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Grzimek's SALR - Mammals
Grzimek's SALR - Mammals
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Contents
MAMMALS: VOLUME 1
Readers Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xi
Pronunciation Guide for Scientific Names . . . . . . . . . . .xiii
Words to Know . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxv
Getting to Know Mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxxix
Monotremes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Echidnas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Duck-billed platypus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Shrew opossums
Shrew opossums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
Marsupial moles
Marsupial moles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94
Contents v
Koala, wombats, possums, wallabies,
and kangaroos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . .99
Koala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . .105
Wombats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . .111
Possums and cuscuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . .116
Musky rat-kangaroo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . .124
Rat-kangaroos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . .129
Wallabies and kangaroos . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . .135
Pygmy possums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . .149
Ringtail and greater gliding possums . . . . ....... . . . .154
Gliding and striped possums . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . .161
Honey possum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . .167
Feather-tailed possums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . .172
MAMMALS: VOLUME 2
Readers Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xi
Pronunciation Guide for Scientific Names . . . . . . . . . . .xiii
Words to Know . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxv
Getting to Know Mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxxix
Tree shrews
Tree shrews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .263
Colugos
Colugos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269
Bats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .275
Old World fruit bats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .282
MAMMALS: VOLUME 3
Readers Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xi
Pronunciation Guide for Scientific Names . . . . . . . . . . .xiii
Words to Know . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxv
Getting to Know Mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxxix
Primates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423
Lorises and pottos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .428
Bushbabies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .436
Dwarf lemurs and mouse lemurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .444
Lemurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .450
Avahis, sifakas, and indris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .458
Sportive lemurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .466
Aye-aye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .475
Tarsiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .480
Squirrel monkeys and capuchins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .487
Marmosets, tamarins, and Goeldi’s monkey . . . . . . . . . . .496
Night monkeys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .509
Sakis, titis, and uakaris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
Howler monkeys and spider monkeys . . . . . . . . . . . . . .526
Old World monkeys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .536
Gibbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .551
Great apes and humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .563
Contents vii
Land and marine carnivores . . . . . . . ...... . . . .578
Dogs, wolves, coyotes, jackals, and foxes ....... . . . . .583
Bears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . .593
Raccoons and relatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . .605
Weasels, badgers, skunks, and otters . . . ....... . . . . .614
Civets, genets, and linsangs . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . .628
Mongooses and fossa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . .637
Aardwolf and hyenas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . .649
Cats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . .657
Eared seals, fur seals, and sea lions . . . . ....... . . . . .673
Walrus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . .684
True seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . .690
Species List by Biome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .lvii
Species List by Geographic Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .lxiii
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .lxxxix
MAMMALS: VOLUME 4
Readers Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xi
Pronunciation Guide for Scientific Names . . . . . . . . . . .xiii
Words to Know . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxv
Getting to Know Mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxxix
Aardvark
Aardvark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .804
Elephants
Elephants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .808
Hyraxes
Hyraxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .820
MAMMALS: VOLUME 5
Readers Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xi
Pronunciation Guide for Scientific Names . . . . . . . . . . .xiii
Words to Know . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxv
Getting to Know Mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxxix
Pangolins
Pangolins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .989
Rodents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .996
Mountain beaver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1003
Squirrels and relatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1008
Beavers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1022
Pocket gophers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1029
Pocket mice, kangaroo rats, and kangaroo mice . . . . . . .1036
Birch mice, jumping mice, and jerboas . . . . . . . . . . . . .1044
Rats, mice, and relatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1051
Scaly-tailed squirrels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1069
Springhare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1076
Gundis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1081
Dormice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1087
Dassie rat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1093
Contents ix
Cane rats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1097
African mole-rats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1103
Old World porcupines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1111
New World porcupines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1121
Viscachas and chinchillas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1129
Pacarana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1135
Cavies and maras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1139
Capybara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1147
Agoutis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1153
Pacas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1160
Tuco-tucos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1166
Octodonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1172
Chinchilla rats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1177
Spiny rats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1182
Hutias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1188
Coypu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1194
Sengis
Sengis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1223
Species List by Biome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .lvii
Species List by Geographic Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .lxiii
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .lxxxix
ADDITIONAL FEATURES
Each volume of Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource: Mam-
mals includes a pronunciation guide for scientific names, a glos-
sary, an overview of Mammals, a list of species in the set by biome,
a list of species by geographic location, and an index. The set has
540 full-color maps, photos, and illustrations to enliven the text,
and sidebars provide additional facts and related information.
NOTES
The classification of animals into orders, families, and even
species is not a completed exercise. As researchers learn more
about animals and their relationships, classifications may change.
In some cases, researchers do not agree on how or whether to
Reader’s Guide xi
make a change. For this reason, the heading “Number of species”
in the introduction of an entry may read “About 36 species” or
“34 to 37 species.” It is not a question of whether some animals
exist or not, but a question of how they are classified. Some re-
searchers are more likely to “lump” animals into the same species
classification, while others may “split” animals into separate
species.
Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource: Mammals has stan-
dardized information in the Conservation Status section. The
IUCN Red List provides the world’s most comprehensive inven-
tory of the global conservation status of plants and animals. Us-
ing a set of criteria to evaluate extinction risk, the IUCN recognizes
the following categories: Extinct, Extinct in the Wild, Critically
Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable, Conservation Dependent,
Near Threatened, Least Concern, and Data Deficient. These terms
are defined where they are used in the text, but for a complete
explanation of each category, visit the IUCN web page at http://
www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/redlists/RLcats2001booklet.html.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Special thanks are due for the invaluable comments and sug-
gestions provided by the Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource:
Mammals advisors:
• Mary Alice Anderson, Media Specialist, Winona Middle
School, Winona, Minnesota
• Thane Johnson, Librarian, Oklahoma City Zoo, Oklahoma
City, Oklahoma
• Debra Kachel, Media Specialist, Ephrata Senior High School,
Ephrata, Pennsylvania
• Nina Levine, Media Specialist, Blue Mountain Middle
School, Courtlandt Manor, New York
• Ruth Mormon, Media Specialist, The Meadows School, Las
Vegas, Nevada
B
Baleen: A flexible, horny substance making up two rows of
plates that hang from the upper jaws of baleen whales.
Biogeography: The study of the distribution and dispersal of
plants and animals throughout the world.
Bipedal: Walking on two feet.
C
Cache: A hidden supply area.
Camouflage: Device used by an animal, such as coloration, al-
lowing it to blend in with the surroundings to avoid being
seen by prey and predators.
Canine teeth: The four pointed teeth (two in each jaw) be-
tween the incisors and bicuspids in mammals; designed for
stabbing and holding prey.
Canopy: The uppermost layer of a forest formed naturally by
the leaves and branches of trees and plants.
Carnivore: Meat-eating organism.
Carrion: Dead and decaying animal flesh.
Cecum: A specialized part of the large intestine that acts as a
fermentation chamber to aid in digestion of grasses.
Cervical vertebrae: The seven neck bones that make up the
top of the spinal column.
Clan: A group of animals of the same species that live together,
such as badgers or hyenas.
Cloud forest: A tropical forest where clouds are overhead most
of the year.
Colony: A group of animals of the same type living together.
Coniferous: Refers to evergreen trees, such as pines and firs,
that bear cones and have needle-like leaves that are not shed
all at once.
Coniferous forest: An evergreen forest where plants stay green
all year.
Continental shelf: A gently sloping ledge of a continent that
is submerged in the ocean.
D
Data Deficient: An IUCN category referring to a species that
is not assigned another category because there is not enough
information about the species’ population.
Deciduous: Shedding leaves at the end of the growing season.
Deciduous forest: A forest with four seasons in which trees
drop their leaves in the fall.
Deforestation: Those practices or processes that result in the
change of forested lands to non-forest uses, such as human
settlement or farming. This is often cited as one of the ma-
jor causes of the enhanced greenhouse effect.
Delayed implantation: A process by which the fertilized egg
formed after mating develops for a short time, then remains
inactive until later when it attaches to the uterus for further
development, so that birth coincides with a better food sup-
ply or environmental conditions.
Den: The shelter of an animal, such as an underground hole
or a hollow log.
Dentin: A calcareous material harder than bone found in teeth.
Desert: A land area so dry that little or no plant or animal life
can survive.
Digit: Division where limbs terminate; in humans this refers
to a finger or toe.
Digitigrade: A manner of walking on the toes, as cats and dogs
do, as opposed to walking on the ball of the feet, as humans do.
Dingo: A wild Australian dog.
Diurnal: Refers to animals that are active during the day.
Domesticated: Tamed.
Dominant: The top male or female of a social group, some-
times called the alpha male or alpha female.
E
Echolocation: A method of detecting objects by using sound
waves.
Ecotourist: A person who visits a place in order to observe the
plants and animals in the area while making minimal human
impact on the natural environment.
Electroreception: The sensory detection of small amounts of
natural electricity by an animal (usually underwater), by
means of specialized nerve endings.
Elevation: The height of land when measured from sea level.
Endangered: A term used by the U. S. Endangered Species Act
of 1973 and by the IUCN in reference to a species that is
facing a very high risk of extinction from all or a significant
portion of its natural home.
Endangered Species Act: A U. S. law that grants legal protec-
tion to listed endangered and threatened species.
Endemic: Native to or occurring only in a particular place.
Erupt: In teeth, to break through the skin and become visible.
Estivation: State of inactivity during the hot, dry months of
summer.
Estuary: Lower end of a river where ocean tides meet the river’s
current.
Eutherian mammal: Mammals that have a well-developed pla-
centa and give birth to fully formed live young.
Evergreen: In botany, bearing green leaves through the winter
and/or a plant having foliage that persists throughout the
year.
Evolve: To change slowly over time.
Extinct: A species without living members.
Extinction: The total disappearance of a species or the disap-
pearance of a species from a given area.
F
Family: A grouping of genera that share certain characteristics
and appear to have evolved from the same ancestors.
G
Genera: Plural of genus.
Genus (pl. genera): A category of classification made up of
species sharing similar characteristics.
Gestation: The period of carrying young in the uterus before
birth.
Gland: A specialized body part that produces, holds, and re-
leases one or more substances (such as scent or sweat) for
use by the body.
Gleaning: Gathering food from surfaces.
Grassland: Region in which the climate is dry for long peri-
ods of the summer, and freezes in the winter. Grasslands are
characterized by grasses and other erect herbs, usually with-
out trees or shrubs, and occur in the dry temperate interiors
of continents.
Grooming: An activity during which primates look through
each other’s fur to remove parasites and dirt.
Guano: The droppings of birds or bats, sometimes used as fer-
tilizer.
Guard hairs: Long, stiff, waterproof hairs that form the outer
fur and protect the underfur of certain mammals.
Gum: A substance found in some plants that oozes out in re-
sponse to a puncture, as plant sap, and generally hardens af-
ter exposure to air.
I
Ice floe: A large sheet of floating ice.
Incisor: One of the chisel-shaped teeth at the front of the mouth
(between the canines), used for cutting and tearing food.
Indigenous: Originating in a region or country.
Insectivore: An animal that eats primarily insects.
Insulate: To prevent the escape of heat by surrounding with
something; in an animal, a substance such as fur or body fat
serves to retain heat in its body.
Invertebrate: Animal lacking a spinal column (backbone).
IUCN: Abbreviation for the International Union for Conser-
vation of Nature and Natural Resources, now the World Con-
servation Union. A conservation organization of government
agencies and nongovernmental organizations best known for
its Red Lists of threatened and endangered species.
K
Keratin: Protein found in hair, nails, and skin.
Krill: Tiny shrimp-like animals that are the main food of baleen
whales and are also eaten by seals and other marine mammals.
M
Malaria: A serious disease common in tropical countries,
spread by the bites of female mosquitoes, that causes com-
plications affecting the brain, blood, liver, and kidneys and
can cause death.
Mammae: Milk-secreting organs of female mammals used to
nurse young.
Mammals: Animals that feed their young on breast milk, are
warm-blooded, and breathe air through their lungs.
Mangrove: Tropical coastal trees or shrubs that produce many
supporting roots and that provide dense vegetation.
Marsupial: A type of mammal that does not have a well-
developed placenta and gives birth to immature and under-
developed young after a short gestation period. It continues
to nurture the young, often in a pouch, until they are able
to fend for themselves.
Matriarchal: Headed by a dominant female or females; said of
animal societies.
Mechanoreceptor: Sensory nerve receptor modified to detect
physical changes in the immediate environment, often hav-
ing to do with touch and change of pressure or turbulence
in water or air. In the platypus, mechanoreceptors in its bill
may detect prey and obstacles.
Megachiroptera: One of the two groups of bats; these bats are
usually larger than the microchiroptera.
N
Near Threatened: A category defined by the IUCN suggesting
that a species could become threatened with extinction in
the future.
Nectar: Sweet liquid secreted by the flowers of various plants
to attract pollinators (animals that pollinate, or fertilize, the
flowers).
Neotropical: Relating to a geographic area of plant and animal
life east, south, and west of Mexico’s central plateau that in-
cludes Central and South America and the West Indies.
New World: Made up of North America, Central America, and
South America; the western half of the world.
Nocturnal: Occurring or active at night.
Non-prehensile: Incapable of grasping; used to describe an an-
imal’s tail that cannot wrap around tree branches.
O
Old World: Australia, Africa, Asia, and Europe; in the eastern
half of the world.
Omnivore: Plant- and meat-eating animal.
Opportunistic feeder: An animal that eats whatever food is
available, either prey they have killed, other animals’ kills,
plants, or human food and garbage.
P
Pack ice: Large pieces of ice frozen together.
Patagium: The flap of skin that extends between the front and
hind limbs. In bats, it stretches between the hind legs and
helps the animal in flight; in colugos this stretches from the
side of the neck to the tips of its fingers, toes, and tail.
Phylogenetics: Field of biology that deals with the relationships
between organisms. It includes the discovery of these rela-
tionships, and the study of the causes behind this pattern.
Pinnipeds: Marine mammals, including three families of the
order Carnivora, namely Otariidae (sea lions and fur seals),
Phocidae (true seals), and Odobenidae (walrus).
Placenta: An organ that grows in the mother’s uterus and lets
the mother and developing offspring share food and oxygen
through the blood.
Placental mammal: Any species of mammal that carries embry-
onic and fetal young in the womb through a long gestation
period, made possible via the placenta, a filtering organ pass-
ing nutrients, wastes, and gases between mother and young.
Plantigrade: Walking on the heel and sole of the foot, instead of
on the toes. Plantigrade species include bears and humans.
Plate tectonics: Geological theory holding that Earth’s surface
is composed of rigid plates or sections that move about the
surface in response to internal pressure, creating the major
geographical features such as mountains.
Poach: To hunt animals illegally.
Pod: In animal behavioral science (and in some zoology uses)
the term pod is used to represent a group of whales, seals,
or dolphins.
Q
Quadruped: Walking or running on four limbs.
R
Rabies: A viral infection spread through the bite of certain
warm-blooded animals; it attacks the nervous system and can
be fatal if untreated.
Rainforest: An evergreen woodland of the tropics distin-
guished by a continuous leaf canopy and an average rainfall
of about 100 inches (250 centimeters) per year.
S
Savanna: A biome characterized by an extensive cover of
grasses with scattered trees, usually transitioning between ar-
eas dominated by forests and those dominated by grasses and
having alternating seasonal climates of precipitation and
drought.
Scavenger: An animal that eats carrion, dead animals.
Scent gland: Formed from modified, or changed, sweat glands,
these glands produce and/or give off strong-smelling chem-
icals that give information, such as marking territory, to
other animals.
Scent mark: To leave an odor, such as of urine or scent gland
secretions, to mark a territory or as a means of communica-
tion.
Scrotum: The external pouch containing the testicles.
Scrub forest: A forest with short trees and shrubs.
Scrubland: An area similar to grassland but which includes
scrub (low-growing plants and trees) vegetation.
Seamount: An underwater mountain that does not rise above
the surface of the ocean.
Seashore: When referring to a biome, formed where the land
meets the ocean.
Secondary forest: A forest characterized by a less-developed
canopy, smaller trees, and a dense ground vegetation found
on the edges of forests and along rivers and streams. The im-
mature vegetation may also result from the removal of trees
by logging and/or fires.
Semiaquatic: Partially aquatic; living or growing partly on land
and partly in water.
Semiarid: Very little rainfall each year, between 10 and 20
inches (25 to 51 centimeters).
Sexually mature: Capable of reproducing.
T
Tactile: Having to do with the sense of touch.
Talon: A sharp hooked claw.
Taxonomy: The science dealing with the identification, nam-
ing, and classification of plants and animals.
Teat: A projection through which milk passes from the mother
to the nursing young; a nipple.
Temperate: Areas with moderate temperatures in which the
climate undergoes seasonal change in temperature and mois-
ture. Temperate regions of the earth lie primarily between
30 and 60° latitude in both hemispheres.
Terrestrial: Relating to the land or living primarily on land.
Territorial: A pattern of behavior that causes an animal to stay
in a limited area and/or to keep certain other animals of the
same species (other than its mate, herd, or family group) out
of the area.
Thicket: An area represented by a thick, or dense, growth of
shrubs, underbrush, or small trees.
Threatened: Describes a species that is threatened with ex-
tinction.
Torpor: A short period of inactivity characterized by an en-
ergy-saving, deep sleep-like state in which heart rate, respi-
ratory rate and body temperature drop.
Traction: Resistance to a surface to keep from slipping.
U
Underfur: Thick soft fur lying beneath the longer and coarser
guard hair.
Understory: The trees and shrubs between the forest canopy
and the ground cover.
Ungulates: Hoofed animals, such as deer and elk.
Urine washing: A monkey behavior in which it soaks its hands
with urine, then rubs the liquid on its fur and feet so as to
leave the scent throughout its forest routes.
Uterus: A pear-shaped, hollow muscular organ in which a fe-
tus develops during pregnancy.
V
Vertebra (pl. vertebrae): A component of the vertebral column,
or backbone, found in vertebrates.
Vertebrate: An animal having a spinal column (backbone).
Vertical: Being at a right angle to the horizon. Up and down
movements or supports.
Vestigial: A degenerate or imperfectly developed biological
structure that once performed a useful function at an earlier
stage of the evolution of the species.
Vibrissae: Stiff sensory hairs that can be found near the nos-
trils or other parts of the face in many mammals and the
snouts, tails, ears, and sometimes feet of many insectivores.
Vocalization: Sound made by vibration of the vocal tract.
Vulnerable: An IUCN category referring to a species that faces
a high risk of extinction.
Y
Yolk-sac placenta: A thin membrane that develops in the
uterus of marsupials that does not fuse with the mother’s
uterus and results in short pregnancies with the young be-
ing born with poorly developed organs.
Mammal milk
Only mammals can feed their young with milk produced by
their body. This milk comes from special glands called mam-
mae. A female may have two mammary glands or as many as
a dozen or more. Mammal milk is very healthy for infants and
immediately available.
Body temperature
Mammals are warm-blooded, meaning they keep a constant
body temperature. To keep their temperature fairly constant, a
mammal needs some protective covering. Hair, made of a pro-
tein called keratin, serves several functions. One function is in-
sulation, controlling the amount of body heat that escapes into
the mammal’s environment through the skin.
Mammal hair
All mammals have hair at some time of their life. Some have
a lot, such as gorillas, and some have very little, such as the
naked mole rats. There are three types of hair: a coarse long
topcoat, a fine undercoat, and special sensory hairs, or whiskers.
In some mammals, hair has unusual forms. Porcupines have
stiff, sharp, and thickened hairs called quills. Anteaters have
medulla
secondary hairs
cortex
sebaceous glands
cuticle
C quills
whiskers
A
A. Cross section of a hair. sharp-edged scales made of modified hairs. These modified, or
B. Hairs may provide insulation
and waterproofing. Specialized
changed, hairs are protective against predators.
hair includes quills, whiskers Mammals that live all or most of their lives in water, such
(C), and horns (D). (Illustration
by Patricia Ferrer. Reproduced as sea otters, may have a lot of dense, long hair, or fur. Oth-
by permission.) ers have much less hair, but a very thick hide, or skin, plus a
thick layer of fat or blubber underneath the hide.
Hair color and pattern may vary. Males and females may have
different fur colors. Special color patterns, such as a skunk’s
black and white fur, act as warnings. Hair color can also serve
as camouflage, enabling the mammal to blend into its back-
ground.
Some mammals have fur color changes in summer and win-
ter. Colors can be entirely different. Snowshoe rabbits and
weasels can be brownish in summer, and almost pure white
in winter. But this only happens if there is snow where they
live. If it seldom snows, weasels and snowshoe rabbits stay
brown.
amniotic
cavity allantoic
cavity
amniotic chorion
cavity
fallopian tube
uterus
ovary uterine
uterus lateral
horn vagina
cervix birth
vagina canal
A B C D E
centimeters) in length. By about 15,000 years ago, long-ago The Grant’s desert mole uses
its powerful forelimbs to burrow
people were hunting mammals with stone-pointed spears. Most through the sands of the
of the animals they hunted are extinct for various reasons, some Namib Desert in southern
known, and some unknown. Africa. The golden mole moves
forward (1), and enlarges the
tunnel by pushing dirt up with
WHERE MAMMALS LIVE its head and back with its
claws (2). (Illustration by
Underground mammals Jacqueline Mahannah.
Reproduced by permission.)
Some small mammals spend all or most of their lives living
underground. These include many species of prairie dogs, chip-
munks, moles, groundhogs, Greenland collared lemmings, and
Peruvian tuco-tucos. Each of these mammals has a special body
design enabling it to survive underground.
Moles have large, powerful shoulders and short, very pow-
erful forelimbs. Spade-like feet have claws, enabling quick
digging. Hind feet have webbed toes, enabling the mole to
kick soil backwards effectively. Velvety-type fur enables a
mole to slip easily through its tunnels. And, although moles
Sea mammals
Some mammals live in the sea, including
A RECENT DISCOVERY manatees, whales, seals, and dolphins. While
A bright orange, mouse-like mammal, some need air every few minutes, a sperm
weighing 0.5 ounces (15 grams) and whale can remain underwater for an hour
measuring 3.12 inches (8 centimeters) and a half. How is this possible? Some sea
plus a long tail, has recently been mammals have a very low metabolism. They
discovered in the Philippines. It has don’t use up the their oxygen quickly and
whiskers five times longer than its head. can store large amounts of oxygen in their
It can open and eat very hard tree nuts bodies.
that no other mammal in the area can eat.
Tree mammals
Some mammals spend all or most of their
lives in trees. Tree-dwelling mammals are of-
ten hidden from sight by leaves, vines, and branches. Tree-
dwelling mammals include the Eastern pygmy possum, which
nests in small tree hollows; the koala; Lumholtz’s tree kanga-
roo, which leaps from branch to branch; the three-toed sloth;
and the clouded leopard.
Flying mammals
The only truly flying mammals are bats. The sound of bat
wings was first heard about 50 million years ago. Some bats are
large, with a wingspan almost 7 feet (21.3 meters) wide. Some
are small, as the Philippine bamboo bat, whose body is just 2
inches (5.08 centimeters) long.
Other mammals only appear to fly, such as the southern fly-
ing squirrel and the colugo, or Malayan flying lemur. These
mammals have gliding membranes, skin folds from body front
to legs, that, when spread out, act almost like a parachute. For
example, the feathertail glider, a tiny possum, crawls along nar-
row branches. At branch end, it leaps out and slightly down-
ward. Spreading its gliding membranes, it speeds through the
air, landing on a nearby tree.
Mountain mammals
Some mammals spend most of their lives on mountain peaks.
These include Asian corkscrew-horned markhor goats, North
metapodials
phalanges
A C D E F G H
fat pad
American Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep, and Siberian ibex. Mammals’ hands and feet
differ depending on where the
Siberian ibex can stand anyplace on any pinnacle with just animal lives and how it gets
enough room for its four feet. North American mountain goats around. A. A hominid hand is
can climb up a mountain peak, almost going straight up. Spe- used for grasping objects; B. A
bat’s wing is used for flight; C.
cially shaped hooves help.
A pinniped’s flipper helps move
Other high mountain dwelling mammals include snow leop- it through the water. Hoofed
ards and Asian pikas that can survive at 19,685 feet (6,000 me- animals move around on all
fours: D. Elephant foot; E.
ters). Gunnison’s prairie dogs do well up to 11,500 feet (3,505 Equid (horse family) foot; F.
meters). Odd-toed hoofed foot; G. Two-
toed hoofed foot; H. Four-toed
Desert mammals hoofed foot. (Illustration by
Patricia Ferrer. Reproduced by
Some mammals spend most of their lives in arid, or very dry permission.)
areas. Not all deserts are sandy like Death Valley or the Sahara.
Some are rocky. Other arid areas are mountainous. Desert
dwelling mammals include the North African elephant shrew,
white-tailed antelope squirrel, and the desert kangaroo rat. No
mammal can live without water. Desert rodents have a way to
extract, or get, water from their own body functions. Rodents
may also get water by eating plants, seeds, roots, and insects
that contain water.
Larger mammals live in arid regions too. The striped hyena
can survive in stony desert as long as it is within 6 miles (9.7
kilometers) of water. Fennecs, a very small fox living near sand
dunes, can go a long time without drinking. Camels can use
body fluids when no water is available.
has a sticky tongue that can reach out as long as 1 foot (0.3
meters) to capture its ant and termite meals.
Plant eaters
Some mammals eat nothing but plants. Plant eaters include
pandas, the West Indian manatee, and the red-bellied wallaby.
Some mammals have a single stomach that breaks the plant
food down into small pieces. Other mammals, such as cows
and camels, have a large stomach made of several parts. Each
part does a separate job of breaking down difficult-to-digest
plants.
Some mammals eat both plants and fruit. These include the
14-ounce (400-gram) Eurasian harvest mouse, the 100-pound
(45-kilogram) South American capybara, and the African ele-
phant. An elephant can eat up to 500 pounds (227 kilograms)
of grass, plants, and fruit per day.
Meat eaters
Mammals eating mostly meat or fish are carnivorous. Car-
nivorous mammals have long, pointed, and very strong incisor
teeth. Carnivores include polar bears, hyenas, walruses, and Eu-
molars
Continuously
growing incisors
Tearing (carnivores)
molars and
premolars with
large
Grinding (herbivores) sharp cusps
canines
broad, ridged
molars
ropean wild cats. The European wild cat may be an ancestor of Mammals have different tooth
shapes for different functions.
our house cats. Herbivores typically have large,
flattened teeth for chewing
Omnivores plants. Rodents’ ever-growing
Some mammals eat just about anything. They are omnivo- incisors are used for gnawing.
Carnivores have teeth for
rous. Omnivorous mammals include wolverines, raccoons, and holding and efficiently
wild pigs. Wild pigs are the ancestors of our domestic pigs. dismembering their prey.
(Illustration by Jacqueline
Mahannah. Reproduced by
MAMMAL SLEEPING HABITS permission.)
Day or night
Some mammals sleep during the night, others sleep during
the day. The night sleepers are diurnal, active during the day.
The day sleepers are nocturnal, active at night. They may have
special night vision. Many desert animals are nocturnal, mov-
ing about when it is cooler.
Hibernation
Some bat species hibernate through an entire winter. Hiber-
nation is like a very long deep sleep. When a mammal hiber-
nates, it uses up body fat that has accumulated from food eaten
in good weather. Hibernators include the North African jird,
groundhogs or woodchucks, and several dormice species.
Dormice enter a tree hollow or ground burrow in autumn, and
don’t come out until springtime.
Bears don’t truly hibernate. Their sleep isn’t deep. They slow
down quite a bit, and nap a lot, but do not sleep through an
entire winter.
A new hibernating pattern has just been discovered. Mada-
gascar fat-tailed lemurs hibernate in tree holes when winter day-
REPRODUCTION
Mating
Some mammals mate for life, such as wolves and some-
times coyotes. More commonly, a male may mate with several
females each breeding period. Or a female may mate with sev-
eral males.
Some mammals have one litter each year. Others have a lit-
ter only every two or three years. But the North American
Opossums are marsupial
meadow mouse can have seventeen litters per year. That’s a animals. The mother has a
group of babies about every three weeks! pouch in which the young
There may be one or more infants in a litter. Bats, giraffes, and continue to develop after
they’re born. (© Mary Ann
two-toed sloths have just one baby per year. However, the Mada- McDonald/Corbis. Reproduced
gascar tenrec can produce thirty-two babies in just one litter. by permission.)
SOCIAL LIFE
Japanese macaques are social
Solitary mammals
animals, and groom each other Some mammals are solitary. They keep company with an-
regularly. (© Herbert other of the same kind only when mating or when raising
Kehrer/OKAPIA/Photo
Researchers, Inc. Reproduced young. Solitary mammals include the giant anteaters, European
by permission.) bison, and right whales.
Pest mammals
Some mammals are considered pests. These include rats,
mice, and, depending where they live, gophers, rabbits, and
ground squirrels. Rats can transmit disease-carrying fleas. Rab-
bits and gophers eat garden and food plants.
ENDANGERED MAMMALS
Mammals in danger
Of about 5,000 mammal species currently existing, over
1,000 are seriously endangered. Few wild mammals can live
●
Class: Mammalia
Order: Monotremata
Number of families: 2 families
order C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
“Monotreme” means “one opening” and refers to the single class
rear orifice, or opening, that these animals have for getting rid
subclass
of wastes, laying eggs, and mating. The lower intestine, excre-
tory system (system that gets rid of wastes), and reproductive ● order
system all end at this opening, called the cloaca (kloh-AY-kah). monotypic order
This feature is common in reptiles and birds but extremely rare
among mammals. suborder
Monotremes 1
length of up to 21 inches (53 centimeters), the stubby tail adding
another 3 or 4 inches (7.6 to 10 centimeters). The long-beaked,
or long-nosed, echidna weighs up to twenty pounds, with a head
and body length ranging from 18 to 31 inches (45 to 77.5 cen-
timeters), while the tail, like that of the short-nosed echidna, is
a mere stubby shoot. Male platypus and male echidnas are larger
than females.
Platypus and echidnas are often called “primitive” because
they carry a number of reptilian, or reptile-like, characteristics
along with typically mammalian features. Ever since the first
discovery of monotremes by Europeans in the late 1700s, zool-
ogists, scientists who study animals, have been busy studying
this mix of details in order to place the monotremes properly
in the framework of mammalian evolution. Even more confus-
ing is that the living monotremes have a number of modified,
or changed, features all their own, examples being the snouts
of platypus and echidnas.
The most well-known and special feature of the monotremes,
and the one that seems most reptilian, is that the females lay
eggs rather than giving live birth. Monotremes are the only liv-
ing, egg-laying mammals. Other characteristics that platypus and
echidnas have in common are similar skeletons and highly mod-
ified snouts equipped with nerves whose endings are sensitive
to pressure and to natural electricity. Monotremes have fur, but
not whiskers, while the echidnas, in addition to fur, have sharp,
defensive spines, which are modified hairs, scattered over their
backs and sides.
Monotremes walk in a reptilian manner, like alligators and
crocodiles. Like the arms of someone in the middle of doing a
pushup, the upper bones of monotreme forelimbs and hindlimbs
go straight out from the body, horizontal to the ground, and the
lower limb bones go straight down. Other lines of mammal evo-
lution have abandoned this clumsy sort of movement and now
carry their entire legs vertically beneath their bodies. Zoologists
are not yet sure if the push-up style of legs and walking in
monotremes is something left over from their reptilian ancestors
or if they are more recent changes to fit their lifestyles.
Another odd monotreme characteristic is that male and fe-
male platypus, and male echidnas, have short, sharp, hollow,
defensive spurs on the inner sides of the ankles of their rear
limbs. The spurs of the male platypus connect with poison
glands and are fully functional as stingers.
Monotremes 3
Female echidnas and platypus may lay up to three eggs at a
time, but one is normal, and monotreme females usually bear
and raise only one young per year. Females do all the raising
of the young. Except during the mating season, individual platy-
pus and echidnas of both sexes lead solitary lives.
A platypus mother incubates her eggs by curling her tail and
holding the eggs between the tail and her warm underbelly. She
incubates and nurses her young in a “birth chamber” burrow,
which she digs and lines with moist leaves and water plants to
maintain humidity. Echidna mothers form simple, temporary
pouches by constricting special long muscles of their under-
bellies, and in which they incubate the eggs and later carry the
developing young.
The monotremes are unique in yet another way. They are
the only mammals to carry a sensory system that detects elec-
tricity, along with their usual senses of sight, hearing, etc. The
platypus bill contains tiny electroreceptors, specialized sensory
nerve endings arranged in rows along the length of the bill, on
the upper and lower surfaces. These detect electricity from the
muscular systems of underwater animals that the platypus
hunts, and even from the electricity created by water as it flows
over rocks on the bottom of the lake or river. The electrore-
ceptors are located together with mechanoreceptors that detect
underwater turbulence. Together, the two senses allow the
platypus to put together a three-dimensional “picture” of its
underwater hunting territory.
The bills of echidnas also have electroreceptors, though
much fewer than in platypus. Biologists have confirmed the
platypus’s use of the electrosense, while this has not been found
working in echidnas. Most likely the echidnas are gradually los-
ing the electrosense while platypus have developed it into one
of nature’s most complex sensory systems.
MONOTREMES AND PEOPLE
The special features of monotremes that set them apart from
other mammals make them subjects of fascination and curios-
ity. Nearly everyone has heard about the platypus and knows
that it is an egg-laying mammal. The reptilian features of the
living monotremes provide a valuable window back in time to
when reptiles were evolving into mammals.
Platypus fur was once a valued commodity because of its
softness and fine texture. Hunting of the platypus in the late
Books:
Augee, M. L., ed. Platypus and Echidnas. Australia: Royal Zoological So-
ciety of New South Wales, 1992.
Moyal, Ann. Platypus: the Extraordinary Story of How a Curious Creature
Baffled the World. Australia: Allen & Unwin Pty Ltd, 2002.
Monotremes 5
Periodicals:
Pascual, Rosendo, et al. “First Discovery of Monotremes in South Amer-
ica.” Nature 356, no. 6371 (April 1992): 704–706.
Krubitzer, L. “What Can Monotremes Tell Us About Brain Evolution?”
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Biological
Sciences 353, no. 1372 (July 1998): 1127–1146.
Pettigrew, J. D., P. R. Manger, and S. L. B. Fine. “The Sensory World of
the Platypus.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of
London, Biological Sciences 353, no. 1372 (July 1998): 1199–1210.
Pettigrew, J. D. “Electroreception in Monotremes.” Journal of Experi-
mental Biology 202, no. 10 (1999): 1447–1454.
Vergnani, Linda. “On the Trail of Scientific Oddballs (Peggy Rismiller
Studies Echidnas).” The Chronicle of Higher Education 48, no. 11
(2001): A72.
Web sites:
Australian Platypus Conservancy. http://www.totalretail.com/platypus
(accessed on June 29, 2004).
“Links for Platypus and Echidnas.” Department of Anatomy & Physiology,
University of Tasmania, Hobart. http://www.healthsci.utas.edu.au/
medicine/research/mono/References.html (accessed on June 29, 2004).
Pelican Lagoon Research Centre (for echidnas and other animals).
http://www.echidna.edu.au/index.html (accessed on June 29, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Monotremata
Family: Tachyglossidae
Number of species: 2 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Echidnas (ih-KID-nahz), also called spiny anteaters, are solidly class
built, short-legged, shuffling mammals that can grow fairly large,
subclass
up to 14 pounds (6.5 kilograms) for the short-beaked (or short-
nosed) echidna and up to 20 pounds (9 kilograms) for the long- order
beaked (or long-nosed). Head and body length in an adult monotypic order
short-beaked echidna can reach 21 inches (53 centimeters), the
stubby tail adding another 3.5 inches (9 centimeters). Head and suborder
body length in adult long-beaked echidnas gets as long as 30.5 ▲ family
inches (77.5 centimeters), and the tail, like that of the short-
beaked echidna, is a mere stubby shoot. Male echidnas are larger
than females. Although echidnas may look overweight, most of
the soft tissue mass that might be mistaken for blubber is mus-
cle, lots of it.
The two species look similar but some differences are obvi-
ous, especially the snout, which is made of bone, cartilage, and
keratin (what claws and fingernails are made of). The snout is
shorter and straight or slightly upturned in the short-beaked
echidna, but longer, thinner, and downcurving, like the bill of
a nectar-sipping bird, in the long-beaked echidna. An echidna’s
head is small and the neck is not obvious, so that the head
seems to flow directly into the body.
Echidnas have full coats of brown or black hair, with scat-
tered, hollow spines, which are really modified hairs, studding
the body on the back and sides. The spines are yellow with
black tips in some animals, and up to 2.4 inches (6 centime-
ters) long. In short-beaked echidnas, the spines are longer than
Echidnas 7
the fur, so that the spines are noticeable, but the coat of the
long-beaked echidna is just the opposite: the fur is long enough
to cover most of the spines.
The four legs are short, with powerful muscles and claws,
proper for an animal that frequently digs in the soil and tears
open logs and termite mounds. The hind feet point backwards,
and are used to push soil away and out when the animal is
burrowing.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
The short-beaked echidna lives throughout Australia,
Tasmania, and the lowlands of New Guinea. The long-beaked
echidna lives only in the New Guinea highlands.
HABITAT
The short-beaked echidna lives wherever its main food
sources, ants and termites, are abundant enough to keep it fed,
allowing the species to occupy nearly all habitat types in Aus-
tralia and New Guinea, from tropical rainforest and grassland
to desert. The long-beaked echidna is confined to alpine mead-
ows up to 12,000 feet (3,660 meters) above sea level, and to
humid mountain forests in the New Guinea highlands.
DIET
The short-beaked echidna feeds mainly on ants and termites,
but varies its menu with beetles, and grubs, and the like. The
animal forages (searches for food) usually by day, or in early
morning and evening during very hot weather. It digs up soil,
and tears open rotten logs and termite mounds to get at its food.
