THERMAL METAL REMOVAL PROCESS

What is thermal process ?

Thermal energy usually

applied to small portion of
work surface, causing that
portion to be removed by
fusion and/or
vaporization.
 Thermal Energy Processes - Overview

Very high local temperatures

Material is removed by fusion or vaporization
Physical and metallurgical damage to the new work
surface
In some cases, resulting finish is so poor that
subsequent processing is required
 Thermal Energy Processes

Electric discharge machining (EDM)

Electron beam machining(EBM)
Laser beam machining(LBM)
Plasma arc machining(PAM)
Ion beam machining (IBM)
 Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)

Required electrically conductive materials.

Work piece anode and tool cathode. Independent of material
hardness.
Removal of material through melting or vaporisation caused by a high
frequency spark discharge.
EDM machined surface may be deleterious to fatigue properties due
to the recast layer.
good selection of the proper electrode material for the work piece
Produce deep holes, slots cavities in hard materials without drifting or
can do irregular contour.
 Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)
EDM process involves a controlled erosion of electrically conductive
materials by the initiation of rapid and repetitive spark discharge between
electrode tool and work piece

Separated by a small gap of about 0.01 0.05 mm (spark gap)

Spark gap either flooded or immersed under the dielectric fluid

Spark discharge is produced by controlled pulsing of DC between the

work piece and tool

Dielectric fluid in the spark gap is ionized under the pulsed application
of DC
Enabling a spark discharge to pass between the tool and work piece

Each spark produces enough heat to melt and vaporize a tiny volume of
work piece material, leaving a small crater on its surface

The energy contained in each spark is discrete

It can be controlled so that the MRR, surface finish and tolerance can
be predicted

Electric current 0.5 to 400 A

Voltage 40 to 300 V DC
Pulsed duration 2 to 2000 sec
Dielectric fluid pressure 2 Kg/cm2 or less
Basic scheme of EDM process:
Machine

EDM equipment manufacturers offer a variety of machine

tools, ranging from small machines to massive units

All the machines are of vertical C type construction consisting

of a base, column and head

The column is fixed to the base and supports the head

A coordinate table which supports the work piece is mounted

on the base

A dielectric fluid tank is constructed around the table and is

provided with an automatic level controller
Machine

It is also equipped with a safety device to shut down operation in

case the temperature exceeds a certain limits

Work pieces can be mounted on the machine table with work

holding devices like magnetic table, vice, chucks or special work
holding devices

Ensure that there is a good circulation and flushing of the dielectric

fluid
Classification of EDM
 Dielectric Fluid
Dielectric fluid is flushed through the spark gap and is supplied through a hole
in the tool or external jets

It may also supplied through the holes in the work piece

Suction and pressure pots serve as work piece holding devices

Dielectric fluid serves as a spark conductor, concentrating the energy to a very

narrow region

It serves as a coolant to quench the spark

It cools the electrodes and flushing medium for disposal of products of

machining
 Selection (Choice) of dielectric fluid

1. It should have sufficient and stable dielectric strength to serve as

insulation between the tool and work piece
2. It should deionize rapidly after the spark discharge has taken place
3. It should have low viscosity and a good wetting capacity
4. It should be chemically neutral
5. Its flash point must be high to avoid any fire hazard
6. It should not emit any toxic vapour or have unpleasant odours
7. It should be easily available at reasonable price
 Selection (Choice) of dielectric fluid

These qualities are found in the hydrocarbon oils having a

viscosity of 5 6 centistokes at 20oC such as kerosene which is
most widely used dielectric fluid

Other dielectric fluids are silicon oils, deionized water and polar
liquids such as aqueous solution of ethylene glycol
 Dielectric Fluid
The choice of dielectric depends on the work piece size, complexity of shape,
tolerance, surface finish and MRR

White spirit is used to machine tungsten carbide and small parts with
complicated details and good surface finish

Surface finish of 1.6 m and above dielectric of viscosity 6-12 Cst used

Surface finish of 6.3 m and abovedielectric of viscosity 12-20 Cst used

The dielectric liquid is kept in circulation through the machining gaps by the
use of pumps

