (see §4.4), which is originally
a question within the rational number field.
In this chapter we will discuss the method and important results
of algebraic number theory.
103
104 4. ALGEBRAIC NUMBER ‘THEORY
Any two of al, (~2, and a3 do not have a common prime factor. By
Lemma 4.2 all of al, CQ, and 0s are of the form (unit) x (cube in Z[i]).
It follows from this that e is a multiple of 3. Thus, y + 2i = (1 + i)“o
is of the form (unit) x (cube in Z[i]). But the units fl, fi in Z[i] are
all cubes. Hence y + 2i is a cube in Z[i]. 0
PROOF OF PROPOSITION 0.3. Proposition 0.3 is about the qua-
tion p = z2 + 2y2 (p is a prime number) and the residue of p dulo
8. If p f 5,7 mod 8, then (-2,~)s = -1. Thus, there do no exist
rational numbers 5 and y satisfying p = x2 + 2y2 (see the pr of of
Proposition 2.8). L
Next, let p = 1,3 mod 8. We prove that there exist z,y E Z
satisfying p = x2 + 2y2. For an element o = x + yfl (z, y E Z) in
Z[J--2] we have CG = x2 + 2y2. Therefore, it suffices to show the
existence of Q E Z[J-- satisfying p = CUZ. This can be done by
replacing Z[i] by Z[v’Z] in the proof of Proposition 0.2 and using
the fact 2 = 1. 0
( >
PROOF OF PROPOSITION 0.10. Proposition 0.10 states that the
only solution in natural numbers to the equation y2 = x3 - 2 is
(x, y) = (3,5). Rewriting the equation as
x3=(Y+J-2)(y-vq,
we can show that both y + &2 and y - n are cubes in Z[ J-- ,
as in the proof of Proposition 0.11. (Here we replace Z[i] by Z[J--.
Instead of the prime element 1+ i in Z[i], the prime element fl in
Z[J--2] appears in the proof. We also use the fact that the units of
Z[J-- are fl instead of the fact that the units of Z[i] are ztl, zti.)
We have
y+J--2=(a+bdq3 (a, b E Z).
Expanding both sides and comparing the imaginary parts, we have
1 = 3a2b - 2b3 = (3a2 - 2b2)b.
Therefore, b is a divisor of 1, and thus b = fl. It follows that
(Notice that <,” = c3.) Use the same argument as the one we
used to show that x3 = (y + 2i)(y - 2i) implies both y + 2i
and y - 2i are cubes in Z[i], and we obtain the following.
(ii-l) If x is not divisible by 3, then there exist c E Z and
Q E Z[&] such that
(1) z - y = 9,
(2) z - 3Y = T3a3,
(3) z - <3y = <37x3.
(ii-2) If z is a multiple of 3, then there exist c E Z and
o E Z[&] such that
(1) z - y = 92,
(2) z - C3Y = (1 - C3)03>
(3) z - c3y = (1 - T3)$.
(iii) Seta=a+b&(a,bEZ).
(iii-l) If x is not divisible by 3, it follows from (ii-l)(2) that
/’
We denote this elliptic curve by E. Fermat’s Last Theorem in the case ,,,/
n = 3 is equivalent to the fact E(Q) = (0, (O,fl)}, which means
that E(Q) is a group of order 3; i.e., E(Q) z Z/32. Suppose that
we have an elment Q in E(Q) such that Q # 0, Q # (0, 51). When
we replaced (2, y, 2) by (y, 2, Z) or (z, -y, -CC) in the proof above, it
corresponds to replacing Q by (0,l) - Q or (0, -1) - Q. Finding
(z’, y’, z’) corresponds to finding P E E(Q) such that Q = 3P. The
fact max(]5’], ly’], ]z’]) < max(]z], ]y], ]z]) is reflection of the fact that
the height of 3P is far greater than that of P.
TABLE 4.1
(See Table 4.1; note that Q(o) is the field consisting of all numbers
obtained from Q and cy by four fundamental operations, and Z[o] is
the set of numbers cv written as a polynomial with Z coefficients.)