The diet of a long-beaked echidna is almost entirely earth-
worms, but it varies its diet with insects. The long-beaked
echidna feeds at night, poking around in the soil and the blan-
ket of fallen leaves and other litter on the forest floor, sniffing
for worms and insects.
Echidnas 9
long-beaked echidna of New Guinea, on the other hand, is far-
ing poorly. Its forest habitat is being cleared for logging, min-
ing, and agriculture, and people hunt the echidna for food with
packs of trained dogs. Because of these threats, the long-beaked
echidna is listed as Endangered.
SPECIES
SHORT-BEAKED ECHIDNA ACCOUNT
Tachyglossus aculeatus
Echidnas 11
The short-beaked echidna can
use its spines and claws to stay
wedged in a small space for
protection. If it cannot hide, the
echidna can roll into a ball,
leaving its spines exposed.
(Illustration by Barbara
Duperron. Reproduced by
permission.)
The pelt (fur) varies in color and thickness throughout the species’
range, being darker and thicker as one moves south. In northern Aus-
tralia, echidna pelts are light brown, while in Tasmania they are black.
Habitat: The short-beaked echidna can live in nearly any habitat where
it can count on a steady food supply of ants and termites. This adapt-
ability has allowed the species to occupy nearly all habitat types in Aus-
tralia and New Guinea, from tropical rainforest and grassland to desert.
Books:
Kennedy, Michael, compiler. Australasian Marsupials and Monotremes:
An Action Plan for Their Conservation. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, Species
Survival Commission, Australasian Marsupial and Monotreme Specialist
Group, 1992.
Rismiller, Peggy. The Echidna: Australia’s Enigma. Westport, CT: Hugh
Lauter Levin Associates, 1999.
Stodart, Eleanor. The Australian Echidna. Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 1991.
Echidnas 13
Periodicals:
Griffiths, M., B. Green, R. M. C. Leckie, M. Messer, and K.W. Newgrain.
“Constituents of Platypus and Echidna Milk.” Australian Journal of Bio-
logical Science no. 37 (1984): 323–329.
Vergnani, Linda. “On the Trail of Scientific Oddballs. (Peggy Rismiller stud-
ies echidnas).” The Chronicle of Higher Education 48, no. 11 (Nov 9,
2001): A72(1).
Web sites:
Echidna Central. http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/echidnas (accessed
on June 29, 2004)
Pelican Lagoon Research Centre, Australia. http://www.echidna.edu.au/
(accessed on June 29, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Monotremata
Family: Ornithorhynchidae
One species: Duck-billed platypus
(Ornithorynchus
anatinus)
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
A platypus, at first glance, resembles an otter with a duck’s bill class
on its face and a beaver’s tail in back. An adult platypus, about
the size of a house cat, weighs from 3 to 5 pounds (1.5 to 2.5 subclass
kilograms), its adult head and body length runs 12 to 18 inches order
(30 to 45 centimeters), and the tail adds another 4 to 6 inches
monotypic order
(10 to 15 centimeters). Males are larger than females.
The snout, despite its duckbill shape, is soft, moist, and rub- suborder
bery in texture, not hard like a bird’s beak. The bill has an ▲ family
upper and lower section, like that of a mammal or bird, and
the jaw hinging and motions are like those of mammals. The
nostrils are set close together on the top of the upper bill.
The word “platypus” means “flat feet,” referring to the
animal’s webbed, somewhat ducklike feet. The scientific name,
Ornithorhynchus anatinus, means, in Latin, “bird-snout, resem-
bling a duck.” The plural is “platypuses” or just “platypus.”
Most of the body is covered with fine, soft fur. The pelt color
varies from dark amber to very dark brown on the platypus’s
back and sides, and from grayish white to yellowish brown on
the underbelly. Platypus fur is fine, soft, and dense, with up to
900 hairs per square inch of skin. The fur has two layers, an
undercoat with a woolly texture and an overcoat of coarser hair.
As the platypus dives, the two fur layers trap a layer of air next
to the skin, thus keeping the body dry and helping to insulate
it against cold while the platypus swims, often throughout the
night, and sometimes in temperatures close to freezing.
The body is somewhat flattened and streamlined. The limbs
are short and muscular. As in other monotremes, the limbs of
Duck-Billed Platypus 15
the platypus are set in a permanent push-up position, the up-
per limb bones extending out from the sides of the body, hori-
zontal to the ground, the lower limb bones going straight down.
Although an excellent swimmer, the platypus is clumsy when
trying to walk on land, and seldom does so anyway, except
within its tunnels, since it burns up twice as much body energy
moving about on land as it does swimming underwater.
All four feet have five claws apiece and are webbed, but the
webbing of the front feet extends in a flat flange beyond the
toes when the platypus swims. Back on land or in its burrow,
the animal folds the extra webbing under its forefeet and walks
on its knuckles. The platypus uses the forelimbs and forefeet
for swimming and digging, while using the hind feet and claws
as combs to keep the fur clean and waterproof.
The eyes are small and the external ears are mere holes in
the skull, although the internal structure of the ears is like that
of other mammals. There are two long grooves for protecting
the eyes and ears, a single groove surrounding both the eye
and ear on each side. These grooves are closed underwater,
shutting both eyes and ears, when the platypus dives to hunt
for food. Out of water, the senses of sight and hearing
are sharp.
Both hind limbs of the male bear hollow, pointed, poison spurs
mounted on the insides of the ankles, just above the heels. There
are venom glands, one in each thigh, called the “crural glands”
because they are controlled by the crural nerves, which are ma-
jor motor nerves of the hindlimbs. The glands secrete venom that
is passed through ducts to the sharp spurs, which the platypus
can erect like jacknife blades and stab into other animals.
Both sexes have the spurs when they are young. At four
months of age, male spurs are protected by a covering of
whitish, chalky material that sloughs off completely by the end
of the first year of age. Females bear smaller, useless spurs,
without venom, that they shed by ten months of age.
The platypus’s flat, beaverlike tail is used as a swimming rud-
der, a shovel, for fat storage, and by the mother for keeping
eggs and young warm. The tail can store up to fifty percent of
a platypus’s total load of body fat. Female platypus use the tail
to carry leaves to the nesting chamber, and both sexes use it to
sweep loosened soil out of the way when digging. The tail has
no fine fur, only coarse, bristly hair on its upper surface to aid
in carrying or sweeping.
HABITAT
All platypus live on the edges of freshwater bodies like lakes,
ponds, rivers, and streams, in tropical and temperate regions.
DIET
The platypus eats small freshwater animals, which it hunts
at night, underwater, with its eyes and ears closed. It finds and
catches underwater creatures that are swimming or sunken in
the bottom mud by tracking them down with its sensitive bill,
which can detect electricity and motion.
Diet is varied, including adult and larval water insects, cray-
fish (called “yabbies” in Australia), fish, frogs, tadpoles, snails,
spiders, freshwater mussels, worms, fish eggs, and unlucky in-
sects that fall into the water from overhanging trees. Occasion-
ally, platypus probe for food at the edge of the water, grubbing
under rocks or among roots of plants. A platypus must eat one
third to one half of its body weight in food every day.
Duck-Billed Platypus 17
dozen camping burrows strung along the banks of its territory,
providing numerous nearby, safe havens. The animal rotates
the burrows for shelter, staying at each a few days, probably to
keep down its population of parasites.
A nesting burrow can be as long as 90 feet (30 meters), with
two or more branching tunnels that circle about and eventu-
ally lead to the central nesting chamber.
Platypus normally hunt and feed at night, but have been seen
doing so in the daytime. In the water, a platypus propels itself
with powerful strokes of its forelimbs, the extended webbing
adding extra push to the motions. It uses the hindlimbs and
tail only for steering. As it swims, the platypus swings its head
from side to side, allowing a full scan of its surroundings with
its sensitive bill. The platypus feeds by snagging swimming
creatures with its bill and by rousting them out of stream bot-
tom mud and gravel, shoveling it up with its bill to put buried
creatures to flight, then catching them as they try to escape.
Since the platypus must breathe air, it combines underwater
hunting with trips to the surface to exhale and inhale. It will
usually stay submerged for about a minute at a time, although
it can stay submerged for up to five minutes. Platypus blood is
especially rich in red cells and hemoglobin, the substance in
blood that carries oxygen. The platypus can also ration its blood
oxygen supply by reducing its heartbeat from two hundred
beats per minute to ten beats per minute.
When not out hunting, a platypus rests in its burrow for up
to seventeen hours a day. Platypus are active throughout the
year, even in cooler southern Australia and Tasmania, where
water temperature drops nearly to the freezing point. Individ-
uals have been known to go into periods of torpor, or slug-
gishness and reduced activity with a lowering of body
temperature, during the coldest months. Such a period, which
can last up to six days, is not true hibernation but allows the
animal to conserve energy in cold times.
Platypus are for the most part silent. Some naturalists have
heard threatened platypus make soft, growling sounds that are
only audible at close range. Lifespans for platypus in captivity
and in the wild can reach sixteen years.
Platypus mate from August to October. Following an elabo-
rate courtship ritual that includes the male holding on to the
female’s tail, and the pair swimming in slow circles, the two cop-
ulate in the water. Then the female tends to the nesting burrow
and chamber, carrying wet leaves and moss with her folded tail
for lining the chamber, to prevent the eggs from drying out. The
female lays one to three eggs in the chamber two to four weeks
after mating. A typical egg is slightly oval, about half an inch
in diameter (13 millimeters), with a soft, leathery shell like a
reptile’s.
The mother incubates the eggs by holding them against her
belly fur with her tail, maintaining a constant temperature of
90°F (31.5°C). The young hatch in about ten days, each tear-
ing through the eggshell with a temporary egg tooth. The newly
hatched, inch-long young are fragile and translucent, blind and
furless, and at about the same stage of development as a newly
born marsupial young.
The mother, having no nipples, nurses the young with milk
that comes directly from her belly skin. In about four months,
Duck-Billed Platypus 19
Duck-billed platypus (Ornithorynchus anatinus)
the young emerge for the first time from the burrow, each about
a foot long and with a full coat of fur.
Predators of platypus, other than humans, include birds of
prey such as hawks, eagles, and owls; Murray cod, a freshwa-
ter fish; and crocodiles. Carpet pythons, goanna lizards and
rakali, or Australian water-rats, prey on young platypus in bur-
rows. Carnivorous mammal species introduced by European
settlers, including foxes, dogs, and cats, prey on platypus, al-
though some of these predators are dealt painful ends by the
poison spurs of male platypus.
Duck-Billed Platypus 21
Recently, platypus have started invading human-made urban
waterways in Melbourne, Victoria, while disappearing from
some wild areas, for reasons still not understood. The urban
platypus most likely have been forced into artificial waterways
due to destruction of their habitat by development, and there
is enough live platypus food in the waterways to feed a platy-
pus population. The Australian Platypus Conservancy and the
Melbourne Water Department together have surveyed and
taken counts of the urban platypus populations. They found
that platypus in the waterways were as healthy and well-fed as
those in the wild, while some individual platypus from the wa-
terways have migrated and re-colonized river banks with im-
proved habitat.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Platypus are considered “common but vulnerable” by the
government of Australia. It is plentiful in some areas, but is
considered vulnerable due to habitat destruction from dams, ir-
rigation projects, being caught in fish nets and lines, and wa-
ter pollution.
Platypus are strictly protected by law and harsh penalties in
Australia, which is agreeable with most, if not all, Australians,
since the animals are not pests and are now national emblems.
The Australian government and private groups like the Aus-
tralian Platypus Conservancy keep close eyes on platypus pop-
ulations and have proposed relocating some of the urban
platypus to suitable natural areas where they have been driven
from by development in the past.
Books:
Augie, M. L. Platypus and Echidnas. Mosman, Australia: The Royal
Zoological Society of New South Wales, 1992.
Moyal, Ann Mozley. Platypus: The Extraordinary Story of How a Curious
Creature Baffled the World. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution
Press, 2001.
Short, Joan. Platypus. New York: Mondo Publishing, 1997.
Periodicals:
Hughes, R.L. and L. S. Hall. “Early Development and Embryology of the
Platypus.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
347 (1998): 1101–1114.
Web sites:
What is A Platypus? and Other Quandries: Platypus Online Resource
Guide. http://www.platypuscomputing.com/rglinks.html (accessed on
June 29, 2004).
Australian Platypus Conservancy. http://www.totalretail.com/platypus
(accessed on June 29, 2004).
Duck-Billed Platypus 23
NEW WORLD OPOSSUMS
Didelphimorphia
●
Class: Mammalia
▲
Order: Didelphimorphia
One family: Didelphidae
Number of species: 61 species
monotypic order
C H A P T E R
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
In a very general sense, the Didelphidae can be said to in-
habit both New World continents, from southeastern Canada
to southern South America, but the common or Virginia opos-
sum is the only marsupial making its home in the continental
U.S. and Canada. All other species of Didelphidae range across
Mexico, Central, and South America, from northern Mexico to
southern Patagonia in South America, and on some of the Lesser
Antilles Islands.
HABITAT
The Virginia opossum inhabits the widest range of habitats of
any New World opossum, being found over most of the conti-
nental United States and southeastern Canada, in forest, grass-
land, and desert. The other species variously inhabit tropical and
subtropical forests, and a few, like the Patagonian opossum, in-
habit temperate grasslands in South America. The dryland mouse
opossum prefers desert-like conditions in Central America.
DIET
Diet among Didelphidae is omnivorous, with some variation
among species. Food sources include insects, small reptiles,
small mammals, especially rodents, birds’ eggs, fruits, seeds,
snails, freshwater crustaceans, earthworms, and carrion. One
species is skilled at subduing scorpions. The yapok, or water
opossum, hunts and eats freshwater fish. Some species store fat
in the bases of their tails to carry them through the lean months.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Out of all the Didelphidae species, the IUCN lists three as
Critically Endangered (facing an extremely high risk of ex-
tinction), three as Endangered (facing a very high risk of ex-
tinction), fifteen as Vulnerable (facing a high risk of extinction),
and eighteen as Near Threatened (close to becoming threatened
with extinction).
SPECIES
VIRGINIA OPOSSUM ACCOUNTS
Didelphis virginiana
and carry nesting materials. The ears, nostrils, forepaws, and hind-
paws are pinkish and only sparsely furred. Each paw has five digits,
and the hallux (HAL-lux; big toe) is opposable, allowing the opos-
sum to grasp branches.
WATER OPOSSUM
Chironectes minimus
Habitat: Yapoks live along streams, rivers, and lakes in tropical and
subtropical rainforests of Central and South America, from sea level
to 6,000 feet (1,830 meters) or more above sea level.
Diet: The yapok eats crayfish, shrimp, fish, and some water plants.
Periodicals:
Cifelli, R. L., and Brian M. Davis. “Marsupial Origins (Paleontology).”
Science 302, no. 5652 (December 12, 2003): 1934.
de Muizon, C., and R. L. Cifelli. “A New Basal Didelphoid (Marsupialia,
Mammalia) from the Early Paleocene of Tiupampa (Bolivia).” Journal of
Vertebrate Paleontology 21, no. 1 (2001): 8–97.
●
Class: Mammalia
▲
Order: Paucituberculata
One family: Caenolestidae
Number of species: 5 species
monotypic order
C H A P T E R
Shrew Opossums 37
look because different areas of the coat have different textures.
The fur may be dark on the dorsal (upper) parts of the body,
with lighter-colored under parts, or dark all over the body. Dark
colors vary from gray-brown, black-brown, to near-black. The
ears are shaped much like those of typical mice, and large
enough to protrude well above the thick fur. Hearing is acute,
as is the tactile (touch) sense of the long whiskers.
The upper lips bear small flaps of skin on both sides, a fea-
ture found only in the Caenolestidae. The Chilean opossum has
these and similar flaps on its lower lips. Their function is, so
far, unknown. They may be barriers to prevent blood, pieces
of flesh, and dirt from collecting on the sides of the jaws. The
tail is about as long as the combined head and body. The tail
fur, sparser than on the body, is the same color as the upper
pelt, but may include a white tip in some individuals. The tail
is not prehensile, meaning it is not able to curl around and
grasp objects. The tail of the Chilean shrew opossum swells up
with stored fat for the southern winter months. Females do not
have pouches and have four nipples, except for females of the
Chilean shrew opossum, which have seven nipples, the seventh
located on the midline of the underbelly.
The rostrum, or the front part of the skull including the jaws,
is long and tapering. Each of the lower incisors has only one
cusp, or protruding bump on its crown, unlike most mammal
teeth, hence the order name, Paucituberculata, meaning, in
Latin, “few bumps,” since this feature is found in all species,
living and extinct, in the order.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
The gray-bellied shrew opossum, the blackish shrew opos-
sum, and the silky shrew opossum are found in isolated, sepa-
rated populations in the mountains of the Western Andes, from
Colombia and Venezuela in the north and southwards through
Ecuador, Peru, and Argentina. The Incan shrew opossum in-
habits southern Peru, while the Chilean shrew opossum lives
along the south-central coast of Chile and on the close offshore
Chilean island of Chiloé, plus another population in Argentina.
HABITAT
The gray-bellied shrew opossum, the blackish shrew opos-
sum, the silky shrew opossum, and the Incan shrew opossum
live in dense vegetation in cool, rainy mountain forests and
DIET
Shrew opossums forage nocturnally, at night, on the ground,
and are carnivorous (meat-eaters) with some herbivory (plant-
eating). They eat insects, earthworms, small vertebrates, fruits,
other plant food, and fungi, in forest floor growth and in alpine
meadows, traveling among feeding areas by means of trails
through ground vegetation that they maintain by constant
use. A shrew opossum uses its lower canines to stab and skewer
prey, then uses its sharp premolars to slice the prey into
pieces.
Shrew Opossums 39
BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION
Little is known about the particulars of breeding among shrew
opossum species. Field researchers have found lactating (produc-
ing milk for young) females of the Chilean shrew opossum in Feb-
ruary, March, May, October, November, and December, suggesting
a breeding season from December through May, and no breeding
from June through September, the coldest months in the South-
ern Hemisphere. Breeding season for the silky shrew opossum,
which lives in a less stressful climate, is thought to begin in July.
Since shrew opossums are marsupials, the unborn young re-
main in the females’ uterus (YOO-ter-us; womb) only a few days,
then are born in an incomplete state, to be suckled by the mother
until they complete development. Suckling shrew opossums
cling to their mother as she moves about. Litters probably num-
ber up to four individuals.
If alarmed, a shrew opossum will hop forward repeatedly on
all fours, a mode of locomotion unique to the Caenolestidae.
Shrew opossums have also been observed climbing trees,
though not foraging in trees. The animals rest during the day
in hollow logs and burrows. Despite their fattened tails, Chilean
shrew opossums have been observed running across packed
snow in midwinter.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists the Chilean
shrew opossum as Vulnerable (facing a high risk of extinction),
due to deforestation (removing trees) from logging.
SPECIES
SILKY SHREW OPOSSUM ACCOUNT
Caenolestes fuliginosus
Shrew Opossums 41
Habitat: This shrew opossum is nocturnal and
terrestrial, preferring cool, wet areas with heavy
vegetation. The species is found in alpine scrub
forests and meadow zones of the Andes, at altitudes
from 4,500 to 12,000 feet (1,500 to 4,000 meters).
Books:
Lee, Anthony K., and Andrew Cockburn. Evolutionary Ecology of Marsu-
pials. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 6th ed. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Simpson, George Gaylord. Splendid Isolation: The Curious History of
South American Mammals. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1980.
Szalay, Frederick S. Evolutionary History of the Marsupials and an
Analysis of Osteological Characters. New York: Cambridge University
Press, 1995.
Periodicals:
Bown, T. M., and J. G. Fleagle. “New Colhuehuapian and Santacrucian
Microbiotheriidae and Caenolestidae From Patagonian Argentina.” Jour-
nal of Vertebrate Paleontology 14, no. 3 (1994): 18.
Cifelli, Richard L., and Brian M. Davis. “Marsupial Origins.” (Paleontology).
Science 302, no. 5652 (2003): 1899–1900.
Shrew Opossums 43
MONITO DEL MONTE
Microbiotheria
●
Class: Mammalia
▲
Order: Microbiotheria
One family: Microbiotheriidae
One species: Monito del monte
(Dromiciops gliroides)
monotypic order
C H A P T E R
tip. The one-third of the tail closest to the body has the same
sort of dense, woolly fur as the body, while the rest of the tail
has straight, dark brown fur. The female’s well-developed
pouch is comfortably lined with light brown fur and has four
nipples. The ears are moderately furred.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
The monito del monte has a limited
range in South America, in southern Chile,
overlapping into Argentina, from Concep-
ción, Chile, southward to and including
the Chilean island of Chiloé, and inland to
the Andes and just over the border into
Argentina.
HABITAT
Monitos del monte live in dense, cool, tem-
perate rainforests, in the lowlands and the An-
des mountains, from sea level to 6,000 feet
(1,850 meters) above sea level. They most of-
ten live in thickets of Chilean bamboo
Young monitos del monte first (Chusquea species), especially Chusquea valdiviensis, the most
live in their mother’s pouch, then common ground plant in these forests.
in the nest, and finally ride on
her back while she looks for food. The forest type where the monito del monte makes its home
(Illustration by Michelle is as unique as the animal itself. Called Valdivian temperate for-
Meneghini. Reproduced by
permission.)
est, it is located in a limited range in southern South America
between the Andes and the Pacific Ocean, most of it in Chile
with some extending into Argentina. The Valdivian forest
biome is isolated from the rest of the world by deserts, moun-
tains, and oceans. The forest is a treasure house of ancient
plants and animals, some of which date back, little changed,
from the time when the southern continents were all attached
together, forming the ancient supercontinent of Gondwana.
The Valdivian forests have been in their present isolated con-
dition for thirty million years. A full 90 percent of the seven
hundred flowering plant species there are endemic, meaning
they are found no where else in the world. One third of the
woody plants (trees, shrubs, woody vines) have living relatives
in Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia (an island northeast
of Australia), and Tasmania, all linking to an ancient common
landmass. The monito del monte is a living fossil whose rela-
tionship with other marsupials shows the same sort of geo-
graphic split as do the Valdivian plants.
DIET
The monito del monte is mostly insectivorous, meaning that
it forages for and eats insect larvae (LAR-vee) and pupae
(PYOO-pee). They also eat some plant material. They do most
of their foraging at night, in the trees and on the ground. In
the Southern Hemisphere in autumn, the animals gorge, dou-
bling their body weights in a week, most of the extra weight
being fat packed into the base of the tail.
Books:
Aplin, K. P., and M. Archer. “Recent Advances in Marsupial Systematics
With a New Syncretic Classification.” In Possums and Opossums: Stud-
ies in Evolution. Vol. I. Chipping Norton, U.K.: Surrey Beatty and Sons
PTY Limited, 1987.
Feldhamer, G. A., L. C. Drickamer, S. H. Vessey, and J. F. Merritt. Mam-
malogy: Adaptation, Diversity, and Ecology. Boston: WCB McGraw-
Hill, 1999.
Szalay, F. “A New Appraisal of Marsupial Phylogeny and Classification.”
In Carnivorous Marsupials. Sydney, Australia: Royal Zoological Society of
New South Wales, 1982.
Vaughan, T. A., J. M. Ryan, and N. J. Czaplewski. Mammalogy, 4th ed.
Philadelphia: Saunders College Publishing, 2000.
Periodicals:
Amico, G., and M. A. Aizen. “Mistletoe Seed Dispersal by a Marsupial.”
Nature no. 408 (2000): 929–930.
Bozinovic, Francisco, G. Ruiz, and M. Rosenmann. “Energetics and
Torpor of a South American “Living Fossil,” the Microbiotheriid
Dromiciops gliroides.” Journal of Comparative Physiology B 174 (2004):
93–297.
Hershkovitz, P. “Ankle Bones: The Chilean Opossum Dromiciops gliroides
Thomas, and Marsupial Phylogeny.” Bonner Zoologische Beiträge no. 43
(1992): 181–213.
Hershkovitz, P. “Dromiciops gliroides Thomas, 1894, Last of the Micro-
biotheria (Marsupialia), With a Review of the Family Microbiotheriidae.”
Fieldiana Zoology (New Series) 93, no. 1502 (2004).
Kirsch, J. A. W., A. W. Dickerman, O. A. Reig, and M. S. Springer. “DNA
Hybridisation Evidence for the Australian Affinity of the American Mar-
supial Dromiciops australis.” Proceedings of the National Academy of
Science, USA no. 88 (1991): 10465–10469.
Marshall, L. G. “Dromiciops australis.” Mammalian Species 99
(1978): 1–5.
Pridmore, P. A. “Locomotion in Dromiciops australis (Microbiotheriidae).”
Australian Journal of Zoology no. 42 (1994): 679–699.
Web sites:
Terrestrial Ecoregions—Valdivian temperate forests (NT0404). http://
www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/nt/nt0404_full.html
(accessed on June 29, 2004).
Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan. http://animaldiversity.
ummz.umich.edu/site/index.html (accessed June 29, 2004).
●
Class: Mammalia
Order: Dasyuromorphia
Number of families: 3 families
order C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Most familiar mammals such as cats, dogs, and horses are class
called eutherian (yoo-THEER-ee-an) mammals. These mam-
subclass
mals have a placenta, an organ that grows in the mother’s uterus
(womb) and lets the mother and developing offspring share ● order
food and oxygen. Marsupials do not have a developed placenta. monotypic order
Because of this, they give birth to young that are physically im-
mature and undeveloped. The young are not able to survive on suborder
their own. Instead, they are carried around for several months family
in their mother’s pouch, or they are attached to the mother’s
teats, or nipples, outside the pouch, and carried until they have
grown and matured enough to fend for themselves. The
Australasian (living in Australia and nearby islands) carnivo-
rous marsupials are made up of three families of marsupial
mammals with a total of about seventy-one species.
Australasian carnivorous marsupials vary widely in weight,
from less than one ounce (28 grams) to more that 65 pounds
(30 kilograms). The combined length of their head and body
ranges from less than 2 inches (5 centimeters) to 51 inches
(130 centimeters). The largest Australasian carnivorous mar-
supial, the Tasmanian wolf, became extinct in the early 1900s.
The largest living member of the Dasyuromorphia order is the
Tasmanian devil.
Australasian carnivorous marsupials are all four-footed, with
four toes on each of the two front feet and either four or five
toes on each of the two back feet. On each back foot is a toe
called a hallux (HAL-lux) that does not have a claw. Species that
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Animals in this order live in Australia, Tasmania, and New
Guinea, and also inhabit some of the nearby Pacific islands.
HABITAT
Australasian carnivorous marsupials live in many different
habitats, from the tropical rainforest to the desert. Each species
has adaptations that allow it to live in its own particular envi-
ronment. For example, the numbat has claws that are good for
scratching at the dirt and digging out termites in the forest where
it lives. The spotted-tail quoll has special ridges on the bottoms
of its paws and sharp claws that help it climb large trees.
Many of the Australasian carnivorous marsupials live in habi-
tats where it can become very hot or very cold. Different species
have different ways of protecting themselves from these extreme
temperatures. Some species such as the numbat dig burrows
underground that they line with dead leaves and other plant
parts for insulation. Other species are able to reduce their body
temperatures on purpose. This is called torpor, and it reduces
the amount of energy an animal needs to live when it gets too
cold or is exposed to other environmental stresses, such as too
little food.
DIET
Australasian carnivorous marsupials eat meat and insects.
What each species eats depends on its size, habitat, and what
kind of adaptations it has for hunting. Smaller species usually
CONSERVATION STATUS
Many Australasian carnivorous marsupials
have not been studied by scientists. There are no good estimates
of how many are left in the wild and how things such as de-
forestation (clearing the land of trees) are affecting them. One
family in this order, Tasmanian wolves, has already gone ex-
tinct. The last time a Tasmanian wolf was confirmed to exist in
the wild was in 1930. The last remaining animal was in captiv-
ity in a zoo and died shortly thereafter in 1936.
Many Australasian carnivorous marsupials such as the
southern dibbler and the sandhill dunnart are considered to
be Endangered, or facing a very high risk of becoming extinct
in the wild. Many others are considered Vulnerable, which
means they face a high risk of extinction in the wild.
There are many reasons that Australasian carnivorous mar-
supials are facing the threat of extinction. The cutting down of
forest areas to clear land for agriculture affects many species, as
does the changing pattern of fires set to clear grassland areas.
Many species are Vulnerable or Endangered in Australia and
surrounding areas because of the introduction of the red fox,
which is not native to the region. In areas where the red fox is
found, populations of Australasian carnivorous mammals have
substantially decreased.
Books:
Fenton, Julie A. Kangaroos and Other Marsupials. Chicago: World Book,
2000.
Hoare, Ben, ed. International Wildlife Encyclopedia, 3rd ed. Tarrytown,
NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2002.
Nowak, Ronald M., ed. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 5th ed. Balti-
more and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.
Woods, Samuel G. Sorting Out Mammals: Everything You Want to Know
About Marsupials, Carnivores, Herbivores, and More! Woodbridge, CT:
Blackbirch Marketing, 1999.
Periodicals:
Hecht, Jeff. “The Sun Warmed Up Evolution For Us All.” New Scientist
(August 31, 2002): 17.
Other sources:
“The Amazing Marsupials.” Australian Ark Documentary Series.
Columbia Tristar, 1994.
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Dasyuormorphia
Family: Dasyuridae
Number of species: 69 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Members of the family Dasyuridae include marsupial mice and
cats and the Tasmanian devil. Marsupials are animals that do not
subclass
have a very well developed placenta. A placenta is an organ that
order grows in the mother’s uterus (womb) that allows the developing
monotypic order offspring to share the mother’s food and oxygen. Because of this,
pregnancy in marsupials is short and the young are born unde-
suborder veloped and unable to fend for themselves. After birth, the young
▲ family move to the mother’s pouch and attach to her milk teats (nipples)
until they have finished developing enough to live on their own.
None of the members of the family Dasyuridae are very large.
This order includes some of the world’s smallest marsupials,
members of the genus (JEE-nus) Planigale, some of which are
less than 4 inches (10 centimeters) long and weigh less than
0.2 ounces (5 grams). Other members of this family vary in size
up to the Tasmanian devil, which is the largest species. The
Tasmanian devil can be up to 25 inches (62 centimeters) long
and weigh up to 29 pounds (13 kilograms).
Marsupial mice and cats, as well as the Tasmanian devil, have
four legs. They have four toes on each of their two front feet
and either four or five toes on their two back feet. When they
have five toes on their back feet, the fifth toe is a hallux (HAL-
lux). A hallux is a toe that does not have a claw. The species
in this family usually have pointed snouts and long tails.
The fur of animals in this family is mostly gray or brownish,
and sometimes is black. Fur color often depends on the habitat in
which the species lives, and the kind of fur that best camouflages
DIET
What the members of this family eat depends on their size. The
species that have smaller bodies, such as the marsupial mice, usu-
ally eat insects and sometimes catch and eat small animals such
as lizards. These smaller animals will eat large animals only if they
are already dead, in which case they will feed from the carcass.
Larger species in this family eat mainly other vertebrates, or ani-
mals that have backbones, such as wallabies and birds. Species that
eat mainly vertebrates will occasionally eat some insects and other
invertebrates, animals without backbones, as well. Some species
will even supplement their diet with food that does not come from
other animals, such as flowers and fruit. All species in this family
are scavengers when they get the chance. They will eat animals
that are already dead, if they are available. Members of this fam-
ily are usually nocturnal and hunt and are active mainly at night.
CONSERVATION STATUS
No species in this family are known to be extinct, but many,
such as the Kangaroo Island dunnart, are Endangered. Animals
that are considered Endangered face a very high risk of be-
coming extinct in the wild. Many other members of this fam-
ily are Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction in the wild.
There are some species in this family that scientists do not yet
have enough information about to know if they are endangered
or not.
SPECIES
BRUSH-TAILED PHASCOGALE ACCOUNTS
Phascogale tapoatafa
TASMANIAN DEVIL
Sarcophilus laniarius
Books:
Fenton, Julie A. Kangaroos and Other Marsupials. Chicago: World Book,
2000.
Hoare, Ben, ed. International Wildlife Encyclopedia, 3rd ed. Tarrytown,
NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2002.
Nowak, Ronald M., ed. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 5th ed. Balti-
more and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.
Woods, Samuel G. Sorting Out Mammals: Everything You Want to Know
About Marsupials, Carnivores, Herbivores, and More! Woodbridge, CT:
Blackbirch Marketing, 1999.
Web sites:
Tasmanian Department of Primary Industries, Water & Environment. Tas-
manian Devil. http://www.dpiwe.tas.gov.au/inter.nsf/WebPages/BHAN
-5358KH?open (accessed on June 30, 2004).
Other sources:
“The Amazing Marsupials.” Australian Ark Documentary Series. Colum-
bia Tristar, 1994.
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Dasyuromorphia
Family: Myrmecobiidae
One species: Numbat
(Myrmecobius
fasciatus)
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Numbats, sometimes called banded anteaters, are small mar-
supial mammals that live in the southwestern region of West-
subclass
ern Australia. Considered to be one of the most beautiful and
order distinctively marked marsupials, numbats are the only species
monotypic order of the Myrmecobiidae family.
suborder Numbats are small, four-legged animals that are a little
▲ family larger than rats. Weighing about 1 pound (0.45 kilograms),
they range in total length from 12 to 19 inches (30 to 47 cen-
timeters). Their tails can be 5 to 8 inches (13 to 20 centime-
ters) long. Their front feet have five toes and their back feet
have four toes. All of the toes have strong claws to help them
dig quickly for termites, their preferred food. They also have
an extraordinarily long tongue that they use to gather the
termites from underground and from holes in rotting trees.
Unlike other marsupials, the female numbat does not have a
pouch to carry her young, but she does have four nipples on
her underside. The young cling to the nipples on her belly
while they develop.
The numbat has coarse, short fur that varies in color from
grayish brown to reddish brown. The numbat is distinctively
marked with a series of five to seven white stripes that run
across its rump and lower back. A black band bordered by two
white bands runs on each side of the head from the snout
through the eye and to the base of the ear. Their underside has
paler fur and the fur on their tail is long.
Numbat 65
most of the year, numbats are active from mid-morning until
late afternoon, when the temperatures are warmest. However,
during the hottest part of the year they avoid activity around
noon and prefer to forage in the early morning and late
afternoon.
When numbats reproduce, they do not form pairs, so the fe-
male is left to raise her young alone. After only a fourteen-day
pregnancy, the female gives birth to an average of four young,
which she continues to carry without a pouch. Marsupial mam-
mals like the numbat do not form a placenta when their young
are in their mother’s womb. Instead, they are born under-
developed and spend time developing outside attached to their
mother’s milk teats. Unlike other marsupials, the numbat does
not have a pouch. When the young are born, they are hairless
and their eyes are still sealed shut. They crawl toward their
mother’s nipples, which are on her belly, and attach themselves
there. They remain on the mother’s belly and are carried with
her for six to seven months while they grow hair and continue
to develop. The young then spend several more months in the
mother’s nest. While in the nest, their eyes open and they be-
gin to explore. By early the following year, numbat young ven-
ture out on their own.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Numbats are a conservation success story. By 1985, so many
numbats had disappeared that only two numbat populations
remained. At that time they were considered Endangered and
Numbat 67
likely to become extinct. An effort to increase numbat popula-
tions was undertaken that involved the poison baiting of red
foxes, a major predator of the numbat. Numbat populations
were also moved into other habitats, and numbats that had been
raised in captivity were introduced into the wild. These pro-
grams have been successful, because there are now nine wild
numbat populations and two that live on fenced reserves. In
1994, numbats were upgraded from Endangered to a conser-
vation status of Vulnerable. Although they are still at risk, they
are unlikely to become extinct in the immediate future.
Books:
Swan, Erin Pembrey, and Jose Gonzales. Meat-Eating Marsupials
(Animals in Order). New York: Franklin Watts, 2002.
Nowak, Ronald M., ed. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 5th ed.
Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.
Woods, Samuel G. Sorting Out Mammals: Everything You Want to Know
About Marsupials, Carnivores, Herbivores, and More! Woodbridge, CT:
Blackbirch Marketing, 1999.
Periodicals:
McCreery, Susan. “Fenced in and Free.” Australian Geographic
(January–March 2003): 31.
Web sites:
Tasmanian Department of Primary Industries, Water & Environment.
Numbats. http://www.dpiwe.tas.gov.au (accessed on June 30, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Dasyuromorphia
Family: Thylacinidae
One species: Tasmanian wolf
(Thylacinidae
cynocephalus)
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Although Tasmanian wolves, sometimes called Tasmanian class
tigers, are extinct, or no longer living today, scientists have
subclass
learned much about them from fossils and earlier written
records. These wolves looked like dogs, and they walked on all order
four legs, although their legs were shorter than most dogs. They monotypic order
had a long narrow snout, ears that stood up, and a straight tail.
Tasmanian wolves had short sandy-brown hair with a distinc- suborder
tive set of stripes that ran across their back. The stripes were ▲ family
dark brown and ran from the shoulders to the base of the tail.
Female Tasmanian wolves were smaller than males, with
some males growing to twice the weight of females. While fe-
males may have averaged 33 pounds (15 kilograms), males
could grow to be more than 60 pounds (27 kilograms). Tas-
manian wolves had sharp teeth with four incisors in the top of
their mouth and three in the bottom. This allowed them to tear
their preferred food, meat.
Like all native Australian and Tasmanian mammals, Tas-
manian wolves were marsupials. They lacked a placenta, an
organ that grows in the mother’s uterus and lets the mother
and developing baby share food and oxygen. Because of this,
they gave birth to young that were physically immature and
unable to survive on their own. After a short pregnancy, the
young were carried for several months in a pouch that opened
under the mother’s tail and faced backward. The young attached
to milk teats, or nipples, in the pouch and fed until they grew
large enough to survive on their own.
