Identification of 315 Genes Essential For Early Zebrafish Development
Identification of 315 Genes Essential For Early Zebrafish Development
zebrafish development
Adam Amsterdam, Robert M. Nissen, Zhaoxia Sun, Eric C. Swindell, Sarah Farrington, and Nancy Hopkins*
Center for Cancer Research and Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139
This contribution is part of the special series of Inaugural Articles by members of the National Academy of Sciences elected on April 20, 2004.
We completed a large insertional mutagenesis screen in zebrafish reciprocal best BLASTP hits, but also if no other gene in either
to identify genes essential for embryonic and early larval devel- species genome finds the gene as its top hit. A worm or yeast
opment. We isolated 525 mutants, representing lesions in 390 gene was defined as an ancestor of a humanfish gene if
different genes, and we cloned the majority of these. Here we several human genes found the worm or yeast gene as their top
describe 315 mutants and the corresponding genes. Our data hit, but no other worm or yeast gene found any of those human
suggest that there are roughly 1,400 embryonic-essential genes in genes as their top hit.
the fish. Thus, we have mutations in 25% of these genes and have
cloned 22% of them. Re-screens of our collection to identify Results
mutants with specific developmental defects suggest that 50 Identification of 25% of the Genes Essential for Early Zebrafish
genes are essential for the development of some individual organs Development. We isolated 525 insertional mutants that have
or cell types. Seventy-two percent of the embryonic-essential fish visible phenotypes by 5 dpf, a time when the embryo has
genes have homologues in yeast, 93% have homologues in inver- developed from a fertilized egg to a free swimming larva that has
tebrates (fly or worm), and 99% have homologues in human. Yeast begun to feed. Most of these mutations result in lethality, and
and worm orthologues of genes that are essential for early ze- many mutants die by 5 dpf. Almost all mutants that have not died
brafish development have a strong tendency to be essential for by 5 days fail to inflate their swim bladder, a phenotype
viability in yeast and for embryonic development in the worm. associated with certain death by 2 weeks of age. Thus, we refer
Thus, the trait of being a genetically essential gene is conserved in to the mutants and mutations as embryonic lethal(s) and the
evolution. This mutant collection should be a valuable resource for mutated genes as embryonic-essential genes.
diverse studies of cell and developmental biology. The insertional mutagenesis procedure and the methodology
for identifying mutagenic inserts and cloning their flanking
DNA have been described (13). A summary of the numbers of
T o identify a significant fraction of the genes essential for early
vertebrate development, we developed a method of inser-
tional mutagenesis for the zebrafish using mouse retroviral
mutants isolated and flanking sequences and genes cloned is
shown in Table 1. The 486 mutants for which we have obtained
vectors (1, 2) and applied the method in a large-scale screen. We DNA sequence at the site of the mutagenic insertion probably
identified mutants by visual inspection of embryos at 1, 2, and 5 represent 362 different loci; we have identified the mutated gene
days postfertilization (dpf), by which time they have developed for 315 of these, 86 of which we have reported (1, 2). As discussed
into free-swimming and feeding larvae. Mutants that result in a next, our findings suggest that these 362 loci represent 25% of
visible defect by 5 dpf are almost invariably lethal. Here, we the genes whose mutation leads to an embryonic lethal pheno-
describe 315 mutants and their genes and present an analysis of type. Thus, there are only 1,400 such genes. The following
the evolutionary conservation of these genes. The results argue evidence supports this conclusion.
that the mutant collection contains mutations in at least 25% of Our collection includes mutations in 5 of 20 (25%) tRNA
the genes essential for the development of many different synthase genes and 26 of the 79 (33%) ribosomal protein genes
embryonic organs and structures. Re-screens of the collection in in the zebrafish genome. We also have mutations in 23 of 97
our lab to identify mutations in specific developmental processes genes (24%) for which a chemically induced mutant has also
support this conclusion. This collection should be a valuable been identified and the mutated gene cloned by positional or
resource for diverse studies of cell and developmental biology in candidate gene cloning (as of February 2004). Most of the latter
this vertebrate. genes encode transcription factors, receptors, and ligands. These
data argue that we have screened 25% of the genes in the fish
Materials and Methods genome, whether extrapolated from housekeeping-type genes or
Mutagenesis and Gene Cloning. Retroviral-mediated insertional
genes with more specific developmental functions. The data in
Table 2 also show that viral integrations do not occur prefer-
mutagenesis and the cloning of the mutated genes were carried
entially into housekeeping-type genes because the allele fre-
out as described (13).
quency for housekeeping genes is no greater than that for other
types of genes.