It is continuously filtered to remove the debris of machining

Filtering medium does not allow particle size more than 5 m

 Spark Generator

The essential functions of a spark generator are :

To supply adequate voltage to initiate and maintain the

discharge

To adjust the discharge current intensity

To adjust the discharge duration

To control recurring rhythm of the discharge

 Relaxation Generator
The earliest and simple systems was the relaxation or R C generator

These generators produce sinusoidal current pulses

The main draw back of these generators are that the current, discharge duration
and energy are inter dependent and cannot be chosen individually

The values of these vary from cycle to cycle and the machining process is
unpredictable

The time required for charging the capacitor is high and consequently it limits
the use of high frequencies

The introduction of pulse generators has over come the draw backs of the
relaxation generators
 Pulse Generator
These generators possess the accurate control over discharge duration
pause time and the current

These factors determine the overcut, accuracy and surface finish

High frequency and maximum amperage results optimum MRR,

leading to a better surface finish

Finishing high frequency and low amperage are used

Roughing low frequency and high amperage are used

 EDM Tools (Electrodes)

Material used as an electrode is to convey electrical machining pulses

to allow erosion of work piece to take place with little or no erosion of
the electrode

Electrically conductive materials can be used as electrode

Depending upon material and type of generator used, certain materials

are more suitable than other

The performance of electrode material is judged by its MRR, low wear,

ability to accurately machined and cast
Electrode materials can be classified as

Metallic materials: Electrolytic copper, tellurium or chromium copper,

copper tungsten, brass, tungsten, steel, zinc and zinc alloys, tungsten
carbide, aluminium

Non-metallic materials: Graphite

Combination of metallic and non-metallic materials: Copper Graphite

Table: Electrode materials for various applications
Electrode material Work piece material Type of machining
Graphite Steel Roughing/Finishing
Brass All metals Roughing/Finishing
Copper All metals Roughing/Finishing
Tungsten All metals Semi finishing
Aluminium Steel only Roughing
Steel Non ferrous materials Semi finishing
Electrode manufacture:

Conventional machining methods and castings used to make electrodes

Metal spraying, press forming & electro plating techniques are also used

Electrodes are made by conventional machining such as turning, drilling

and milling, grinding, etc.

Graphite materials are widely used because of low cost & wear resistant

Dust collection system should be used when machining graphite

Method of reducing dust problem with graphite is to soak it in kerosene

for few hours before machining

Flow holes for dielectric fluid may be provided through electrode

Electrode Wear:

Proper knowledge of electrode wear is essential for determining the

electrode size and no of electrodes

Electrode is a function of polarity, thermal conductivity, melting point,

duration and intensity of spark discharge, type of power supply, type of
work material in relation to tool material
Any particular type of wear to be considered is dependent upon the
application (finishing, roughing, cavity sinking, etc.)

Corner wear ratio is to be considered in finish machining

Volume wear is the controlling factor in cavity sinking

Modern pulse generators has permitted a significant reduction in

electrode wear

Proper adjustment of parameters like duration, intensity and polarity for

each operation with respect to size and nature of work, electrode wear
can be reduced

Limited wear or no wear EDM operations are possible using graphite

electrode and pulse generator (reversed polarity)
High current densities and low pulse frequency (sparks having longer on
time compared to the off time) are employed in this process

Relation of on time to off time is approximately 95% on to 5% off

MRR with no wear EDM is 10-20% lower than in conventional EDM

roughing, but results in reduction in electrode wear

Surface finish of the order of 3.2m can be achieved in this process

No wear EDM does not produce good surface finish

No wear EDM is suitable for applications that require removal of a large

amount of material

The electrode wear is depends on the dielectric flow in the machining

zone and if the flow is turbulent, it results in an increase in electrode
wear
Table: values of corner wear and volume wear ratios for commonly used electrode material in
relation to work piece materials

Electrode material Work piece material Volume wear Volume wear

ration in ration in
roughing finishing

Graphite Steel 100:1 5 :1

Brass All metals 1:1 7:1

Copper All metals 2:1 1:1

Tungsten All metals 10:1 5:1

Aluminium Steel only 5:1 5:1

Steel Non ferrous materials 4:1 4:1

EDM Electrode Holders:

Various types of electrode holders are used to enhance the productivity of

EDM machines

These electrode holders enable quick and accurate loading of the

electrodes on the machine

They incorporate a device for quickly aligning the electrodes on the

machine itself

It is advisable to have similar locating devices on the EDM machine and

on the machine used for manufacturing the electrodes

This helps in machining the electrodes mounted on electrode holders and

locating them quickly on the EDM machine
Two types of electrode holding devices are in use:

1. Electromagnetic holders 2. Quick change taper holders

The magnetic system provides for a location and relocation accuracy of

0.002mm and 10 seconds of arc

It can support an electrode assembly of up to 30 kg

Magnetic electrode holder chuck is mounted on the quill

Has a cylindrical pin and ground flat as reference surface at 90o

The taper shank system also provides for high accuracy as in the
magnetic system
EDM Tool Design:

Tool design for EDM can be divided into 2 categories

1. Cylindrical hole machining 2. 3-D cavity machining

Cylindrical hole machining:

Includes all through holes and cavities machined with an electrode of

constant cross section

3-D cavity machining:

Includes any cavity machined with one or more electrodes of varying

cross section

Tool design procedure is same for both the cases

Choice of Machining Operation:

Use more than one operation to achieve required surface finish and
accuracy viz; roughing, semi finishing and finishing

Even use several electrodes of different dimensions, saving in EDM time

Three operations are employed if required surface finish is 1.2m & less

For small holes only two operations are sufficient

Difference in surface finish between two successive operations should

not exceed 0.8m
Electrode Material Selection:

Various materials are used in relation to work material

Copper, Copper tungsten and Graphite are used

Graphite is not suitable for machining carbides and on machines

equipped with relaxation generators

When selecting electrode materials, it is important to consider the cost

and machining methods to be employed for making electrodes
Machine Settings:

Actual EDM tool size is depend on settings

For all materials, required surface finish is obtained by selecting the

capacitor value of relaxation generator

The machining polarity is always negative

In the case of pulse generator, more variables are involved machining

polarity, current intensity level, discharge time and pause time

Help of these factors it is possible to determine spark gap, length of

electrode, surface finish, MRR and percentage of electrode wear
Under Sizing and Length of Electrode:

Roughing electrodes must be under sized by amount of max spark gap

Spark gap does not include a safety margin to take into account

Possible positioning errors and differences of shapes which can occur

between roughing and finishing electrodes

The additional safety under sizing depends in precision of the electrode

Under sizing lies between 0.1 to 0.3 mm

The roughing electrode is longer than the finishing electrode, to take into
consideration higher rate of wear during roughing
Machining Time:

Machining times are difficult to evaluate with precision and a variation

of 5% is possible in through hole machining

In cavity machining, the variation is nearly 14%

The data supplied by the manufacturers also includes the MRR for the
settings chosen

It is easy to determine the machining time for roughing, semi-finishing

and finishing if the method to be removed in roughing and finishing is
known
Flushing:

Flushing is the correct circulation of dielectric fluid between

the electrodes and the work piece

Machining efficiency is highly dependent on the correct layout

and adjustment of flushing system

If eroded particles are not flushed thoroughly, they act as

obstacles in the gap, reducing the dielectric strength, so that
discharges of low energy can develop

Consequently, the MRR is affected

Based on the problem to be solved, different methods of
flushing are employed

1. Pressure flushing

2. Suction flushing

3. Side flushing

4. Pulsed flushing synchronized with electrode movement

Pressure Flushing:
Pressure Flushing:

Dielectric fluid is injected through work piece via pot or through

electrode

Work piece is predrilled and mounted on a pot connected to the flushing

supply

Electrode is drilled and the dielectric is fed through it

The pressure employed is of the order of 1.5 to 2.0 Kg/cm2

Components machined under pressure flushing are slightly tapered

This is due to the particles being forced up the sides of the electrode
producing lateral discharge

Slight taper is desirable as in the case of press tools

Suction Flushing:
Suction Flushing:

The dielectric is sucked either through the work piece via a pot or
through the electrode

The taper effect is absent in this method

The vacuum pressure is of the order of 0.8 to 0.9 Kg/cm2

Vacuum is provided by the same pump unit by changing the pump and
the filter out put connections
Side Flushing:
Side Flushing:

This is done only when it is impossible to drill flushing holes either in

the electrode or in the work piece

This is the case when machining coining dies or deep narrow slots

To carry out side flushing, it is necessary to use nozzles which are

carefully adjusted so that the whole area is evenly flushed

The direction of the flushing must coincide with the inset form of the
work piece

Side flushing must never be directed simultaneously from both sides of

the electrode

Side flushing is carried with pulsation of the electrode to assist the

flushing action
Pulsed Flushing Synchronized with Electrode Movement:

When machining with metallic electrodes using pressure or suction

flushing, there is an abnormal wear of the electrode

This wear increases with the flushing pressure

To prevent this, most of the EDM manufacturers now provide a system

which employs dielectric injection which is synchronized with the
withdrawal or upward movement of the electrode

The spark gap is under dielectric pressure only during that part of the
cycle when no machining takes place, thus reducing the wear of the
electrode
EDM Process Characteristics:

Metal Removal Rate:

The MRR is proportional to the working current value

It is described as the volume of metal removed in unit time

Also defined as the volume of metal removed per unit time per ampere
which then yields a basis for the out put comparison of different
machines or different electrode materials

The machining rate during roughing of steel with a graphite electrode

and 50A generator is about 400 mm3/min
With a 400 A generator it is about 4800 mm3/min

For precision machining with low amperage and high frequency the
MRR is as low as 2 mm3/min
Table: MRR as a function of current and pulse frequency

MRR Pulse Frequency Current Surface Roughness

mm3/min kc A m

460 5 1-20 6-12

130 10 5-17 4-6

65 20 4-12 2.5-4

27 450 3-10 1.2-2

0.15-1.5 1000 0.5-3 0.2-0.8

Accuracy:

Tolerance value of 0.05mm can be achieved in normal production

By closed control of the variables 0.003mm can be achieved

EDM produces taper, overcut and corner radii

Taper:

Taper value is about 0.005 0.05 mm per 10 mm depth

Taper effect decreases to zero after about 75mm penetration

Taper can be eliminated if suction flushing is employed

Overcut:

An overcut of 5-100 m is produced, depending upon finishing or

roughing

EDM equipment manufacturers publish the charts for their generator

under different working conditions

Corner Radii:

Corner radii which is equal to spark gap and is inevitable in spark

erosion machining

Corner radii is minimum in finish machining where a very low spark gap
is used
Overcut Chart:
Surface Finish:

In EDM machining, electrical spark discharge produces a spherical crater

in the work piece

The volume of which is directly related to the energy contained in the

spark

Depth of this crater defines the surface finish

Surface finish depends on the amperage, frequency and finish on the

electrode

High frequency and low-amperage settings give the best surface finish

The best surface finish achieved on steel is 0.4 m

In no wear machining, using a graphite electrode for maximum MRR a

surface finish within 3.2 m can be achieved
Table: Values of surface finish and crater size on the work piece and tool under different
working conditions

Current MRR Surface Crater depth mm

A mm3/min Roughness m W/P Electrode

1-20 460 6-12 0.05-0.10 0.030

5-17 130 4-6 0.04-0.05 0.014

4-12 65 2.5-4 0.03-0.04 0.010

3-10 27 1.2-2 0.01-0.015 0.004

0.5-3 0.15-1.5 0.2-0.8 0.0025 0.0008

Heat Affected Zone:

The work piece material which gets melted is not completely expelled
during the process

It resolidifies on the machined surface of the work piece to form a hard

skin of about 2-10 m deep

The hardness of this top layer is about 60 HRC

Thermal stresses, plastic deformation and fine cracks may form in this
grain boundary

Depth of this layer is small in finishing operation and can be removed by

polishing

Below this there is a layer 0.05-0.2 mm deep in a tempered condition

Heat Affected Zone
EDM Accessories Application:

Punches and forming tools can be machined with a circular rotating

electrode called the rotary forming attachment

Curved hole drilling is also possible with EDM

EDM trepanning of circular and non circular profiles

EDM equipment to produce complex profiles using simple washer type

electrodes and a template copying system

Produce cavities with minimum corner radii, low electrode wear and
better surface finish
Electrical Discharge Grinding:

This process is similar to EDM except that the electrode is a rotating

wheel of graphite or brass

wheel can be easily formed to any complex shape and desired profiles
can be obtained on the work piece

EDG wheels rotate slower at 100-125 rpm

The table is under servo control to maintain a constant gap

Standard EDG machines are available

Conventional grinding machines can be converted and adopted to this

process
EDG is advantageously adopted in grinding steel & carbide, thin and
fragile sections, grinding of brittle materials, grinding complex forms etc.

Surface finish of the order of 0.4 m and accuracy of 0.02 mm can be

obtained

Corner radii can be controlled to about 0.1 mm

Wire EDM (Wire Cut EDM or Travelling Wire EDM):

Electrical Discharge wire cutting is commonly known as wire EDM

which is used to produce complex 2 or 3D shapes through electrically
conductive materials

Wire EDM, comparatively new in manufacturing, was first used in 1968

By 1975 its popularity was rapidly increasing because the process and its
capabilities were becoming better understood by industry
Mechanism:

Wire EDM differs from conventional EDM in that a thin 0.05 0.3 mm
in diameter wire perform as the electrode

The wire unwinds from the spool, feeds through the work piece and
taken up on a second spool

DC power of high frequency pulses are supplied to the wire and the w/p

The gap between the wire and w/p is flooded with deionized water,
which acts as the dielectric

Work piece in wire EDM is almost never submerged in dielectric fluid

Metal is removed ahead of the travelling wire by spark discharges

Either the w/p or wire can be moved to cause the wire to cut similarly to
a band saw

There is no contact between the wire and the w/p in wire EDM

The wire-w/p gap usually ranges from 0.025-0.05mm and constantly

maintained by a computer controlled positioning system

A complicated shape can be made on the difficult to machine metals

without expensive formed EDM electrodes

The high degree of accuracy & fine finish can be obtained by wire EDM

Equipments: A wire EDM consists of four subsystems

1. Positioning system 2. Wire drive system

3. Power Supply 4. Dielectric system
Positioning System:

It consists of a CNC 2-axis table and some cases, an additional multi axis
wire positioning system

Unique feature of this system is that it controls the gap between wire &
work piece

If wire should come in contact with the w/p or if a small piece of metal
bridges the gap and causes a short circuit

The positioning system must sense this condition and back up along the
programmed path, re-establish the proper cutting gap conditions
Wire Drive System:

The wire drive system continuously deliver fresh wire under constant
tension to the work area

The importance of constant wire tension is to avoid taper, wire breaks

and vibration marks

The wire delivery systems incorporate several stages of preparation to

ensure wire straightness

After supply spool, the wire passes through the several wire feed and
wire removal rollers

As the wire passes through the work piece, it is guided by a set of

sapphire or diamond wire guides

Before being collected by the take up spool, it passes through a series of

rollers
Most popular wire materials are chosed partly by the diameter of the
wire being used

When wire diameter are large ie 0.15-0.3mm Cu or brass is used

When wire diameter are fine ie 0.03-0.15mmMolybdenum steel is used

Major portion of the spark discharge occur at the leading surface of the
wire which passes through the work piece

As a result, the wire is no longer round after one pass through the work
piece and hence it is discarded

Dielectric System:

Deionized water is used as dielectric fluid

Having low viscosity, high cooling rate, high MRR and no fire hazard
Power Supply:

Major difference between the power supply used for wire EDM and
conventional EDM are frequency and current

To provide smoothest surface finish, pulse frequency used is 1MHz

High frequency ensures that each spark removes little material as

possible, thus reducing the size of the EDM crater

Wire used is small diameter and current carrying capability is limited

Wire EDM power supplies are built to deliver the current less than 20A