Tasmanian Wolf 69
Tasmanian wolf (Thylacinus cynocephalus)
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
When Tasmanian wolves were still alive, they were thought
to have lived on the entire island of Tasmania. By the 1800s,
Tasmanian wolves were rare in the southwest and western re-
gions of the island, except in coastal areas. Scientists have
learned this by reading the diaries of early settlers and exam-
ining the bounty payment records of people who lived during
that time. Early settlers in Tasmania thought of Tasmanian
wolves as pests to be eliminated, and bounty money was paid
to hunters who killed them.
HABITAT
Tasmanian wolves lived in a great variety of habitats, al-
though most often they were found in open areas. These in-
cluded grassy woodlands, open forests, and coastal regions.
They avoided dense forests and wetlands and liked to live in
areas that Tasmanian devils, another animal in this order, live
in today. The Tasmanian wolves hid in rock outcroppings and
dense vegetation during the day and probably built dens there,
but they would hunt at night in open grasslands.
Tasmanian Wolf 71
Once European settlers and farmers came
to the region, hunting of the wolves in-
creased dramatically. Sheep farmers were los-
ing sheep and assumed that the Tasmanian
wolves were responsible. It is likely that
the wolves did kill some sheep, but wild
FARMING AND WILD ANIMALS dogs probably killed more sheep that the
When people begin to farm in areas that wolves. Even so, farmers and bounty hunters
were once wild, they often interact with new continued to hunt the Tasmanian wolves.
animals. Farmers who raise sheep, cattle, or By the early 1900s, most were gone, and by
other livestock find that wild animals will 1912 bounty hunting of Tasmanian
feed on their flocks. This was probably true wolves was halted. This was not early enough
of the Tasmanian wolves, although most to save them from extinction. The last time
scientists believe that wild dogs were a Tasmanian wolf was confirmed to exist in
responsible for killing more sheep and cattle the wild was in 1930. Despite the official pro-
than Tasmanian wolves. Even so, farmers tection that began on July 14, 1936, the last
hunted Tasmanian wolves and hired bounty Tasmanian wolf died that September.
hunters to help them. This drove the
Tasmanian wolves to extinction, despite CONSERVATION STATUS
the fact that they may not have been
Tasmanian wolves are extinct. They were
responsible for all the farmers’ losses.
killed off mostly by farmers and bounty
hunters during the 1800s. Tasmanian wolves
were thought of as pests and killers of live-
stock, much the way the coyote was thought of during the set-
tlement of the American West.
Books:
Fenton, Julie A. Kangaroos and Other Marsupials. Chicago: World Book,
2000.
Nowak, Ronald M., ed. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 5th ed. Balti-
more and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.
Other sources:
“The Amazing Marsupials.” Australian Ark Documentary Series.
Columbia Tristar, 1994.
Tasmanian Wolf 73
BANDICOOTS AND BILBIES
Peramelemorphia
●
Class: Mammalia
Order: Peramelemorphia
Number of families: 2 families
order C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Peramelemorphia is an order of small ground-dwelling mar-
supials known as bandicoots and bilbies. All species in this or-
subclass
der live either in Australia, New Guinea, or a few nearby
● order Indonesian islands. Although some of the species in this order
monotypic order have been classified differently in the past, current genetic evi-
dence has led scientists to divide this order into two families, the
suborder Peramelidae and the Peroryctidae. The Peramelidae include the
family true bandicoots of Australia and the bilbies. The Peroryctidae are
made up of the spiny bandicoots of the New Guinea rainforest.
Bandicoots and bilbies look like a cross between a rabbit
and a rat. They range in size from 6.5 to 23 inches (17 to
60 centimeters), excluding tail length, and weigh from 0.3 to
10.5 pounds (0.1 to 4.8 kilograms). Their tails are usually short
in proportion to their bodies.
Bandicoots and bilbies have small pointed snouts and ears
that are usually short and rounded. One exception is the greater
bilby which has long rabbit-like ears. Most species have thin,
rat-like tails, and their fur is usually solid earth tone colors.
The fur of the rainforest bandicoots is harsh and spiny.
The front legs of most species in this order are adapted for
digging. The front feet have strong claws on toes two, three,
and four. Toes one and five are either absent or very small and
clawless. The hind limbs are strong and muscular, allowing
these animals to leap and hop like a rabbit. However, they are
also able to run at a fast gallop. On the hind legs, the bones of
the second and third toe are fused, joined into one, but still
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Species in this order are found only in limited parts of Aus-
tralia, New Guinea, and the Indonesian island of Seram. In the
past, these animals were abundant. They were found in about
70 percent of Australia, throughout New Guinea, and on sev-
eral other Indonesian islands. Since the beginning of the twen-
tieth century, their range has been drastically reduced by
human activities.
HABITAT
The two families in this order live in different habitats. Per-
amelidae, or true bandicoots and bilbies, live in dry, desert ar-
eas, dry grassland, shrubby grassland, open forest, and
suburban gardens. Peroryctidae, or spiny bandicoots, live in the
tropical rainforests of New Guinea. Several species live in iso-
lated areas at elevations up to 13,000 feet (4,000 meters).
DIET
Bandicoots and bilbies are omnivores, eating both plants and
animals, and insects such as ants and termites usually make up
most of their diet. They also eat earthworms, insect larvae, in-
sects such as centipedes, and plant parts, such as seeds, bulbs,
and fallen fruit. Occasionally larger species eat lizards and mice.
They are opportunistic feeders, tending to eat whatever food
is available.
Bandicoots and bilbies find food by smell and hearing. Their
eyesight is poor. When they locate food underground, they dig
cone-shaped holes up to 5 inches (13 centimeters) deep and
remove the food with their long tongues. Because so much of
their food is dug out of the ground, they also accidentally eat
a lot of dirt. Studies have found that between 20 and 90 per-
cent of their waste is earth that was swallowed with the food,
CONSERVATION STATUS
Since the coming of European colonists in 1770, three
species have gone extinct: the pig-footed bandicoot, the desert
bandicoot, and the lesser bilby. The number of animals in four
other species has dropped to dangerously low levels and they
are considered Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinc-
tion in the wild, or Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction
in the wild. So little is known about most of the species in the
Peroryctidae family that their conservation status cannot be
accurately evaluated.
Since the 1980s captive breeding and conservation programs
have succeeded in increasing the number of bilbies. The Aus-
tralian Bilby Appreciation Society has developed public rela-
tions programs to increase awareness of the need to protect
these animals. They have also raised money for a fenced pre-
serve, because bilbies cannot thrive in the wild without preda-
tor control. Other species have been the focus of less
conservation awareness and continue to decline.
Books:
Finney, Tim F. Mammals of New Guinea, 2nd ed. Ithaca, NY: Cornell
University Press, 1995.
Menkhorst, Frank. A Field Guide to the Mammals of Australia, 2nd ed.
Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Nowak, Ronald. M. Walker’s Mammals of the World. Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1995.
Periodicals:
Smyth, Chris. “Bilbies’ Call of the Wild.” Habitat Australia (October
1998): 13.
Web sites:
“Nature Conservation” Queensland Government Environmental Protec-
tion Agency/Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service. http://www.epa.
qld.gov.au/nature_conservation (accessed on May 14, 2004).
University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. “Order Peramelemorphia.”
Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/
accounts/information/Peramelemorphia.html (accessed on June 30,
2004).
Other sources:
Australian Bilby Appreciation Society. P. O. Box 2002, Rangview, Victo-
ria 3132 Australia. E-mail: [email protected] Web site:
http://members.oze-mail.com.au/bilbies.
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Peramelemorphia
Family: Peramelidae
Number of species: 10 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Peramelidae are Australian bandicoots and bilbies. This fam- class
ily is sometimes referred to as the true bandicoots to distinguish
subclass
it from the Peroryctidae, or rainforest bandicoots of New Guinea.
True bandicoots are small marsupials with long, pointed snouts. order
They range in size from 6.5 inches (17 centimeters) and 5 ounces monotypic order
(140 grams), or about the size of a mouse, to 23 inches
(60 centimeters) and 10.5 pounds (4.8 kilograms), or about the suborder
size of a cat. ▲ family
Bandicoots live and feed on the ground. They have claws to
dig for food, and in the case of bilbies, digging burrows. Their
front feet have five toes. The middle three toes have strong
claws. Toes one and five are either small or absent. On the hind
feet, the bones of the second and third toes are joined, but each
toe has a separate claw. Bandicoots look something like a cross
between a rat and a rabbit. Their hind legs are longer than their
front legs and are strong and well developed for hopping and
leaping. They are also able to gallop.
Most bandicoots have short rounded ears and a thin, short
tail. However, the extinct pig-footed bandicoot had both long
ears and a long tail, and the bilby’s ears are very large. All bandi-
coots have good hearing and a good sense of smell, but poor
eyesight. They are nocturnal, or active at night, when their sense
of smell and hearing are important in helping them locate food.
True bandicoots live mainly in dry areas. Their fur ranges
from dark brown to gray and they are normally darker on their
back than on their belly, allowing them to blend into the deserts
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Before the arrival of European colonists in 1770, bandicoots
and bilbies were found in about 70 percent of Australia and on
several nearby islands. Today they are found in many fewer
places in Australia and the island of Tasmania. The bilby, es-
pecially, can be found only in isolated pockets mainly on pro-
tected park land or in captive breeding areas.
HABITAT
Bandicoots and bilbies prefer dry areas. Before European col-
onization, up to five species could be found in the Australian in-
land deserts. Today only one species lives there. Other species
live in dry grasslands and open forests. Three species have adapted
to human activity and live in suburban neighborhoods and parks.
DIET
True bandicoots are omnivores. They eat both plants and an-
imals. Included in their diet are ants, termites, insect larvae
(LAR-vee), earthworms, spiders, centipedes, bulbs, seeds, and
bird eggs. Larger species will occasionally eat lizards and mice.
Although bandicoots eat a variety of food, each colony seems
to prefer one or two particular foods, probably because these
are more easily available. Bandicoots dig for food with their
strong claws. They make holes up to 5 inches (13 centimeters)
deep and scoop out the food with their long tongues. Some
species that live in desert areas do not need to drink water.
They can get all the moisture they need from their food.
SPECIES
EASTERN BARRED BANDICOOT ACCOUNTS
Perameles gunnii
GREATER BILBY
Macrotis lagotis
Greater bilbies and people: Bilbies were very common until the
beginning of the twentieth century and were an important source of
food for native peoples. However, their numbers rapidly decreased
with the introduction of non-native predators such as the red fox and
the cat. Today, the bilby has become a symbol of Australia’s efforts
to save its native species.
Books:
Menkhorst, Frank. A Field Guide to the Mammals of Australia, 2nd ed.
Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World. Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1995.
Periodicals:
Clark, Tim W., Richard P. Reading, and Gary Backhouse. “Prototyping
for Successful Conservation: The Eastern Barred Bandicoot Program.”
Endangered Species Update (July–August 2002): 125.
Smyth, Chris. “Bilbies’ Call of the Wild.” Habitat Australia (October
1998): 13.
Web sites:
Queensland Government Environmental Protection Agency/Queensland
Parks and Wildlife Service. Nature Conservation. http://www.epa.
qld.gov.au/nature_conservation (accessed on June 22, 2004).
University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. “Family Peramelidae.”
Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu
(accessed on June 22, 2004).
Other sources:
Australian Bilby Appreciation Society. P.O. Box 2002, Rangview, Victoria
3132 Australia. E-mail: [email protected] Web site:
http://members.oze-mail.com.au/bilbies
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Peramelemorphia
Family: Peroryctidae
Number of species: 11 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Peroryctidae are spiny bandicoots. They look like a cross be-
tween a rabbit and a rat. In many ways they are similar to the
subclass bandicoots in the Peramelidae family. Spiny bandicoots range in
order size from about 6.5 to 22 inches (17.5 to 56 centimeters), not
monotypic order including the tail. They vary in weight from 14 ounces
to 10 pounds (0.4 to 4.7 kilograms). The giant bandicoot of
suborder southeastern New Guinea is the largest species. The mouse
▲ family bandicoot is the smallest.
Spiny bandicoots have rough, spiky fur that is usually black-
ish or brown on the back and white or tan on the belly. Most
species are a solid color, but the striped bandicoot has darker
stripes on its rump and around its eyes. Like the true bandicoots,
spiny bandicoots have claws that are adapted to digging for food.
Their front feet have five toes. The middle three toes have strong
claws. Toes one and five are either small or absent. On the hind
feet, the bones of the second and third toes are joined, but each
toe has a separate claw. The hind legs are longer than the front
legs and are strong and well developed for hopping and leaping.
They are also able to move with a running gait.
Spiny bandicoots differ from true bandicoots mainly in the
shape of their skulls, the habitats they prefer, and the roughness
of their fur. Recent studies show that they also are genetically
different from true bandicoots.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Spiny bandicoots live mainly on the island of New Guinea
and a few small neighboring islands. One species is found in
HABITAT
Spiny bandicoots prefer damp, humid
habitats. They live in tropical rainforests and THE TINIEST BANDICOOT
mountain rainforests at elevations from zero The mouse bandicoot measures only 6
to 14,800 feet (zero to 4,500 meters). Species inches (15 centimeters) long. It is extremely
living in the same area tend to live at differ- difficult to observe, and was not discovered
ent elevations. until 1932. It lives in moss forests at
altitudes of 6,300 to 8,200 feet (1,900 to
DIET 2,500 meters), and is active only at night.
Like all bandicoots, spiny bandicoots are By 1977 only four specimens of this
omnivores, meaning they eat both animals species had been collected for study.
and plants. Most of their diet consists of in-
sects, insect larvae, earthworms, spiders, cen-
tipedes, bulbs, seeds, and fallen fruit. Spiny
bandicoots appear to eat more vegetable material, especially
fruit, than true bandicoots. This may be because fruit is more
available in the damp habitats they prefer than in the dry habi-
tats preferred by true bandicoots. They either lick their food off
the ground or dig for it with their strong claws. They can dig
holes up to 5 inches (13 centimeters) deep and scoop out the
food with their long tongues.
Spiny Bandicoots 89
Bandicoots differ from other marsupials, because they have
a second placenta in addition to the yolk-sac placenta. This pla-
centa resembles the placenta of eutherian mammals, but does
not function as well, because it does not attach as closely to
the wall of the mother’s uterus. As a result, spiny bandicoots
have short pregnancies, and the young are born nearly help-
less. They drag themselves into their mother’s pouch where
they attach to her teats, or nipples and are carried until they
have matured. Spiny bandicoots normally have only one or two
young at a time, but little is known about how long they are
carried in their mother’s pouch, when they become old enough
to reproduce, or how long they live in the wild.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Very little is known about the size of spiny bandicoot
populations in the wild. In fact, so little is know about them
that they are not given a conservation rating, although they
probably are under pressure from human activities such as
logging.
SPECIES
RUFOUS SPINY BANDICOOT ACCOUNT
Echymipera rufescens
Spiny Bandicoots 91
Rufous spiny bandicoots’ favorite
food is insects. They dig insects
out of the ground with their
claws and lap them up with long,
thin tongues. (Illustration by
Gillian Harris. Reproduced by
permission.)
Diet: Rufous spiny bandicoots are omnivores, meaning they can eat
both plants and animals, but their preferred food is insects. They feed
on the ground, digging out insects with their claws and lapping them
up with long, thin tongues.
Books:
Finney, Tim F. Mammals of New Guinea, 2nd ed. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Uni-
versity Press, 1995.
Menkhorst, Frank. A Field Guide to the Mammals of Australia, 2nd ed.
Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995. http://www.press.jhu.edu/
books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/marsupialia/marsupialia.
peramelidae.echymipera.html (accessed on June 30, 2004).
Web sites:
University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. “Family Peroryctidae.”Animal
Diversity Web http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu (accessed on
June 30, 2004).
Spiny Bandicoots 93
MARSUPIAL MOLES
Notoryctemorphia
●
Class: Mammalia
▲
Order: Notoryctemorphia
One family: Notoryctidae
Number of species: 2 species
monotypic order
C H A P T E R
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Marsupial moles live in the deserts of Western Australia, South
Australia, the Northern Territory and southwestern corner of
Queensland.
HABITAT
These moles live in sandy desert regions and seem to prefer
sand plains near seasonal rivers or sand ridges where spinifex
grass grows.
DIET
Marsupial moles hunt and feed underground, digging their
food out of the sand. They are insectivores, eating mainly ants,
termites, and insect larvae (LAR-vee). They have also been known
to eat seeds and small lizards. Marsupial moles kept in captivity
and fed on the surface take their food underground to eat it.
Marsupial Moles 95
Almost nothing is known about marsupial
mole reproduction. Females have two teats,
nipples, in a backward-opening pouch.
SPECIES
SOUTHERN MARSUPIAL MOLE ACCOUNT
Notoryctes typhlops
Marsupial Moles 97
Habitat: Southern marsupial moles live under-
ground in sandy plains and sand ridges.
Books:
Menkhorst, Frank. A Field Guide to the Mammals of Australia, 2nd ed.
Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World. Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1995.
Web sites:
Withers, Philip, and Graham Thompson. “Marsupial Moles (Notoryctes).”
University of Western Australia Zoology Department. http://www
.zoology.uwa.edu.au/staff/pwithers/marsupialmole/Default.htm
(accessed on June 30, 2004).
University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. “Order Notoryctemorphia.”
Animal Diversity Web http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/
accounts/information/Notoryctemorphia.html (accessed on June 30,
2004).
●
Class: Mammalia
Order: Diprotodontia
Number of families: 10 families
order C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Diprotodonts are an order of about 131 species of marsupial class
mammals that live in Australia, New Guinea, and parts of In-
subclass
donesia. The order also contains a family of giant diprotodonts
that are now extinct. Within this order are some of Australia’s ● order
best known marsupials, including the kangaroos, koalas, and monotypic order
wombats, as well as some of the least known species such as
cuscus and potoroos. suborder
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Diprotodonts are native only in Australia, New Guinea, and
a few islands of Indonesia. The brush-tailed possum was in-
troduced to New Zealand, where it is considered a pest.
HABITAT
Diprotodontia have evolved to take advantage of almost every
terrestrial habitat. This expansion into different habitats is called
radiation. Kangaroos graze on grasslands, cuscus and tree kan-
garoos live in tropical rainforest trees. Some pygmy possums
live in the mountains where it snows six months out of the year.
Despite the variety of habitats where members of this order can
be found, some individual species live in very restricted areas,
because they have evolved to use a very specific set of resources.
DIET
For the most part, diprotodonts are herbivores. Those species
that do not eat leaves, fruits, and roots now, probably had an-
cestors that did. Many species have developed extra large or
extra long digestive tracts that allow them to eat leaves and
grass with low nutritional value. In addition, they have evolved
behaviors that reduce their need for energy. For example, koalas
sleep about twenty hours per day to conserve energy.
Some species, such as the mountain pygmy possum, feed
heavily on insects. Others species eat insects, worms, and even
occasionally a lizard, in addition to a mainly vegetarian diet.
The honey possum has developed a long snout that allows it
to feed exclusively on plant pollen and nectar.
Books:
Finney, Tim F. Mammals of New Guinea, 2nd ed. Ithaca, NY: Cornell
University Press, 1995.
Menkhorst, Frank. A Field Guide to the Mammals of Australia, 2nd ed.
Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World. Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1995.
Web sites:
Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service. http://www
.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/ (accessed on June 30, 2004).
Marsupial Society of Australia. “Fact Sheets.” http://www
.marsupialsociety.org (accessed on June 30, 2004).
Parks and Wildlife Service Tasmania. http://www.parks.tas.gov.au
(accessed on June 30, 2004).
Queensland Government Environmental Protection Agency/Queensland
Parks and Wildlife Service. “Nature Conservation.” http://www.epa.qld.
gov.au/nature_conservation (accessed on June 30, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Diprotodontia
Family: Phascolarctidae
One species: Koala (Phascolarctos
cinereus)
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Koalas are known worldwide as one of the symbols of Aus- class
tralia. Their gray and white fur, broad head, small eyes, large furry
subclass
ears, and round belly make them appear cuddly like a teddy bear.
Koalas range in size from 24 to 33 inches (60 to 85 order
centimeters) and in weight from 8.8 to 33 pounds (4 to 15 kilo- monotypic order
grams). This is an unusually large size range. Koalas living in
suborder
the northern (warmer) part of their range are on average 45
percent smaller than those in the southern (colder) areas. In ▲ family
addition, males can be up to 50 percent larger than females.
Koalas are arboreal, meaning they live in trees. They have strong
arms and legs with five toes that end in sharp curved claws to
help them climb. The first two toes on the front legs are oppos-
able. This means that these toes, like the thumb on a human hand,
can reach across and touch the tip of the other three toes (unlike,
for example, a dog paw or human foot, where none of the toes
can bend to touch each other). This adaptation helps koalas to
grasp branches and climb. The first toe of the hind food is short,
broad, and clawless. It is also helpful in gripping branches. As in
all members of the order Diprotodontia, the bones of the second
and third toes of the hind foot are fused. This condition is called
syndactyly (sin-DACK-tuh-lee). The single fused bone, however,
has two separate claws. This twin claw is used in grooming.
Koalas do not build nests or live in dens. Their fur protects
them from the weather. As a result, the fur of animals living in
the colder regions of the range is thicker than that of animals
living where it is warmer. In the past, many koalas were killed
Koala 105
for their fur. Males have a gland on their
chest that produces scent used for marking
trees to warn off other males and establish
their own individual territory. Females have
a backward-opening pouch in which they
carry their young. Koalas also have a tiny
KOALA BEARS? brain. It is only 0.2 percent of their body
weight.
Because of their teddy bear look, koalas
are sometimes called koala bears. They GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
are not, of course bears. They are not
Koalas are found in isolated patches along
even closely related to bears. In fact, their
the eastern coast of Australia from Queens-
closest living relative is the wombat, a
land to Victoria.
stocky, burrowing marsupial.
HABITAT
Koalas eat only eucalyptus (yoo-kah-LIP-
tus) leaves. Therefore, they are limited to areas where eucalypts
grow. This can range from wet tropical forests to dry open
woodlands.
DIET
Koalas have strong food preferences. They eat the leaves of
about 30 of the 650 species of eucalyptus trees that grow in
Australia. Eucalyptus leaves are not an ideal food. They are low
in nutrients, hard to digest, and contain toxins (poisons).
In order to digest these leaves, koalas have evolved certain
adaptations. They avoid the most poisonous species of euca-
lypts, and their liver is capable of detoxifying, or making harm-
less, some of the harmful chemicals in the leaves. They have
strong grinding teeth (molars and pre-molars) that grind the
tough leaves into a paste. Finally, they have an enormously long
cecum (SEE-kum) in which the leaves are digested. The cecum
is part of the digestive system. It is a type of sac located where
the large and small intestine meet. In the koala, the cecum can
be more than 75 inches (2 meters) long. The cecum contains
bacteria that help break down the eucalyptus leaves. Koalas get
most of the water they need from their diet. However, when
fresh water is available, they will drink.
energy. They sleep for up to twenty hours each day, and also
spend part of the time that they are awake resting. They are
nocturnal animals, feeding mainly at night.
Koalas live alone. Males use the scent gland on their chest to
mark certain trees as their own territory. They will fight with
other male koalas that come into their home trees. The male’s
home territory often overlaps with that of several females.
Koala 107
Koala (Phascolarctos cinereus)
CONSERVATION STATUS
By the end of the 1920s millions of kolas had been hunted for
their fur, and these animals had become extinct in parts of their
original range. Intense conservation programs, including pro-
tecting habitat, breeding programs, and relocation of some ani-
mals, has resulted in a substantial increase in the koala
population. There are even some areas where overcrowding is
occurring today, leaving the koalas vulnerable to disease and star-
vation. Today, although there are plenty of koalas, conserva-
tionists are concerned about their loss of habitat. The areas in
which koalas live are some of the most rapidly developing places
in Australia. The Australian Koala Foundation has been a leader
in mapping koala habitat and lobbying for its protection.
Books:
Menkhorst, Frank. A Field Guide to the Mammals of Australia, 2nd ed.
Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World. Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1995. Online at http://www.press.jhu.edu/
books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world (accessed on May 8, 2004).
Wexo, John B. Koalas and other Australian Animals. Poway, CA:
Zoobooks/Wildlife Education, 1997.
Web sites:
Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service. “Koala.” http://www.
nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/npws.nsf/Content/The+koala (accessed on
June 30, 2004).
Koala 109
Other sources:
The Australian Koala Foundation. G. P. O. 2659, Brisbane, Queensland
4001 Australia. Phone: 61 (07) 3229 7233. Fax: 61 (07) 3221 0337.
E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.savethekoala.com/.
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Diprotodontia
Family: Vombatidae
Number of species: 3 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Wombats are stout, stocky burrowing marsupials with pow- class
erful forearms and sharp claws for digging. A marsupial is a
mammal that does not have a well-developed placenta and gives subclass
birth to immature and underdeveloped young, which it then order
continues to nurture, often in a pouch, until the young are able monotypic order
to fend for themselves. Wombats are about 3.3 feet (1 meter)
long and weigh from about 55 to 88 pounds (25 to 40 kilo- suborder
grams). Their fur varies from gray to brown. ▲ family
All three species of wombat look similar. They have large
heads, small ears and eyes, and short, strong necks. They have
front teeth, incisors, that continue to grow throughout their life
and must be worn down by the food they eat. The main phys-
ical difference among the three species is the presence or ab-
sence of hair on their nose. Male and female wombats look
similar. The female has a backward-opening pouch in which
she carries her young. In the past, fossils show that there were
as many as nine species of wombat, including one that weighed
440 pounds (200 kilograms). Today the closest living relative
of the wombat is the koala.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Wombats live in southeastern Australia. The common wom-
bat is fairly widespread and can be found in parts of New South
Wales, Victoria, South Australia, and Tasmania. The northern
hairy-nosed wombat lives only in one place in Queensland, and
the southern hairy-nosed wombat lives in a small area along
the south central coast of Australia.
Wombats 111
HABITAT
Wombats live under the ground in
open grassland, open woodlands, and dry,
shrubby, forested areas. They prefer areas
where the ground is soft enough to dig exten-
sive burrows.
THE WOMBAT BOY
In 1960 Peter “PJ” Nicholson was a DIET
fifteen year old student at Timbertops, a Wombats are herbivores, and eat only
rural Australian boarding school. PJ became plants. They mainly eat native grasses, but
fascinated with wombats. For a year, he will also eat roots, bark, and moss. They
sneaked out at night and crawled down graze above ground at night and may travel
wombat burrows. He was patient, visiting up to 1.8 miles (3 kilometers) each night
often and letting the wombats become looking for food. Because the food they eat
comfortable with him. Eventually he traveled is high in fiber and hard to digest, it is held
70 feet (21 meters) inside the tunnels to the in their digestive system for up to seventy
wombat nests. The measurements and hours in order to break down the fiber and
maps that he made of the tunnels were release the nutrients.
published, and his information is still used
by scientists. PJ Nicholson later earned a BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION
degree in economics, although he never lost
his interest in wildlife.
Wombats are nocturnal, active at night.
During the day they rest in their burrows,
which can be 100 feet (30 meters) long and
6 to 7 feet (1.8 to 2.1 meters) deep. The bur-
rows usually have several entrances and side branches and are
large enough for a small adult to fit into them. The southern
hairy-nosed wombat builds particularly complex tunnel sys-
tems that it may share with other wombats.
Even when they share tunnels, wombats feed alone and are
territorial about their feeding grounds. They mark their personal
areas with scent and droppings, and act aggressively toward
other wombats that move into their territory. Usually, male an-
imals must leave their birth area to find a new territory, but it
is the female wombats that are driven out of their birth area and
are forced to find new feeding grounds when they mature.
Wombats, like all marsupial mammals, have short pregnan-
cies and give birth to a single tiny, underdeveloped newborn.
Pregnancy lasts only about twenty-two days. After birth, the
young crawl to the mother’s pouch and remain there attached
to a teat, nipple, for six to nine months. After leaving the pouch,
the young wombat stays with the mother for another year,
CONSERVATION STATUS
Development in Australia has reduced and fragmented wom-
bat habitat. In addition, dogs, dingoes (wild dogs), and auto-
mobiles are the other main threats to wombats. The northern
hairy-nosed wombat is Critically Endangered, facing an ex-
tremely high risk of extinction in the wild. It lives in only one
place, the Epping National Forest in Queensland, where it is
off-limits to visitors. As few as 100 individuals may remain in
the wild. The other two wombat species are not threatened.
Wombats 113
Common wombat (Vombatus ursinus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT COMMON WOMBAT
Vombatus ursinus
Diet: These animals are herbivores and eat mainly native grasses
and roots.
Web sites:
Marsupial Society of Australia. http://www.marsupialsociety.org
(accessed on June 30, 2004).
Marinacci, Peter. Wombania’s Wombat Information Center. http://www.
wombania.com/wombats/index.htm (accessed on June 30, 2004).
“Wombats.” Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service. http://
www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/npws.nsf/Content/Wombats (accessed
on June 30, 2004).
Wombats 115
POSSUMS AND CUSCUSES
Phalangeridae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Diprotodontia
Family: Phalangeridae
Number of species: 26 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class The Phalangeridae family, or phalangers (fah-LAN-jerz), are
made up of five groups of species. Three of these groups are
subclass
cuscuses and two are possums. Phalangers are small- to
order medium-sized marsupial mammals. Like all marsupial mam-
monotypic order mals, the females give birth to tiny, underdeveloped young that
finish their development in their mother’s pouch.
suborder
Possums and cuscuses range in size from 24 to 47 inches (60
▲ family to 120 centimeters) long, including the tail, and weigh from 2
to 22 pounds (1 to 10 kilograms). The smallest member of this
family is the small Sulawesi cuscus, and the largest is the Su-
lawesi bear cuscus. Both live in Indonesia.
Members of this family have soft, dense fur that hides small
ears. Most species are a solid brown or gray, but the Woodlark
cuscus and the black spotted cuscus are spectacularly patterned.
Many other species have a dark stripe that runs down the top
of their back.
All cuscuses and possums are good climbers. Their feet are
adapted to life in the trees. Their hind feet have five toes. The
first toe (called the hallux, HAL-lux) has no claw, and is op-
posed to the other four. This means that this toe, like the thumb
on a human hand, can reach across and touch the tip of the
other toes (unlike, for example, a dog paw or human foot, where
none of the toes can bend to touch each other). The first two
toes on the front feet are also opposable. This adaptation makes
it easier to grip branches when climbing. Possums and cuscuses
also have a prehensile, or flexible grasping, tail that they can
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Phalangers are found in New Guinea, Aus-
tralia, Tasmania, the Indonesian island of Su- ENDANGERED STAMPS
lawesi, and a few other small islands. The The common spotted cuscus was
common brush-tailed possum was introduced selected to be one of twelve endangered
in New Zealand over a century ago and has species featured on a 2001 United Nations
become an alien (non-native) pest species. 34 cent stamp. Every year since 1993, the
United Nations has released a new series
HABITAT
of stamps in an effort to bring attention
Possums and cuscuses spend their lives in to endangered species and to CITES
trees. Most live in rainforests. However, the (the Convention on International Trade in
common brush-tailed possum has adapted to Endangered Species), an agreement among
life in developed areas. It is often found in nations to help preserve species by
suburban gardens and city parks. Sometimes controlling their exportation and importation
it becomes a pest when it makes its home in (http://www.cites.org).
buildings by finding openings in the roofline
and nesting between the house ceiling and
the roof.
DIET
Possums and cuscuses are herbivores, eating almost exclu-
sively plants. Some eat mainly leaves, while others eat mainly
fruit. The common brush-tailed possum eats a wider variety of
foods than most members of this family, adapting its diet to
what is abundant in any given area.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Two species in this family are considered Endangered and
at risk of going extinct in the wild. These are the black-
spotted cuscus and the Telefomin cuscus. The population of
black-spotted cuscuses is declining because of habitat loss and
continued hunting. Little is known about the Telefomin cus-
cus. Two other species are considered Vulnerable, facing a high
risk of extinction, and half a dozen others are of concern to
conservationists, but too little is known about them to make
an accurate population evaluation.
SPECIES
GROUND CUSCUS ACCOUNTS
Phalanger gymnotis
Habitat: This animal lives in the rainforest from sea level to 8,900
feet (2,700 meters).
Diet: The ground cuscus eats mostly fruit, but will also eat leaves and
sometimes insects and small vertebrates (animals with a backbone).
Books:
Finney, Tim F. Mammals of New Guinea, 2nd ed. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Uni-
versity Press, 1995.
Menkhorst, Frank. A Field Guide to the Mammals of Australia, 2nd ed.
Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Nowak, Ronald. M. Walker’s Mammals of the World. Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1995.
Web sites:
Marsupial Society of Australia. http://www.marsupialsociety.org
(accessed May 9, 2004).
Parks and Wildlife Service Tasmania. “Brushtail Possum.” http://www.
parks.tas.gov.au/wildlife/mammals/btposs.html (accessed on June 30,
2004).
Queensland Government Environmental Protection Agency/Queensland
Parks and Wildlife Service. “Nature Conservation.” http://www.epa.qld.
gov.au/nature_conservation (accessed on June 30, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Diprotodontia
Family: Hypsiprymnodontidae
One species: Musky rat-kangaroo
(Hypsiprymnodon
moschatus)
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class The musky rat-kangaroo is a small, four legged, marsupial
mammal. It is different from most familiar mammals such as cats,
subclass
dogs, and horses, which are known as placental or eutherian
order (yoo-THEER-ee-an) mammals. Eutherian mammals have a pla-
monotypic order centa, an organ that grows in the mother’s uterus (womb) and
lets the mother and developing offspring share food and oxygen.
suborder Marsupials do not have a well-developed placenta. Consequently,
▲ family they give birth to young that are physically underdeveloped.
These young are hairless, blind, and have immature organ sys-
tems. They are unable to survive on their own. Instead, after birth
they are carried around for several months in their mother’s
pouch, where they are attached to the mothers teats, or nipples.
They are carried and fed this way until they have grown and ma-
tured enough to fend for themselves.
Musky rat-kangaroos are fairly small. Their bodies are gen-
erally between 6 and 11 inches (15 to 30 centimeters), and they
have a total length from nose to tip of the tail of about 11 to
17 inches (30 to 43 centimeters). Musky rat-kangaroos have
short brown or reddish fur that is very soft on their backs, while
fur on the underside of their belly is slightly paler. Some musky
rat-kangaroos have distinctive white markings on their throats
that continue in a white line down to their chest.
Musky rat-kangaroos have small heads that are narrow and
taper into a pointed snout. Their ears are small and rounded,
and their tails are long, thin, and hairless, except for the area
where the tail joins the body. The musky rat-kangaroo has four
HABITAT
Musky rat-kangaroos live on the rainforest floor. They usu-
ally prefer places where there are many plants that provide good
cover for them. They often live near water, such as streams and
lakes, because that is where the vegetation is more dense.
DIET
Musky rat-kangaroos are omnivores, meaning they eat both
plants and animals. They eat small invertebrates such as insects
and worms, as well as fruits, nuts, and roots. Musky rat-
kangaroos find food by digging with their front paws in the
ground and in the dead leaves and other plant material that
cover the rainforest floor. When the musky rat-kangaroo eats,
it often uses its front paws to hold the food and sits upright on
its hind legs.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The musky rat-kangaroo not considered threatened in the
wild. However, it is of concern to conservationists, because it
lives only in a very small area of the rainforest in northeastern
Queensland. Its habitat is disappearing because of clear cutting
for agriculture. Because the musky rat-kangaroo lives in only
one location, any severe loss of its habitat could be devastating
to its population.
Books:
Triggs, Barbara. Tracks, Scats and Other Traces: A Field Guide to
Australian Mammals. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Woods, Samuel G. Sorting Out Mammals: Everything You Want to Know
About Marsupials, Carnivores, Herbivores, and More! Woodbridge, CT:
Blackbirch Marketing, 1999.
Web sites:
Chambers Wildlife Rainforest Lodges, Tropical North Queensland,
Australia. “Musky rat kangaroo.” http://rainforest-australia.com/
rkangaroo.htm (accessed on June 30, 2004).
Other sources:
Berry, Ruth and Mark Chapman. ABC TV Documentaries: Hypsi: The For-
est Gardener. Aired: 1/16/2001. http://www.abc.net.au/tv/documen-
taries/stories/s231600.htm (Web site accessed on June 30, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Diprotodontia
Family: Potoroidae
Number of species: 8 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Rat-kangaroos are four-legged marsupial mammals that are class
smaller than most cats. Marsupial mammals are different from
subclass
most familiar mammals such as cats, dogs, and horses, which
are eutherian (yoo-THEER-ee-an) mammals, meaning they use order
a placenta in reproduction. A placenta is an organ that grows monotypic order
in the mother’s uterus and lets the mother and developing baby
share food and oxygen. Marsupial mammals do not use a suborder
well-developed placenta. Because of this, they give birth to tiny ▲ family
young that are not physically mature enough to survive on
their own. Instead, the young are carried for several months af-
ter birth in their mother’s pouch, or they are attached to the
mother’s teats, or nipples, on her underbelly. While they are
carried this way, they continue to grow until they have ma-
tured enough to fend for themselves.
Rat-kangaroos usually have a head and body length that
ranges from about 6 to 16 inches (15 to 42 centimeters). The
tails of rat-kangaroos can be nearly as long as their bodies, and
range in length from about 5 to 15 inches (12 to 39 centime-
ters). Rat-kangaroos range in weight from about 0.8 to 8 pounds
(0.4 to 3.5 kilograms). Male and female rat-kangaroos are usu-
ally about the same size.
Rat-kangaroos have heads that are long and are usually ta-
pered, with small ears that are either round or slightly pointed.