Comparative Genomic Analysis. The amino acid sequence of each
In theory, a second way to estimate the number of embryonic-
fish gene was compared by BLASTP (4) to the reference genomes
essential genes from these data is to apply the Poisson distribu-
of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Cae-
norhabditis elegans, Drosophila melanogaster, and Homo sapiens,
as well as the nonredundant database of all organisms to find Abbreviations: SCE, single-celled eukaryotes; IFT, intraflagellar transport; RNAi, RNA in-
genes absent in the two yeast species but present in other terference; dpf, days postfertilization.
unicellular eukaryotes. Comparative orthologous group (COG) Data deposition: The sequences reported in this paper have been deposited in the GenBank
analysis (5) to determine whether homologues were 1:1 ortho- database (accession numbers can be found in Table 3, which is published as supporting
logues or had other orthology relationships was done by itera- information on the PNAS web site).
tively blasting the top hits from each organism against the See accompanying Biography on page 12789.
genomes of the others. We consider two genes from different *To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: [email protected].
species to be 1:1 orthologues if they are not only each others 2004 by The National Academy of Sciences of the USA
GENETICS
are described in Table 3). A preliminary phenotypic description
of the corresponding 315 mutants is provided in Table 3 and Mutant Phenotypes and the Evolutionary Conservation of Genes
images are available at http:web.mit.educcrpnaszebrafish Required for Specific Developmental Processes. About 30% of
mutantimagesindex.html. More detailed phenotypic descrip- embryonic zebrafish mutants identified in gross morphological
tions of the defects in particular organs and structures will come screens have developmentally specific and unique phenotypes
from careful re-screens of the collection (see below). whereas 70% display relatively nonspecific or common syn-
If we take 1,400 as the number of zygotic genes whose dromes (7, 14). The latter more frequently result from mutations
mutation can lead to an embryonic visiblelethal phenotype in in cell-essential genes. Many mutants can be placed into either
the zebrafish, the 315 genes listed here represent 22% of the of the two broad phenotypic categories by superficial visual
total. Because mutated genes were cloned without regard to inspection. However, to identify mutants with phenotypic de-
phenotype, these genes should be representative of the entire set fects in specific organs or processes with certainty requires
of protein-coding genes that are genetically essential for early considerable effort. To accomplish this goal, we are re-screening
zebrafish development. the insertional mutant collection, a process called shelf-
Fig. 2 provides a summary of the types of proteins encoded by screening. Summaries of three such screens from our lab are
the 315 embryonic essential genes based on their biochemical shown in Fig. 3 Right.
function. Many of the genes are probably essential for cell Black boxes in the three columns in Fig. 3 Right identify genes
viability whereas others are likely to be required for more specifically required (i) to prevent cystic kidney, probably be-
specific developmental processes. Mutations in cell-essential cause these genes are required for the normal development of
genes can survive for 1 to at least several days due to maternal kidney epithelial tubes (15), (ii) to form cartilage that appears
supplies in the egg (8). Mutation of some cell-essential genes may normal after staining with Alcian blue (R.M.N., A.A., and N.H.,
not have been detected in our screen because maternal supplies unpublished observations) or (iii) for melanocyte pigmentation
of some genes are sufficient to sustain the embryo beyond 5 dpf, (E. Maldonado, A.A., and N.H., unpublished observations).
e.g., Dicer1 (9). About 20% of all of the genes we identified Twelve genes when mutated resulted in kidney cysts, 8 in
encode proteins of unknown biochemical function. abnormal cartilage condensation as revealed by appearance
after Alcian staining, and 11 affect melanocyte pigmentation.
