Skugor Treatmentofdiabetesmellitus
Skugor Treatmentofdiabetesmellitus
In the United States, 57.9% of patients with diabetes mellitus Postprandially upon occasion
(DM) have at least 1 diabetes-related complication and 14.3% And before critical tasks (ie, driving).8
of patients with diabetes have 3 or more diabetes-related Patients should be educated about how to use real-time
complications.1 Achieving glycemic control in patients with blood glucose values to adjust their food intake and medical
DM reduces the development and progression of retinopathy, therapy.
nephropathy, and neuropathy. Aggressive treatment of dyslip- It is commonly recommended that patients with type 2 DM
idemia and hypertension decreases macrovascular complica- self-monitor their blood glucose levels, but the evidence to
tions.24 The techniques for monitoring blood glucose and the support the effectiveness of this practice is inconclusive. Ini-
various treatment options available to manage glycemic con- tial studies showed reductions in HbA1c with self-monitoring;
trol in patients with diabetes are reviewed below. however, the inclusion of beneficial health behaviors such as
diet and exercise in the analyses makes it difficult to assess the
effectiveness of self-monitor blood glucose alone.2,9
Measuring Glycemic Control
The ADA recommends that nonpregnant adults maintain
The primary techniques available to assess the quality of a blood glucose levels of 80 mg/dL to 130 mg/dL preprandial and
patients glycemic control are self-monitoring of blood glu- less than 180 mg/dL postprandial.8 The blood glucose goals for
cose and interval measurement of hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c). patients with gestational diabetes are 95 mg/dL or less pre-
Continuous glucose monitoring is also available and may be prandial and either 140 mg/dL or less 1-hour postprandial or
appropriate for select patients, such as patients with brittle 120 mg/dL or less 2-hours postprandial.
diabetes and those using insulin pumps.
HbA1c
Self-monitoring of blood glucose
HbA1c tests reflect the mean blood glucose values over a 3-month
For patients with type 1 DM and patients with insulin-depen- period and can predict patients risk of microvascular complica-
dent type 2 DM, self-monitoring of blood glucose allows tions.10,11 The ADA recommends that patients with stable glycemic
patients to adjust insulin dosing to prevent hypoglycemia and control have an HbA1c test at least twice a year. Quarterly HbA1c
hyperglycemia.2,57 The American Diabetes Association (ADA) testing is suggested for patients with a recent change in therapy
guidelines recommend that patients with type 1 DM self- or for patients not meeting their glycemic goals.8
monitor their glucose: Measurement of HbA1c is influenced by the red blood cell
Before eating turnover rate; therefore, anemia, transfusions, and hemoglo-
At bedtime binopathies can cause inaccurate test values. The ADA recom-
Before exercise mends that nonpregnant adults maintain HbA1c levels near
If hypoglycemia is suspected 7%. For patients with diabetes who become pregnant, the goal
Until hypoglycemia is corrected is HbA1c levels less than 6.0%.8 The ADA also recommends that
select patients, especially those with a long life expectancy and
Dr. Skugor reported no financial interests or relationships that pose a potential
little comorbidity, adopt glycemic targets near normal levels
conflict of interest with this article. (HbA1c < 6.5%), providing the target can be achieved without
doi:10.3949/ccjm.84.s1.07 significant hypoglycemia.8
TABLE 1
Glycemic treatments by therapeutic category
Amylinomimetic
Pramlintide (SymlinPen 120, SymlinPen 60)
Based on information from the American Diabetes Association8 and Inzucchi et al.12
not increase cardiovascular risk compared with placebo.16 TZDs intestine; it stimulates insulin secretion and inhibits glucagon
have been associated with an increased risk of fractures, par- secretion in a glucose-dependent manner. It also delays gastric
ticularly in women. When used as monotherapy, TZDs do not emptying and suppresses appetite through central pathways.
cause hypoglycemia. Pioglitazone lowers triglyceride levels, GLP-1 agonists primarily decrease postprandial blood glucose
increases high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and increases levels; however, a moderate reduction in fasting blood glucose
the low-density lipoprotein cholesterol particle size.8,1618 and some weight loss can also occur.
The major side effects are gastrointestinal complaints
Insulin secretagogues such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Hypoglycemia does
Insulin secretagogues such as sulfonylureas and glinides not occur unless GLP-1 analogues are combined with a sul-
stimulate secretion of insulin from the pancreas regardless of fonylurea or insulin. There is a slightly increased risk of acute
the ambient glucose concentration. pancreatitis in patients using GLP-1 agonist medications, and
Sulfonylureas patients must be warned to discontinue use of these medica-
tions if abdominal pain occurs.
Sulfonylureas lower fasting and postprandial glucose levels.