Like all kangaroos, their hind legs are longer and stronger than
their front legs. This is because rat-kangaroos use their hind
legs to move by hopping. Rat-kangaroos have four toes on each
Rat-Kangaroos 129
of their back feet, but the second and third
toes actually grow together although the
claws remain separate. Each of the front feet
has five toes, each with a claw. Their second,
third, and fourth toes on their front paws are
longer than their other front toes, and these
HOW DID THEY GET SUCH BIG FEET? longer claws help them dig for food.
Rat-kangaroos have back feet that are The fur of the rat-kangaroo ranges in color
longer and stronger than their front feet. from dark brown to gray or light brown. The
Scientists think that the ancestors of fur is lighter on the underbelly than on the
kangaroos used to jump up quickly and rest of the body. These animals can use their
surprise predators. Animals with bigger tails, which usually have fur on them, to curl
back feet had an advantage at hopping around objects and hold onto them. This
higher and faster, which might have helped type of tail that can be used to grasp is called
them to survive. Animals with bigger back a prehensile tail. Female rat-kangaroos have
feet had a better chance of surviving and a pouch containing four nipples.
having offspring, over many generations
the genes for big feet got passed on, and GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
the back feet got bigger and bigger, until Rat-kangaroos live on the coasts of Aus-
they are the large back feet that kangaroos tralia, especially the southern and eastern
have today. coasts. They also live in Tasmania and on a
few nearby islands.
HABITAT
Rat-kangaroos live mainly in forests where there are many eu-
calyptus trees. Some types of rat kangaroos, like the burrowing
bettong, live in other habitats, such as sandy areas that have dunes.
DIET
Rat kangaroos are primarily herbivores, meaning that they eat
mostly plants rather than animals. They mainly eat the parts of
fungi that grow underground. To find this food underground,
rat-kangaroos use their well-developed sense of smell to help
them know where to dig. They dig using the long, sharp claws
on their front paws. Some rat-kangaroos also eat small inverte-
brates, such as insects. Some also eat grass or fruits.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Many species of rat-kangaroo have been threatened by the
clearing of land for agriculture, by fires, and by the introduction
of predators that are not native to Australia. Some species of rat-
kangaroo have already gone extinct. The desert rat-kangaroo has
Rat-Kangaroos 131
not been seen since 1935. It is thought that the broad-faced po-
toroo has been extinct since around 1875. Many other species
of rat-kangaroos, such as the long-faced potoroo, are Endangered,
facing a very high risk of extinction. Conservation efforts to pro-
tect rat-kangaroos include controlling the number of introduced
predators, establishing breeding colonies, and creating protected
zones.
SPECIES
NORTHERN BETTONG ACCOUNT
Bettongia tropica
Rat-Kangaroos 133
Habitat: Northern bettongs usually live in areas
of forest that are open and have grass on the for-
est floor. These areas are often found along the
edge of tropical rainforests.
Books:
Triggs, Barbara. Tracks, Scats and Other Traces: A Field Guide to Aus-
tralian Mammals. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Woods, Samuel G. Sorting Out Mammals: Everything You Want to Know
About Marsupials, Carnivores, Herbivores, and More! Woodbridge, CT:
Blackbirch Marketing, 1999.
Other sources:
Berry, Ruth, and Mark Chapman. ABC TV Documentaries: Hypsi: The For-
est Gardener Aired: January 16, 2001. http://www.abc.net.au/tv/docu-
mentaries/stories/s231600.htm (Web site accessed on June 30, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Diprotodontia
Family: Macropodidae
Number of species: 62 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Kangaroos and wallabies are marsupial mammals, meaning that class
they do not produce a well-developed placenta like many famil-
iar mammals. A placenta is an organ that grows inside the mother’s subclass
uterus (womb) during pregnancy and allows the developing baby order
to share the mother’s food and oxygen. Marsupial mammals are
monotypic order
born underdeveloped and they finish developing inside their
mother’s pouch. suborder
Kangaroos and wallabies are some of the best known ▲ family
Australian marsupials. They have four legs, although their front
legs are much smaller and weaker than their large back legs. They
usually have long tails and large ears that are either pointed or
rounded. They have a head and body length that varies in size
from 11 to 91 inches (28 to 231 centimeters), and a tail that ranges
in length from 6 to 43 inches (15 to 109 centimeters). They weigh
between 3 and 187 pounds (1 to 85 kilograms). In some species
the males are much larger than the females. Kangaroos and wal-
labies have fur that ranges in color from reddish orange to black.
Kangaroos and wallabies have very long, large, strong back feet
that allow them to hop at speeds of up to 35 miles per hour (55
kilometers per hour). They have four toes on each of their front
and back feet, and the second and third toes on their back feet
are fused (attached) together. All of their toes have strong claws.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Kangaroos and wallabies live all over Australia, as well as in
parts of New Guinea and some surrounding islands. They have
been introduced into Hawaii, New Zealand, Great Britain, and
Germany.
DIET
Most kangaroos and wallabies are herbivores, which means
that they eat only plants. They eat mostly leaves and grass,
although some also eat fruit, seeds, and fungi. Some of the smaller
species are omnivores, animals that eat both animals and plants.
These species eat insects and other invertebrates.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Four species in this family have already gone extinct. Many
others are Endangered, which means that they face a very high
risk of extinction in the wild. Others are considered Vulnera-
ble, which means that they face a high risk of extinction in the
wild. Some actions are being taken to help particular species,
including protecting their habitats and breeding them in cap-
tivity, so they may be later reintroduced into the wild.
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS EASTERN GRAY KANGAROO
Macropus giganteus
RED KANGAROO
Macropus rufus
Red kangaroos and people: Red kangaroos are hunted for their
skins and meat in some places in Australia. The red kangaroo also
has important cultural significance for native Australians, in whose
traditional dreamtime stories they often play large parts.
Diet: Brush-tailed rock wallabies mainly eat grass, but they also
sometimes will eat herbs and fruits.
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Diprotodontia
Family: Burramyidae
Number of species: 5 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Pygmy possums, like most animals native to Australia and class
New Guinea, are marsupial mammals. This type of mammal,
unlike familiar eutherian (yoo-THEER-ee-an) mammals such subclass
as dogs, cats, or humans, does not have a well-developed pla- order
centa. A placenta is an organ that grows in the mother’s uterus
(womb) during pregnancy in order to share food and oxygen monotypic order
with the developing young. Since marsupial mammals like suborder
pygmy possums do not have a well-developed placenta, their
▲ family
young are born hairless, blind, and underdeveloped and must
complete development inside their mother’s pouch.
Pygmy possums look much like common mice. They are small,
between 2 and 4 inches (5 to 10 centimeters) long, and they weigh
between 0.2 and 1.4 ounces (7 to 40 grams). They are covered
with soft fur that is brown on their backs and lighter underneath.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Pygmy possums live in central New Guinea, Tasmania, and
southeastern and southwestern Australia.
HABITAT
Most pygmy possums live in wet forest areas with evergreen
or eucalyptus (yoo-kah-LIP-tus) trees. One species, the moun-
tain pygmy possum, lives in the tropical mountain rainforest
of New Guinea above 4,900 feet (1,500 meters).
DIET
Different species of pygmy possums have different diets,
ranging from plant pollen and nectar to insects to small lizards.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The mountain pygmy possum is considered Endangered
because of the very limited area (only two places in Victoria,
Australia) in which it lives. Disturbances to its habitat are con-
sidered the most important threat. A natural threat is the annual
change in rainfall. The amount of rain affects the size of the
Bogong moth population—this in turn affects the amount of food
that is available for the mountain pygmy possum, which gorges
on Bogong moths almost exclusively during the summer months.
SPECIES
ACCOUNT EASTERN PYGMY POSSUM
Cercartetus nanus
Books:
Mansergh, I. M., Linda Broome, and Katrina Sandiford. The Mountain-
Pygmy Possum of the Australian Alps (Australian Natural History). Kens-
ington, Australia: New South Wales University Press, 1994.
Steiner, Barbara A. A Field Guide to the Mammals of Australia. Oxford,
U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Web sites:
Lamington National Park. “Eastern Pygmy Possum.” http://lamington.
nrsm.uq.edu.au/Documents/Anim/eastern_pygmy_possum.htm (ac-
cessed on June 30, 2004).
“Royal’s Hidden Population of Pygmy Possums Astounds Research-
ers.” Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service. http://www
.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/npws.nsf/Content/Royals+hidden+popula-
tion+of+pygmy+possums+astounds+researchers (accessed on June 30,
2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Diprotodontia
Family: Pseudocheiridae
Number of species: 16 species
phylum
class
family C H A P T E R
subclass
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
order
Ringtail and greater gliding possums are marsupial mammals.
monotypic order They range in length from 13 to 37 inches (32 to 95 centime-
suborder ters) and weigh between 4 ounces and 79 pounds (115 grams
▲ family to 22.5 kilograms). In this family there are two distinct types of
possums. The greater gliding possums have a membrane, or thin
layer of skin, between their front legs and their back legs. They
spread their arms and legs when they leap from tree to tree and
the membrane acts like a parasail or parachute and allows them
to glide. The other group, known as the ringtail possums, is
much different. They do not have this membrane, and their legs
are short and stocky. The greater gliding possums can be up to
37 inches (95 centimeters) long, including their long tail, and
weigh up to 42 ounces (1,200 grams).
Ringtail possums are furry and can be light gray, cream, or-
ange, or dark brown in color. One species, the green ringtail,
even looks green because of a combination of yellow, black and
white fur. Ringtail possums have short round ears and a tail
that is bare near the end.
Because they are marsupial mammals, ringtail and greater
gliding possums are different from most familiar mammals such
as cats, horses and humans. These familiar mammals are all eu-
therian (yoo-THEER-ee-an) mammals, which means they have
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Ringtail and greater gliding possums live along the eastern
coast of Australia from its northern-most tip near New Guinea
to its southern-most tip near Tasmania. They can also be found
in the more mountainous areas of New Guinea, as well as Tas-
mania, and the southwestern tip of Australia.
HABITAT
Most of the species that live in New Guinea, live in moun-
tain forests. In Australia there are a number of different species
that occupy a variety of different habitats. One species known
as the rock possum lives on the rocky ground. Most other ring-
tails are arboreal, meaning they live in trees. Some of these tree-
dwelling possums live in Australia’s rainforests while others live
in more dry and less dense forests.
DIET
Ringtail and greater gliding possums are herbivores, which
means that they eat plants. Most of their diet is made up of
leaves, especially eucalyptus (yoo-kah-LIP-tus) leaves. Some
species also eat fruits and flowers. These animals have teeth
that are specially suited to grinding up leaves. They also all
have a large cecum (SEE-kum), which is a pouch in the diges-
tive system. In order to get enough nutritional value from the
leaves they eat—eucalyptus leaves, especially, have low nutri-
tional value—the leaves must be broken down. In the cecum,
these animals have special bacteria that break down the leaves,
so that they can be used by the animal.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Populations of ringtail and greater gliding possums vary in
how threatened they are by extinction. Some species, like the
lemuroid ringtail possum, are widespread and have large pop-
ulations. They are not considered threatened. Other species are
threatened by the shrinking size of their habitat. The d’Alber-
tis’s ringtail possum and the golden ringtail are among this
group. No species in this family is currently considered en-
dangered, and they are not protected under law on the island
of New Guinea.
SPECIES
GREATER GLIDER ACCOUNTS
Petauroides volans
Habitat: Greater gliders live in the both dry and wet forests, but not
rainforests.
COMMON RINGTAIL
Pseudocheirus peregrinus
Books:
Kerle, Anne. Possums: The Brushtails, Ringtails and Greater Gliders.
Sydney, Australia: University of New South Wales Press, 2001.
Russell, Rupert. Spotlight on Possums. St. Lucia, Australia: University of
Queensland Press, 1980.
Steiner, Barbara A. A Field Guide to the Mammals of Australia. Oxford,
U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Web sites:
“Common Ringtail Possum.” Tasmanian Department of Primary Indus-
tries, Water and Environment: Parks & Wildlife. http://www.dpiwe.
tas.gov.au/inter.nsf/WebPages/BHAN-53J3P5?open (accessed on June
30, 2004).
“Sugar Glider.” Tasmanian Department of Primary Industries, Water and
Environment: Parks & Wildlife. http://www.dpiwe.tas.gov.au/inter.nsf/
WebPages/BHAN-53J8XS?open (accessed on June 30, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Diprotodontia
Family: Petauridae
Number of species: 12 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Gliding and striped possums are arboreal, which means that class
they live in trees. They are also nocturnal, meaning they are
subclass
active at night and sleep during the day, often in hollow trees.
Members of this family are medium-sized. They measure be- order
tween 12 and 31 inches (32 to 78 centimeters) long and weigh monotypic order
between 3 and 25 ounces (95 to 720 grams).
suborder
As the name of this family suggests, there are two major types
of Petauridae. These two types are organized into groups called ▲ family
subfamilies. One subfamily is called Petaurinae, and the other
is called Dactylopsilinae. The Petaurinae subfamily is the group
known as the gliding possums. The Dactylopsilinae are the
striped possums. Although they are closely related, these two
subfamilies look quite different from each other.
Gliding possums are gray, brown, or cream colored. They
have a membrane (a thin layer of skin) between their front and
rear legs that stretches from their wrist to their ankle. When
they leap from branch to branch, they spread this membrane
out like a bed sheet in order to glide. Gliding possums also
have a bushy tail that is used for steering while in the air. The
end of their tail is prehensile, which means that it can be used
for grasping branches.
Striped possums are black with two white stripes that run along
their back like a skunk. Also like a skunk, these animals have a
strong and unpleasant odor that is produced by several glands or
organs that secrete chemicals from the body. Striped possums
have five toes on their front paws. The fourth toe is much longer
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Striped possums live in New Guinea. One species is also
found in the rainforest on the northern tip of Australia that is
closest to New Guinea. Gliding possums also live in New
Guinea and Australia, but are found in a much wider area. They
live both on the northern and eastern coast of Australia and on
the island of Tasmania.
HABITAT
Gliding and striped possums live in many different types of
forests, from dense rainforests to open forests where trees are
spread far apart.
DIET
Gliding possums are omnivorous meaning they eat both
plants and animals. They feed mostly on sap from trees, as well
as nectar and blossoms. Some species of gliding possums are
able to bite into tree bark in order to get the sap. Others feed
off sap that leaks from wounds in trees made by other species.
Striped possums are insectivorous, meaning that they mainly
eat insects. They use their long fourth finger to tap trees and
rotting logs to find the hollow spots where insect larvae (LAR-
vee; young developing insects) are living. They then use their
strong front teeth to dig into the tree and their fourth finger to
pull out the larvae.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Three species in this family are Endangered, facing a very high
risk of extinction in the wild: Tate’s triok, the mahogany glider,
and Leadbeater’s possum. Other species, such as the yellow-
bellied glider and the squirrel glider are considered Vulnerable,
facing a high risk of extinction in the wild. Conservation efforts
are underway to identify and protect key habitats of a number
of these animals.
SPECIES
ACCOUNT SUGAR GLIDER
Petaurus breviceps
Diet: The sugar glider is an omnivore. It eats tree sap, pollen, in-
sect larvae, and insect-like animals such as spiders.
Sugar gliders and people: Despite controversy, sugar gliders are be-
coming popular as household pets, both in Asia and the United States.
Books:
Steiner, Barbara A. A Field Guide to the Mammals of Australia. Oxford,
U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Triggs, Barbara. Tracks, Scats and Other Traces: A Field Guide to Aus-
tralian Mammals. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Robinson, Hannah. Australia: An Ecotraveler’s Guide. New York: Inter-
link Books, 2003.
Web sites:
Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service. “Gliding Possums.”
http://www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/npws.nsf/Content/Gliding+
possums (accessed on June 30, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Diprotodontia
Family: Tarsipedidae
One species: Honey possum
(Tarsipes rostratus)
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Honey possums are very small and highly specialized mar- class
supial mammals. Despite their name, honey possums do not
subclass
actually make or eat honey—instead, they have unique physi-
cal features that help them to feed primarily on the pollen and order
nectar from flowers. They are very small and have long tongues monotypic order
to pull the nectar or pollen out from inside a flower. Their heads
are long and tapered, and they are covered in coarse, short hair. suborder
Except for three black stripes down the middle of their back, ▲ family
their coloring is a grayish brown.
Male honey possums weigh only 0.24 to 0.38 ounces (7 to
8 grams). Female possums weigh slightly more, between 0.28
and 0.56 ounces (8 to 16 grams). From the tip of their nose to
the end of their body (excluding the tail) they are only between
2.6 and 3.5 inches (6.5 to 9 centimeters) long.
Honey possums have long tails, as long or longer than their
bodies. They use this tail to help them climb along branches be-
tween flowers. The tip of the tail is prehensile, meaning that the
honey possum can use it to grasp objects. It is almost hairless,
which also helps to improve its grip. Honey possums are often
seen hanging upside down by their tails. They also have very
long tongues, which they can extend beyond their mouth even
further than the length of their head. This helps them to retrieve
their food from flowers. Their paws have four toes. The bones
of the middle two toes on the back paws are fused (attached)
but have separate claws that are used for grooming. Other toes
are clawless.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Honey possums live in a very small region in the south-
western tip of Australia.
HABITAT
The honey possum lives on uninhabited sandy beaches where
the kinds of flowers that they feed on bloom almost all year round.
DIET
Even though they are called honey possums, these animals
do not eat honey. They feed upon the nectar and pollen from
the flowers of plants such as myrtles (MER-tuhlz), proteas
(PRO-tee-ahz), and banksias (BANK-see-ahz) that grow on the
coast of southwestern Australia. Their teeth, which are stubby
and short, are not used to chew or bite. In order to get the
pollen and nectar, honey possums use their long tongue and
tapered head to poke into the flowers. The end of their tongue
CONSERVATION STATUS
In 1992, much of the habitat and food supply of the honey
possum was disappearing because humans were developing
their habitat with little regard to this small animal. Today, with
increased awareness, the number of honey possums has re-
bounded and they are not considered threatened.
Books:
Robinson, Hannah. Australia: An Ecotraveler’s Guide. New York: Inter-
link Books, 2003.
Web sites:
Australian Association for Environmental Education. “Case Study
3—Honey Possums and Wildflowers.” https://olt.qut.edu.au/udf/aaee/
gen/index.cfm?fa=displayPage&rNum=475152 (accessed on June 30,
2004).
The University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. “Tarsipes rostratus.”
http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Tarsipes_rostratus.html (accessed on June 30, 2004).
Watson, Ian, and Craig Owen. “Honey Possum.” Quantum, ABC
Television. http://www.abc.net.au/quantum/s244451.htm (accessed
on June 30, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Diprotodontia
Family: Acrobatidae
Number of species: 2 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class The family Acrobatidae is made up of two species: the pygmy
glider and the feather-tailed possum. Although they are very
subclass
different in many ways, these two species have similarities that
order make them part of the same family.
monotypic order The pygmy glider is the smaller of the two species. Their
heads and bodies are usually between 2.5 and 3 inches (6.5 to
suborder
8 centimeters). They have tails that are also between 2.5 and
▲ family 3 inches (6.5 to 8 centimeters) in length. The pygmy glider
weighs less than 0.5 ounces (14 grams). Feather-tailed possums
are larger, with a head and body length that ranges from 4 to
5 inches (10 to 13 centimeters). Their tail is longer than their
body, with a length of between 5 and 6 inches (12 to 15 cen-
timeters). They weigh between 1 and 2 ounces (30 to 60 grams).
Pygmy gliders and feather-tailed possums both have tails that
are long and have long straight hairs sticking off both sides of
their tail. These hairs make the tail look like a feather, which
is how they got their name. Both species have large eyes and
round ears. They both also have gray fur. The feather-tailed
possum has black and white stripes on its face. The pygmy
glider does not have these stripes and has a white belly.
Both species of this family have sharp claws that help them
grip trees. They also have six pads on their feet to help them
grip. The pygmy glider has a thin membrane, or piece of skin,
that goes from its front legs to its back legs. This membrane
allows it to glide. The feather-tailed possum does not glide and
does not have this membrane.
HABITAT
Both species in this family live in trees. Feather-tailed pos-
sums live in tropical rainforests and woodland areas. They are
also sometimes found in suburban gardens. Pygmy gliders pre-
fer forests that contain many eucalyptus (yoo-kah-LIP-tus)
trees. They also live in other woodland areas.
DIET
Pygmy gliders and feather-tailed possums eat insects, fruit,
flowers, and nectar.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Neither species of feather-tailed possum is considered threat-
ened. They do not face a high risk of extinction in the wild in
the near future.
SPECIES
PYGMY GLIDER ACCOUNT
Acrobates pygmaeus
Diet: Pygmy gliders eat mainly insects. They also eat nectar
from flowers.
Pygmy gliders and people: Pygmy gliders are not known to have
special significance to people except to the scientists who study them.
Books:
Smith, Andrew, and John Winter. A Key and Field Guide to the Australian
Possums, Gliders and Koala. Chipping Norton, Australia: Surrey Beatty
and Sons, 1997.
Fenton, Julie A. Kangaroos and Other Marsupials. Chicago: World Book
Inc., 2000.
Web sites:
Australian National Parks and Wildlife. “Gliding possums.”
http://www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/npws.nsf/Content/Gliding+
possums (accessed on June 30, 2004).
●
Class: Mammalia
Order: Xenarthra
Number of families: 4 families
order C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class The order Xenarthra consists of sloths, anteaters, armadillos,
and the extinct glyptodonts. The glyptodont, which became ex-
subclass
tinct 10,000 years ago, belonged to the armadillo family. It was
● order 10 feet (3 meters) long. Modern-day xenarthrans (ZEN-arth-
monotypic order ranz) range from the pink fairy armadillo, which is 6 inches
(15 centimeters) long, to the giant anteater, which is up to
suborder 7 feet (2.1 meters) long.
family Sloths move slowly and spend most of their lives upside
down in trees. They hold onto branches and trunks with their
long limbs. Sloths have small heads, slim bodies, and tiny tails.
Their hair is long and rough. Fur is mainly gray or brown, with
green coloring in the outer hair. The green color is caused by
algae (AL-jee), which are tiny water plants. Sloths aren’t both-
ered by algae growing in their fur. They lick the algae when
hungry, and the color helps sloths blend in with trees. This
camouflage (KAM-uh-flaj) protects sloths from predators,
animals that hunt them for food.
Two-toed tree sloths are up to 3 feet (0.9 meters) long and
weigh 18 pounds (8 kilograms). There is a claw, approximately
3 inches (7.5 centimeters) long, on each of two digits (toes)
of the sloth’s front feet. Three-toed tree sloths are about 2 feet
(0.6 meters) long and weigh 11 pounds (5 kilograms). They
have three digits with claws on the front feet.
In the anteater family, two species have tiny heads and long
snouts. The giant anteater and tamandua (tuh-MAN-duh-wah)
use their tube-shaped snouts to dig into ant nests, and lick up
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Xenarthrans originated in the New World and live primar-
ily in Central and South America. Sloths, anteaters, and ar-
madillos live in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, French
Guiana, Guyana, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Suriname, and
Venezuela. Sloths are also found in Ecuador and Honduras.
Anteaters range in Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras,
Suriname, Paraguay, and Uruguay. Sloths and armadillos live
in Mexico, and the nine-banded armadillo is the only xe-
narthran living in the United States.
HABITAT
Sloths live in trees in the rainforest, an area where there is
much rain throughout the year. This rain leads to the growth
of many trees and plants. Anteaters live in rainforests or in the
savanna, an area of grassland with few trees. Giant anteaters
CONSERVATION STATUS
The three-toed sloth, giant armadillo, and pink fairy ar-
madillo are considered Endangered, according to the World
Conservation Union (IUCN). These mammals face a very high
risk of extinction. Considered Vulnerable, facing a high risk of
extinction, by the IUCN are the giant anteater and several
species of armadillos in South America. Risk to these xe-
narthrans is caused mainly by loss of habitat as the rainforest
is cleared of trees. Farming and hunting also threaten
these populations.
Books:
Attenborough, David. The Life of Mammals. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 2002.
Dollar, Sam. Anteaters. Austin, TX: Raintree Steck-Vaughn Publishers,
2001.
Squire, Ann O. Anteaters, Sloths, and Armadillos. New York: Franklin
Watts, 1999.
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Xenarthra
Family: Megalonychidae
Number of species: 2 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
The family Megalonychidae consists of one living genus (JEE- class
nus), Choloepus, the two-toed tree sloths. A genus is a group of
subclass
animals within a family that have some similar characteristics.
Megalonychidae also includes eleven or more extinct genera order
( JEN-uh-rah; the plural of genus). Since the last of the West In- monotypic order
dian sloths is dead, scientists have learned about them by study-
ing fossils. From skeletons found in Haiti, researchers determined suborder
that the lesser Haitian ground sloth weighed about 50 pounds ▲ family
(23 kilograms) and was as large as a medium-sized dog. It lived
on the ground, and probably also spent time in trees.
The lesser Haitian sloth, like the living Choloepus species,
had long limbs, long claws, and a broad body. While tree sloths
have tiny tails or none at all, this extinct sloth had a long tail
that touched the ground. The ground sloth could balance with
its tail and then stand on two feet to reach into trees.
Within Choloepus are two living species, Hoffmann’s two-
toed sloth and Linné’s two-toed sloth (also called the southern
two-toed sloth). Both use their limbs to hang upside down in
trees. Front limbs are slightly longer than back limbs.
Two-toed sloths have small heads and shaggy fur ranging in
color from brown to gray. There is a green tint to sloth fur. The
color comes from algae (AL-jee), tiny water plants growing in
the sloth’s hair. The algae, along with the sloth’s natural fur
color, camouflage (KAM-uh-flaj) the tree-dweller and keep it
hidden from predators, animals that hunt it for food. When
hungry, sloths may lick the algae on their fur.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
The extinct West Indian sloths lived in the West Indies, in
island countries including Haiti. Living two-toed sloth species
reside in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, French
Guiana, Guyana, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Suri-
name, and Venezuela.
HABITAT
The earliest West Indian sloths were arboreal, living in trees.
Later species lived both on the ground and in trees. Most two-
toed sloths live in trees in the rainforest, an area where there
is much rain throughout the year. Sloths also range in cloud
forests, forests in high altitude areas that are kept moist by the
clouds at that height.
DIET
West Indian sloths probably ate leaves. Two-toed sloths are
herbivores, eating mostly leaves and twigs. They also eat fruit.
Since sloths move from tree to tree, their diet is as varied as
the trees they live in.
CONSERVATION STATUS
West Indian sloths became extinct two thousand years ago,
after people came to the area where they lived. Two-toed sloths
lose habitat as forest land is used for lumbering and farms.
There is not sufficient information available to determine
whether sloths are at risk of extinction, according to the World
Conservation Union (IUCN).
SPECIES
ACCOUNT HOFFMAN’S TWO-TOED SLOTH
Choloepus hoffmanni
Habitat: Hoffmann’s sloths live in the tree canopies, near the top
of trees in rainforests and cloud forests. They often stay in liana
Books:
Attenborough, David. The Life of Mammals. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 2002.
Squire, Ann O. Anteaters, Sloths, and Armadillos. New York: Franklin
Watts, 1999.
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Xenarthra
Family: Bradypodidae
Number of species: 4 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
The three-toed tree sloth family consists of four species, class
groups within the family that share similar characteristics. All
subclass
species have eighteen peg-like teeth, slim bodies, long limbs,
and tiny tails. Front limbs are longer than their back limbs. order
Sloths’ fur ranges in color from gray to brown. The brown- monotypic order
throated three-toed sloth has brown fur in its throat area and
suborder
may also have white or red fur. The pale-throated sloth has
dark fur on its back and lighter colored fur on its front. The ▲ family
maned sloth has long, black hair on its back and neck. The
monk sloth has a tan face.
All species of sloths may have green in their fur. This is
caused by algae (AL-jee), tiny water plants growing in sloths’
hair. Algae are a food source, and sloths lick their fur when
hungry. Sloths live in trees, and the green and brown in their
fur helps them blend in with the trees and hide from preda-
tors, animals that hunt them for food.
The head and body length of three-toed tree sloths ranges
from 15.8 to 30.3 inches (40 to 77 centimeters). Tail length
ranges from 1.9 to 3.5 inches (4.7 to 9 centimeters). They weigh
from 5.1 to 12.1 pounds (2.3 to 5.5 kilograms). The monk sloth
is about 20 percent smaller than other sloth species.
Three-toed tree sloths have three long, hooked claws on the
digits (toes) of each foot. Sloths use the claws measuring from
3.2 to 3.9 inches (8 to 10 centimeters) to hang upside down
from tree branches. Sloths can see a great distance because sloths
can turn their heads 270°. They can turn so far because sloths
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Three-toed tree sloths live in Central and
FOURTH SLOTH SPECIES FOUND South America. Species are found in Mexico,
ON ISLAND Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa
The identification of a new three-toed tree Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Honduras,
sloth species in 2001 was a living lesson in Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname,
evolution. The monk sloth is also known as Venezuela, French Guiana, and Guyana.
the pygmy sloth because it is 20 percent Monk sloths live only on Escudo de Veraguas
smaller than the three other Bradypus Island off the coast of Panama.
species. The new species lives only on
Escudo de Veraguas Island, part of the Boca HABITAT
del Toro islands located off the east coast of Three-toed sloths live primarily in forests.
Panama. Monk sloths live in red mangrove They are located in rainforests, where heavy
trees and are thought to be polygynous. rain throughout the year produces abundant
growth. Some species also live in dry forests
and coniferous forests where leaves are green
year-round. In addition, sloths have been
found living in trees in parks and pastures.
DIET
Three-toed sloths are herbivores and eat the leaves and
shoots of trees. Sloths move slowly because their diet of leaves
produces little energy. To make up for the lack of energy, sloths
have a low body temperature of 86° to 90°F (30° to 34°C).
CONSERVATION STATUS
The maned sloth is ranked as Endangered by the World Con-
servation Union (IUCN). This species faces threats of becom-
ing extinct in the future because habitat is lost as trees are cut
down in forests. Hunting also reduces the population.
SPECIES
ACCOUNT BROWN-THROATED THREE-TOED SLOTH
Bradypus variegatus
Books:
Attenborough, David. The Life of Mammals. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Uni-
versity Press, 2002.
Squire, Ann O. Anteaters, Sloths, and Armadillos. New York: Franklin
Watts, 1999.
Web sites:
Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan Zoology Department.
http://animaldiversity.ummz.
umich.edu/index.html (accessed on June 30, 2004).
Giacalone, Jacalyn. “Sloths.” http://www.csam.montclair.edu/ceterms/
mammals/sloths.html (accessed on June 30, 2004).
Walker’s Mammals of the World Online. http://www.press.jhu.edu/
books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world (accessed on June 30, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Xenarthra
Family: Myrmecophagidae
Number of species: 4 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
The anteater has a long snout, the part of the face that class
includes the nose, mouth, and jaw. While the anteater is tooth-
subclass
less, it has a long tongue that it uses to catch the ants that make
up the major part of its diet. The anteater uses its snout and order
claws to reach into ant nests. Long hair on the anteater’s body monotypic order
is a protection against bites from the ants that they hunt and eat.
suborder
The anteater family includes three genera (JEN-uh-rah) and
four species. A genus (JEE-nus), the singular of genera, is a ▲ family
group of animals with similar characteristics. Size is the pri-
mary difference in each anteater genus, and that difference is
represented in the animals’ common names.
From head to tail, the giant anteater measures a total of 110
inches (280 centimeters), and weighs from 48 to 88 pounds
(22 to 39 kilograms).
Next in size are the tamanduas (tuh-MAN-duh-wahz), which
are also known as the “lesser anteaters.” Tamandua translates
to “ant catcher” in Portuguese. The northern tamandua is
brown with black fur on its back, and the southern tamandua’s
fur color ranges from blond to brown.
The silky anteater is also called the pygmy anteater. The max-
imum head-to-tail length is 21 inches (52 centimeters). Weight
ranges from 6 to 13 ounces (175 to 357 grams).
The silky anteater and tamandua have prehensile tails that
they use to grab and hold onto objects like trees. Both species
have soft, silky hair in contrast to the coarse (rough) fur of the
giant anteater.
Anteaters 195
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Anteaters live in Central and South Amer-
ica, in Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa
Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana,
Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Nicaragua,
Panama, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela.
DECIDING WHERE TO EAT
HABITAT
Giant anteaters use their sense of smell
to find underground ant nests or termite Silky anteaters live in trees in rainforests,
mounds that can be up to 12 feet (4 areas where abundant rainfall produces heavy
meters) above ground. After using their growth. They also inhabit grassland, areas
claws to break into the mounds, anteaters where there are few trees. Giant anteaters live
use their long tongues to scoop up the on the ground and are found mainly on grass-
insects. They can flick their tongues 150 land. They also live in wetlands, where the
times a minute into nests. land is flat and wet. They live in moist forests
and may live near rainforests. Tamandua live
in trees or on the ground. They are found in
rainforests, grassland, and dry forests.
DIET
A giant anteater eats about 30,000 ants each day. The taman-
dua eat about 9,000 in a day, and the silky anteater can eat
5,000 in one day. The giant anteater and tamandua also con-
sume termites.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Giant anteaters are Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction
in the wild, according to the World Conservation Union (IUCN).
Threats to giant anteaters’ survival include the loss of habitat, and
lack of food as trees are cut down and insect nests are destroyed.
Habitat loss could threaten other anteaters in the future.
Anteaters 197
Silky anteater (Cyclopes didactylus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS SILKY ANTEATER
Cyclopes didactylus
Diet: Silky anteaters eat ants off of leaves and from the insides of
tree nests.
Anteaters 199
Giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla)
GIANT ANTEATER
Myrmecophaga tridactyla
Diet: Giant anteaters eat ants and termites. They lick wet plants to
get water.
Anteaters 201
Giant anteaters and people: People hunt giant anteaters and kill them
for their meat and skin. Giant anteaters may be trapped to keep as pets.
Books:
Attenborough, David. The Life of Mammals. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 2002.
Dollar, Sam. Anteaters. New York: Raintree Steck-Vaughn Publishers,
2001.
Web sites:
Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/index.html
(accessed on June 21, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Xenarthra
Family: Dasypodidae
Number of species: 20 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
The smallest armadillo is the pink fairy armadillo, which class
is 5 to 6 inches (12.7 to 15.2 centimeters) long and weighs
subclass
4.2 ounces (120 grams). The largest family member is the
giant armadillo, which is 4.9 feet (1.5 meters) long and weighs order
66 pounds (30 kilograms). monotypic order
“Armadillo” is Spanish for “little armored one.” The ar- suborder
madillo’s protective armor is the turtle-like shell, or carapace,
made up of round, bony plates. Between the hard plates on the ▲ family
armadillo are bands of softer skin. Hair grows between the plates.
Shell colors include brown, gray, and yellow. Body color is usu-
ally gray or brown. Hair is usually white and pale yellow. The
pink fairy armadillo has a pink shell and white hair.
Armadillos have bony plates on their backs. Some have plates
on their heads, and plates cover some armadillos’ tails. The shell
protects the armadillo from predators, animals that hunt and
kill armadillos for food.
The arrangement of plates and bands in the Dasypodidae fam-
ily varies within subgroups called genera (JEN-uh-rah) and
species. The family is divided into eight genera. A genus (JEE-
nus), the singular of genera, is a group that shares similar char-
acteristics. For example, members of the genus Tolypeutes are
three-banded armadillos.
Armadillos have tiny eyes and poor eyesight. Some species
have short snouts, or noses, while others have long, tube-
shaped snouts. Armadillos have long tails and short limbs. They
Armadillos 203
use claws on their limbs to dig for food and
to burrow, digging a hole or tunnel for sleep-
ing or hiding from predators.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
The nine-banded armadillo is the only ar-
ARMADILLOS ENJOY WATER madillo living in the United States. Armadil-
People in Texas have seen nine-banded los live in the South American countries of
armadillos playing in shallow water. Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia,
However, armadillos can do more than Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Paraguay,
splash and take mud baths. Armadillos Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, and Venezuela.
can swim across a body of water or walk Some armadillo species range in Mexico and
underneath water. Armadillos swim by the Central American countries of Belize,
taking in air to inflate their stomachs. Then Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Hon-
they float while paddling with their paws. duras, Nicaragua, and Panama.
In addition, armadillos can sink and
remain on the ground below water for six HABITAT
to ten minutes. Armadillos live in the desert, grassland ar-
eas with few trees, and various types of
forests, including rainforests, coniferous
forests, and deciduous forests. In all habitats,
armadillos sleep in burrows, holes, or tunnels they make by
burrowing.
DIET
Armadillos eat beetles, ants, termites, and worms. They
sometimes eat snakes, frogs, and plants. Their diet is based on
what is available in their habitat.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The giant armadillo and pink fairy armadillo are Endangered,
facing a very high risk of extinction, or dying out, according
to the World Conservation Union (IUCN). The main threat is
habitat loss as trees are cut down. The use of land for farming
reduces fairy armadillo habitat and development has cut into
the amount of giant armadillo habitat. Furthermore, domestic
dogs kill small armadillos, and people hunt giant armadillos for
their meat.
Four other armadillo species are Vulnerable, facing a high
risk of extinction in the wild.
Armadillos 205
Nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS NINE-BANDED ARMADILLO
Dasypus novemcinctus
Diet: These armadillos eat ants, beetles, other insects, snails, and
worms. They also eat larvae (LAR-vee), the early, often worm-like
forms of insects, such as a caterpillar that later changes into a but-
terfly. They sometimes eat fruit.
Armadillos 207
The female can give birth only once a year. She usually mates with
one male, but males may mate with other females. After the male fer-
tilizes the female’s egg, it takes four months or longer before the egg
is implanted (attached) in the uterus. After implantation, the female
gives birth in about two months to four young.