The ring of integers 0~ of K is isomorphic to iZ@” (n = [K : Q])
as additive group. In other words, there exist (3~1,. j Q~ E OK (n =
[K: Q]) such that each element of 0~ can be writ,ten uniquely as
Clcyl Jr. ..+CT,N,(C1,... , c, E Z). This can be shown as follows using
the general theory of integral closure. In general, if A is an integrally
closed Noetherian domain (see Appendix A, §A.l), F is the quotient
field of A, K is a finite separable extension of F, and B is the integral
closure of A in K, then it is known that B is a finitely generated
4.2. THE HEART OF ALGEBRAIC NUMBER THEORY 115
(2) All the prime ideals of Z are (p), where p is a prime number,
and 0.
often write
a=pyl. .pp
in 01~ = Z[JZ%]. The ideals a, b are prime ideals which are not
principal. We have
(3) = l-lb, (1 + J-26) = 113, (1- J-26) = 6”.
Both sides of (4.4) cannot be factored further, but as an ideal it
decomposes as
(3”) = a”b” = ((1-t J-26)(1 - J-26)).
a= Jp,
P
a -’ = {x E K / xa c OK}
This theorem, too, follows from the theory of the Dedekind do-
main since 0~ is a Dedekind domain (see Appendix A, ljA.2)
It was Kummer who first showed, around 1845, that the law of
prime factorization fails for the ring Z[&] (n > l), but the law of
prime decomposition of ideals holds. To be precise, Kummer in-
troduced the notion of “ideal numbers” instead of ideals. It was
Dedekind who, around 1863, defined the ring of integers of an al-
gebraic number field and the notion of ideal, and proved the law
of unique prime decomposition for the ideals. The notion of ideals,
which was born in number theory, became quite important in all
areas of mathematics such as algebraic geometry (see, for example,
D. Eisenbud and J. Harris, Schemes-The Language of Modern Al-
gebraic Geometry).
4.2.THE HEART OF ALGEBRAIC NUMBER THEORY 119
(4.5) 7=(3+&?)(3-Jz)=(5+3Jz)(5-3Jz)
= (27 + 19&)(27 - 19fi) = ...
f:Z[v%]+Z; x+yv%-+(x+yv%)(x-ym)=x”-Ny”,
4.2. THE HEART OF ALGEBRAIC NUMBER THEORY 123
ifmcl mod4,
N= I;“‘,
m if m E 2,3 mod 4.
i
x: (Z/NZ)X + {il} c Cx
WKfi
hK = yL(o,X) = FL&X).
hK = -$c ax(a).
a=1
wKV@ 4x2
hK = FL&X) = 7 . L(l, x) = ; . L(l> x) .
L(l,x)=l-~+:-:+~-lll+...--a
shows that hK = 1.
It seems rather mysterious that Leibniz’s formula is related to the
fact that the class number of Q(n) is 1. This is the entrance to
the “third mystery of the C function”.
126 4. ALGEBRAIC NUMBER 'THEORY
h =sxa
K ~.
27r
L(l,x) =
7T
Thus, Euler’s formula L(l,x) = & expresses the fact that the
class number of Q(a) is 1.
Note that even if we do not know that the exact value of L(1, x)
is &, we may be able to obtain hK = 1 from the formula hK =
@7r . L(1, x). For, the formula
L(l,x) = 1 - ; + ; - ; +. . . < 1
implies
It follows from this that Cp!i UX(U) = -624, and thus we have
hK = - & x (-624) = 6.
QUESTION 5. Using the class number formula for the imaginary quadratic
fields, find the class number of the following fields: Q( J??), Q(JT), Q(Jq)
and Q(J-10).
4.4. FERMAT’S LAST THEOREM AND KUMMER 127
Baker and Stark proved in 1967 that the only imaginary quadratic
fields whose class number is 1 are the following nine fields:
by studying the ideal class group and the unit group. The ideal
class group appears in Proposition 4.33 under the form of the “class
number”, and the unit group plays an important role in the proof
of Proposition 4.33 (see Lemma 4.36 below). The following lemma
replaces Lemma 4.2, which was proved in 54.1 using the unique prime
factorization.
(4.7)
1.4. FERhlA’l”S L4S’I’ THEOIIE~l AN13 KU~IIVE:H 129
Using the fact that p does not divide the class number, we show that
there exist a unit u in A and an element a in A such that
To do so, we first show that the ideals (Z -<‘y) (0 < i < p- l), which
appear in the right-hand side of (4.7), are pairwise relatively prime.