Dosing of GLP-1 agonist medications is either twice daily,
The main side effects include weight gain (about 2 kg upon ini-
daily, or weekly by subcutaneous injection.8,21
tiation) and hypoglycemia. The UK Prospective Diabetes Study
(UKPDS) trial showed a decrease in microvascular complica- DPP-4 inhibitors
tions with the use of sulfonylureas.19 Caution should be used DPP-4 is an enzyme that rapidly degrades GLP-1. Suppression
in patients with liver or kidney dysfunction or patients who fre- of DPP-4 leads to higher levels of insulin secretion and sup-
quently skip meals. Newer, second-generation sulfonylureas (ie, pression of glucagon secretion in a glucose-dependent manner.
glipizide and glimepiride) may have less risk of hypoglycemia The DPP-4 inhibitors such as linagliptin, sitagliptin, saxa-
because their action is somewhat glucose dependent.8,17,19 gliptin, and alogliptin are given orally once daily. An increased
risk of acute pancreatitis has been reported in some patients.
Glinides
Dose reduction is needed in patients with renal impairment for
Glinides, which include repaglinide and nateglenide, have a
most of these medications.8,22
rapid onset of action and a short duration of action, so they
are a good option for patients with erratically timed meals. SLGT-2 inhibitors
Glinides have a lower risk of hypoglycemia than sulfonylureas.
SGLT-2 inhibitors include canagliflozin, dapagliflozin, and
Caution must be used with glinides in patients with liver dys-
empagliflozin and are the newest group of antidiabetic
function. Dosing is immediately before meals.8,17
medications. These medications inhibit glucose reabsorption
Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors in proximal tubule of the kidney leading to glycosuria, which
lowers the blood glucose concentration, lowers blood pressure,
Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors such as acarbose, miglitol, and
and leads to some weight loss. Empagliflozin was shown to be
voglibose block the enzyme alpha-glucosidase in the cells of
cardioprotective in some patients.23
the brush border of the small intestine, which delays absorption
SGLT-2 inhibitors are given once a day in the morning and
of carbohydrates. Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors primarily affect
the primary side effects are polyuria and genital yeast infec-
postprandial hyperglycemia without causing hypoglycemia.
tions. These medications are contraindicated in patients with
Abdominal cramps, bloating, flatulence, and diarrhea are the
severe end-stage renal disease and those who are on dialysis.8,24
most common side effects. Use of alpha-glucosidase inhibi-
tors should be avoided in patients with severe hepatic or renal Pramlintide (amylinomimetics)
impairment. Dosing is prior to carbohydrate-containing meals.8,20
Pramlintide, an amylinomimetic, is a synthetic drug that acts
Incretin-based therapies like amylin, a hormone secreted by beta cells that suppresses
glucagon secretion, slows gastric emptying, and suppresses
Therapies that target the incretin hormones to increase insulin
appetite through central pathways. Pramlintide acts primarily
production include glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor
on postprandial blood glucose levels.
agonists and dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors.
The side effects of pramlintide are gastrointestinal com-
GLP-1 agonists plaints, especially nausea. Currently, pramlintide is approved
Exenatide, liraglutide, albiglutide, and dulaglutide are synthetic only as an adjunctive therapy with insulin, and it can be used
analogs of the GLP-1 hormone. GLP-1 is produced in the small in patients with type 1 DM or type 2 DM. The dose for type 1
DM is 15 g before each meal subcutaneously, and for type 2 tes educator is needed for patients to effectively dose insulin
DM it is generally 60 g before meals.25 based on the carbohydrate content of meals. Patients are also
provided with a sliding scale of supplemental insulin to use as
Dopamine-receptor agonist (bromocriptine)
a third component of therapy when the blood glucose level is
Bromocriptine is a central dopamine-receptor agonist, and higher than desired.