When frightened, armadillos can jump 3 to 4 feet (0.9 to 1.2 me-
ters) in the air. This action can scare predators like dogs, coyotes,
wildcats, and bears. Cars are a threat to armadillos; a vehicle may pass
over an armadillo without hurting it, but if the motion startles the ar-
madillo, it may jump, hit the underside of the car, and die.
Armadillos 209
Geographic range: Pink fairy armadillos are
found in Argentina.
Books:
Squire, Ann O. Anteaters, Sloths, and Armadillos. New York: Franklin
Watts, 1999.
Periodicals:
Myers, Kathy. “The Armor-Plated Armadillos.” ZooNooz (September
2003): 12–17.
Smith, Dwight G. “The Armored Pig.” World and I (August 1999): 174.
Armadillos 211
INSECTIVORES
Insectivora
●
Class: Mammalia
Order: Insectivora
Number of families: 7 families;
1 is extinct
order C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Insectivora is the third largest order of mammals after the class
rodents and bats. Most of the insectivores are smaller than a
child’s hand, and shrews are some of the smallest mammals subclass
known. A few, however, reach a foot long (30 centimeters) or ● order
more. The largest insectivore is the moonrat, which stretches monotypic order
24 inches (60 centimeters) long from the tip of its snout to the
end of its tail. suborder
A typical insectivore is covered with smooth fur, although family
some, like the hedgehogs, have spines. They usually have five
clawed fingers or toes at the end of each of its four, short legs,
but the tenrecs and golden moles have only four claws. Their
skulls are small, long, and flat, however the furry coat may
make the head appear larger. They also have tiny, often unno-
ticeable ears and eyes. Insectivores have an excellent sense of
smell that is assisted by their snouts, which may be long and
flexible, or short and stout. Many insectivores have rows of stiff
sensory hairs, called vibrissae (vuh-BRIS-ee), on their snouts,
tails, ears, and sometimes feet. Beyond this general description,
these animals vary widely.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Insectivores occur worldwide except Antarctica, Australia,
and northern South America.
HABITAT
Insectivores live primarily on land, typically at ground level
or beneath it. A few species, like the Asiatic water shrews, are
Insectivores 213
aquatic. Insectivores can survive in a wide range of habitats from
tropical rainforests to temperate marshes, from thick forests to
open fields, and from sea-level deserts to mountainsides up to
14,760 feet (4,500 meters). Some fossorial, underground,
species, like the star-nosed mole, prefer to burrow in the wet
soil around freshwater marshes and occasionally venture into
somewhat salty, brackish, waters, while others, like the eastern
mole, use enlarged, shovel-like forefeet to tunnel through the
drier soils of forests and fields. The gymnures prefer hiding
places among tree roots or fallen branches, sometimes even
inside termite mounds. Shrews, which comprise almost three-
quarters of all species in the order, spend much of their time in
shallow depressions that they dig beneath some form of shelter,
including rocks, logs, and fallen leaves.
DIET
As the name of the order implies, most of these animals
primarily eat insects, although many will also eat other inver-
tebrates, animals without a backbone. In addition to insects,
many will also eat leaves, tender shoots, seeds, fruits, and other
plant materials. Some, like hedgehogs and tenrecs, prefer to dine
on invertebrates other than insects, such as snails, clams, and
worms, or on vertebrate animals, animals with a backbone, like
small snakes or lizards, fish, frogs, and bird eggs.
Many insectivores require a lot of energy, so they must eat
frequently. Some, like the long-tailed shrew, spend almost every
waking moment eating in order to meet their energy needs.
Insectivores 215
INSECTIVORES AND PEOPLE
For the most part, people rarely see insec-
tivores and are not affected by them. A few,
like the eastern mole, make above-ground
mounds when they tunnel, which are visible
and may present a source of frustration to
ARE THEY ALL INSECTIVORES? people who want to maintain a perfect lawn.
Scientists are beginning to rethink The majority of insectivores are small and
exactly which animals should be placed inactive during the day, which makes them
in the order Insectivora. Many scientists poor pets. Hedgehogs, however, are larger,
believe that two of the families tradition- easy to keep, and have become quite popular
ally placed under the Insectivora should in homes around the world.
fall under a separate order known as
Afrotheria. Under this arrangement, the CONSERVATION STATUS
tenrecs and golden moles would be Dozens of insectivores around the world
classified in Afrotheria with such animals are threatened, according to the World
as elephants and aardvarks. While this Conservation Union (IUCN). Thirty-six are
controversy continues, field biologists are listed as Critically Endangered, facing an
still finding new species, especially in the extremely high risk of extinction in the wild.
tropics of Africa where the small, hidden Forty-five are Endangered, facing a very high
shrews are particularly difficult to find. risk of extinction in the wild, and eighty-
eight are Vulnerable, facing a high risk of
extinction in the wild. In the United States,
only the Buena Vista Lake ornate shrew is listed as Endangered
by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Habitat destruction has proven to be the biggest danger to
these species. As humans clear forests, farm more land, and use
toxic chemicals to control plants and animals, populations of
these small animals can be destroyed.
Web sites:
“2003 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.” World Conservation Union.
http://www.redlist.org (accessed on July 1, 2004).
Haberl, Werner. The Shrew-ists Site. http://members.vienna.at/shrew/
index.html (accessed on July 1, 2004).
Other sources:
Insectivore Specialist Group (ISG). Hamburgerstrasse 11, A-1050 Vienna,
Austria. E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://members.
vienna.at/shrew/itses.html.
IUCN/SSC Afrotheria Specialist Group. Web site: http://www
.calacademy.org/research/bmammals/afrotheria/ASG.html.
European Hedgehog Research Group (EHRG). Phone: +47 370 36 509.
Fax: +47 370 35 050. E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://
www.ngo.grida.no/ngo/hedgehog/.
Insectivores 217
GYMNURES AND HEDGEHOGS
Erinaceidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Insectivora
Family: Erinaceidae
Number of species: 21 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Gymnures and hedgehogs are generally small, pointy-snouted
animals covered with fur, or in the case of hedgehogs, with
subclass
spines. Each of their four, short legs ends in a flat, walking foot
order with five toes. In a few African hedgehogs, the big toe is small
monotypic order or nearly nonexistent (not there).
suborder Overall, this group ranges from 4 to 18 inches (10 to
46 centimeters) in body length plus tails from 0.4 to 12 inches
▲ family (1 to 30 centimeters), and weighs from 0.5 ounces to
4.4 pounds (15 to 2,000 grams). Most members of this group
have bodies about 4 to 6 inches (10 to 15 centimeters) long,
and short, sometimes barely noticeable tails. A few, however,
have longer tails and larger bodies. For example, the Madagascar
hedgehog has a grasping tail that can be more than two times
the length of its body. The Malayan moonrat is the largest
member of this family. With a body that can reach 16 to
18 inches (41 to 46 centimeters) long and a tail that stretches
up to 8 to 12 inches (20 to 30 centimeters) long, this animal
can measure more than 2 feet (0.6 meters) long from snout to
tail tip and weigh up to 4.4 pounds (2 kilograms).
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Gymnures and hedgehogs are found in parts of Africa,
Eurasia, central Asia, and southeast Asia. New Zealand is also
home to a healthy population introduced by humans. Hedge-
hogs tend toward the cooler climates, while gymnures and
moonrats demand tropical and subtropical areas.
DIET
The diet of hedgehogs and gymnures can include a variety of
things, but they mostly eat insects, spiders, worms and other
invertebrates, animals without backbones. If they are big enough
to kill a reptile, amphibian, or a small mammal, they will do so
once in a while. Sometimes they will also eat fungi or fruit. In
addition, hedgehogs often prey on birds’ eggs. They spend most
of their active hours either looking for food or eating it.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Seven species of this family are at some risk, according to
the World Conservation Union (IUCN). The dwarf gymnure is
Critically Endangered, facing an extremely high risk of extinc-
tion in the wild. In addition, three species are Endangered,
facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild, and two species
are Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction in the wild. In
addition, one is considered Near Threatened, not currently
threatened, but may become so. Many of these species live in
small areas, and human activities like logging and new farms
are destroying their limited habitats.
SPECIES
WESTERN EUROPEAN HEDGEHOG ACCOUNTS
Erinaceus europaeus
MALAYAN MOONRAT
Echinosorex gymnura
Books:
McDonald, D. Collins Field Guide: Mammals of Britain and Europe.
London: Harper Collins, 1993.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World Online. Baltimore:
John Hopkins University Press, 1995. http://www.press.jhu.
edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/insectivora/insectivora
.erinaceidae.echinosorex.html (accessed on July 1, 2004).
Reeve, N. Hedgehogs. London: Poyser Natural History, 1994.
Web sites:
“European hedgehog.” BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/wildfacts/
factfiles/193.shtml (accessed on July 1, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Insectivora
Family: Chrysochloridae
Number of species: 21 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Generally, a golden mole looks like little more than a round
to oblong lump of fur with a tiny, naked nose poking out at
subclass
one end. Adults range from 2.7 to 9 inches (7 to 23.5 centimeters)
order long, and 0.5 to 17.6 ounces (16 to 500 grams). The fur is gen-
monotypic order erally brown to gray, but it shines golden, bronze, and even
purple and blue when the light hits it just right. Their small
suborder ears and tails are typically buried under their silky, thick fur,
▲ family and their eyes are covered with skin beneath the fur. They have
four short legs, the front two of which often have enlarged claws
they use for digging. Their back legs are more slender than their
powerful forelimbs and their back feet have webbing between
the toes—a big help when kicking away the soil they’ve just
dug. One species, the yellow golden mole, can tunnel through
the soil so quickly and efficiently that it is sometimes called a
“sand swimmer.” Many of the other species, like the Grant’s
desert golden mole, also almost appear to be swimming when
they travel through the loose sand in dunes.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
The southern half of Africa.
HABITAT
Golden moles typically live much of their lives underground
in shallow burrows they dig themselves. The burrows are
often visible above ground as slight ridges in the soil. Many
golden moles prefer loose soil that is easily moved by their
CONSERVATION STATUS
Eleven species of golden mole are at some risk, according to
the World Conservation Union (IUCN). The Red List describes
four as Critically Endangered, facing an extremely high risk of
extinction, dying out; one as Endangered, facing a very high
risk of extinction; and six as Vulnerable, facing a high risk of
extinction. These golden moles exist in limited areas and those
areas are becoming ever smaller through habitat destruction
due to human activities, like farming, mining, and lumbering.
SPECIES
GRANT’S DESERT GOLDEN MOLE ACCOUNT
Eremitalpa granti
Habitat: Coastal sand dunes, typically areas with some dune grass,
are its preferred habitat.
Books:
Apps, P. Smithers’ Mammals of Southern Africa. Cape Town, South
Africa: Struik Publishers, 2000.
Kingdon, J. The Kingdon Field Guide to African Mammals. San Diego,
CA: Academic Press, 1997.
Nowak, R. M. Walker’s Mammals of the World Online. Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1997. http://www.press. jhu.edu/books/walkers
_mammals_of_the_world/insectivora/insectivora.chrysochloridae.
eremitalpa.html (accessed on July 1, 2004).
Smithers, R. H. N. The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion.
Pretoria, South Africa: University of Pretoria, 1983.
Web sites:
“Insectivore Specialist Group 1996, Eremitalpa granti.” 2003 IUCN
Red List of Threatened Species. http://www.redlist.org (accessed on
July 1, 2004).
“A Mammal that Imitates Reptiles.” Clive Cowley’s Journey into Namibia:
Namibia Guidebook #12. http://www.orusovo.com/guidebook/
content8.htm (accessed on July 1, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Insectivora
Family: Tenrecidae
Number of species: 27 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Rat- or shrew-like in general appearance, tenrecs vary greatly
in body size, tail length, and color. One of the most consistent
subclass
features is the long, pointy snout that is typically adorned with
order long whiskers. The smallest tenrecs have head and body lengths
monotypic order of just 2 inches (5.5 centimeters) and weights of 0.14 ounces
(4 grams), while the largest can reach 14 inches (35.7
suborder centimeters) and weigh up to 44 pounds (2 kilograms). Tails
▲ family vary from tiny, unnoticeable stubs to long and very obvious
structures stretching up to three times the length of the body.
Some species have soft yellow to brown fur, and a few have
vivid black-and-white or yellow-and-black fur patterns. Adults
in several species have sharp spines that are quite effective in
thwarting attacks by would-be predators. Some youngsters, like
the common tenrec, have blunt spines that produce a sound
when rubbed together.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Tenrecs live in Madagascar and western central Africa.
Introduced to Comoros, Mascarenes, and Seychelles, which are
islands in the Indian Ocean.
HABITAT
Most species live in humid forests or in grasslands. A few
species can survive well in marshy areas, drier forests, or agri-
cultural fields. Aquatic tenrecs and otter shrews spend much
of their time in or near freshwater streams.
Tenrecs 233
of males. Each year, females have one litter of one to thirty-two
babies, depending on the species. The young, most of which
are born blind and naked, apparently stay with the mother for
at least four or five weeks, and possibly more.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Ten species are at risk, according to the Red List of the World
Conservation Union (IUCN). One, the tree shrew tenrec, is
listed as Critically Endangered, facing an extremely high risk
of extinction, or dying out; six are Endangered, facing a very
high risk of extinction; and three are listed as Vulnerable, fac-
ing a high risk of extinction. Many of these species exist in
small areas and are threatened by human activities that are
changing their habitat. For example, the aquatic tenrec is an
Endangered species that is found in only a few spots in Mada-
gascar. It needs clean rivers to survive, but agriculture and de-
forestation are either eliminating the rivers or allowing silt to
muddy up the waters.
SPECIES
COMMON TENREC ACCOUNTS
Tenrec ecaudatus
Tenrecs 235
Common tenrec adults live alone Diet: Insects, earthworms, and other invertebrates are their primary
for most of the year, but males
food, but they will also eat small vertebrate animals, fruit, and plant
and females come together in
the spring to mate. (Illustration roots on occasion.
by Gillian Harris. Reproduced by
permission.) Behavior and reproduction: Adults live alone for most of the year,
spending days sleeping in the burrows they make, and nights on the
prowl for food. In the dry winter months, food can become quite
scarce, triggering the tenrecs to enter a state of deep sleep, called
estivation, for up to several months. They mate in the spring, and
females give birth to a single litter of twelve to thirty-two babies in
the summer, which falls in December and January for these creatures
of the Southern Hemisphere. The mother nurses her young for almost
a month, then takes them out with her to search for insects and other
food items. By the time they are two to two-and-a-half-months old,
the youngsters leave the mother to live on their own.
YELLOW-STREAKED TENREC
Hemicentetes semispinosus
Tenrecs 237
Habitat: This is a burrowing species that lives
in humid forests, as well as shrubby areas, fre-
quently near a water source.
Periodicals:
Eisenberg, J. F., and E. Gould. “The Tenrecs: A Study in Mammalian Be-
havior and Evolution.” Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology 27 (1970):
78–89.
Tenrecs 239
SOLENODONS
Solenodontidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Insectivora
Family: Solenodontidae
Number of species: 2 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class The two living species in this family are the Cuban
solenodon (suh-LEN-uh-dun), which is also known as the
subclass
almiqui (ahl-mee-KEE), and the Hispaniolan solenodon, which
order is sometimes called the Haitian solenodon. Both have extremely
monotypic order long snouts that extend beyond the end of their lower jaw.
Their four relatively tall legs, clawed feet, and long tails
suborder are nearly hairless. Most are brown on the back, or sometimes
▲ family black in the Cuban solenodon, and have lighter-colored fur
on their undersides. Cuban solenodons have longer, coarser,
back hair, giving it a shaggier appearance. They are also slightly
smaller than Hispaniolan solenodons. Overall, adult solen-
odons range from about 10 to 15 inches (25 to 38 centimeters)
in length, and their tail adds another 6 to 10 inches (15
to 25 centimeters). Adults weigh 1.3 to 2.4 pounds (0.6 to
1.1 kilograms).
Both species have glands under their front teeth that produce
poison. When they bite into a prey animal, the poison flows
from the glands down grooves in their teeth and into the prey.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Solenodons live in Haiti, Dominican Republic, and Cuba. In
the past they were also found in Puerto Rico.
HABITAT
Solenodons occupy tropical forests on the sides of mountains,
and also can be found in plantations and other flat, brushy areas.
Solenodons 241
garden. Homeowners and farmers sometimes view them as pests
because they occasionally damage crops while rooting around
in the dirt for insects and other prey that live near plants.
CONSERVATION STATUS
According to the World Conservation Union (IUCN) both
species are Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction in
the wild. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service also list these two
species as Endangered. The causes for their decline include
hunting by dogs and cats, and the removal of the forests where
the solenodons live. The IUCN lists a third species, Marcano’s
solenodon, as extinct.
SPECIES
HISPANIOLAN SOLENODON ACCOUNT
Solenodon paradoxus
Solenodons 243
Diet: The Hispaniolan solenodon’s diet includes
insects and other invertebrates, small reptiles,
some fruit and vegetables, and possibly an occa-
sional young chicken.
Conservation status: Both the IUCN and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service list this species as Endangered. Threats come in the form
of dogs and cats that prey on the animal, and the human destruction of
the forests where it lives. ■
Books:
Eisenberg, John F. “Tenrecs and Solenodons in Captivity.” In Interna-
tional Zoo Yearbook 15. London: Zoological Society of London, 1975.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 6th ed. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Web sites:
Baillie, J. “Solenodon cubanus.” 2003 IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species. http://www.redlist.org (accessed on July 1, 2004).
Baillie, J. “Solenodon marcanoi.” 2003 IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species. http://www.redlist.org (accessed on July 1, 2004).
Baillie, J. “Solenodon paradoxus.” 2003 IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species. http://www.redlist.org (accessed on July 1, 2004).
Eatroff, A. “Solenodon paradoxus.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Soleondon
_paradoxus.html (accessed on July 1, 2004).
“The Haitian Solenodon.” Dominican Fauna. http://www.geocities.com/
cuyaya/solenen.html (accessed on July 1, 2004).
Massicot, P. “Haitian Solenodon.” Animal Info. http://www.animalinfo.
org/species/solepara.htm (accessed on July 1, 2004).
Solenodons 245
SHREWS
Soricidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Insectivora
Family: Soricidae
Number of species: 333 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Sometimes confused with mice, the typical shrew has a
long, pointy snout with sensitive whiskers, a long and thin
subclass
tail, tiny eyes that are sometimes hidden under their fur, no-
order ticeable ears, and fairly short legs with five clawed toes on
monotypic order each foot. Most have short, brown or gray fur, and many of
them have red-tinged teeth. The vast majority of shrews are
suborder no bigger than a house mouse, but a few species, like the wa-
▲ family ter shrews, can top 5 inches (12.5 centimeters) in head and
body length. Overall, shrews range from 1.4 to 5.3 inches (3.6
to 13.5 centimeters) in head and body length and 0.06 to 1.5
ounces (2 to 40 grams) in body weight. Tails are typically
from half the length to the same length as the head and body
measurement. The smallest shrew, and indeed one of the tini-
est living mammals, is Savi’s pygmy shrew with a body that
is just 1.4 to 2.1 inches (3.6 to 5.3 centimeters) long. The tail
is about half that size. The tiny shrew weighs 0.4 to 0.1 ounces
(1.2 to 2.7 grams).
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Shrews can be found nearly worldwide, including North
America, Central America, northern South America, Africa,
Europe, and Asia.
HABITAT
This is a very wide-ranging family, but most species tend to
prefer areas with at least some moisture. Many scuttle along
the damp earth under leaf litter, but a few will climb trees in
DIET
Shrews are not picky eaters. While insects SCARED TO DEATH
and other invertebrates (animals without Shrews are very active little animals,
backbones) make up the bulk of their diet, dashing from place to place with noses
they will also eat fruit and seeds, as well as almost always twitching. A typical heart
small mammals, lizards, frogs, and even rate for a shrew is in the hundreds, five or
other shrews if food is scarce. They burn en- more times higher than a human heart
ergy very quickly, so many shrews spend just rate, and can nearly double if the animal is
about every waking moment either eating or frightened. In fact, a shrew can actually die
looking for their next meal. Many species eat of fright if it is startled by a loud noise, like
at least their body weight, and sometimes up a clap of thunder.
to four times that amount in food every day.
Shrews 247
feet that serve to enlarge the surface area of their feet and help
them paddle through the water. The elegant water shrew has
actual webbing on its feet to aid in swimming.
Shrews generally breed two or more times a year, giving
off specific odors or making characteristic movements, such
as tail-wagging in house musk shrews, to announce that they
are ready to give up fighting long enough to mate. Females
may mate with several males during each breeding period, so
the offspring in one female’s litter may have several different
fathers. Many species build nests. The short-tailed shrew, for
example, makes a small nest of leaves and grass in a hidden
spot, often under a rock or inside a tunnel. Pregnancies last
only three to four weeks for most species, and the babies are
small and quite helpless. The number of offspring varies, but
three to seven is a common litter (young born at the same
time) size for shrews. Babies grow very rapidly and are ready
to face the world on their own at just three to four weeks
old. Before they do so, however, some species of the group,
known as white-toothed shrews because they lack the red-
dish tinge seen in other shrews, take part in an odd behav-
ior. The mother leads them around in a row, with each shrew
using its teeth to grasp the hair on the rump of the one in
front of it. This line-up of shrews is called a caravan, or chain
behavior. Scientists now believe that families of some red-
toothed shrews may use this peculiar but effective method of
travel, as well.
As noted, shrews develop quickly and they begin having
young of their own before they reach their first birthday. Shrews
rarely live much past fourteen to eighteen months of age.
Shrews 249
American least shrew (Cryptotis parva)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS AMERICAN LEAST SHREW
Cryptotis parva
Physical characteristics: Just 2.2 to 3.1 inches (5.5 to 7.8 cm) in head
to body length, this small shrew has a brownish gray back and whitish
belly, a long snout, red-tinged teeth, and a tail that is no more than a
third of the length of its head and body. It weighs from 0.1 to 0.3 ounces
(4 to 8 grams). Its eyes are small and its ears are unnoticeable.
Geographic range: United States, extreme southeastern Canada,
Mexico, and much of Central American to Panama.
Habitat: American least shrews are common in open, grassy fields,
sometimes near a stream, but may also live in damp forests. This
species spends much of its time in shallow tunnels it either makes
itself or borrows from other animals.
Conservation status: Neither the IUCN nor the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service lists them as endangered, but some states consider them
to be threatened. Connecticut, for example, lists American least shrews
as endangered because their habitat is rapidly disappearing. ■
Shrews 251
American water shrew (Sorex palustris)
Books:
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 6th ed. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Stone, David, and the IUCN/SSC Insectivore, Tree Shrew and Elephant
Shrew Specialist Group. Eurasian Insectivores and Tree Shrews-Status
Survey and Conservation Action Plan. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 1995.
Shrews 253
Wilson, D. E., and S. Ruff, eds. The Smithsonian Book of North Ameri-
can Mammals. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1999.
Periodicals:
Matsuzaki O. “The Force Driving Mating Behavior in the House Musk
Shrew (Suncus murinus).” Zoological Sciences 19, no. 8 (2002): 851–69.
Web sites:
“American Water Shrew.” BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/
wildfacts/factfiles/642.shtml (accessed July 1, 2004).
Endangered Species Program, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. http://
endangered.fws.gov/ (accessed on July 1, 2004).
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species—Species Information. http://
www.redlist.org (accessed on July 1, 2004).
“Least Shrew.” All Taxa Biodiversity Inventory. http://www.dlia.org/
atbi/species/animals/vertebrates/mammals/soricidae/Cryptotis_parva.
html (accessed July 1, 2004).
“Savi’s pygmy shrew, Etruscan shrew.” America Zoo. http://www
.americazoo.com/goto/index/mammals/48.htm (accessed July 1, 2004).
“Soricidae—Shrews.” All Taxa Biodiversity Inventory. http://www.dlia
.org/atbi/species/animals/vertebrates/mammals/soricidae/ (accessed
July 1, 2004).
“Water Shrew.” All Taxa Biodiversity Inventory. http://www.dlia.org/
atbi/species/animals/vertebrates/mammals/soricidae/Sorex_palustris.
html (accessed July 1, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Insectivora
Family: Talpidae
Number of species: 42 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Moles are small, short-legged, smooth-furred animals with class
tiny, sometimes hidden eyes, and long, nearly naked snouts.
subclass
Many land-living moles have large, wide, shovel-like front feet
adapted for digging through the soil. Some moles, including the order
desmans, are swimmers and have slender, webbed forefeet. monotypic order
Shrew moles, which live on land but dig little, if at all, have feet
that are neither shovel-like nor webbed. Overall, adult moles suborder
range from about 2.4 to 17.0 inches (6 to 43 centimeters) in ▲ family
body length and another 0.6 to 8.3 inches (1.5 to 21.5 cen-
timeters) in tail length. They weigh from 0.4 ounces (12 grams)
in the smallest species to 7.8 ounces (220 grams) in the largest.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Moles, shrew moles, and desmans are found in the United
States, Canada, Mexico, and much of Europe and Asia.
HABITAT
About three-quarters of the species in this family live much
of their lives underground. A few live above ground on land,
and others spend a good deal of their time in or near the water.
Those that prefer the water usually make their homes near fresh
water, but a few will also enter brackish water, water that is
somewhat salty.
DIET
The primary diet among the moles is insects, earthworms,
centipedes, and other invertebrates, animals without backbones,
CONSERVATION STATUS
According to the World Conservation Union (IUCN), two
species are Critically Endangered, facing an extremely high risk
of extinction in the wild. Five species are Endangered, facing a
very high risk of extinction in the wild, and three are Vulnera-
ble, facing a high risk of extinction in the wild. That means that
nearly one quarter of all mole species are at some risk. The U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service lists no species as endangered. Many
of the at-risk moles have small populations and/or live in habi-
tats that are disappearing due to human activity. In addition,
some species are facing threats from hunting or from introduced
species that are invading their habitat. The Vulnerable Russian
desman, for example, is now competing for food and shelter
with the introduced muskrat and coypu (KOY-poo).
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS EASTERN MOLE
Scalopus aquaticus
Diet: Eastern moles eat mostly grubs and earthworms, but also
centipedes and slugs. If they come across a root or seed during their
tunneling, they will also eat those.
Eastern moles and people: Most people are familiar with eastern
moles from their mole runs, which are visible above the ground and
often considered unsightly. Moles will also eat some crop roots, so
they are sometimes considered pests. Homeowners, gardeners, and
farmers frequently try various methods to rid their yards and fields
of the moles.
STAR-NOSED MOLE
Condylura cristata
Books:
Gorman, M. L., and R. D. Stone. The Natural History of Moles. Ithaca,
NY: Comstock Publishing Associates, 1990.
Kurta, A. Mammals of the Great Lakes Region. Ann Arbor: University of
Michigan Press, 1995.
Nevo, Eviatar, and Osvaldo Reig. Evolution of Subterranean Mammals
at the Organismal and Molecular Levels. New York: Wiley-Liss, 1990.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World. Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Wilson, D., and S. Ruff, eds. The Smithsonian Book of North American
Mammals. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1999.
Periodicals:
Catania, K. C. “A Comparison of the Elmer’s Organs of Three North Amer-
ican Moles: The Hairy-Tailed Mole (Parascalops breweri), the Star-Nosed
Mole (Condylura cristata), and the Eastern Mole (Scalopus aquaticus).”
Journal of Comparative Neurology 354 (1995): 150–160.
Mason, Matthew J., and Peter M. Narins. “Seismic Signal Use by Fossorial
Mammals. “ American Zoologist (November 2001): 1171–1184.
Web sites:
Hebert, P. D. N., ed. “Star-nosed mole, Condylura cristata.” Canada’s
Aquatic Environments. http://www.aquatic.uoguelph.ca/mammals/
freshwater/accounts/mole.htm (accessed on July 1, 2004).
Insectivore, Tree Shrew and Elephant Shrew Specialist Group. http://
members.vienna.at/shrew/itsesAP95-desmana.html (accessed on July 1,
2004).
“Talpidae.” Discover Life. http://www.discoverlife.org/nh/tx/Vertebrata/
Mammalia/Talpidae/ (accessed on July 1, 2004).
●
Class: Mammalia
▲
Order: Scandentia
One family: Tupaiidae
Number of species: 19 species
monotypic order
C H A P T E R
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Tree shrews are found in south and Southeast Asia, ranging
from India and southwest China eastward through Malaysia,
Indonesia, and the Philippines. Out of the nineteen tree shrew
species, ten live on the island of Borneo.
DIET
Tree shrews primarily eat a combination of insects and fruits.
They also will occasionally feed on plant material, along with
other small animals, including fish and mice. Different tree shrew
species have their own feeding method, one species may collect
black ants at night while another species digs up earthworms.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The majority of tree shrew species are common, however
several are Endangered or Threatened. Long-footed tree shrews
and Nicobar tree shrews are Endangered, facing a very high risk
of extinction in the wild. Bornean smooth-tailed tree shrews,
golden-bellied tree shrews, Palawan tree shrews, and Mindanao
tree shrews are Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction in
the wild. Mindanao tree shrews are listed as Near Threatened,
not currently threatened, but could become so.
SPECIES
ACCOUNT COMMON TREE SHREW
Tupaia glis
Diet: Common tree shrews eat a varied diet that they collect primar-
ily from the ground. Their food includes insects, particularly ants, as
well as spiders, seeds, buds, leaves, and fruit. They can also eat lizards.
Periodicals:
Bloch, Jonathan I., and Dough M. Boyer. “Grasping Primate Origins.”
Science (June 2001): 1606–1609.
Crosby, Olivia. “Wild Jobs with Wildlife: Jobs in Zoos and Aquariums.”
Occupational Outlook Quarterly (Spring 2001): 2–15.
Eckstrom, Christine. “What is a Tree Shrew?” International Wildlife
(November/December 1996): 22–27.
Gore, Rick “The Rise of Mammals: Adapting, Evolving, Surviving.”
National Geographic (April 2003): 2–37.
“Tree Shrews Could Model a Number of Chronic and Infectious Human
Diseases.” Hepatitis Weekly (July 14, 2003): 8.
Web sites:
“Common Tree Shrew (Tupaia glis).” America Zoo. http://www
.america.zoo.com/goto/index/mammals/83.htm (accessed on July 1,
2004).
Meyers Phil. “Order Scandentia.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Scanden-
tia.html (accessed on July 1, 2004).
“Rainforest Animals: Common Tree Shrew.” Missouri Botanical Garden.
http://mbgnet.mobot.org/sets/rforest/animals/shrew.htm (accessed on
July 1, 2004).
●
Class: Mammalia
▲
Order: Dermoptera
One family: Cynocephalidae
Number of species: 2 species
monotypic order
C H A P T E R
Colugos 269
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
The Philippine colugo is found only in the
Philippines, and the Malayan colugo is found
in Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand,
Indochina, and some of the Indonesian
islands.
PREY FOR AN EAGLE
HABITAT
The national bird of the Philippines has
a taste for colugos. The Philippine eagle is Colugos live in the rainforest. They are
one of the world’s rarest birds with only often found in coconut, banana, and rubber
about 200 live birds. At one time it was plantations. Their habitat must contain many
thought this bird’s favorite food was a trees with few branches low on the trunk.
monkey. But a report in one area of the
DIET
Philippines found that 90 percent of the
eagle’s diet consists of colugos. The eagle Colugos are herbivores, animals that eat
can swoop down and catch the colugo in plants. They feed on leaves, buds, flowers,
the air while it leaps from tree to tree. and occasionally fruits. They get their water
from food and also by licking wet leaves.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The Philippine colugo is considered Vulnerable, facing a high
risk of extinction in the wild.
Colugos 271
Malayan colugo (Cynocephalus variegatus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT MALAYAN COLUGO
Cynocephalus variegatus
Colugos 273
Conservation status: Malayan colugos are not listed as a threatened
species. ■
Books:
Clutton-Brock, Juliet, and Don E. Wilson. Smithsonian Handbooks: Mam-
mals. New York: DK Publishing, 2002.
Macdonald, David, ed. The Encyclopedia of Mammals. New York: Facts
on File Publications, 1984.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 5th ed. Baltimore
and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.
Periodicals:
Bloch, Jonathan I., and Doug M. Boyer. “Grasping Primate Origins.”
Science (June 2001): 1606–1609.
Gore, Rick. “The Rise of Mammals: Adapting, Evolving, Surviving.”
National Geographic (April 2003): 2–37.
Laman, Tim. “Wild Gliders.” National Geographic (October 2000): 68–85.
Zimmer, Carl. “Into the Night.” Discover (November, 1998): 110–115.
Web sites:
“Dermoptera—Skin Winged Mammals.” America Zoo. http://www.amer
icazoo.com/goto/index/mammals/dermoptera.htm (accessed on June
23, 2004).
Ellis, E. “Cynocephalus variegates.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Cynocephalus_variegatus.html (accessed on June 23, 2004).
“Flying Lemur Called Another Close Relative of Humans.”
http://www.colugos.com/flying-lemur.html (accessed on June 23, 2004).
Focus on Wildlife. “Colugo (Flying Lemur).” Ecology Asia. http://www
.ecologyasia.com/Vertebrates/colugo.htm (accessed on June 23, 2004).
Sarawak National Parks and Wildlife. “Paratroopers Have Landed:
Colugo or Flying Lemur.” The Sarawak Wildlife Weblet. http://www.
mered.org.uk/saraweb/animals/colugo.htm (accessed on June 23,
2004).
●
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Number of families: 18 families
order C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Bats are the second largest group of mammals after rodents. class
Almost one out of every four mammalian species on the planet
is a bat species. Living bats are categorized into two main subclass
groups, each with its own distinct features. The Megachiroptera ● order
(mega-keer-OP-ter-ah), or “large bats” group includes one
monotypic order
family. The Microchiroptera (micro-keer-OP-ter-ah), or “small
bats” group includes all the rest of the bats. suborder
Bats are the only mammals that can fly. Chiroptera comes family
from the Greek roots cheiro (hand) and ptera (wing), named
for the similarity of a bat wing to a hand. Bat wings are long
arms, hands and extra-long finger bones that are covered with
a double layer of thin skin called a membrane. The membrane
is thin enough that light can shine through it. The membrane
contains blood vessels, nerves, and muscles.
In some bats, a membrane extends between the legs and
encloses the tail. Some bats have tails that extend past the mem-
brane and others have no tails. In most bats, the thumbs are free
from the membrane. These thumbs have claws and are often
used for climbing up trees or other structures.
Bat membranes are tough and flexible, allowing bats to move
their wings much like people move their fingers. Changing the
shape of their wings allows bats to turn and maneuver quickly.
Some bats can hover in the air while others glide. When it is
cold, the bats fold their wings around themselves. When it is
warm, bats flap their wings to cool themselves.
Bats range widely in size, yet the majority of bats weigh less
than 1 ounce (25 grams). The largest bat is the Malayan flying
Bats 275
fox, which can have a wingspan of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and weigh
3.3 pounds (1.5 kilograms). The smallest bats are the Kitti’s
hog-nosed bats, also called bumblebee bats, of Thailand, with
a wingspan of 6 inches (15 centimeters) and a weight of about
0.07 ounces (2 grams), less than a penny.
Like other mammals, bats are warm-blooded and fur covers
their body. Megachiroptera are characterized by large eyes,
small ears, and dog-like snouts. Most Microchiroptera species
are characterized by wide, extended ears and odd shaped noses.
Bats have weak legs and do not walk long distances. Their feet
are small with sharp claws on each toe. Bats use their claws to
hold the weight of their body when they hang upside down,
which is their normal resting position.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Bats live on every continent on Earth except Antarctica and
some remote islands. Most bats live in the tropics and species
are most numerous around the equator.
HABITAT
Bats need a roost, a place to settle or rest, and a place to find
food. The type of roost a bat chooses depends upon the type
of bat. Bats can roost in hollow trees, cracks in trees, and
under bridges. Many bats depend on caves in the cool winter
months to survive, and others roost in caves all year long. Some
bat species find their roosting site in abandoned mines. The
dome shaped ceilings can hide and protect the bats from preda-
tors, the animals that hunt them.
A few species of bats make their roost from large leaves, such
as palm and banana leaves. These small bats chew across the
leaves so that the sides droop down in the form of a tent. Other
bats can roost in flowers and animal dens.
Bats often return to the same site at the same time each year.
In warm weather, big brown bats commonly roost in buildings
and then shift to caves and abandoned mines during the colder
months. The Pallas’s mastiff bats are found roosting in build-
ings, hollow trees, rock crevices, caves, and bridges.
DIET
While the most famous bats are the vampire bats, known for
eating blood, the majority of bats eat only insects. Microchi-
roptera are generally carnivores, meat-eaters, that feed on
Bats 277
though humans can hear the sounds of some bats. Researchers
are still working to understand exactly how echolocation works.
Megachiroptera generally depend upon their eyes to navigate,
but some of these bats also use echolocation.
Like all mammals, bats are warm-blooded, meaning they main-
tain their body temperature. Bats roost in warm places during
the cool months to conserve the energy it takes to keep warm.
Unlike other mammals, bats can allow their body temperature
to drop to the ambient temperature, or surrounding temperature,
when they are not active. As their temperature drops, metabo-
lism slows down.
During the winter, some bats will drop their body tempera-
tures for months at a time and go into hibernation, meaning
they go into a resting state in a safe place, typically without eat-
ing or passing wastes. A bat’s body temperature can drop to as
low as 35.6°F (2°C). These bats survive the winter by living off
their storages of fat and making occasional food trips during
warmer weather.
Other bat species follow an annual migration pattern, travel-
ing to warmer climates in the cool months and cooler climates
in the warm months.
Bats are generally social animals and gather together in roosts.
Bats can roost in colonies of several hundred to tens of millions.
The number of bats in a roost depends upon the type of bat.