Evolutionary Conservation of Embryonic-Essential Zebrafish Genes. Because we have cloned 22% of the genes essential for early
To better understand the genetic basis of animal development fish development, these results predict that mutations in 55
and its evolution, we asked whether the embryonic-essential fish genes can give rise to cystic kidney, 36 to abnormal cartilage, and
genes have homologues in yeast, other single-celled eukaryotes 50 to defects in melanocyte pigmentation in the zebrafish. As
discussed later, many genes identified in each screen are com-
ponents of a common pathway, with different pathways or
Table 2. Allele frequencies processes emerging for each screen.
Fig. 3 shows the conservation of the genes identified in each
Loci with one allele 275
of the three screens in the genomes of yeast, other SCEs,
Loci with two alleles 62
invertebrates (fly or worm), and human. Of the 12 genes that can
Loci with three allele 17
give rise to cystic kidney when mutated, 6 are shared with SCEs
Loci with four alleles 6
but not with yeast. Three of these are homologues of genes
Loci with five allele 1
identified in Chlamydomonas that encode intraflagellar trans-
Loci with seven alleles 1
port (IFT) proteins required for flagellum formation (16) (see
Average allele frequency 1.34
Discussion).
Average allele freq, RP and tRS 1.10
Formation of cartilaginous structures requires the deposition
Average allele freq, ENU cloned 1.95
of proteoglycans in the extracellular matrix (17). Among the
RP, ribosomal protein genes; tRS, tRNA synthase genes; ENU cloned, genes eight cartilage mutants identified, four have lesions in genes
identified as the cause of ENU-induced mutants. required for proteoglycan synthesis, predicting that 20 such
Amsterdam et al. PNAS August 31, 2004 vol. 101 no. 35 12793
Fig. 1. Genes essential for zebrafish embryonic development identified by insertional mutagenesis. Genes are listed by mutant number and sorted by
evolutionary conservation and gene function. Phenotypic descriptions are available in Table 3, and images are available at http:web.mit.educcr
pnaszebrafishmutantimagesindex.html.
GENETICS
required for proteoglycan synthesis in both worm and fish, they
are involved in the formation and structural integrity of very
different body parts in the two organisms.
Extending our earlier observations (2), 9 of 11 genes we
identified as required for normal melanocyte pigmentation in
fish encode v-ATPase subunits or associated proteins or proteins
otherwise involved in intracellular vesicles. Whereas the main
v-ATPase subunits are found in yeast, zebrafish required several
animal-specific v-ATPase-associated proteins in addition.
Amsterdam et al. PNAS August 31, 2004 vol. 101 no. 35 12795
In C. elegans, RNAi analysis of protein-coding genes reveals
that only 7% are required for embryo viability, an additional
1.5% for other developmental andor physiological processes,
and another 1.5% for wild-type growth (21). Yet among the
worm genes that are orthologous to the vertebrate genes we
identified and for which RNAi data have been reported, 72% are
required for embryonic viability and a further 6% are associated
with postembryonic developmental phenotypes, a total of 78%.
This is an enrichment of nearly 10-fold over the worm genome
at large. In the large RNAi screens in C. elegans that have been
published to date, it was estimated that only 78% of embryonic-
essential genes were detected, largely due to inefficiencies in the
RNAi technology (21). Correcting for this failure rate, we
conclude that nearly all of the worm orthologues of essential fish
genes might in fact be essential for embryonic development (see
lighter colored extensions on the green columns in Fig. 4 Right).
In summary, this analysis reveals that genetically essential genes
have a strong tendency to retain this special status through
evolution from yeast to vertebrates.
Discussion
We have described the completion of a large genetic screen in
zebrafish, the isolation of insertional mutations in 25% of the
embryonic-essential genes of the fish, and the molecular cloning
of 22% of all such genes. This collection of mutants will be a
valuable resource for the study of many cellular and develop-
mental processes in a vertebrate. Many of the genes we identified
are probably required for cell viability, others for more specific
developmental processes including patterning, differentiation or
physiology. Twenty percent of the genes encode proteins that
have no known or sufficiently clearly identifiable biochemical
function. About three quarters of the genes we cloned have
homologues in yeast or other single-celled organisms, and 25%
are animal-specific with 7% overall being vertebrate-specific.