when given in rapid-release form within 2 hours of awaken- The starting total daily insulin dose is typically 0.3 U/kg for
ing in the morning, it improves glycemic control for patients patients with type 1 DM and 0.5 U/kg for patients with type 2
with type 2 DM. The mechanism of action resulting in improved DM if no other medications are used. The ADA recommends
glycemic control is unknown. Studies have demonstrated the adding basal insulin at 0.1 to 0.2 U/kg for patients with type
cardiovascular safety of bromocriptine.26 2 DM once they need it. The key to good glycemic control is
Side effects of bromocriptine include hypotension, somno- self-monitoring of blood glucose by the patient and frequent
lence, and nausea. Individuals with psychiatric disorders may adjustment of the regimen until control is achieved.8
experience exacerbation while taking bromocriptine. Bro-
mocriptine is taken with food to diminish nausea.27 Insulin-pump therapy
The insulin pump allows the use of different basal insulin rates
Insulin at different periods of the day for greater flexibility with daily
Insulin and insulin analogues remain the most direct method dosing. The insulin pump also allows administration of the
of reducing hyperglycemia. There is no upper limit in dosing for meal bolus as a single discrete bolus or as an extended bolus
therapeutic effect, so it can be used to bring any HbA1c down (square bolus) over a certain period of time, which allows a
to near-normal levels. Other benefits of insulin include reduc- better match between insulin delivery and glucose absorp-
ing triglyceride levels and increasing high-density lipoprotein tion from the meal in patients with abnormalities of gastric
cholesterol. emptying. Use of an insulin pump should be considered in the
Hypoglycemia is a concern with use of insulin, and studies following patients:
have shown that episodes for which the patient required assis- Patients unable to achieve target goals with basal-bolus
tance due to the hypoglycemia occurred between 1 and 3 times regimens
per 100 patient-years.13 Weight gain can occur after initiation of Patients with frequent hypoglycemia, dawn phenomenon,
insulin therapy, and patients typically gain 2 kg to 4 kg.8 or brittle diabetes
Pregnant patients
Initiation and Titration of Therapy Patients with insulin sensitivity or those requiring more
intense monitoring due to complications.
All patients with type 1 DM require insulin therapy. There are
Recently, continuous glucose monitors have been developed
2 regimens available: basal-bolus and insulin-pump therapy.
that measure interstitial glucose levels. Continuous glucose
Patients with type 2 DM often require insulin, which can be
monitoring has been shown to lower HbA1c in adult patients
combined with oral hypoglycemic agents. Regimens include
with type 1 DM.29
basal insulin only, twice-daily premixed insulin, basal-bolus
therapy, and insulin-pump therapy.28 Gestational diabetes
In patients with gestational diabetes, insulin therapy is indi-
Basal-bolus therapy
cated when exercise and nutritional therapy are ineffective
The basal-bolus regimen combines a long-acting agent for
in controlling prandial and fasting blood glucose levels. Basal
basal-insulin needs that is used once or twice daily and a
therapy alone may be sufficient, but a basal-bolus regimen is
rapid-acting agent for prandial coverage. Traditionally, 50% of
often required.8
the total daily dose is given as basal insulin (detemir, glargine,
degludec) and the remaining dose as prandial insulin divided
equally before meals (regular, lispro, glulisine, or aspart). Summary
The meal dose of insulin can be fixed, but it is better to Glycemic control reduces the development and progres-
determine the dose based on the carbohydrate content of the sion of complications of diabetes such as retinopathy,
meal. To do so, patients should be educated about carbohy- nephropathy, and neuropathy.
drate counting and the dose of insulin required to cover the The primary techniques available to assess the quality of
carbohydrate content of the meal. Consultation with a diabe- a patients glycemic control are self-monitoring of blood
glucose and interval measurement of HbA1c. 14. Bailey CJ, Turner RC. Metformin. N Engl J Med 1996; 334:574579.
15. Bailey CJ. Biguanides and NIDDM. Diabetes Care 1992; 15:755772.
Available treatment options to control blood glucose 16. Dormandy JA, Charbonnel C, Eckland DJ, et al; PROactive investi-
include insulin sensitizers, insulin secretagogues, alpha- gators. Secondary prevention of macrovascular events in patients with
type 2 diabetes in the PROactive Study (PROspective pioglitAzone Clini-
glucosidase inhibitors, incretin-based therapies, SGLT-2 cal Trial In macroVascular Events): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet
inhibitors, amylinomimetics (pramlintide), dopamine- 2005; 366:12791289.
receptor agonist (bromocriptine), and insulin. 17. Fonseca VA, Kulkarni KD. Management of type 2 diabetes: oral agents,
insulin, and injectables. J Am Diet Assoc 2008; 108(4 suppl 1):S29S33.
18. Nathan DM, Buse JB, Davidson MB, et al. Management of hypergly-
cemia in type 2 diabetes: a consensus algorithm for the initiation and
References adjustment of therapyupdate regarding thiazolidinediones: a consen-
1. Mitka M. Report quantifies diabetes complications. JAMA 2007; sus statement from the American Diabetes Association and the European
297:23372338. Association for the Study of Diabetes. Diabetes Care 2008; 31:173175.