Pipistrelle maternity, or motherhood, roosts usually contain be-
tween fifty and two hundred bats. Brown long-eared bats usu-
ally live in colonies of twenty-five up to fifty bats. Mexican
free-tailed bats are one of the more social bat species and found
in huge populations throughout their range. In Bracken Cave,
Texas, the population of Mexican free-tailed bats was estimated
at twenty million bats!
Like all mammals, female bats give birth to live young and
feed their newborns milk. Females often roost in large colonies,
with many females giving birth in the same area. Bats usually
give birth to only one young per year. During their first weeks
of life newborn bats cling to their mothers while in flight. Only
the mother cares for the young, and there is no lasting rela-
tionship between the mother and father.
Bats grow quickly; the young are often flying at four weeks.
Young microchiropterans become independent at approxi-
mately six to eight weeks, megachiropterans at about four
Bats 279
over 1,000 species of trees. The fruit bat dis-
perses seeds away from the parent tree by ei-
ther swallowing them and leaving the seeds
in their droppings, or carrying off the
fruit to eat.
Books:
Fenton, Brock M. Bats. New York: Checkmark Press, 2001.
Fenton, Brock M. The Bat: Wings in the Night Sky. Buffalo, NY: Firefly
Books, 1998.
Richardson, Phil. Bats. London: Whittet Books, 1985.
Ruff, Sue, and Don E. Wilson. Bats. New York: Benchmark Books, 2001.
Schober, Wilfried, and Eckard Grimmberger. The Bats of Europe and
North America. Neptune City, NJ: T.F.H. Publications, Inc., 1997.
Periodicals:
Gordon, David George. “13 Reasons You Should Love Bats.” National
Geographic Kids (October 2003): S8.
Hicks, Alan. “A Bit about Bats.” New York State Conservationist
(October 1999): 2.
Kerner, Sarah. “In the Bat Cave.” Boys’ Life (June 2003): 18.
Toufexis, Anastasia. “Bats’ New Image: Researchers Say They’re Benign,
Useful and Endangered.” Time (August 21, 1995): 58.
Web sites:
“Bat Information.” The Bat Conservation Trust. http://www.bats.
org.uk/bat_info.htm (accessed on June 22, 2004).
“Bats (Chiroptera).” National Parks Conservation Association. http://
www.eparks.org/wildlife_protection/wildlife_facts/bats/default.asp (ac-
cessed on June 22, 2004).
“Bats in the Desert Southwest.” Desert USA. http://www.desertusa.
com/jan97/du_bats.html (accessed on June 22, 2004).
Best, Heather. “Bats: Learning to Love Them.” Wildwnc.org. http://
wildwnc.org/natnotes/bats.html (accessed on June 22, 2004).
“Cave Life.” The National Park Service. http://www.nps.gov/ozar/
cavelife.html (accessed on June 22, 2004).
“Discover the Secret World of Bats.” Bat Conservation International, Inc.
http://www.batcon.org (accessed on June 22, 2004).
Harris, Tom. “How Bats Work.” How Stuff Works. http://science.
howstuffworks.com/bat.htm (accessed on June 22, 2004).
Tyburec, Janet. “Bats.” Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum. http://www.
desertmuseum.org/books/nhsd_bats.html (accessed on June 22, 2004).
Bats 281
OLD WORLD FRUIT BATS
Pteropodidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Pteropodidae
Number of species: About 170
species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Bats are broken into two categories: the Microchiroptera
(micro-keer-OP-ter-ah) and the Megachiroptera (mega-keer-OP-
subclass
ter-ah). The vast majority of bats fall under the microchiropter-
order ans, which are in general smaller than the megachiropterans.
monotypic order Pteropodidae is the only family in the megachiropteran category.
Pteropodids are commonly referred to as Old World fruit bats.
suborder The Old World refers to southern Europe, Asia, and Africa, while
▲ family New World refers to North and South America.
Old World fruit bats have a wide range in size. Pygmy fruit
bats are one of the smallest Old World fruit bats, with a head
and body length of 2.4 to 2.8 inches (6 to 7 centimeters),
smaller than many microchiropterans. Gigantic flying foxes are
15.7 inches (40 centimeters) long and can have a wingspan of
59 inches (150 centimeters).
In general, Old World fruit bats have large eyes that face for-
ward. These bats have claws on the first finger, their thumb,
and most also have claws on their second finger. Their faces
are typically doglike, with simple and relatively small ears.
Their wings are typically broad and mostly furless. The tail is
usually short or absent. With so many different species, fur
color varies greatly. Most species of the Old World fruit bat are
reddish brown, gray, or black. The underside of the bat is usu-
ally a pale color, such as a white or yellow.
Teeth are shaped to bite through fruit skin and crush the
soft fruit matter. The front incisors, chisel-shaped teeth at the
front of the mouth, are small and all have canines, four pointed
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Old World fruit bats can be found in tropical and subtropi-
cal regions of Africa, through southern and central Asia to
Australia, including the Philippines, a number of islands of the
Indian and Pacific Oceans, in Pakistan, and across India.
HABITAT
Old World fruit bats live in a variety of habitats. Many fruit
bats live in humid forests in tropical and subtropical areas.
Species of flying foxes live in tropical coastal areas.
DIET
As their name suggests, Old World fruit bats eat fruit along
with nectar. Some species eat primarily nectar and pollen, pow-
dery grains that contain the male reproductive cells of seed
plants. Other bats also add leaves and flower parts to their diet.
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS MARIANAS FRUIT BAT
Pteropus mariannus
Habitat: The Indian flying fox lives in tropical forests and swamps,
where there is a large body of water nearby.
Indian flying foxes breed from July to October. When ready to give
birth, the females will gather in upper branches of their roosting trees.
Females have one offspring after a gestation period of 140 to 150 days.
The baby will cling to its mother for about two months until it is
almost full size.
Indian flying foxes and people: While it once fed mainly on wild
fruit, the bat now increasingly feeds on cultivated crops of fruit trees,
which has caused many people to consider these bats pests. Farmers
have used various methods to get rid of these bats. These foxes are
also hunted in parts of Pakistan for its fat, which is used for medi-
cine. People have also cleared the trees from many of the islands where
these bats live, causing the population to decline.
EGYPTIAN ROUSETTE
Rousettus aegyptiacus
Egyptian rousettes and people: Fruit farmers are the most impor-
tant threat to populations. In Turkey and Israel, rousette caves have
been fumigated, filled with smoke or fumes in order to kill pests, or
the caves have been closed off by walls.
Books:
Fenton, Brock M. Bats. New York: Checkmark Press, 2001.
Fenton, Brock M. The Bat: Wings in the Night Sky. Buffalo, NY: Firefly
Books, 1998.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Old World Fruit Bats.” Walker’s Mammals of the World
5.1 Online. http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_
world/chiroptera/chiroptera.pteropodidae.html (accessed on July 2,
2004).
Richardson, Phil. Bats. London: Whittet Books, 1985.
Ruff, Sue, and Don E. Wilson. Bats. New York: Benchmark Books, 2001.
Periodicals:
Petersen, David. “Wait Until Dark.” Backpacker (October, 1993): 24.
“Plants, Bats Magnify Neurotoxin in Guam.” Science News (December
6, 2003): 366.
Thewissen, J. G. M., and S. K. Babcock. “The Origin of Flight in Bats.”
Bioscience (May 1992): 340–345.
Web sites:
Craig, P., ed. “Flying Foxes (Fruit bats).” Natural History Guide to
American Samoa. http://www.nps.gov/npsa/book/index.htm (accessed
on July 2, 2004).
“Digital Morphology.” National Science Foundation Digital Library at the
University of Texas. http://www.digimorph.org (accessed on July 2, 2004).
“Discover the Secret World of Bats.” Bat Conservation International, Inc.
http://www.batcon.org (accessed on July 2, 2004).
“Fruit bats.” The Wild Ones. http://www.thewildones.org/Animals/
fruitBat.html (accessed on July 2, 2004).
Lemke, Thomas O. “Marianas Fruit Bats Near Extinction.” Bat Conser-
vation International, Inc. http://www.batcon.org/batsmag/v3n1-1.html
(accessed on July 2, 2004).
“Mammals of the CNMI” Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands.
http://www.cnmidfw.org/wildlife/index.html (accessed on July 2, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Rhinopomatidae
Number of species: 4 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Also known as long-tailed bats, the bats in this family have
a tail almost as long as their head and body. This slender, long
subclass
tail is unique among all the bats. These bats are small to
order medium-sized, about 2 to 3.5 inches (5 to 9 centimeters), not
monotypic order including the tail. Their backs are generally gray-brown to dark
brown, and they may be lighter on their underside.
suborder
The ears of mouse-tailed bats are rather large and connected
▲ family by a band of skin across the forehead. The ears extend past the
nose when they are laid forward. Their snouts have a small,
rounded noseleaf, a horseshoe-shaped flap of skin around
the nose.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Mouse-tailed bats are generally found in Africa and Asia,
across the Sahara, from western Africa through the Middle East
to India and Thailand.
HABITAT
Mouse-tailed bats are usually found in arid, extremely dry,
regions. This can range from deserts to extremely dry wood-
land. They roost, rest or settle, in caves, rock clefts, wells,
pyramids, and buildings.
DIET
Mouse-tailed bats eat insects, including flying ants, termites,
beetles, and moths.
Hardwicke’s lesser mouse-tailed Behavior and reproduction: Lesser mouse-tailed bats have unique
bats live in dry regions. To help adaptations, changes in body structures and functions, for life in dry
them survive, they can close
valves in their nostrils to keep regions. They can close valves in the nostrils to keep from breathing
from breathing in dust, and they in dust. They can also control their kidneys to reduce water loss. In
can control their kidneys to extremely hot weather these bats move into a shelter.
reduce water loss. (© Merlin
D. Tuttle, Bat Conservation Lesser mouse-tailed bats find their food using echolocation. Stud-
International. Reproduced by ies have found that when several of these bats forage for food to-
permission.) gether, each uses an echolocation call of a different sound frequency.
Lesser mouse-tailed bats roost in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyra-
mids, palaces, and houses. They gather in both large and small
colonies. Colonies can number in the thousands, or range from one
to ten individuals. They often hang by their thumbs as well as feet.
Studies have found that roosting sites are generally used for only one
day, and then they will select another site.
Studies indicate that lesser mouse-tailed bats are polygamous (puh-
LIH-guh-mus), having more than one mate. Female lesser mouse-
tailed bats produce one offspring annually. They gestate, are pregnant,
for a period of 90 to 100 days. In a field study of lesser mouse-tailed
bats, birth occurred over ten days in mid-December. The young be-
gan flying at five to six weeks.
Books:
Fenton, Brock M. Bats. New York: Checkmark Press, 2001.
Fenton, Brock M. The Bat: Wings in the Night Sky. Buffalo, NY: Firefly
Books, 1998.
Richardson, Phil. Bats. London: Whittet Books, 1985.
Ruff, Sue, and Don E. Wilson. Bats. New York: Benchmark Books, 2001.
Schober, Wilfried, and Eckard Grimmberger. The Bats of Europe and
North America. Neptune City, NJ: T.F.H. Publications, Inc., 1997.
Periodicals:
Schnitzler, Hans-Ulrich and Elisabeth K.V. Kalko. “Echolocation by Insect-
Eating Bats.” BioScience (July, 2001): 557–569.
Web sites:
“Bat Information.” The Bat Conservation Trust. http://www.bats.
org.uk/bat_info.htm (accessed on July 2, 2004).
Hester, L., and P. Myers. “Rhinopomatidae.” Animal Diversity Web.
http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Rhinopomatidae.html (accessed on July 2, 2004).
Simmons, Nancy B. and Tenley Conway. “Rhinopomatoidea.” Tree of Life
Web Project. http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Rhinopomatoidea&contgroup
=Microchiroptera (accessed on July 2, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Emballonuridae
Number of species: 47 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Emballonurids (bats in the family Emballonuridae) are small
to medium in size. Their head and body length is about 1.4
subclass
to 6.3 inches (36 to 160 millimeters). They can weigh from 0.1
order to 3.5 ounces (3 to 100 grams), about the weight of a first-class
monotypic order letter. These bats have thirty to thirty-four teeth.
suborder For the most part, emballonurids are brown or gray in color,
but this family also includes the whitish ghost bats in the genus
▲ family Diclidurus, and bats with a pair of white stripes down their back
in the genus Saccopteryx. Emballonurids have a smooth face
and lips with relatively large eyes. Their ears are usually round
and cup-shaped, often joined by a band of skin across the fore-
head. The ears have a tragus (TRAY-gus), a flap that projects
from the inner ear. Researchers theorize the tragus plays some
role in echolocation (eck-oh-loh-KAY-shun), the process of
sending out high-pitched sounds and identifying objects by in-
terpreting the sound when it bounces back.
Some emballonurids are also known as sheath-tailed bats
because of their tail. They have a short tail that juts out from the
membrane (double layer of thin skin) between their legs, and
when their legs are stretched out their tail appears to be sheathed
in the membrane. Another name for some emballonurids is sac-
winged bats, referring to the glandular sacs in their wing mem-
branes. Glandular sacs produce and release substances for use in
the body. In this case they contain a liquid with a strong odor. In
the sac-winged bats these sacs are more pronounced in males. The
position and size of these sacs differs depending upon the species.
HABITAT
Emballonuridae bats generally live in humid rainforests.
These bats tend to roost, rest or settle, in areas that are rela-
tively light compared to what other bat families prefer. Their
roosts include the entry areas to caves and other structures, the
outside of buildings, hollow trees, and leaves.
DIET
Emballonurids eat primarily insects, although they have been
seen eating fruit. They generally eat insects while flying, yet
some species are known to look for their food along the ground.
These bats start foraging, searching for food, relatively early in
the day compared to other bats. Some of these bats such as the
ghost bats, capture their meals while flying high in the open
air. Other bats, such as the proboscis bat, hunt insects above
or close to water surfaces.
CONSERVATION STATUS
There are several emballonurid species that are endangered
or threatened with becoming endangered. The IUCN lists two
species as Critically Endangered, facing an extremely high risk
of extinction in the wild; two species as Endangered, facing a
very high risk of extinction in the wild; and ten species as Vul-
nerable, facing a high risk of extinction in the wild.
SPECIES
GREATER SAC-WINGED BAT ACCOUNTS
Saccopteryx bilineata
Periodicals:
Milius, S. “Male Bats Primp Daily for Odor Display.” Science News
(January 1, 2000): 557–557.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Ghost Bats or White Bats.” Walker’s Mammals of
the World 5.1 Online. http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_
mammals_of_the_world/chiroptera/chiroptera.emballonuridae
.diclidurus.html (accessed on July 2, 2004).
Web sites:
“Bats in Australia.” Australian Museum Online. http://www.
austmus.gov.au/bats/records/bat24.htm (accessed on July 2, 2004).
“Ghost Bat—Macroderma gigas.” UNEP World Conservation Monitoring
Centre. http://www.unep-wcmc.org/index.html?http://www.unep-wcmc.
org/species/data/species_sheets/ghostbat.htm~main (accessed on
July 2, 2004).
“Monkeying Around! The Mammals of Southeast Asia.” Focus on Wildlife.
http://www.ecologyasia.com/FOW_Pages/mammals.htm (accessed on
July 2, 2004).
Simmons, Nancy. “Saccopteryx bilineata, Greater Sac-winged Bat.”
American Museum of Natural History. http://www.digimorph.org/
specimens/Saccopteryx_bilineata/whole/ (accessed on July 2, 2004).
Voigt, Christian C. “The Sac-Winged Bat Project.” Institute for Zoo and
Wildlife Research. http://www.izw-berlin.de/en/research/fg1/index.html?
themen/themen.html~rechts (accessed on July 2, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Craseonycteridae
One species: Kitti’s hog-nosed bat
(Craseonycteris
thonglongyai)
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class The only species in the Craseonycteridae family is Kitti’s
hog-nosed bat or simply, hog-nosed bat. They are also called
subclass bumblebee bats, because they are about the size of a bumble-
order bee. This species was unidentified until 1974.
monotypic order Kitti’s hog-nosed bat is considered the word’s smallest mam-
mal. The head and body combined measure only 1.1 to 1.3
suborder inches (29 to 34 millimeters), and they weigh about 0.7
▲ family to 0.9 ounces (2.0 to 2.6 grams), which is about the weight of
a dime. These bats have a wingspan of about 6 inches (15 cen-
timeters), which is smaller than some butterflies.
The name hog-nosed refers to the bat’s facial appearance.
Their muzzle is pig-like, with two wide, crescent-shaped
nostrils. Their ears are relatively large with rounded tips. They
extend beyond the snout when the bat is lying forward. Their
eyes are relatively small and partially hidden by fur. Hog-nosed
bats have long and broad wings with pointed tips. Fur on the
back may be a brown to reddish brown and its belly is typi-
cally paler. These bats have twenty-eight teeth.
Kitti’s hog-nosed bats have long, slender feet and a short
thumb with a well-developed claw. They do not have an exter-
nal tail. Males have a glandular swelling at the base of the throat.
The bumblebee bat also has a web of skin between its hind legs,
which is thought to help with flying and catching insects.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Kitti’s hog-nosed bats were once found only in Thailand.
Most of these bat populations were located in Sai Yok Na-
Periodicals:
“Bats.” Science Weekly (September 27, 1995): 1.
Web sites:
“Discover the Secret World of Bats!” Bat Conservation International.
http://www.batcon.org (accessed on July 2, 2004).
The Bioproject. http://www.bioproject.info/index.html (accessed on
July 2, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Nycteridae
Number of species: 14 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Slit-faced bats are small to medium in size. Head and body
length is 1.6 to 3.7 inches (4 to 9.3 centimeters), and adults weigh
subclass
0.2 to 1.2 ounces (6 to 36 grams). Also called hollow-faced bats,
order the feature that gives slit-faced bats their name is a deep groove
monotypic order that runs from their nostrils to a pit in the middle of their fore-
head. The dent is hidden by fur, which makes it hard to see.
suborder
Species of slit-faced bats have large, oval ears and their wings
▲ family are broad. Slit-faced bats range in color from orange, brown,
and red to gray. These bats also have a distinctive feature among
mammals at the end of their tail. The long tail, completely en-
closed within a membrane, ends in a T-shaped tip.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Slit-faced bats are found throughout most of Africa, South-
east Asia, and Madagascar. Most species are found in Africa.
HABITAT
Some species of slit-faced bats live in woodland savanna or
dry country, and others live in rainforests in Africa or in South-
east Asia.
DIET
A slit-faced bat’s diet depends upon the species. Most species
of these bats feed primarily on a variety of arthropods (animals
that have jointed bodies and limbs), such as moths, butterflies,
beetles, crickets, centipedes, scorpions, and spiders. Some bats,
SPECIES
EGYPTIAN SLIT-FACED BAT ACCOUNT
Nycteris thebaica
Books:
Fenton, M. Brock. Bats. New York: Checkmark Press, 2001.
Fenton, M. Brock. The Bat: Wings in the Night Sky. Buffalo, NY: Firefly
Books, 1998.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Slit-faced Bats, or Hollow-faced Bats.” Walker’s Mam-
mals of the World 5.1 Online. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,
1997. http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_
world/chiroptera/chiroptera.nycteridae.nycteris.html (accessed on July
4, 2004).
Richardson, Phil. Bats. London: Whittet Books, 1985.
Ruff, Sue, and Don E. Wilson. Bats. New York: Benchmark Books, 2001.
Schober, Wilfried, and Eckard Grimmberger. The Bats of Europe and
North America. Neptune City, NJ: T.F.H. Publications, Inc., 1997.
Periodicals:
Schnitzler, Hans-Ulrich, and Elisabeth K. V. Kalko. “Echolocation by In-
sect-Eating Bats.” Bioscience (July 2001): 557.
Kerner, Sarah. “In the Bat Cave.” Boys’ Life (June 2003): 18.
Web sites:
Jacob, Davids. “Bats of the Western Cape.” Cape Bat Action Team (Cape
Bat). http://www.museums.org.za/sam/resources/mammal/bats.htm
(accessed on July 4, 2004).
French, Barbara. “Where the Bats Are Part II: Other Animals’ Shelters.”
Bat Conservation International, Inc. http://www.batcon.org/batsmag/
v17n3-5.html (accessed on July 4, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Megadermatidae
Number of species: 5 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
False vampire bats are medium-sized to large bats with a head class
and body length of 2.6 to 5.5 inches (6.5 to 14.0 centimeters). subclass
Their wingspans can reach 3 feet (1 meter). The Australian false
vampire bat, also called the Australian ghost bat, is among the order
largest of the microchiropteran (my-kro-keer-OP-ter-an) bats. monotypic order
Microchiroptera is one of the two suborders of bats and includes
suborder
most of the bats in the world.
▲ family
False vampire bats have large ears joined by a band of skin
across the forehead and noseleafs, which are fleshy protrusions
from the nose. The heart-nosed bats have a leaf-like nose that
is heart-shaped.
Megadermatids (meg-ah-der-MAT-ids; bats in the family
Megadermatide) have a tail that is either short or absent. These
bats typically have relatively short and broad wings.
Their fur tends to be long and gray in color, although the
yellow-winged bats have bright yellow or orange wings and
ears, with bluish fur. False vampire bats have twenty-six
or twenty-eight teeth. The flesh-eating, or carnivorous, mega-
dermatids, such as the Australian false vampire bats, have
sharp and strong canine teeth for tearing flesh and crushing
bones.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Megadermatids are found in Africa, Asia, east India,
Philippines, and Australia.
DIET
Many of the megadermatid species are also known as false
vampire bats because people mistakenly believed that they eat
blood. Megadermatids eat insects or small vertebrates (animals
with backbones), and none of them feed only on blood. The
carnivorous species, such as the Australian false vampire bats,
eat small vertebrates that include fish, frogs, lizards, birds, mice,
or other bats. The Asian false vampire bats have a diverse diet,
feeding on everything from insects, spiders, fish, birds, and
frogs, to rodents and even occasionally smaller bats. False vam-
pire bats are among the top predators (hunters) of the forest,
hunting mainly birds, other bats, and rodents.
Yellow-winged bats eat insects on the ground or while
flying. They feed on large and small insects, including moths
and butterflies, grasshoppers, beetles, flies, and mosquitoes.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The IUCN lists the heart-nosed bat as being Near Threat-
ened, not currently threatened, but may become so; and the
Australian false vampire bat as Vulnerable, facing a high risk
of extinction in the wild.
SPECIES
ACCOUNT AUSTRALIAN FALSE VAMPIRE BAT
Macroderma gigas
Habitat: Australian false vampire bats live in both arid regions and
rainforest areas, such as north Queensland. They typically roost in
caves and abandoned mines.
Books:
Fenton, M. Brock. Bats. New York: Checkmark Press, 2001.
Fenton, M. Brock. The Bat: Wings in the Night Sky. Buffalo, NY: Firefly
Books, 1998.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Australian Giant False Vampire Bat, or Ghost Bat.”
Walker’s Mammals of the World 5.1 Online. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
University Press, 1997. http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/walker/
chiroptera/chiroptera.megadermatidae.macroderma.html (accessed on
July 4, 2004).
Richardson, Phil. Bats. London: Whittet Books, 1985.
Ruff, Sue, and Don E. Wilson. Bats. New York: Benchmark Books, 2001.
Schober, Wilfried, and Eckard Grimmberger. The Bats of Europe and
North America. Neptune City, NJ: T.F.H. Publications, Inc., 1997.
Web sites:
“Bat.” MSN Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2004. http://encarta.msn.
com/encyclopedia_761557637/Bat.html (accessed on July 4, 2004).
French, Barbara. “False Vampires and Other Carnivores.” Bat Conser-
vation International, Inc. http://www.batcon.org/batsmag/v15n2-5.html
(accessed on July 4, 2004).
Hester, L., and P. Myers. “Family Megadermatidae (False Vampire Bats).”
Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/
accounts/information/Megadermatidae.html (accessed on July 4, 2004).
“Yellow-winged bat—Lavia frans.” American Zoo. http://www.americazoo
.com/goto/index/mammals/63.htm (accessed on July 4, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Rhinolophidae
Number of species: 69 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class The name “horseshoe” bats comes from the distinctive shape
of their nose. Many species of bats have fleshy folds of skin
subclass
around their nostrils called a noseleaf. In the horseshoe bats, the
order lower part of its noseleaf is shaped like a horseshoe or a U-shape.
monotypic order This lower section covers the bat’s upper lip. The upper part of
the noseleaf, above the nostril, is pointed. In some species, such
suborder as Hildebrandt’s horseshoe bat, the noseleaf is hairy.
▲ family Horseshoe bat species range widely in size, from small to
moderate. The smaller species of these bats can have a head
and body length of 1.4 inches (3.5 centimeters) and the larger
species can measure 4.3 inches (11 centimeters). They weigh
from 0.15 ounces (4.3 grams; less than the weight of two pen-
nies) to 13.8 ounces (35 grams).
The fur on horseshoe bats can be a variety of colors, includ-
ing gray-brown and reddish brown fur. Other bats can have gray,
black, dark brown, yellow, or bright orange-red fur. Their fur
is long and soft. These bats have large ears that are typically
pointy and can move independently of one another. Their eyes
are relatively small. The wings are broad with rounded ends.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Horseshoe bats are found in temperate (areas with moderate
temperatures) and tropical regions of the Old World, meaning
the part of the world made up of Australia, Africa, Asia, and
Europe. These bats are found in southern Europe, Africa, and
southern Asia to northern and eastern Australia, including many
HABITAT
Horseshoe bats live in a wide variety of areas, such as forests,
savannas, open areas, and occasionally in deserts. Horseshoe
bats can live in areas that are cooler than many other bats can
survive. They also have a wide variety of places in which they
roost, meaning rest or settle. Primary roosting sites include caves
and hollow trees. Other roosting sites include buildings, houses,
mines, holes, and tunnels. Some of these bats roost in open ar-
eas. Research indicates that the roosting sites for these bats may
be important factors in determining where they decide to live.
DIET
Horseshoe bats eat insects and spiders.
SPECIES
GREATER HORSESHOE BAT ACCOUNTS
Rhinolophus ferrumequinum
Habitat: These bats live in forest, as well as open land, such as pas-
tures. They roost in caves, mine tunnels, and large buildings.
Greater horseshoe bats and people: People have caused the de-
cline of the greater horseshoe bats by disturbing or destroying their
roosts and prey (with pesticide use). In Great Britain, it is estimated
that the greater horseshoe bat population has decreased by 90 per-
cent since 1900.
Conservation status: The IUCN Red List classifies the greater horse-
shoe bat as Near Threatened, meaning it is not yet threatened, but could
become so, around the world. But in some areas, such as Europe, this
species is considered endangered by national or regional conservation
groups. ■
Geographic range: Cape horseshoe bats are found along the coast-
line of southern Africa.
Habitat: Cape horseshoe bats live along the coast. They are found
in coastal and sea caves.
Books:
Fenton, M. Brock. Bats. New York: Checkmark Press,
2001.
Fenton, M. Brock. The Bat: Wings in the Night Sky.
Buffalo, NY: Firefly Books, 1998.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Horseshoe Bats.” Walker’s Mam-
mals of the World 5.1 Online. Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1997. http://www.
press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_
world/chiroptera/chiroptera.rhinolophidae.
Cape horseshoe bats live along
rhinolophus.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).
the coast of southern Africa, in
Raabe, Emily. Horseshoe Bats. New York, NY: Powerkids Press, 2003. coastal and sea caves.
(Illustration by Emily Damstra.
Richardson, Phil. Bats. London: Whittet Books, 1985. Reproduced by permission.)
Ruff, Sue, and Don E. Wilson. Bats. New York: Benchmark Books, 2001.
Periodicals:
Griffin, Donald R. “Return to the Magic Well: Echolocation Behavior of
Bats and Responses of Insect Prey.” BioScience (July, 2001): 555.
“Horseshoe Bats Sound Out the Choicest Prey.” New Scientist (March,
2003): 36.
Thi Dao, Nguyen. “My Life as a Forest Creature: Growing Up with the Cuc
Phuong National Park. (This Land).” Natural History (March, 2003): 70.
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Hipposideridae
Number of species: 66 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Also called roundleaf bats, Old World leaf-nosed bats vary class
greatly in size. They have a combined head and body length
that ranges from 1.1 to 4.3 inches (2.8 to 11 centimeters). One subclass
species, Commerson’s leaf-nosed bat, is one of the largest order
insect-eating bats of all the microchiroptera (my-kro-keer-OP- monotypic order
ter-ah; one of two bat categories that includes most of the bats
in the world), with a wingspan of about 2 feet (0.6 meters). suborder
These bats are closely related to and share many of the features ▲ family
of horseshoe bats. They have a fleshy fold of skin around their
nostrils called a noseleaf, which is leaf-like in appearance. The
lower part of the noseleaf is shaped like a horseshoe or U-shape,
with leaf-like flaps of skin above that protrude outwards.
The ears of these bats vary in size. They do not have a
tragus (TRAY-gus), a flap of skin in front of the ear opening,
which is common in many bats. These bats have only two bones
in each toe. Their tail length ranges from nothing to approxi-
mately 2.4 inches (6 centimeters). Fur color ranges widely
among the species, from reddish and yellowish to brown and
cream. In several species, males and females have different fur
colors, as well as different body and noseleaf sizes.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Old World leaf-nosed bats are found in tropical (hot and
humid weather) and subtropical areas of the Old World, mean-
ing the part of the world made up of Australia, Africa, Asia, and
Europe. They are found in Africa and southern Asia, east to the
Philippine Islands, the Solomon Islands, and Australia.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Some of the species in this family are common and others are
rare and vulnerable to threats. Since little is known about many
species in this family, the vulnerability of these bats is not fully
understood. Out of the species that the IUCN lists, two are clas-
sified as Critically Endangered, facing an extremely high risk of
extinction, dying out, in the wild; fifteen as Vulnerable facing a
high risk of extinction, and twenty-three as Near Threatened,
not currently threatened, but could become so.
SPECIES
ACCOUNT TRIDENT LEAF-NOSED BAT
Asellia tridens
Books:
Fenton, M. Brock. Bats. New York: Checkmark Press, 2001.
Fenton, M. Brock. The Bat: Wings in the Night Sky. Buffalo, NY: Firefly
Books, 1998.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Old World Leaf-nosed Bats.” Walker’s Mammals
of the World 5.1 Online. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,
1997. http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_
world/chiroptera/chiroptera.hipposideridae.html (accessed on July 5,
2004).
Ruff, Sue, and Don E. Wilson. Bats. New York: Benchmark Books, 2001.
Schober, Wilfried, and Eckard Grimmberger. The Bats of Europe and
North America. Neptune City, NJ: T.F.H. Publications, Inc., 1997.
Web sites:
“Bat.” World Almanac for Kids. http://www.worldalmanacforkids.
com/explore/animals/bat.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).
Van Ryckegham, Alain. “How Do Bats Echolocate and How Are
They Adapted to This Activity?” ScientificAmerican.com. http://
www.sciam.com/askexpert_question.cfm?articleID=000D349B-6752-
1C72-9EB7809EC588F2D7 (accessed on July 5, 2004).
“Jungle: Virtual Jungle Survival.” BBC Science and Nature. http://www.
bbc.co.uk/nature/programmes/tv/jungle/vjsurvival.shtml (accessed on
July 5, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Phyllostomidae
Number of species: 151 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
American leaf-nosed bats, also called New World leaf-nosed class
bats, are made up of diverse species. They range from small to subclass
large, with a combined head and body length of 1.6 to 5.3 inches
(4 to 13.5 centimeters). This family includes the largest species order
of bat in the Western Hemisphere, the spectral vampire bat. monotypic order
These bats have a wingspan of about 3 feet (1 meter).
suborder
Some species have visible tails that are as long as 2.2 inches ▲ family
(5.5 centimeters), and others have no tail. These bats have
noseleafs, meaning fleshy protrusions on the nose. Some of these
species have noseleafs that are almost as long as the head, such
as the sword-nosed bat. In most species, the noseleaf is a
relatively simple structure shaped like a spear. Many species have
bumps, warts, and other protrusions on the head near the nose-
leaf or on the chin.
The size and shape of these bats’ heads vary widely and
reflect their diverse feeding habits. Fruit-eating bats, for exam-
ple, may have a medium-sized noseleaf, flat faces, and wide teeth
to crush fruit. Bats in this family that lap up nectar (sweet
liquid produced by plants) have a small noseleaf, long tongue,
and small teeth. Species in this family that eat meat are gener-
ally large and have sharp teeth.
Fur color of American leaf-nosed bats is generally brown or
gray, with the exception of one species, the white bat. Some
species have color patterns that include stripes on the head or
back, or white tufts of fur on the shoulders.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Out of the seventy-one listed species, the 2003 IUCN Red List
categorizes four species as Endangered (facing a very high risk
of extinction, or dying out, in the wild) and twenty-five species
as Vulnerable (facing a high risk of extinction in the wild).
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS CALIFORNIA LEAF-NOSED BAT
Macrotus californicus
VAMPIRE BAT
Desmodus rotundus
Habitat: Vampire bats live in warm climates, in both tropical and sub-
tropical (nearly tropical, with warm temperatures and little rainfall)
areas. They are commonly found where there is plenty of livestock.
These bats are found roosting in caves, mines, tree hollows, and
occasionally abandoned buildings.
Vampire bats and people: The fact that these bats feed on blood,
combined with mythological stories about vampires, has caused many
people to fear all bats. While the fears are largely myths, vampire bats
can transmit rabies to humans and animals. These bats have caused
tens of millions of dollars of damage to livestock farmers by trans-
mitting rabies. They are considered pests in many livestock areas
where they live. Also, researchers are investigating the anti-clotting
properties of these bats’ saliva to help with people who have strokes,
in which a blood clot in the bloodstream cuts off blood supply to a
part of the brain.
WHITE BAT
Ectophylla alba
Habitat: White bats live in moist or wet tropical forests. They roost
in makeshift tents about 6.5 feet (2 meters) above the ground.
Conservation status: The IUCN Red List categorizes the white bat
as Near Threatened, or close to becoming threatened. ■
Periodicals:
Clayton, Julie. “Wanted: Bloodsuckers; After Millions of Years of Bloody
Enmity, Humans are Turning to Leeches, Ticks and Vampire Bats
for Help. Julie Clayton Meets Our New Medical Allies.” New Scientist
(July 13, 2001): 42.
“Discovering Bats Beyond the Belfry.” Business Times (November 9,
2001).
Seppa, N. “Compound in Bat Saliva May Aid Stroke Patients.” Science
News (January 18, 2003): 37.
“Stroke Patients get Vampire’s Kiss.” Current Science (April 11, 2003): 13.
“Vampire Bats Don’t Learn From Bad Lunch.” Science News (March 15,
2003): 173.
Web sites:
“The Secret Life of Bats.” Fathom. http://www.fathom.com/course/
21701775/session5.html (accessed on June 21, 2004).
Tomlinson, Denise. “Natural History of the Vampire Bat.” The Organiza-
tion for Bat Conservation at Cranbrook Institute of Science. http://
www.batconservation.org/content/meetourbats/vampire.htm (accessed
on June 21, 2004).
“Phyllostomidae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.
umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Phyllostomidae.html (accessed on
June 21, 2004).
“Vampire Bats.” NationalGeographic.com. http://www.nationalgeographic.
com/kids/creature_feature/0110/vampirebats.html (accessed on June 21,
2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Mormoopidae
Number of species: 8 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Moustached bats are named for their moustache-like dis-
tinctive feature. Above their upper lip, they have tufts of stiff
subclass
hair. Their lips are large, with flaps and folds of skin on the
order bottom. When their mouth is open it appears to form a funnel.
monotypic order There are three common names for species in this family: mous-
tached bats, ghost-faced bats, and naked-backed bats.
suborder
These bats are relatively small to medium size. The size of
▲ family these bats’ forearms range in length from approximately 1.4
inches (3.6 centimeters) to 2.6 inches (6.6 centimeters).
Moustached bats have a small bump on their nose and their
eyes are relatively small. All bats in this family have a tail. Ears
vary in size and shape but always have a tragus (TRAY-gus),
meaning a flap of skin at the bottom of the external ear. In
some species, the wings connect to the body at a point high
along the middle of the back, making the surface of the back
appear naked. These bats are commonly referred to as naked-
backed bats. Ghost-faced bats can be easily identified by the
folds of skin that reach from ear to ear, across the chin.
The fur of moustached bats can be gray, bright orange, brown,
or reddish brown. Within species, individuals can vary widely
in color. The fur color of some species in this family may change
in different seasons. Fur in this family is short, fine, and thick.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Moustached bats are found from the southern United States,
including Arizona and southern Texas, through to Mexico,
HABITAT
These bats generally live in tropical (hot
and humid) habitats below 10,000 feet
(3,000 meters). They live in the rainforest, NEW FAMILY: NEW NAME
forest, and in open areas. They generally Mormoopidae have a complex history of
roost in caves, mines, tunnels, and the hol- how they became their own family. These
lows of trees. Some of these bats have been bats were first described in the early
found in houses. 1800s. For most of the twentieth century,
this group was usually considered a
DIET
subfamily of the Phyllostomidae, and
Moustached bats feed on a wide range of given the name Chilonycterinae. (Some
insects, including flies, beetles, moths, and authorities continue to classify the
mosquitoes. mormoopids as only a subfamily of
Phyllostomidae.) Mormoopidae became
BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION
accepted as a distinct family and in 1972
Moustached bats generally roost together was given its own name and family.
in large colonies. Observations of the Par-
nell’s moustached bats have found approxi-
mately 5,000 individuals roosting together.