Our results imply that there are only 1,400 genes that when
mutated result in a visible, usually lethal phenotype in the
zebrafish embryo and 5-day-old larva. This number is fewer than
the 2,400 such genes proposed by Haffter et al. (7) from data
obtained in a large chemical mutagenesis screen by using ENU
Fig. 4. Essentialness of genes is evolutionarily conserved. Shown is an as the mutagen. We do not think the discrepancy is due to the
analysis of S. cerevisiae (Left) and C. elegans (Right) genes that are homolo- inability of retroviral vectors to target genes than can be mutated
gous to the essential fish genes. In each case, the leftmost columns represent by ENU because genes mutated by ENU and cloned by posi-
315 essential fish genes, the red columns show how many of these have
tional or candidate gene cloning were mutated at the same
homologues in yeast (214) or worm (272), and the blue columns show which
have a 1:1 orthologue or ancestor gene in yeast (176) or worm (235). The
efficiency as genes encoding ribosomal proteins or tRNA syn-
dark green columns represent the number of these yeast or worm orthologues thetases in our screen. Rather, it seems likely that the discrep-
that are essential in their respective species, 135 of the 176 yeast genes, and ancy reflects inaccuracies in both calculations. The failure to
155 of the 235 worm genes. The pea green columns show the number that achieve saturation in either screen and the fact that the data for
would be predicted to be essential at random, 33 of the 176 yeast genes, and single and multiple hits do not fit the Poisson distribution
15 of the 235 worm genes. Thus, the difference between the dark green and precisely in either screen make highly accurate calculations
pea green columns is the enrichment. In the case of the worm, the pale green impossible.
extensions to the two green columns represent projections of how many of The phenotypic descriptions of most of our mutants remain
the orthologues would be found to be essential if 100% of the worm genes
preliminary, and re-screens of the collection are needed to
had been successfully knocked down by RNAi; this estimate prorates both for
the reported failure rate of RNAi and the number of genes for which no RNAi
identify the specific defects in most mutants. The first three such
data have been reported. This calculation estimates that 216 of the 235 worm re-screens to be completed, which we summarized here, are
genes are likely to be essential whereas only 22 would be expected to be at revealing in this respect. The screen for cystic kidney in partic-
random. Note that the percentage of worm orthologues that are essential ular supports our conclusion that our mutant collection contains
that is stated in the text does not include the genes for which no RNAi data 25% of the genes essential for diverse developmental processes
have been reported. in the embryo. Of 12 genes identified in the kidney cyst screen,
7 seemed to be novel when first cloned, whereas another is
PKD2, a gene known to be mutated in human polycystic kidney
In yeast, only 19% of protein-coding genes are essential for cell disease (22). In humans, cystic kidney disease results from a
viability under optimal growth conditions, despite the fact that failure of epithelial cells in kidney tubes and ducts to differen-
most nonessential yeast genes seem to be single-copy (12). In tiate properly and to cease dividing. This defect can result from
contrast, among the yeast genes that are 1:1 orthologues or defects in primary cilia located on the epithelial cells of kidney
ancestors of the vertebrate genes in our study, 77% are essential tubules and ducts. When we gained access to the mostly unpub-
in yeast. This is a 4-fold enrichment relative to the yeast genome lished sequences of 13 genes that encode IFT proteins in
at large (compare the number observed in dark green with the Chlamydomonas, and which are required for flagellum forma-
number predicted if random in pea green). tion or function in that species, we found that 3 of our 7 novel
GENETICS
properly shaped vulva (18, 19) are used in the fish to make a Maryann Haldi for phenotypic documentation, M. Cunningham for
vertebrate-specific structure, cartilage. And the production of maintenance of the mutant lines of fish, and T. Angelini, C. Doller, and
S. Farrington for maintenance of our zebrafish colony. We thank Bob
melanin pigment in the fish, which takes place in acidic subcel-
Bosselman for his interest and support. This work was supported by a
lular compartments (25), requires the same genes to acidify these National Institutes of Health grant from the National Center for
compartments that yeast cells use to acidify vacuoles (26). Research Resources (to N.H. and A.A.) and a grant from Amgen (to
The fact that there is such a small number of embryonic- N.H.). Additional funding came from the Ford Foundation (to N.H.).
essential genes and that they include genes that comprise R.M.N was supported by a postdoctoral fellowship from the National
coherent genetic pathways of development suggests that the Institutes of Health.
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