Let 0 < i < j 5 p - 1 and let p be a nonzero prime ideal that
divides both (Z - <“y) and (z - <J y). It follows from the fact z -
<“y, z - CJy E p that (C’ - <J)y/, (<” - <J)z E p. Thus, we have
cc1 - PHY, 2) c P. s ince y and z are relat)ively prime: we have
(y,z) = (1). By Lemma 4.35(5), we have (1 - <I-“) = (1 - <). Since
(1 - <) is a prime ideal (Lemma 4.35(4)), we have (1 - <) = p. By
(4.7) we have xP E p. and t)hus we have x E p. Since p n Z = (p), we
have p 1 x, which contradicts the hypothesis p + xyz.
It follows from Lemma 4.34 that the ideal (z-<“y) (0 < i 5 p- 1)
is the pth power of an ideal 6, in A.
If we set (Z - <y) = ap, the p-th power of the class of a in Cl(A) is
the identity element. But, the order of Cl(A) does not divide p, and
thus the only element whose p-th power is the identity is the identity
itself. Therefore, a is a principal ideal. Let a be a generator of a.
Then we have (Z - <y) . aep E AX, and (4.8) is proved.
Before going further, we show that we may assume y $ --z mod p.
If y E --z mod p? then we use the substitution xi = -2, zi = -x.
Then we have ~7 + y” = z:. It suffices to show that y $ -21 mod p.
If not, we have IC E y E -Z mod p, and thus we see 2s” E -xv mod p
by substituting in xp + yP = zP. S’mce p # 3, we have x 3 0 mod p,
which is a contradiction.
In order to derive a corkradiction from (4.8) we use the following
Lemmas 4.36 and 4.37.
LEMMA 4.36. Let p be an odd prime number, and let < und A be
the same as in Lemma 4.35. Let r : Q(() + Q(c) be the complex
conjugution, and let B = {a E A 1 T(Q) = a}. If p,, = {CL 1 0 < i <
p - l}, then we have
AX = pP x BX.
We will prove Lemma 4.36 later using Dirichlet’s unit theorem.
LEMMA 4.37. We denote also by r the automorphzsm of 2 =
A/pA mduced by 7. Let 2 = {a E A ( ~(01) = 0~). Then we have the
following:
(1) ,4 basis of 2 over IF, is given by {Cl 1 1 ( % 2 p - l}.
130 4. ALGEBRAIC NUMBER THEORY
(2) A basis of B ower IF, is given by {<’ + CPi 1 1 < i < q}.
(3) xp = {a” E 2 ) c-u E A} is equal to IF,, and it is contained
in B.
PROOF OF LEMMA 4.37. From Lemma 4.35(l), (2) and the fact
1+ < + ‘. . + p-1 T 0, we can take {<” 1 1 5 i < p - l} as a basis of
A over Z. Thus, {<” 1 1 < i < p- l} is a basis for 2 = A/pA over IF,.
This shows (1). Since 7 sends <” to <-“, (2) follows easily from (1).
Let us show (3). Take cy = CrI; aici E 3, a, E F,. In a ring,
such as A, in which p equals 0, the p-th power map preserves addition
and multiplication. Thus, we have ap = CTil aL E F,. Therefore,
we have A” = F,. The other assertion is clear. 0
Thanks to the relation between c(m) and ((1 -m) shown in 53.3,
condition (iii) is equivalent to the following condition (iii)‘.
(iii)’ For all positive even numbers f less than or equal to p - 3,
the numerator of <(r)r?’ is not divisible by p.
132 4. AI,GEUI~AI( NUMBER THEORY
Using Example 3.23, we see (iii). The above theorem implies that
all the prime numbers p less than or equal to 17 satisfy the condition,
“p does not divide the class number of Q(&)“, but 691 divides the
class number of Q(&i).
We discuss Kummer’s criterion at the beginning of Chat,per 10 in
Volume 3.
Summary
Exercises
a= rJPQ> b = npb,
P P
for a, b E A ab = 0 implies a = 0 or b = 0.
13 :,
The set {X E B 1 J: is integral over A} is a subring of B. This
subring is called the inte.qml closure of A in B. If A is a domain,
the integral closure of A in its field of fractions is called the integral
closure of A. If the integral closure of A equals A itself, then A is
said to be integrally closed.
An ideal a in A is a prime ideal if the quotient ring A/a is a
domain. This is equivalent to (1) and (2) below:
(1) If ab E a, then a E a or b E a.
(2) 1$ a.
An ideal a in A is called a maximal ideal if the quotient ring .4/a is
a field. This is equivalent to (1) and (2) below:
(1) An ideal of A containing a is eit,her A or a.