Moustached bats, like all bats, are nocturnal, meaning they
are active at night. At night they emerge to forage for food by
using echolocation, the detection of an object by listening to
reflected sounds that are called out. They catch their prey (an-
imals hunted for food) while flying. In forested habitats, these
bats often search for prey, animals they hunt for food, along
trails and roads and fly low, within 3.3 feet (1 meter) of the
ground. The wings of these bats are associated with the ability
to maneuver, fly rapidly, and remain in the air for long peri-
ods of time.
At the beginning of the rainy season, females give birth to a
single young each year. Gestation (pregnancy) lasts approxi-
mately sixty days.
SPECIES
PARNELL’S MOUSTACHED BAT ACCOUNT
Pteronotus parnellii
Books:
Fenton, M. Brock. Bats. New York: Checkmark Press, 2001.
Fenton, M. Brock. The Bat: Wings in the Night Sky. Buffalo, NY: Firefly
Books, 1998.
Ruff, Sue, and Don E. Wilson. Bats. New York: Benchmark Books, 2001.
Schober, Wilfried, and Eckard Grimmberger. The Bats of Europe and
North America. Neptune City, NJ: T.F.H. Publications, Inc., 1997.
Periodicals:
Schnitzler, Hans-Ulrich, and Elisabeth K. V. Kalko. “Echolocation by
Insect-Eating Bats.” Bioscience (July, 2001): 557.
DeBaca, Robert S., and Clyde Jones. “The Ghost-faced Bat, Mormoops
megalophylla, (Chiroptera: Mormoopidae) from the Davis Mountains,
Texas.” The Texas Journal of Science (February, 2002): 89.
Web sites:
Bat Conservation International, Inc. Discover the Secret World of Bats.
http://www.batcon.org (accessed on July 5, 2004).
Weinstein, Bret, and Phil Myers. “Family Mormoopidae (Ghost-faced
Bats, Moustached Bats, and Naked-backed Bats).” Animal Diversity Web.
http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Mormoopidae.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Noctilionidae
Number of species: 2 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Bulldog bats’ lips are similar in appearance to a bulldog’s.
The lips are thick and the upper one hangs over the bottom
subclass
lip, forming pouches. Their upper lip is split in the middle. The
order nose, which sticks out slightly over the lip, is long and thick.
monotypic order The ears are pointed and relatively large. Both species have long
legs, and large feet with well-developed claws. The bats have
suborder long, narrow wings. They also have a visible tail. Bulldog bats
▲ family have a strong odor, often described as fishy.
Bulldog bats are relatively large bats, having a combined
head and body length that ranges from approximately 2.2 to
5.2 inches (5.7 to 13.2 centimeters). Males are larger than
females.
Bulldog bat fur is typically short and slightly curly. Fur col-
ors range from bright orange to orange-brown and gray-brown.
There can be a pale stripe running down their backs. The un-
dersides of these bats are lighter in color. At one point re-
searchers thought that male bulldog bats were different in color
than females. Males were said to be bright yellow, brown, and
orange, and females a brown or gray color. Research has shown
that fur color may vary among the species as a whole, and is
not necessarily distinct between the sexes.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Bulldog bats are found in Mexico, Central America, and
South America as far south as Argentina. The greater bulldog
bat also lives on islands in the West Indies.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Bulldog bat species are not listed as threatened.
SPECIES
GREATER BULLDOG BAT ACCOUNT
Noctilio leporinus
Physical characteristics: The greater bulldog bat, also called the fish-
ing bat, is a relatively large bat. These bats have a wingspan of almost
three feet (1 meter), and a combined head and body length ranging
from 4.6 to 5 inches (11.9 to 12.7 centimeters) Males are larger than
females. Their feet and claws are much larger than the lesser bulldog
bats, and their claws are very sharp. The fur is short and repels water.
Habitat: Greater bulldog bats live in lowland and moist habitats that
are near a water source, including the seashore, lakes, river basins,
and ponds.
Diet: Greater bulldog bats eat primarily fish. They also eat crab and
insects, including winged ants, crickets, and scarab beetles.
Books:
Fenton, M. Brock. Bats. New York: Checkmark Press, 2001.
Fenton, M. Brock. The Bat: Wings in the Night Sky. Buffalo, NY: Firefly
Books, 1998.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Bulldog Bats, or Fisherman Bats.” Walker’s Mammals
of the World 5.1 Online. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/
chiroptera/chiroptera.noctilionidae.noctilio.html (accessed on June 22,
2004).
Raabe, Emily. Bulldog Bats. New York: Powerkids Press, 2003.
Richardson, Phil. Bats. London: Whittet Books, 1985.
Ruff, Sue, and Don E. Wilson. Bats. New York: Benchmark Books, 2001.
Schober, Wilfried, and Eckard Grimmberger. The Bats of Europe and
North America. Neptune City, NJ: T.F.H. Publications, Inc., 1997.
Periodicals:
Pennisi, Elizabeth. “Gone Batty: Illuminating the Murky World of Tropical
Bats.” Science News (April 30, 1994): 284.
Schnitzler, Hans-Ulrich, and Elisabeth K. V. Kalko. “Echolocation by
Insect-Eating Bats.” BioScience (July 2001): 557.
Web sites:
Myers, P. “Noctilionidae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.
ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Noctilionidae.html
(accessed on June 22, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Mystacinidae
Number of species: 2 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
New Zealand short-tailed bats are small to medium-sized class
bats. Their head and body length ranges from 2.3 to 3.5 inches subclass
(5.8 to 8.9 centimeters). They can weigh from 0.4 to 1.2 ounces
order
(11 to 35 grams). As their name suggests, these bats have a
short tail. The nose or snout of New Zealand short-tailed bats monotypic order
is relatively long and it sticks out over the lips. suborder
These bats have unique wing membranes, the thin pieces of ▲ family
skin that form their wings. The parts of the wing membranes
that run along the body are thick and leathery. When not
flying, these bats can fold their wings beneath this thick
membrane part.
Fur color on these bats is typically brown-gray or brown-
black, with the tips of the hairs being white to grayish. This
gives the bat a frosted look. The fur is velvety, short, and thick.
New Zealand short-tail bats have relatively large ears. These
bats have thick bodies with short, strong legs. The claws on
their feet are pointy and sharp. The thumbs have a large claw
with a talon, a sharp hooked claw, at the end and each of the
toe claws also has a talon.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
New Zealand short-tailed bats are found on New Zealand
and some of its offshore islands. New Zealand is made up of
two large and many smaller islands in the southwest Pacific
Ocean, east of Australia.
DIET
New Zealand short-tailed bats eat a broad range of foods.
They are omnivores, meaning they eat both plants and animals,
which is unusual in bats. Their diet includes flying and resting
arthropods, animals without a backbone with jointed legs and
segmented bodies, fruit, nectar, and pollen. The bat has a rela-
tionship with a rare and parasitic plant, called woodrose, or pua
reinga. The flower produces nectar on the forest floor. As the
bats move around eating the nectar they pollinate the plants.
New Zealand short-tailed bats are the woodrose’s only pollina-
tor. Researchers have also observed New Zealand short-tailed
bats sometimes feeding on birds and carrion, animals that have
already been killed.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists the lesser New
Zealand short-tailed bat as Vulnerable, facing a high risk of ex-
tinction, and greater New Zealand short-tailed bat as Extinct,
no longer existing. The lesser New Zealand short-tailed bat is
known to be present on several islands. Populations have de-
clined to about ten populations that may contain only a few
thousand individuals.
SPECIES
ACCOUNT LESSER NEW ZEALAND SHORT-TAILED BAT
Mystacina tuberculata
Diet: Lesser New Zealand short-tailed bats have a wide range of food
options. They eat both flying and non-flying arthropods, nectar,
pollen, fruit, and other plant materials. Observations have also spot-
ted these bats eating both young and adult birds, along with the meat
of animals that are already dead.
Books:
Fenton, M. Brock. Bats. New York: Checkmark Press, 2001.
Fenton, M. Brock. The Bat: Wings in the Night Sky. Buffalo, NY: Firefly
Books, 1998.
Nowak, Ronald M. “New Zealand Short-tailed bats.” Walker’s Mammals
of the World 5.1 Online. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/
chiroptera/chiroptera.mystacinidae.mystacina.html (accessed on July 5,
2004).
Richardson, Phil. Bats. London: Whittet Books, 1985.
Ruff, Sue, and Don E. Wilson. Bats. New York: Benchmark Books, 2001.
Schober, Wilfried, and Eckard Grimmberger. The Bats of Europe and
North America. Neptune City, NJ: T.F.H. Publications, Inc., 1997.
Periodicals:
Flannery, Tim. “A Lost Menagerie.” Natural History (November 2001): 66.
“Hunt for the Short Tailed Bat.” Wairarapa Times (February 26, 2000).
Jones, G., P. I. Webb, J. A. Sedgeley, and C. F. O’Donnell. “Mysterious
Mystacina: How the New Zealand Short-Tailed Bat (Mystacina tubercu-
lata) Locates Insect Prey.” Journal of Experimental Biology (December
2003): 4209–4216.
Web sites:
Daniel, Mike. “New Zealand’s Unique Burrowing Bats Are Endangered.”
Bat Conservation International, Inc. http://www.batcon.org/batsmag/
v2n3-1.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).
“New Zealand Short-tailed bats.” BBC Science and Nature. http://
www. bbc.co.uk/nature/wildfacts/factfiles/668.shtml (accessed on July
5, 2004).
Weinstein, B., and P. Myers. “Family Mystacinidae (New Zealand Short-
tailed Bats).” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.
edu/site/accounts/information/Mystacinidae.html (accessed on July 5,
2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Natalidae
Number of species: 5 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Funnel-eared bats get their name from the shape of their ears,
which are large and formed like a funnel. They are small and
subclass slim with relatively long legs that can be longer than the head
order and body combined. Combined the head and body is approxi-
monotypic order mately 2 inches (5 centimeters) long. Their wings are long and
slender with a slender tail that is completely enclosed in a tail
suborder membrane. They also have small eyes.
▲ family Adult males have a large structure typically in the center of
the forehead called the natalid (NAT-ah-lid) organ. The func-
tion of this is uncertain.
The fur of these bats is soft and long with color ranging from
gray, yellowish, reddish, to deep chestnut. One species, the
Mexican funnel-eared bat, has two color phases, or types: one
in which fur is light, tan to pinkish light brown, and the other
in which fur is darker, a yellowish or reddish brown. The belly
is paler in both phases.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
The five species of funnel-eared bats are found in several ar-
eas. One species is found in northern Mexico, eastern Brazil,
and specific Caribbean islands. Another species occurs in north-
ern South America and nearby islands. The other three species
are found on islands in the Caribbean.
HABITAT
These bats live in lowland forests that are dry and deciduous,
forests where the trees lose their leaves at the end of the
SPECIES
ACCOUNT FUNNEL-EARED BAT
Natalus stramineus
Books:
Fenton, M. Brock. Bats. New York: Checkmark Press, 2001.
Fenton, M. Brock. The Bat: Wings in the Night Sky. Buffalo, NY: Firefly
Books, 1998.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Funnel-eared Bats.” Walker’s Mammals of the World
5.1 Online. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. http://
www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/chiroptera/
chiroptera.natalidae.natalus.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).
Richardson, Phil. Bats. London: Whittet Books, 1985.
Ruff, Sue, and Don E. Wilson. Bats. New York: Benchmark Books, 2001.
Schober, Wilfried, and Eckard Grimmberger. The Bats of Europe and
North America. Neptune City, NJ: T.F.H. Publications, Inc., 1997.
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Furipteridae
Number of species: 2 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Smoky bats are also commonly called thumbless bats. While class
they do have a thumb, it is small, enclosed in the edge of the
subclass
wing, and can appear invisible. Other bats, on the other hand,
use their thumbs to grip surfaces while crawling, and to hang order
right side up while giving birth. Smoky bats are among the monotypic order
smallest of bats, having a head and body length combined of
1.4 to 2.6 inches (3.5 to 5.8 centimeters). Their forearms are suborder
about 1.2 to 1.6 inches (3 to 4 centimeters) long. Females are ▲ family
slightly larger than males.
These bats appear delicate, with broad wings that are rela-
tively long. The snout is pig-like in appearance, being short and
turned up at the tip. Set close together, the nostrils are oval or
triangular. Ears resemble funnel-eared bats. They are separate,
large, and funnel-shaped, reaching almost to the jaw line. These
bats have tiny eyes that are hidden by fur and their large ears.
They also have long legs and short feet, with claws on the end
of their feet. The tail is relatively long, but it does not reach
past the edge of the tail membrane (layer of thin skin).
The fur is generally coarse. The smoky bat has triangular,
wart-like fleshy projections around its mouth and lips.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
The two species of the family are found in different areas.
The thumbless bat is found west of the Andes, from central
coastal Ecuador south to northern Chile. The smoky bat is
found in Costa Rica, lowland Brazil, Peru and Trinidad.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) Red List categorizes
the thumbless bat species as Vulnerable, meaning it is facing a
high risk of extinction in the wild. The smoky bat is not con-
sidered threatened.
SPECIES
SMOKY BAT ACCOUNT
Furipterus horrens
Books:
Fenton, M. Brock. Bats. New York: Checkmark Press, 2001.
Fenton, M. Brock. The Bat: Wings in the Night Sky. Buffalo, NY: Firefly
Books, 1998.
Web sites:
“Discover the Secret World of Bats.” Bat Conservation International, Inc.
http://www.batcon.org (accessed on July 5, 2004).
Simmons, Nancy. “Furipterus horrens Thumbless Bat.” DigiMorph.
http://www.digimorph.org/specimens/Furipterus_horrens/whole (ac-
cessed on July 5, 2004).
Weinstein, B., and P. Myers. “Family Furipteridae (Smoky Bats and Thum-
bless Bats.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.
edu/site/accounts/information/Furipteridae.html (accessed on July 5,
2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Thyropteridae
Number of species: 2 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class These bats are about the size of a person’s thumb, having a
head and body length that ranges from 1.2 to 2.3 inches (3 to
subclass
5.7 centimeters). They weigh from 0.10 to 0.17 ounces (3 to
order 5 grams), about the same weight as one to two pennies.
monotypic order These bats are also called New World sucker-footed bats,
named after the suction cup-like feature found on their feet.
suborder
These bats have circular suction cup disks with short stalks on
▲ family the soles of the feet and the bottom of their thumbs. The disks
on the thumb are larger than those on the feet. They also have
a well-developed claw on their thumb.
Bats in this family have small eyes. There is a small wart-like
projection above the nostrils, and there is no noseleaf (leaf-
shaped fleshy protrusion). The tail juts out freely past the mem-
brane (thin layer of skin), so it is visible. The ears are large and
shaped like a funnel. The muzzle is long and slender. Nostrils
are circular and set relatively far apart.
Species in this family have long, fluffy hair. Fur color ranges
from a medium reddish brown to slightly darker. The under-
sides of these bats are white or brown. The ears can be either
black or yellow.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
These bats are found in Central and South America, east of
the Andes, including southern Nicaragua to the Guianas and
Peru, and southern Mexico to Bolivia and southern Brazil, and
Trinidad.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Although these bats are common in some areas, the IUCN
lists Thyroptera lavali as Vulnerable. In 1999, findings observed
that Thyroptera lavali was restricted to a small area in extreme
northeastern Peru.
SPECIES
SPIX’S DISK-WINGED BAT ACCOUNT
Thyroptera tricolor
Books:
Fenton, M. Brock. Bats. New York: Checkmark Press, 2001.
Fenton, M. Brock. The Bat: Wings in the Night Sky. Buffalo, NY: Firefly
Books, 1998.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Disk-winged Bats, or New World Sucker-footed
Bats.” Walker’s Mammals of the World 5.1 Online. Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1997. http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/
walkers_mammals_of_the_world/chiroptera/chiroptera.thyropteridae
.thyroptera.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).
Richardson, Phil. Bats. London: Whittet Books, 1985.
Ruff, Sue and Don E. Wilson. Bats. New York: Benchmark Books, 2001.
Schober, Wilfried and Eckard Grimmberger. The Bats of Europe and
North America. Neptune City, NJ: T.F.H. Publications, Inc., 1997.
Periodicals:
Reebs, Stephen. “Sticky Situation.” Natural History (June 2002): 16.
Milius, Susan. “Save Our Sounds: In Some Libraries, Noise is Good.”
Science News (September 14, 2002): 16.
Web sites:
Clarke, Diana. “Nomads of the New World Tropics.” The Sun and Your Skin.
http://yourskinandsun.com/article1091.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Myzopodidae
One species: Old World
sucker-footed bat
family C H A P T E R (Myzopoda aurita)
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
This species has been found only in Madagascar. It has been
observed primarily from areas that stretch the full length of the
east coast, and one area on the west coast. There are fewer than
twenty localities where this bat has been recorded.
DIET
FAMILY MATTERS
An examination of one bat’s droppings
The relationship between the Old World found that moths were its main food source.
sucker-footed bat and the New World It is not known what other prey (animals
disk-winged bats has long interested eaten for food) or other foods the bats
researchers given that both families may eat.
feature suction-like disks. The Old World
sucker-footed bat, now only found in BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION
Madagascar, is thought to have lived in Little is known about the behavior and
East Africa at one time. The suction cups mating habits of these bats. Their suction
appear to have evolved independently disks allow them to cling onto smooth sur-
of those found on disk-winged bats. faces, yet they do not appear to hold the bat’s
Sucker-footed bats were discovered in body as tightly to a vertical surface as those
1878 and classified as a distinct family in of the disk-winged bats. The bats probably
1904. They were considered closely related use the pads to hold on to the smooth, hard
to the disk-winged bats, and grouped stems and leaves of palms and other smooth
together under one superfamily. Yet recent surfaces.
findings have put this relationship in
question. The sucker-footed bat may have
They have been found roosting (resting or
evolved at a much earlier date than the
settling) in the unrolled leaf of a traveler’s
disk-winged bats, and may not be able to
palm. One bat was discovered over a small
be grouped with any other bat family.
stream, another in a vanilla plantation, and
one in a sparsely forested area over a path
close to a stream. These bats have also been
recorded flying over urban areas. They prob-
ably roost in a variety of palm species and other similar types
of plants.
Like all bats, Old World sucker-footed bats are nocturnal,
meaning that they are active at night. One bat was caught in a
net about one hour after sunset.
Old World sucker-footed bats can maneuver (mah-NOO-ver)
well in flight. They have been observed spending long periods
of time hovering over freshly dug and planted paddy fields, as
well as within forest clearings. It is assumed they were feeding
in these areas.
These bats use echolocation (eck-oh-loh-KAY-shun) to cap-
ture their prey. Echolocation is the process for locating objects
CONSERVATION STATUS
Old-World sucker footed bats are considered one of the Old World sucker-footed bat
world’s rarest species. The IUCN Red List categorizes these bats (Myzopoda aurita). (Illustration by
Jonathan Higgins. Reproduced
by permission.)
Books:
Fenton, M. Brock. Bats. New York: Checkmark Press, 2001.
Fenton, M. Brock. The Bat: Wings in the Night Sky. Buffalo, NY: Firefly
Books, 1998.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Old World Sucker-footed Bat.” Walker’s Mammals of
the World 5.1 Online. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/
chiroptera/chiroptera.myzopodidae.myzopoda.html (accessed on July 5,
2004).
Richardson, Phil. Bats. London: Whittet Books, 1985.
Ruff, Sue, and Don E. Wilson. Bats. New York: Benchmark Books, 2001.
Russ, Jon, and Daniel Bennett, eds. The Bats of Madagascar: A
Field Guide with Descriptions of Echolocation Calls. Glossop, U.K.: Viper
Press, 2001. http://mampam.50megs.com/bats/madagascar/2000/
mad2000. pdf (accessed on July 5, 2004).
Schober, Wilfried, and Eckard Grimmberger. The Bats of Europe and
North America. Neptune City, NJ: T.F.H. Publications, Inc., 1997.
Web sites:
Myers, P. “Family Myzopodidae (Old World Sucker-Footed Bat).” Animal
Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/
information/Myzopodidae.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).
Simmons, Nancy. “Myzopoda aurita, Old World Sucker-Footed Bat.”
DigiMorph. http://www.digimorph.org/specimens/Myzopoda_aurita/head/
(accessed on July 5, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Molossidae
Number of species: 90 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Molossids (mol-LOSS-ids; members of the family Molossi- class
dae) range widely in size from small to moderately large bats.
subclass
They have a forearm length of approximately 1.1 to 3.4 inches
(2.7 to 8.5 centimeters), and weigh from 0.2 to 3.8 ounces (5 to order
167 grams). Free-tailed bats are named for their thick tail that monotypic order
extends far beyond the tail membrane (thin layer of skin). The
mastiff bats are named after their facial resemblance to the mas- suborder
tiff dog. ▲ family
Some species of molossids have a distinctive wrinkled upper
lip, while others have a smooth upper lip. Muzzles of all these
bats are generally short and wide and often have wide, fleshy
lips that may have folds or creases. Many have a distinctive pad
over their noses. The upper surface of this pad often has small
horn-like projections. Ears of free-tailed bats are relatively short
and thick, often joined across the forehead and point directly
forward. The eyes of these bats are relatively small, while the
lips are large. All species have long and narrow wings that are
thick and, along with the tail, are covered in a leathery mem-
brane. Molossids also have short, strong legs and broad feet.
On the outer toes of each foot are curved bristles that the bat
uses for grooming its fur.
Molossids generally have short, velvety fur. One group of
bats in this family is called the hairless bats because their hair
is so short that the animal appears to be naked. Some species
have a crest of hairs on the top of the head that stands upright.
Fur color may be gray, tan, black, or brown. Many species have
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Molossids are found throughout the world’s warmer areas.
They are primarily found in South America and Africa, as well
as from southern Europe and southern Asia through Malaysia,
and east to the Fiji Islands. They are also found in the central
and southern part of the United States, south through the West
Indies, Mexico, and Central America to the southern half
of South America. Except for one other family of bats, the
Vespertilionidae, molossids are found in the widest geographic
area.
HABITAT
With molossids spread out all over the world, they are found
living in a wide range of habitats. They are commonly found
in both natural and urban areas. These bats are most plentiful
in arid (extremely dry) and semi-arid conditions. They prefer
to live in temperatures that are at least 110°F (43°C). These
bats roost (rest or settle) in sites such as caves, tunnels, build-
ings, hollow trees, foliage, decayed logs, and holes in the
ground. They also shelter under bark, rocks, and iron rooftops.
DIET
Molissids eat a variety of insects, such as moths and ones
with hard shells, such as beetles and stinkbugs.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The survival of many of these species is under threat. The
IUCN lists Gallagher’s free-tailed bat, Niangara free-tailed bat,
and Wroughton free-tailed bat, as Critically Endangered, mean-
ing they face an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild.
The Incan little mastiff bat is listed as Endangered, meaning it
faces a very high risk of extinction in the wild. Fifteen other
species are listed as Vulnerable, meaning they face a high risk
of extinction in the wild.
SPECIES
NAKED BAT ACCOUNTS
Cheiromeles torquatus
folds its wings into when it rests. Ears are separate and their lips are
smooth. Big toes have a flat nail instead of the typical claw.
Habitat: These bats live in tropical forests and several live on islands.
They roost in caves, rock crevices, tree hollows, and holes in the ground.
Diet: Naked bats feed on insects, primarily termites and winged ants.
Behavior and reproduction: Naked bats are strong, fast fliers. They
fly high above the forest canopy (the tops of trees) or above clearings
to forage, or search, for food. When they fold their wings into their
pouch, these bats can move about relatively easily on all four limbs.
This species of bat roosts in large colonies. Nearly a thousand in-
dividuals were observed in a hollow tree, and a colony of about 20,000
was observed in a cave in Borneo.
Naked bats and people: In certain areas, most of the forest habi-
tat of the naked bat has been destroyed by development, logging, and
cultivation. People have hunted these bats for food and killed them
because they mistakenly believed these bats were harming their crops.
Books:
Fenton, M. Brock. Bats. New York: Checkmark Press, 2001.
Fenton, M. Brock. The Bat: Wings in the Night Sky. Buffalo, NY: Firefly
Books, 1998.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Free-tailed Bats and Mastiff Bats.” Walker’s Mam-
mals of the World 5.1 Online. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,
Periodicals:
Bowers, Barbara. “Going to Bat for the Bats.” Audubon (December
2003): 86
Finnegan, Lora J. “Bats about Bats.” Sunset (July 1993): 38
Kerner, Sarah. “In the Bat Cave: These Guys Got an Up-close Look at
One of the World’s Most Misunderstood Creatures. Lesson Learned: Bats
get a Bad Rap!” Boys’ Life (June 2003): 18
McCracken, Gary F., and John K. Westbrook. “Bat Patrol: Scientists
Discover That High-flying Mammals are Bad News for Bugs.” National
Geographic (April 2002): 114
Vine, Katy. “Pow (Going Batty)!” Texas Monthly (January 2004)
“Wings in the Dark.” Weekly Reader (October 31, 2003): 4
Web sites:
“Natural Resources: The Bat Colony.” Carlsbad Caverns National Park:
National Park Service. http://www.nps.gov/cave/bats.htm (accessed on
July 5, 2004).
“Discover the Secret World of Bats.” Bat Conservational International,
Inc. http://www.batcon.org (accessed on July 5, 2004).
Kee, Lim Gaik. “Bats are Pollinators not Pests.” Nature Watch. http://
habitatnews.nus.edu.sg/pub/naturewatch/text/a062b.htm (accessed on
July 5, 2004).
“Malaysian Bat Conservation.” EarthWatch Institute. http://www
.earthwatch.org/expeditions/kingston/meetthescientists.html (accessed
on July 5, 2004).
“Naked Bat (Cheiromeles torquatus).” The Forest Department: Sarawak,
Malaysia. http://www.forestry.sarawak.gov.my/forweb/wildlife/mgmt/tpa/
nbat.htm (accessed on July 5, 2004).
Myers, P. “Family Molossidae (Free-tailed Bats).” Animal Diversity Web.
http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Molossidae.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Vespertilionidae
Number of species: About 267
species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Although this group of bats is large and contains many class
different-looking species, they do share several characteristics.
subclass
Compared to many other bats that have what might be described
as bizarre noses with flaps and other fleshy decorations, the ves- order
pertilionid (ves-per-TILL-ee-on-id) bats have plain faces. They monotypic order
are even known as the “plain-faced bats.” Some species have noses
shaped like tubes, however, with nostrils at the end of the tube. suborder
The “webbed tail,” known as a patagium (pah-TAY-jee-um), ▲ family
is actually a membrane or a thin bit of skin that stretches be-
tween the hind legs and aids the bat in flight. In these bats, the
patagium is hairless. Their ears are noticeable and sometimes
quite large, and they also have tails at the middle of the patag-
ium that can be as long as the body. All have an obvious out-
growth, called a tragus (TRAY-gus), arising from the bottom of
the ear. Most of them have small eyes. Overall body length
ranges from about 1.4 to 5.5 inches (3.5 to 14 centimeters) and
weight from 0.01 to 1.6 ounces (2.5 to 45 grams).
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Vespertilionid bats live in temperate to tropical climates
worldwide. They are absent from far northern North American
and Eurasia, as well as Antarctica.
HABITAT
The habitat varies in this large group of animals. Many of
them spend the day resting in caves, or in tight little places,
DIET
The diet for most of the vespertilionid bats consists of in-
sects, and many species eat their body weight in insects each
night. A few species eat other things, including spiders, scor-
pions, fish, and lizards.
SPECIES
PALLID BAT ACCOUNTS
Antrozous pallidus
Pallid bats and people: This species visits plants, probably in search
of insects. In so doing, it picks up and delivers pollen, which helps
fertilize plants.
WESTERN BARBASTELLE
Barbastella barbastellus
Diet: This species eats mainly flying insects, which they catch in
midair. They will also swoop down to plants and pluck insects from
their leaves.
Geographic range: This bat lives in Canada, the United States, and
Mexico.
Habitat: When they aren’t flying in search of food, they do their sum-
mertime resting in tree hollows, underneath bark, or in barns, attics, and
other such structures. During winter, they typically hibernate in caves.
Little brown bats and people: Like many other insect-eating bats,
the little brown bat helps to control pest insect populations.
Habitat: They tend to prefer woodlands and fields that are near
caves or other roosting sites.
Diet: Adult bats will eat up to a third of their body weight in flying
insects every night.
Common bentwing bats and people: Like most other bats, the in-
sect diet of this species helps to keep pests in check.
Books:
Altringham, J. Bats: Biology and Behavior. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University
Press, 1996.
Fenton, M. Brock. Bats. New York: Checkmark Books, 2001.
Web sites:
IUCN 2003. 2003 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. http://www.
redlist.org (accessed July 5, 2004).
Endangered Species Program, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. http://
endangered.fws.gov/ (accessed on July 5, 2004).
●
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Number of families: 14 families
order C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
There are many different types of primates. Some are very class
small—the smallest primate is the pygmy mouse lemur, which
subclass
weighs only one ounce (30 grams). Others are very large—the
largest primate is an adult male gorilla. A full-grown male ● order
gorilla can weigh 375 pounds (170 kilograms) or more, and monotypic order
be as tall as 6 feet (1.8 meters). Primates include the lemurs,
lorises and bushbabies, tarsiers, New World monkeys, Old suborder
World monkeys, apes, and humans. family
Because there are so many different types of primates, ap-
pearance varies quite a bit. Body hair may be long, as in the
orangutan or the golden lion tamarin. Other primates have
short fur all over the body, such as the chimpanzee or pygmy
marmoset. There are many quite colorful primates. The male
mandrill of Central Africa has bright red and blue on his face
and red, blue, and violet coloration on his rump. The Japanese
macaque is medium brown with a red face. The golden langur
of China has flame orange fur with a bright blue face.
But even though primates may be quite different in size and
color, they do have many things in common. Primates tend to
have longer arms and legs in relation to body size than other
mammals. Their hands and feet are shaped so that they can hold
on to objects very well. On a primate’s foot, the big toe is set far
apart from the other four digits, or toes. This allows an especially
strong wraparound grasp on branches. Every primate has this
special grasping action of its feet except humans. The ventral or
bottom surface of both hands and feet have special pads that help
Primates 423
primates grip. This is another way that enables primates to
achieve a better hold on tree limbs. Also, primates usually have
rounded skulls with a large brain for their body size. Their eyes
are set forward in the face for stereoscopic vision, which allows
them to see things around them in three-dimensions (or “3-D”),
rather than two-dimensions, like a page in a book.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Primates are found in Africa, Asia, and South and Central
America. The largest number of primates live in Africa, includ-
ing the pottos, bushbabies, guenons, mangabeys, colobus mon-
keys, chimpanzees, gorillas, and baboons. Tarsiers, macaques,
lorises, and most of the leaf monkeys live in Asia. Lemurs and
aye-ayes are found only on the island of Madagascar. The New
World monkeys, such as the marmosets, tamarins, and squirrel
monkeys, live in South and Central America.
HABITAT
Primates live in a variety of habitats, including evergreen
tropical rainforests with rain throughout the year, dry scrub
forests, dry areas that have forests along river banks, coastal
scrublands, bamboo stands, and dry deciduous forests where
trees lose their leaves each year. For example, the mandrills and
chimpanzees can be found in rainforests, and the ring-tailed
lemurs live in dry woodlands. Rainforests are evergreen forests
with a short dry season and high rainfall. Woodlands are areas
with a lot of trees and shrubs.
DIET
Primates eat a wide variety of foods. All primates may eat in-
sects, leaves, nuts, seeds, plant gums or fluids, and fruits. But
each primate may have a food preference. The indri prefers
young plants and leaves, fruit, and seeds. The aye-aye eats fruit
and insect larvae (LAR-vee), or young. The blue monkey eats
fruits, leaves, and slow-moving insects, as well as occasional
birds and small animals.
Primates 425
PRIMATES AND PEOPLE
People hunt some non-human primate
species for meat, unproven medicinal uses of
their body parts, or capture them for pets. Zoos
collect primates as exhibit animals. Some pri-
mates, such as the baboon, rhesus monkey,
THE ORGAN GRINDER’S MONKEY and the common marmoset, are used in labo-
In the early 1900s, the 6-pound ratory biomedical research. Current breeding
(2.7-kilogram), brown, pale-fronted capuchin programs have slowed the practice of taking
monkey would hold out its hand for money these animals from the wild. A few primates,
when its organ grinder owner played music in close contact with human living areas, have
in the streets of New York and Boston. The become crop pests, such as the macaques who
capuchin is a very intelligent primate. It has raid fruit trees that humans grow.
a large brain relative to its small size, and If not threatened, primates seldom bother
excellent eye-to-hand coordination, enabling human beings. However, some may harbor
it to accurately pick up the tiniest items. It viruses that can be transmitted to human be-
would grab fruit and coins from passers-by ings, such as Ebola, a usually fatal disease.
on the street.
CONSERVATION STATUS
About one-third of all primate species are
threatened. Of these, 120 species are Criti-
cally Endangered, facing an extremely high risk of extinction
in the wild; Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction;
or Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction. Critically En-
dangered species include the Sumatran orangutan, one species
of snub-nosed monkey, three lion tamarin species, and two gen-
tle lemur species. Most of the problems for these tree-dwelling
animals come from deforestation, or tree destruction and re-
moval. Hunting in some areas is also a problem, as are brush
fires. Tourism, while increasing local awareness, also means in-
creased development to house and feed tourists. There are cap-
tive breeding programs and protected national parks, but as
habitat loss continues, extinction of several species is predicted.
Books:
Alden, Peter C. National Audubon Society Field Guide to African Wildlife.
New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1995.
Coppard, Kit. Africa’s Animal Kingdom. London: PRC Publishing Ltd., 2001.
Fink Martin, Patricia A. Lemurs, Lorises and Other Lower Primates.
Danbury, CT: Children’s Press, 2000.
Periodicals:
“New Primate Faces Appear in Brazil.” National Geographic (December
1998): Earth Almanac section.
Schleichert, Elizabeth. “Can We Save the Lemurs?” Ranger Rick
(December 2000): 18–22.
Stewart, Doug. “Prosimians Find a Home Far From Home.” National
Wildlife (Feb/Mar 1998): 33–35.
Web sites:
Holder, M. K. “See and Hear.” African Primates at Home. http://www
.indiana.edu/~primate/primates.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).
Conservation International press release. Eastern Lowland Gorilla
Population Plummets 70 Percent since 1994. http://conservation
.org/xp/news/press_releases/2004/033004.xml (accessed on July
5, 2004).
Primates 427
LORISES AND POTTOS
Lorisidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Lorisidae
Number of species: 9 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Lorises and pottos have short heads covered with hair. Snouts,
or nose areas, are small. Their C-shaped ears are close to the scalp,
subclass and they have large, round, dark eyes. Arms and legs are long
order and about equal length. All ten fingers and ten toes have a claw,
monotypic order but the claw is longest on the second toe. This is called a groom-
ing claw, and lorises and pottos use it to comb through and clean
suborder their fur. The index finger is quite small compared to the rest of
▲ family the fingers, and their thumbs and big toes are located far from
the other four fingers and toes. When these animals wrap their
hands or feet around a tree branch, their grasping hold is very
strong, allowing them to hold onto a branch for a long time.
Lorises and pottos are very small animals. The tiniest loris is
the gray slender loris. It is only 8.5 inches (21.5 centimeters)
long from head to the start of its tail. It weighs only 9 ounces
(255 grams). The potto is the largest member of the Lorisidae.
Tail length varies in the lorises and the pottos. Some, such as the
slender loris, have no tail. Others may have a tail length of up
to 2.5 inches (6.5 cm). Their color varies; pottos and lorises can
be cream colored, pale brown, grayish brown, reddish brown,
orange-brown, or dark brown. Some have mixed fur colors. Some
lorises have contrasting markings or striped areas. The color con-
trast may be especially visible when it forms a ringed area around
the large eyes, as it does in the pygmy slow loris.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
The slow lorises live throughout tropical rainforests in
Southeast Asia. The slender lorises are found in the tropical
HABITAT
Lorises and pottos live only in thickly
forested areas. Most often, they live in the LORISID COMMUNICATION
trees of tropical rainforests, forests where When Asian lorisids want to communicate
the trees are evergreen and there is a lot of with each other, they make specific noises,
rain. or vocalizations. Sounds vary by species, and
include panting, hissing, growling, soft and
DIET loud whistles, rapid clicking, and chirping.
Lorises are omnivores, eating both plants The clicking sound made by infants when
and very small animals. They are nocturnal, separated from their mother is a series of
feeding at night. They locate food with their short, sharp, rapid clicks called a “zic” call.
keen sense of smell. Diet includes insects,
lizards, fruits, leaves, birds’ eggs, and gum,
the liquid from plants. Each species, or type, of Lorisidae, may
have a food preference. When feeding, they hang by their feet
from a branch.
SPECIES
PYGMY SLOW LORIS ACCOUNTS
Nycticebus pygmaeus
Diet: Pygmy slow lorises eat fruit, insects, and gums (plant juices).
Some scientists believe this species prefers to eat gum, because in cap-
tivity they have been seen making holes in tree wood to get plant sap.
day, the pygmy slow loris sleeps holding on to branches in the midst
of thick leaves and branches. At night, they use their strong arms and
legs to move slowly and carefully, hand-over-hand, through trees.
Like other lorisids, they mark their trails with urine.
Their mating system is not currently known. Females are pregnant
for 192 days, a little more than six months. They may have one offspring
(baby), or twins. Babies stay with the mother for a few weeks, hanging
on to her belly. As the infant grows, it clings to its mother’s back while
she travels. Then it follows her. Young pygmy lorises stay with their
mother until they are about a year old, then go off on their own.
Pygmy slow lorises and people: Because they move around mostly
at night, and are quite small, few people see them. However, some
pygmy slow lorises are kept as pets in their native areas. Large zoos
may include them in special exhibits.