2. Welschen LM, Bloemendal E, Nijpels G, et al. Self-monitoring of 19. UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Intensive blood-glu-
blood glucose in patients with type 2 diabetes who are not using insulin: cose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional
a systematic review. Diabetes Care 2005; 28:15101517. treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes
3. UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Effect of intensive (UKPDS 33) [erratum published in Lancet 1999; 354:602]. Lancet 1998;
blood-glucose control with metformin on complications in overweight 352:837853.
patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 34) [published erratum appears in 20. Chiasson J-L, Josse RG, Gomis R, Hanefeld M, Karsik A, Laakso
Lancet 1998; 352:1558]. Lancet 1998; 352:854865. M; for the STOP-NIDDM Trial Research Group. Acarbose treatment
4. Chase HP, Jackson WE, Hoops SL, Cockerham RS, Archer PG, and the risk of cardiovascular disease and hypertension in patients
OBrien D. Glucose control and the renal and retinal complications of with impaired glucose tolerance: The STOP-NIDDM Trial. JAMA 2003;
insulin-dependent diabetes. JAMA 1989; 261:11551160. 290:486494.
5. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. 21. Victoza [package insert]. Bagsvaerd, Denmark: Novo Nordisk; 2010.
The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2010/022341lbl.
progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes pdf. Accessed June 26, 2017.
mellitus. N Engl J Med 1993; 329:977986. 22. Nauck MA, Vilsbll T, Gallwitz B, Garber A, Madsbad S. Incretin-
6. Evans JM, Newton RW, Ruta DA, MacDonald TM, Stevenson RJ, based therapies viewpoints on the way to consensus. Diabetes Care
Morris AD. Frequency of blood glucose monitoring in relation to gly- 2009; 32(suppl 2):S223S231.
caemic control: observational study with diabetes database. BMJ 1999; 23. ZinmanB, Wanner C, Larchin JM; EMPA-REG OUTCOME Investiga-
319:8386. tors. Empagliflozin, cardiovascular outcomes, and mortality in type 2
7. Bergenstal, RM, James GR III; Global Consensus Conference on diabetes. N Engl J Med 2015; 373:21172128.
Glucose Monitoring Panel. The role of self-monitoring of blood glu- 24. Abdul-Ghani MA, Norton L, DeFronzo RA. Role of sodium-glucose
cose in the care of people with diabetes: report of a global consensus cotransporter 2 (SGLT 2) inhibitors in the treatment of type 2 diabetes.
conference. Am J Med 2005; 118(suppl 9A):1S6S. Endocr Rev 2011; 32:515531.
8. American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in dia- 25. Symlin (Pramlintide acetate) [package insert]. Wilmington DE: Astra-
betes2017: summary of revisions. Diabetes Care 2017; 40(suppl Zeneca; 2015. Pharmaceuticals LP. http://www.azpicentral.com/symlin/
1):S1S135. pi_symlin.pdf#page=1. Accessed June 26, 2017.
9. Schwedes U, Siebolds M, Mertes G; for the SMBG Study Group. 26. Gaziano JM, Cincotta AH, OConnor CM, et al. Randomized clinical
Meal-related structured self-monitoring of blood glucose: effect on dia- trial of quick-release bromocriptine among patients with type 2 diabetes
betes control in non-insulin-treated type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes on overall safety and cardiovascular outcomes. Diabetes Care 2010;
Care 2002; 25:19281932. 33:15031508.
10. Saudek CD, Derr RL, Kalyani RR. Assessing glycemia in diabetes 27. Cycloset [package insert]. Tiverton, RI: VeroScience LLC; 2016. http://
using self-monitoring blood glucose and hemoglobin A1c. JAMA 2006; www.veroscience.com/documents/CyclosetPackageInsertFeb062017.
295:16881697. pdf. Accessed June 26, 2017.
11. Delamater A. Clinical use of hemoglobin A1c to improve diabetes man- 28. Hirsch IB, Bergenstal RM, Parkin CG, Wright Jr, E, Buse JB. A real-
agement. Clinical Diabetes 2006; 24:68. world approach to insulin therapy in primary care practice. Clinical Dia-
12. Inzucchi SE, Bergenstal RM, Buse JB, et al. Management of hyper- betes 2005; 23:7886.
glycemia in type 2 diabetes, 2015: a patient-centered approach: update 29. Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation Continuous Glucose
to a position statement of the American Diabetes Association and the Monitoring Study Group; Tamborlane WV, Beck RW, Bode BW, et
European Association for the Study of Diabetes. Diabetes Care 2015; al. Continuous glucose monitoring and intensive treatment of type 1
38:140149. diabetes. N Engl J Med 2008; 359:14641476.
13. Nathan DM, Buse JB, Davidson MB, et al; American Diabetes
Association; European Association for Study of Diabetes. Medical
management of hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes: a consensus algorithm
for the initiation and adjustment of therapy: a consensus statement of Correspondence: Mario Skugor, MD, Endocrinology and Metabolism
the American Diabetes Association and the European Association for the Institute, F20, Cleveland Clinic, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195;
Study of Diabetes. Diabetes Care 2009; 32:193203. [email protected]