(2) I@ a.
A maximal ideal is a prime ideal, but the converse does not, hold in
general. For example, the zero ideal of Z is a prime ideal but not a
maximal ideal.
EXAMPLE A.1 (Dedekind domain). (1) A principal domain (see
Example 4.4) is a Dedekind domain.
(2) Let A be a Dedekind domain, and K its field of fractions. If
L is a finite extension of K and B is the integral closure of A in L,
then B is a Dedekind domain.
is an isomorphism of groups.
(3) For a = n p’p an,{1 b = n p”; , a c b is equivalent to the fact
that for any p we have ep > eb.
Chapter 1
1.4. The first part is easy. As for the second part, take A = Q. Then,
we have A/2A = {0}, but A is not finitely generated.
Chapter 2
2.1. For example, (y, g). Th’ is is the point of intersection between the
circle and the line with slope -3 passing through (2,l).
2.2. It suffices to find a rational point on the circle r2 + yi = 1 that
is very close to the rational point The slope of the line joining
(h55).
C-1,0) and (&, &) is fi - 1 = 0.414 , while the slope of the line
joining (-1,0) and ($$. =) is & = 0.416’.., as we have seen in the text.
Thus, it suffices to take the line passing through (0, -1) whose slope is 0.415
and to find the other point of intersection with the circle. A calculation
shows tha.t the coordinate of the other point of intersection is given by
(&cug), and we see that
(F) =(~)...($)(k)
2.5. The fact that the circle gr’ - &y2 = 1 does not have a rational
point can be seen from the fact that (g, -$)P = (15, -l)P = -1 if p = 2
or p = 3.
appear only finitely many times and the terms P’~ with positive n appear
infinitely many times.
2.12. It follows from field theory that any quadratic extension of a field
K of characteristic different from 2 is of the form K(A), (u E K, J71 @ K),
and
Chapter 3
h,(i)= -1.1
2 27~iCC ,,FE
-fP
i + n
1
2-n
1
=&~A&
>
1 1 1
(n2 : 1)” = -q&p - 4(i ~ n)” 4i i+n +&
+ >
3.3. The image of x is the set of all the n-th roots of unity {C:; 1 1 <
T < n} for some rt > 2. Let k be the order of the kernel of x. For each
‘r satisfying 1 < T < n, x takes the value <ii on I; different elements in G.
Thus, C,ec; x(a) = x;:-, k. C,‘; = 0.
142 ANSWERS 7’0 QUESTIONS
3.4. We have
Thus, we have
= !@IG(s - l)C(s)+ 2 + g
= ; - 21og(2).
Chapter 4
y+i=(a+bi)“, U,bEZ
(Here, we used the fact that the only common prime factors of y + a
and y - &ii are *&ii and A2.) Comparing the imaginary parts of
both sides, we obtain 1 = 3 (a + $)’ $ - 11 (g)“. From this we.obtain
(3a2 + 3ab - 2b2)b = 2. Thus, we have b E {fl, ~t2}. The rest is easy.
ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS 143
4.3. Let m be an integer that is not divisible by any square except for 1.
LetK=Q(J\/m) ,o=z+y&(x,y~Q) andcr’=z-ye.
(i) First we show that LY E 0~ is equivalent to the fact that the rational
numbers 01 + o’ = 2s and cro = x2 - my2 both belong Z If o E OK.,
then by replacing (Y by o’ in the equation on + crcrnpl + ‘. + cn = 0
(n > 1, ~1,. , cn E Z), we see that 01’ E OK. Therefore, we have 01 + cy’,
eta’ E OK. Thus, these numbers belong to 0~ n Q = Z. Conversely, if we
have cx + CY’, cycv’ E Z, then LY satisfies the equation o2 + crcy + cs = 0 with
cl = -(o + o’) and c2 = oo’. This implies that cy belongs to OK.
(ii) By (i) it suffices to show the following: For x, y E Q
2x,x2-my2EZ I x,yEZ,
ifmE2,3mod4,and
2z,z2-my2EZ u 2x,2yEZandx-yEZ,
if m E 1 mod 4.
(iii) Show first that if x, y E Q satisfies 2x, x2 - my2 E Z, then we
have 2y E Z. If 1 is an odd prime number, it follows from ordl(x) 2 0
and x2 - my’ E Z that ordi(m) + 2ordl(y) > 0. Since ordl(m) < 1, we
have 2ordl(y) > -1. Thus we have ordl(y) > 0. Since ordz(x) 2 -1 and
x2 - my” E $ we have ords(m) + 2ords(y) 2 -2. Since ordn(m) < 1, we
have 2ord2(y) 2 -3. Thus, we have ords(y) > -1. Summing it all up, we
see that 2y E Z.
(iv) To show the equivalence in (ii), we may assume 2x, 2y E Z because
of (iii). Suppose 2x = u and 2y = v (u, u E Z). If m E 2,3 mod 4, it suffices
to show
u 2 -mv2=0 mod4 u UEUEO mod2,
Chapter 0
0.1. Suppose that the n-th root of 5 is a rational number and that
it factors as fpP1 .. .psT (~1,. ,P,. distinct primes, e, integers satisfying
e, # 0). Taking the n-th power, we have 5 = py” .‘.pF”“. This is a
contradiction to the uniqueness of prime factorization since n 2 2.
0.2. If & + v’? is a rational number, so is 5 + 2&. Thus, & is a
rational number. But we can show that I/% is an irrational number by a
similar method as Exercise 0. 1.
0.3. 29 = 2’ + 5’, 37 = 1’ + 6’, 41 = 4’ + 52, 53 = 2’ + 72.
0.4. Combiningfactorizations 5 = (2+i)(2-i) and 13 = (3+2i)(3-2i),
we have
652 = ((2 + i)(3 + 2i))2((2 - i)(3 - 2i))”
= (-33 + 56i)(-33 - 56i) = 33’ + 56”,
652 = ((2 + i)(3 - 2i))‘((2 - i)(3 + 2i))”
= (63 - 16i)(63 + 16i) = 63” + 162.
145
146 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
Chapter 1
= ord,(36n3) = ord,(36).
(iii) Answer: (z, y) = (0,12). R eason: Just as (ii), we see that if (z:, y)
is a rational point on the curve y2 = z4 + 4, then (x2, z:y) is a rational point
on the curve y2 = z3 + 42. Thus, it follows from (i) that (x2, zy) equals
one of (O,O), (2, *4).
Chapter 2
2.2. Let f be an element of Horn (Z [t] /z, z [t] /z) For any n 2 1
n
2.3. For n # 0 define k = orda(n). From Proposition 2.14(4) we see
the following. Since 4 belongs to 1 + 3&, but not to 1 + 9&, log(4)
belongs to 323, but not to 9Za. Thus, nlog(4) belongs to 3kf1Zs, but not
to 3k+2Z:3. Thus, 4’” = exp(nlog(4)) belongs to 1 + 3k+1Z:s, but not to
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES 149
2.4. First, (1) follows from Proposition 2.18 and the fact that for an odd
prime number p we have
-2
=l u pz1,3 mod8
(-> P
Chapter 3
2 1
L(2,x) = -F z (h2(<8) - h2(&) - WC3 + h2CC87)) = $x2.
( >
3.2. (1) (1 - 2l.-“)<(s) = c;=, 5 - 2 c;& &s = 1 - +s + jk - $ +
‘-&+....
5.3
(2) lim,++r+o(s-l)<(s) = lim,+l+s &.(l - & + & - & + ‘. ‘) =
&log2=1.
=J-Ce-(z+cllL1+...+ckn
0 (x + Clnl + + Cknk)’
0 U
o (1- ,plU)
=JW ."T(1-e-ck~)us~
Let a > 0. Divide the integral sow = s,” + saw. Since eeZcu approaches
very rapidly as u goes to 00, the part s,” can be analytically continued
to the entire plane as a holomorphic function in s. Take a small enough
that 1 - eeCZ” (1 5 i 5 Ic) does not have a zero in 0 < IuI 5 a. Then, in
0 < u 5 a we have
epxu
-k -g AnUn,
c1 “‘ck (1 - e-clu). (1 - e-ck”) = u n=O
Q...Ck.
SC 0
=
TX=0
A,. a
s+n-k’
Therefore, [(s, xc; cl,. , ck) may be analytically continued to the entire
plane and we see that it is holomorphic outside 1,2, , k. If m is a negative
integer or 0, then we have
= s-m
lim l-(s)
1. Ak-m z = z4k-m(-1)” Iml!.
Chapter 4
Using a similar argument to the proofs of Propositions 0.2, 0.3 and 0.4 in
$4.1, we have
if p # 2,7.
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES 151
153
154 INDEX
triangular number, 10
C function, 82