POTTO
Perodicticus potto
Diet: Pottos eat mostly fruit, but they also eat insects and gums
(plant juices). They find insects by smell. They will eat insects that
other animals might avoid, such as ants, hairy caterpillars, slugs, and
stinky beetles.
Books:
Alterman, Lon, Gerald A. Doyle, and M. Kay Izard, eds. Creatures of the
Dark: The Nocturnal Prosimians. New York: Kluwer Academic Publish-
ers, 1995.
Ankel-Simons, Friderun. Primate Anatomy: An Introduction. San Diego,
CA: Academic Press, 1999.
Konstant, William R., and Ronald M. Nowak. Walker’s Primates of the
World. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000.
Martin, Patricia A. Fink. Lemurs, Lorises, and Other Lower Primates.
Danbury, CT: Children’s Press, 2000.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World. Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Lorises, Potto, and Galagos.” In Walker’s Mammals
of the World Online. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/
primates/primates.lorisidae.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).
Rowe, Noel. The Pictorial Guide to the Living Primates. East Hampton,
NY: Pogonias Press, 1996.
Periodicals:
Churchman, Deborah. “Meet the Primates!” Ranger Rick 31, no. 10
(October 1997): 8.
Stewart, Doug. “Prosimians Find a Home Far From Home.” National
Wildlife (Feb/Mar 1998): 33–35.
“Super Slow, Super Fast.” Ranger Rick (August 1995): 3.
“Wildlife of Tropical Rain Forests.” National Geographic World (January
2000): 22–25.
Web sites:
“Loridae.” Wisconsin Regional Primate Research Center. http://www
.primates.com/primate/loridae.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).
Schulze, Helga. “Loris and Potto Conservation Database.” Loris Con-
servation Project. http://www.loris-conservation.org/database/info.html
(accessed on July 5, 2004).
Schulze, Helga. “Acoustic Communication in Northern Ceylonese Slen-
der Lorises and Some Information about Vocalization by Other Forms
or Species of Lorisidae.” Loris Conservation Project. http://www.loris-
conservation.org/database/vocalization/Loris_voices_with_figures.html
(accessed on July 5, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Galagidae
Number of species: 20 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class The largest bushbaby is the brown greater bushbaby. An
adult male weighs 3.1 pounds (1.4 kilograms). Body length is
subclass
12.5 inches (31.5 centimeters) with a 16.5-inch (41-centimeter)
order tail. The smallest bushbaby is the mouse-size Demidoff’s bush-
monotypic order baby. An adult male weighs 2.5 ounces (65 grams). Its body is
5 inches (13 centimeters) long, with a 7-inch (18-centimeter)
suborder tail. Females are somewhat smaller than males.
▲ family Bushbabies are usually gray, reddish, or brown with lighter
underparts, having gray or dark eye patches. Their fur is thick
and soft, and larger bushbabies have quite long bushy tails that
help them balance. All bushbabies have rounded heads, short
pointed faces with forward-facing eyes, and a pointed snout, or
nose area. They can rotate their head in a full circle. Their ears
individually bend backward or wrinkle forward, enabling them
to better locate sounds. Bushbabies have a special reflective, or
mirror-like layer at the back of their retina, or light-receiving,
part of the eye. This lets them see in extremely dim light. It
also makes their eyes shine in the dark, like a cat’s eye.
Bushbabies have larger hindlegs, or back legs, than forelimbs,
or front legs. Very strong hindlegs and very long anklebones
enable most species to move extremely quickly and accurately.
A bushbaby’s hands and feet have five long slim fingers, or dig-
its, on each forelimb and five long, slim toes on each hindlimb.
Their fingertips have round flat pads of thickened skin that help
them grip firmly onto branches. All digits have nails, except
the second digit of the hind foot, which has a long curved claw
Bushbabies 437
An adult male bushbaby may mate with several females.
Twice a year, one to three infants are born. The young are fully
furred with their eyes open at birth. Bushbaby young spend a
week or longer in a hidden tree nest. The mother may leave
them there while searching for food, or she may travel, carry-
ing her young in her mouth. When she eats, these babies are
placed to cling onto branches. Later, bushbaby young may ride
on their mother’s back as she searches for food. A baby is
weaned, or stops feeding on breastmilk, at about two months
of age. It becomes independent at about four months of age.
Females may remain in their birth area or travel to new areas.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Most species are common in Africa. However one species is
Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction, and six are
Near Threatened, not threatened, but could become so, due to
habitat, or living area, destruction.
SPECIES
SENEGAL BUSHBABY ACCOUNTS
Galago senegalensis
Bushbabies 439
Diet: Senegal bushbabies usually feed on the
gum, or liquid, from acacia (uh-KAY-shah) trees
and insects.
Bushbabies 441
Habitat: Northern greater bushbabies live in
coastal and highland forests.
Books:
Alden, Peter C. National Audubon Society Field Guide to African Wildlife.
New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1995.
Coppard, Kit. Africa’s Animal Kingdom. London: PRC Publishing Ltd, 2001.
Kennaway, Adrienne. Bushbaby. Manningtree, U.K.: Happy Cat Books,
2002.
Maynard, Thane. Primates: Apes, Monkeys, and Prosimians. Danbury,
CT: Franklin Watts, 1999.
Periodicals:
Bearder, Simon K. “Calls of the Wild.” Natural History (August 1995):
48–58.
Churchman, Deborah. “Meet the Primates!” Ranger Rick 31, no. 10
(October 1997).
“Monkeyshines on the Primates.” Monkeyshines Publications (1994): 39.
Stewart, Doug. “Prosimians Find a Home Far From Home.” National
Wildlife (Feb/Mar 1998): 33–35.
“Wildlife of Tropical Rain Forests.” National Geographic World (January
2000): 22–25.
Web sites:
Animal Diversity Web. “Galagonidae.” http://www.primates.com/
primate/galagonidae.html (accessed on June 23, 2004).
The Chaffee Zoo. “Lesser Bush Baby.” http://www.chaffeezoo.org/
animals/bushbaby.html (accessed on June 23, 2004).
Singapore Zoo Docent. “Galagos or Bushbabies.” http://www.
szgdocent.org/pp/p-galago.htm (accessed on June 23, 2004).
Bushbabies 443
DWARF LEMURS
AND MOUSE LEMURS
Cheirogaleidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Cheirogaleidae
Number of species: 17 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Dwarf lemurs and mouse lemurs are the smallest lemurs. The
subclass pygmy mouse lemur weighs just one ounce (30 grams). The
largest of these lemurs is the fork-crowned lemur, weighing
order 16.5 ounces (460 grams), or about a pound. The head and body
monotypic order length of dwarf and mouse lemurs ranges from 4.9 to 10.8
suborder inches (12.5 to 27.4 centimeters), depending on species. Tail
length is about as long as total body length.
▲ family
Dwarf and mouse lemurs have large ears and large, mirror-
like eyes set close together. They have excellent night vision.
Depending on where they live, these lemurs may have grayish
hair or reddish brown hair. Their underbody hair is much
lighter, sometimes whitish or yellowish brown. Body hair is
soft, thick, and woolly.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Dwarf and mouse lemurs live in Madagascar, an island off
the southeast coast of Africa.
HABITAT
Dwarf and mouse lemurs live in a variety of forested habi-
tats, including evergreen rainforest, deciduous forest where
trees lose their leaves each year, and semiarid forest, which
doesn’t get rain part of the year. Mouse lemurs are also found
in patches of scrub vegetation where there are small bushes,
and in people’s gardens in settled areas.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Dwarf, red, and gray mouse lemurs are still fairly common.
However, they and other small lemur species are at risk due to
destruction of their forest habitats, or dwelling places, by hu-
man logging, farming, and cattle and goat grazing. It is esti-
mated that only 10 percent of Madagascar’s forests remain. The
World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists three species as
Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction; one as Vul-
nerable, facing a high risk of extinction; and one as Near Threat-
ened, not currently threatened, but could become so.
SPECIES
RED MOUSE LEMUR ACCOUNT
Microcebus rufus
Physical characteristics: The red mouse lemur, also called the rus-
set mouse lemur and the brown mouse lemur, is reddish brown on its
back and light gray or whitish underneath. It has a whitish stripe be-
tween its large round eyes. Its moveable ears are rounded, thin, and
hairless. Red mouse lemurs are among the smallest primates. An adult
is 5 inches long (12.5 centimeters) with a 5.6-inch tail (14 centimeters).
A full-grown red mouse lemur weighs 1.5 ounces (43 grams). Females
are about the same size as males.
Red mouse lemurs and people: These lemurs are not considered
important by local people.
Books:
Boitani, Luigi, and Stefania Bartoli. Simon & Schuster’s Guide to Mam-
mals. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1983.
Darling, Kathy. Lemurs on Location. New York: HarperCollins, 1998.
Dunbar, Robin, and Louise Barrett. Cousins: Our Primate Relatives.
London: Dorling Kindersley, 2000.
Kavanagh, Michael. A Complete Guide to Monkeys, Apes and other
Primates. New York: The Viking Press, 1983.
Lasky, Kathryn. Shadows in the Dawn: The Lemurs of Madagascar.
New York: Gulliver Books, 1998.
Powzyk, Joyce A. In Search of Lemurs. Washington, D.C.: National
Geographic, 1998.
Sleeper, Barbara. Primates. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1997.
Periodicals:
Banks, Joan. “Living on the Edge: On the Verge of Extinction, Do Lemurs
Have a Fighting Chance?” National Geographic World (Jan–Feb 2002):
12–17.
Hubbard, Kim. “For the Love of Lemurs.” Audubon (September 2000):
60–67.
Mitchell, Meghan. “Securing Madagascar’s Rare Wildlife.” Science News
(November 1, 1997): 287.
“Tiny Lemur: Big Find.” National Geographic Explorer (October 2003):
22–24.
“Wildlife of Tropical Rain Forests.” National Geographic World (January
2000): 22–25.
Web sites:
“Cheirogaleidae: Dwarf Lemurs, Mouse Lemurs.” Animal Diversity Web.
http://www.Primates.com/primate/cheirogaleidae.html (accessed on
July 5, 2004).
“Microcebus rufus: Brown Mouse Lemur.” http://info.bio.sunysb.edu/
rano.biodiv/Mammals/Microcebus-rufus (accessed on July 5, 2004).
“The Mouse Lemur.” http://bibliofile.mc.duke.edu/gww/Berenty/
Mammals/Microcebus-murinus/ (accessed on July 5, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Lemuridae
Number of species: 9 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Lemur males and females are about the same size. Lemurs
weigh 4.4 to 10 pounds (2 to 4.5 kilograms), depending on
subclass
species, with the mongoose lemur being the smallest. Adult
order head and body length is 11 to 22 inches (28 to 56 centimeters).
monotypic order Thickly furred lemur tails are from 11 to 22.5 inches (28 to
65 centimeters) long.
suborder
For jumping ease, lemurs have strong hind or back limbs
▲ family which are longer than their forelimbs, or front legs. For better
branch hold, thumbs and big toes are set at an angle to
the other digits, or fingers and small toes. The palms of
the hands and soles of the feet are deeply ridged, or creased,
adding to strong branch grip. A clawlike grooming nail is pre-
sent on the second toe of each hind foot. It is used to clean
their fur.
Lemurs have foxlike heads with long muzzles, or nose areas.
Large, round, owl-like eyes can be bright red, orange, yellow,
or blue. Ears are medium size. Special comb-shaped front teeth
are used for grooming in addition to the grooming nail. Lemurs
lick their noses to keep them clean and damp. This helps with
odor sensing.
Lemurs can be brown, gray, black, and reddish, often with
mixed colors. For example, the ruffed lemur is black and white,
and the red ruffed lemur is flame-red with a black face and a
white neck patch. Lemur fur is thick and soft. Males and fe-
males may look alike, or quite different, depending on the
species.
HABITAT
Lemurs live in tropical forests, or warm
STINK FIGHTS
damp forested areas, plus subtropical areas
located near tropical areas. These include dry When ringtailed lemur mating occurs in
scrub, dry tropical deciduous forests where April, males begin fighting over females.
leaves fall off during winter months, and oc- These fights involve lots of loud noises, and
casionally grassy areas. “stink fights.” The wrists of male ringtailed
lemur have scent or stink glands. Males
DIET pull their long tail between their wrists,
Lemurs eat plant foods, including flowers, picking up the smell. Males then stand
plant juices, fruits, leaves, seeds, and seed- face-to-face, shaking their stinky tail in the
pods. Occasionally some feed on insects, direction of their enemy. As yet, no one is
small vertebrates such as lizards, and bird’s sure how a winner is declared.
eggs. Bamboo lemurs prefer young bamboo
shoots and leaves.
Lemurs 451
their mating partners. Females are ready to have young at two
to three years old.
After mating, females are pregnant about four months. They
usually give birth when the monsoon, or rainy season, starts.
There are usually one or two infants each birth, although the
ruffed lemur may have up to six infants.
At first, a newborn lemur rides under its mother’s body,
clinging onto her fur. At a month old, it begins riding on its
mother’s back. Shortly after, the young lemur starts wandering
on its own. It is weaned, or taken off breastmilk, by five months.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Madagascar is the only place where lemurs are found. Animal
grazing, farming, tree cutting for fuel and brush fires decrease
habitat, or living areas. Since only 10 to 15 percent of
Madagascar’s forests remain, all lemur species are threatened or
could become threatened. Two species are Critically Endangered,
facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild; one
species is Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction; and
five species are Vulnerable, facing high risk of extinction.
SPECIES
RINGTAILED LEMUR ACCOUNTS
Lemur catta
Lemurs 453
Geographic range: Ringtailed lemurs are found
in Madagascar.
CROWNED LEMUR
Lemur coronatus
Lemurs 455
Crowned lemur males (on the
left) and females (on the right)
Habitat: Crowned lemurs live in dry to moist forests.
live together in social sleeping
groups. (Photograph by Harald Diet: Crowned lemurs prefer fruit, but also eat flowers, flower
Schütz. Reproduced by
permission.)
pollen, and leaves.
Books:
Darling, Kathy. Lemurs on Location. New York: HarperCollins, 1998.
Dunbar, Robin, and Louise Barrett. Cousins: Our Primate Relatives.
London: Dorling Kindersley: 2000.
Lasky, Kathryn. Shadows in the Dawn: The Lemurs of Madagascar.
New York: Gulliver Books, 1998.
Powzyk, Joyce A. In Search of Lemurs. Washington, D.C.: National
Geographic, 1998.
Sleeper, Barbara. Primates. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1997.
Periodicals:
Banks, Joan. “Living On the Edge Lemurs: On the Verge of Extinction, Do
Lemurs Have a Fighting Chance?” National Geographic World (January–
February 2002): 12–17.
Hubbard, Kim. “For the Love of Lemurs.” Audubon (September 2000):
60–67.
Mitchell, Meghan. “Securing Madagascar’s Rare Wildlife.” Science News
(November 1, 1997): 287.
Schleichert, Elizabeth. “Can We Save the Lemurs?” Ranger Rick
(December 2000): 18–24.
“Wildlife of Tropical Rain Forests.” National Geographic World (January
2000): 22–25.
Web sites:
Animal Facts. “Ring-tailed Lemur.” http://www.chaffeezoo.org/animals/
ringTailedLemur.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).
The Lemur Database. “Crowned Lemur.” http://www.stormloader.com/
lemur/crowned.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).
The Lemur Database. “Ring-Tailed Lemur.” http://www.stormloader.
com/lemur/ringtailed.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).
Lemurs. “Lemur catta.” http://bibliofile.mc.duke.edu/gww/Berenty/
Mammals/Lemur-catta/index.html (accessed on July 6, 2004).
Lemurs 457
AVAHIS, SIFAKAS, AND INDRIS
Indriidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Indriidae
Number of species: 8 to 10 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class This family (also spelled Indridae) includes the indris (IN-
dreez), sifakas (suh-FAH-kuhz), and the avahis (ah-VAH-heez)
subclass or woolly lemurs. Head and body length is 10.4 to 20.5 inches
order (26.4 to 52 centimeters). Weight ranges from 2.2 to 16.1
pounds (1 to 7.3 kilograms). The sifakas and avahis have rather
monotypic order
long tails, while the indris have just a stump.
suborder Indriids (members of the Indriidae family) fur color varies.
▲ family Avahis can be whitish, brownish, or reddish. Indris are black
and white. Sifakas are mostly black or dark brown. Fur can be
woolly or silky. Contrasting fur colors occur on their backs,
eyebrows, top of head, and head ruffs (a fringe of long hairs
around the neck). Eye colors include golden brown, orange,
and yellow. Indriid eyes are reflective, like mirrors, increasing
their ability to see in dim light.
Indriids’ hind limbs are longer than forelimbs. There are five
fingers on each of two forefeet and five toes on each of two hind
feet. All toes have nails except the second digit, or toe. This digit
has a grooming (or cleaning) claw. Indriids also have a dental
toothcomb, or special front teeth, used for fur cleaning.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Indriids are found in Madagascar.
HABITAT
Indriids live in a wide range of environments, including orig-
inal forests, disturbed forest fragments, and desert areas with
spiny plants.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Six indriids are considered threatened due to loss of habitat
occurring from deforestation (tree removal), fire, poaching, and
encroaching human populations. The golden-crowned sifaka is
considered Critically Endangered, or at an extremely high risk
of extinction, dying out.
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS MILNE-EDWARDS’S SIFAKA
Propithecus edwardsi
INDRI
Indri indri
Habitat: Indris live in humid moist forests from sea level to 6,000
feet (1,830 meters).
Diet: Indris eat leaves, flowers, and fruits. When these foods are
hard to find, the indri uses its tooth comb to scrape tree bark and
dead wood as food.
Indris and people: In many areas there are local taboos against peo-
ple harming indris, however hunting does occur.
Books:
Dunbar, Robin, and Louise Barrett. Cousins: Our Primate Relatives.
London: Dorling Kindersley, 2000.
Kavanagh, Michael. A Complete Guide to Monkeys, Apes and Other
Primates. New York: The Viking Press, 1983.
Nowak, Ronald M., and John L. Paradiso. Walker’s Mammals of
the World. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press,
1983.
Sleeper, Barbara. Primates. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1997.
Periodicals:
Banks, Joan. “Lemurs: Living on the Edge: On the Verge of Extinction,
Do Lemurs Have a Fighting Chance?” National Geographic World
(January–February 2002): 12–16.
Mitchell, Meghan. “Securing Madagascar’s Rare Wildlife.” Science News
(November 1, 1997): 287.
“Sifaka.” Ranger Rick (August 1999): 37–38.
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Lepilemuridae
Number of species: 7 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Sportive lemurs, also called weasel lemurs, have a head and
body length of 9.8 to 13.8 inches (25.0 to 35.0 centimeters).
subclass
Tail length is 9.8 to 12 inches (25 to 30.5 centimeters). The
order tail may be shorter or longer than the body, depending on
monotypic order species. Body weight is 1.1 to 2.2 pounds (0.5 to 1 kilograms).
suborder Sportive lemurs have short, pointed heads with large round
ears. They have binocular vision, they’re are able to see with
▲ family both eyes at the same time. In the mouth, lower front teeth are
joined and tilted forward. This dental-comb is a grooming, or
fur-cleaning aid. Sportive fur is woolly and dense. All sportive
lemurs have very long, strong hind limbs. They are much longer
than the forelimbs, or front legs.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Sportive lemurs live only on the island of Madagascar, which
is off the east coast of Africa.
BIOMES
Evergreen forests, where the trees stay green all year, and
hot, dry forests.
HABITAT
Most sportive lemurs live in forested areas, ranging from
evergreen rainforests to hot dry forests.
CONSERVATION STATUS
All seven species of sportive lemur are listed by the World
Conservation Union (IUCN) due to loss of forest habitat, or liv-
ing spaces. This is due to slash-and-burn agriculture, where
forests are burned to clear land for people’s homes and farms.
Cattle and goat overgrazing also destroys habitat. Two species
are Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction, and five are Near
Threatened, not currently threatened, but could become so.
SPECIES
RED-TAILED SPORTIVE LEMUR ACCOUNTS
Lepilemur ruficaudatus
Diet: Red-tailed sportive lemurs usually eat leaves, but they also eat
fruit. Because tough leaves are difficult to fully digest, these lemurs
re-digest some of their waste matter, so they can obtain all the nu-
trition from their food.
Books:
Darling, Kathy. Lemurs on Location. New York: HarperCollins, 1998.
Dunbar, Robin, and Louise Barrett. Cousins: Our Primate Relatives.
London: Dorling Kindersley, 2000.
Lasky, Kathryn. Shadows in the Dawn: The Lemurs of Madagascar.
New York: Gulliver Books, 1998.
Powzyk, Joyce A. In Search of Lemurs. Washington, D.C.: National
Geographic, 1998.
Sleeper, Barbara. Primates. San Francisco, CA: Chronicle Books, 1997.
Periodicals:
Banks, Joan. “Living On the Edge Lemurs: On the Verge of Extinction, Do
Lemurs Have a Fighting Chance?” National Geographic World (Jan–Feb
2002): 12–17.
Hubbard, Kim. “For the Love of Lemurs.” Audubon (September 2000):
60–67.
Mitchell, Meghan. “Securing Madagascar’s Rare Wildlife.” Science News
(November 1, 1997): 287.
Schleichert, Elizabeth. “Can We Save the Lemurs?” Ranger Rick
(December 2000): 18–24.
“Wildlife of Tropical Rain Forests.” National Geographic World (January
2000): 22–25.
Web sites:
Animal Diversity Web. “Family Megaladapidae (Sportive Lemurs).”
http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Megaladapidae.html (accessed on July 6, 2004).
Lemurs. “Lepilemur leucopus.” http://bibliofile.mc.duke.edu/gww/
Berenty/Mammals/Lepilemur-leucopus/index.html (accessed on July 6,
2004).
Lemurs. “Red-tailed Sportive Lemur.” http://members.tripod.com/
uakari/leilmur_ruficaudatus.html (accessed on July 6, 2004).
Lemurs. “White-footed Sportive Lemur.” http://members.tripod.com/
uakari/lepilemur_leucopus.html (accessed on July 6, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Daubentoniidae
One species: Aye-aye (Daubentonia
madagascariensis)
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
An aye-aye (EYE-eye) has long, woolly, black or dark brown class
hair tipped with white. Its head is rounded with a short face. subclass
Large, hairless black ears are 4 inches (10 centimeters) long
order
and 2.8 inches (7 centimeters) wide. Large eyes are golden
brown. The aye-aye has white around its nose and above its monotypic order
eyes. Front teeth, or incisors, are quite large. The incisors grow suborder
continuously, and keep growing back as they are worn down
▲ family
by the aye-aye gnawing on trees.
The aye-aye is about 16 inches (40 centimeters) long, in-
cluding head and body. It has a bushy tail, which, at 22 inches
(55 centimeters), is longer than its body. An aye-eye weighs
about 6 pounds (2.7 kilograms). Males and females are about
the same size.
An aye-aye’s arms and legs are about the same size, enabling
it to move easily on all fours. Especially unique, or different,
are the aye-aye’s forefeet or hands. Its hands have five long thin
fingers, with an extremely long thin bony middle finger. There
is a pointed, clawlike nail on every finger and toe, except for
the big toes, which have flat nails. The aye-aye uses its hands
for feeding or cleaning itself.
Another unusual feature is the aye-aye’s two nipples, for
nursing or breastfeeding, which are placed on the lower ab-
domen rather than on the chest. Aye-ayes are the only primates
with this body arrangement.
Aye-Aye 475
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Aye-ayes are found in Madagascar.
HABITAT
Aye-ayes live in several habitats, including
rainforests where the weather is damp or wet
NOSY MANGABE SPECIAL RESERVE throughout the year, dry forests that get lit-
Aye-ayes were once thought to be extinct tle rain, mangroves or riverbank tree areas,
in Madagascar. But in 1957, a small group and bamboo thickets or groups.
was discovered living on Madagascar’s east
coast. There were many attempts to protect DIET
its habitat there, but the aye-aye population An aye-aye’s diet consists of fruits, fungi,
kept growing smaller. Finally, to prevent the seeds including coconuts, nectar (sweet liq-
aye-ayes total disappearance from the world, uid) from palm tree flowers, and wood-
two French scientists spent weeks collecting boring beetle larvae (LAR-vee) or young. To
nine protesting aye-ayes. They were released get at the soft larvae feeding within trees, the
on a nearby uninhabited island called Nosy aye-aye walks along tree branches, its nose
Mangabe. This island is just 2 square miles pressed against the bark. The aye-aye has ex-
(5.2 square kilometers) in size. However it is cellent hearing. It may tap on a branch, lis-
covered in dense rainforest with many very tening for hollow spaces created by larval
tall trees. Scientists hoped the aye-ayes feeding. When a larva is located, the aye-aye
would survive there. For many years, gnaws quickly through the wood with its
scientists weren’t sure. Aye-ayes move about long incisors, or front teeth. Larvae are
only at night, and vegetation is thick, so they squashed with the aye-aye’s unique long, thin
are hard to find. However, eventually middle finger. Squashed remains are scooped
some nests and aye-ayes were seen. It is out, bit-by-bit, and licked off the tip of this
hoped that aye-ayes will multiply on this middle finger. Larvae add protein and fat to
protected island. the aye-aye’s diet.
The aye-aye also uses its strong incisors to
tear through the outer surface of hard-shelled
nuts. Unripe coconuts are a favorite. The aye-aye chews on
them until it makes a hole. Then, it uses its long middle finger
to scrape out the thick coconut milk and the softer interior,
eating both.
Aye-Aye 477
The aye-aye taps on tree bark to
find grubs and insects burrowing
within the bark of a tree.
(Photograph by Harald Schütz.
Reproduced by permission.)
give birth every two to three years. Births can occur at any time
of the year. There is only one infant each time. Babies are
weaned, or stop nursing, at about seven months old.
When moving about in the trees, aye-ayes are usually quiet.
But they can make many different vocalizations, or sounds. These
include an “eep” call when meeting another aye-aye, a “hai-hai”
alarm call when fighting over food, and a begging “bird call”
given by young aye-ayes that want to feed with older animals.
AYE-AYES AND PEOPLE
In many unprotected areas, aye-ayes are destroyed by the lo-
cal people, either due to superstition, or because of aye-aye crop
raiding on coconut plantations—large coconut growing areas.
This problem began when their normal feeding areas were
destroyed.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Aye-ayes are considered Endangered, facing a very high risk
of extinction, or dying out, due to superstition-related killing,
loss of habitat due to logging, and use of former tree land for
Books:
Dunbar, Robin, and Louise Barrett. Cousins: Our Primate Relatives.
London, New York, and Sydney: Dorling Kindersley, 2001.
Kavanagh, Michael A Complete Guide to Monkeys, Apes and Other
Primates. New York: The Viking Press, 1984.
Maynard, Thane. Primates: Apes, Monkeys, and Prosimians. Danbury,
CT: Franklin Watts, 1999.
Nowak, Ronald M., and John L. Paradiso, eds. Walker’s Mammals of the
World. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983.
Sleeper, Barbara. Primates. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1997.
Periodicals:
“Aye-aye.” Ranger Rick (April 1999): 36–38.
Erickson, Carl. “Aye-aye, Sir: There’s Food in These Timbers.” National
Geographic (March 1992).
Skelton, Renee. “Creature of the Night.” National Geographic World
Magazine (1994): 18–31.
Web sites:
Animal Diversity Web. “Daubentoniidae: Aye-aye.” http://www.primates
.com/primate/daubentoniidae.html (accessed on June 22, 2004).
Animal Info. “Aye-aye.” http://www.animalinfo.org/species/primate/
daubmada.htm (accessed on June 22, 2004).
ARKive. “Aye-aye.” http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/mammals/
Daubentonia_madagascariensis/more_info.html (accessed on June 22,
2004).
Docent. “Aye aye.” http://www.szgdocent.org/pp/p-aye.htm (accessed
on June 22, 2004).
Science & Nature: Animals. “Aye aye.” http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/
wildfacts/factfiles/327.shtml (accessed on June 22, 2004).
UNEP, WCMC, WWF. “Aye-aye—Daubentonia madagascariensis.”
http://www.unep-wcmc.org/species/data/species_sheets/ayeaye.htm
(accessed on June 22, 2004).
Aye-Aye 479
TARSIERS
Tarsiidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Tarsiidae
Number of species: 6 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Tarsiers (TAR-see-urz) weigh 2.8 to 5.8 ounces (80 to 165 grams).
Body length is 3 to 6 inches (8 to 15 centimeters), and tail length
subclass
is 5 to 11 inches (13 to 28 centimeters). They range in color from
order sandy to grayish brown to reddish brown. The undersides may
monotypic order be yellowish beige, grayish, or bluish gray. Relative to their body
size, tarsiers have the largest eyes of all mammals. Their goggle-
suborder like eyes cannot move within the sockets, but a flexible neck can
▲ family rotate the head 180 degrees for a backward look.
The tarsier is named for its powerful, extended tarsals
(TAR-sullz), or ankle bones. The tarsals, together with the
merging at the ankles of the two lower-leg bones, the tibia and
fibula, allow for remarkable leaps. Fingers and toes are enlarged
at the tip, with adhesive pads for gripping vertical branches.
The tail is nearly naked, except for a tuft of hair on the tip.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Tarsiers are found in the Philippines, Indonesia, and Borneo.
HABITAT
Tarsiers live in a variety of habitats. They occupy mainly sec-
ondary forests with enough canopies that provide vertical
branches for clinging, usually about 3 to 6 feet (0.9 to 1.8
meters) above the ground. Tarsiers also inhabit shrublands,
bamboo thickets, mangroves, grasslands, and plantations. They
also live in primary forests with their characteristic dense
canopies and thinner lower vegetation.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists the Dian’s tar-
sier as Lower Risk/Conservation Dependent, meaning its survival
depends on conservation efforts. The Eastern tarsier is listed as
Near Threatened, not currently threatened, but could become so,
because of habitat loss and degradation due to human activities.
The Philippine tarsier and three other species found in Indone-
sia are listed as Data Deficient, meaning the species may be well-
studied but information about distribution is lacking.
Tarsiers 481
Philippine tarsier (Tarsius syrichta)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS PHILIPPINE TARSIER
Tarsius syrichta
Tarsiers 483
Western tarsier (Tarsius bancanus)
WESTERN TARSIER
Tarsius bancanus
Tarsiers 485
and scent gland secretions, tarsiers scent mark tree branches to ad-
vertise territory ownership. They are rather quiet, although females
vocalize when ready to mate.
Western tarsiers may be monogamous (muh-NAH-guh-mus), hav-
ing just one partner, or polygynous (puh-LIH-juh-nus), with males
having several partners. Births occur throughout the year, although
more births occur between February and June at the end of the rainy
season. Females give birth to a single infant that weighs about one
quarter of its mother’s weight. The well-developed infant is born with
a full coat and open eyes. It can climb right away after birth.
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Cebidae
Number of species: 12 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Cebids (members of the family Cebidae, including squirrel class
monkeys and capuchins) have round heads, forward-facing
subclass
eyes, rounded snouts, and small ears. Squirrel monkeys are
the smallest cebids. They have a slim body with a dense, soft order
fur that is gray to black on the crown of the head. The body monotypic order
may be yellow, golden, or reddish. The shoulders are gray
to olive, and the underparts are white to yellow. The forearms, suborder
hands, and feet are yellow to golden. The furry tail has a ▲ family
black tip.
Capuchins have a heavy body build. The face is covered with
short fur, while the rest of the body has longer fur. Color ranges
from black to brown to yellowish beige. The chest and shoul-
ders have patches of white, and the underparts are light-colored.
The tail is usually coiled at the tip, earning it the nickname
ringtail monkey.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Squirrel monkeys are found in most of South America and
in Central America (just Costa Rica and Panama). Capuchins
are found in most of South America and Central America and
the Caribbean islands of Trinidad and Tobago.
HABITAT
Cebids are found in the spreading forest canopy and in
smaller understory trees. Squirrel monkeys also inhabit
swamps, while capuchins thrive in dry forests.
CONSERVATION STATUS
IUCN lists the yellow-breasted capuchin as Critically En-
dangered, facing an extremely high risk of extinction, because
of habitat loss and degradation, and hunting for food. It clas-
sifies the red-backed squirrel monkey as Endangered, facing a
very high risk of extinction, and the black squirrel monkey and
the crested capuchin as Vulnerable, facing a high risk of ex-
tinction, due to habitat loss and degradation.
SPECIES
COMMON SQUIRREL MONKEY ACCOUNTS
Saimiri sciureus
WHITE-THROATED CAPUCHIN
Cebus capucinus
White-throated capuchins are in Behavior and reproduction: White-throated capuchins form groups
the trees for all of their activities, of ten to twenty individuals, typically with more adult females than
including sleeping. (J-C Carton/ males, but ruled by a large, older male. They are arboreal and active
Bruce Coleman Inc. Reproduced
by permission.) during the day. When foraging, they call out to one another, using
squeaks, shrieks, and chatters. They groom each other, looking
through each other’s fur to remove parasites and dirt. Males defend
the group’s territory, rubbing urine on their fur and feet and distrib-
uting that scent among the trees. They have been known to throw
branches and fruits at perceived enemies, including humans.
Adults have several partners. Females have single births. The new-
born clings to its mother’s undersides or across her shoulders. After
six weeks, the infant rides on its mother’s back. Males do not share
in childcare. Young males leave their birthplace as early as age two.
WEEPER CAPUCHIN
Cebus olivaceus
Diet: Weeper capuchins eat fruits, buds, shoots, and roots of small
trees. They also feed on insects, snails, and birds.
Books:
Kavanagh, Michael. A Complete Guide to Monkeys, Apes and Other Pri-
mates. New York: The Viking Press, 1983.
Kinzey, Warren G., ed. New World Primates: Ecology, Evolution, and Be-
havior. New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1997.
Napier, John R., and Prue H. Napier. The Natural History of the Primates.
Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1986.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Primates of the World. Baltimore: The Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Periodicals:
Bergman, Charles. “The Peaceful Primates.” Smithsonian (June 1999):
78–86.
Web sites:
Broekema, Iris. “Natural History of the White-Throated Capuchin
(Cebus capucinus).” The Primate Foundation of Panama. http://www
.primatesofpanama.org/academicresources/articles/capuchin.htm (ac-
cessed on July 6, 2004).
Schober, Nathan, and Chris Yahnke. “Cebus olivaceus (Weeping Ca-
puchin).” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.
edu/site/accounts/information/Cebus_olivaceus.html (accessed on July 6,
2004).
The Squirrel Monkey Breeding and Research Resource. “Saimiri Natural
History.” University of South Alabama Department of Comparative Med-
icine. http://www.saimiri.usouthal.edu/saimiri.htm (accessed on July 6,
2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Callitrichidae
Number of species: 41 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Callitrichids (cal-ih-TRICK-ids; members of the family
subclass Callitrichidae) are among the smallest primates and include the
world’s smallest monkey, the pygmy marmoset. They have lux-
order
urious, silky fur that ranges from the brightly colored to the
monotypic order
more subdued black or brownish black. Some species come in
suborder several color combinations. A shock of hair may be worn on
▲ family top of the head, over the nape and shoulder, or as a beard. All
have claws on fingers and toes, except for the big toes. The
claws are useful for vertical clinging. Non-prehensile (non-
grasping) tails are long, sometimes several inches longer than
the body. Most callitrichids have scent glands in different ar-
eas of their bodies.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Callitrichids are found in most of South America and in
Central America (Panama and Costa Rica).
HABITAT
Callitrichids occupy various habitats, including primary
forests with well-developed canopies and secondary forests
with dense understories. They live in open woodlands,
bamboo thickets, and scrub forests, as well as forests along
rivers.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists the black-faced
lion tamarin and the black lion tamarin as Critically Endan-
gered, facing an extremely high risk of extinction, because of
habitat loss/degradation from logging and hunting. The pied
tamarin is also classified as Critically Endangered due to hu-
man expansion into its habitat. Five species are Endangered,
facing a very high risk of extinction, because of habitat
loss/degradation resulting from deforestation for agriculture:
the buffy tufted-ear marmoset, the buffy-headed marmoset, the
SPECIES
COTTON-TOP TAMARIN ACCOUNTS
Saguinus oedipus
Diet: Cotton-top tamarins eat mainly ripe fruits, insects, and spi-
ders. They also feed on flowers, buds, young leaves, nectar, gum, tree
frogs, snails, and lizards.
GOELDI’S MONKEY
Callimico goeldii
PYGMY MARMOSET
Cebuella pygmaea
Diet: Pygmy marmosets consume mainly tree gum, which they col-
lect by excavating holes on tree barks with their sharp lower incisors
Books:
Angier, Natalie, and Nicholas Wade, eds. “Cotton-Top Tamarins: Coop-
erative, Pacifist and Close to Extinct.” In The Science Times Book of
Mammals. New York: The Lyons Press, 1999.
Kinzey, Warren G., ed. New World Primates: Ecology, Evolution, and
Behavior. New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1997.
Napier, John R., and Prue H. Napier. The Natural History of the Primates.
Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1986.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Primates of the World. Baltimore: The Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Preston-Mafham, Rod, and Ken Preston-Mafham. Primates of the World.
New York: Facts on File, Inc., 1992.
Tattersall, Ian. Primates: Lemurs, Monkeys, and You. Brookfield, CT: The
Millbrook Press, 1995.
Periodicals:
Richardson, Sarah. “A Monopoly on Maternity.” Discover (February
1994): 28–29.
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Aotidae
Number of species: 8 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Night monkeys, so named because they are the world’s only class
nocturnal (active at night) monkeys, are medium-sized animals
subclass
weighing about 2 pounds (0.9 kilograms). They measure about
13.5 inches (34 centimeters), with a tail length of about 14.6 order
inches (37 centimeters). Forward-facing, large eyes dominate the monotypic order
round face. The large size of the eyes makes up for the lack of a
reflective eye layer used by many nocturnal mammals for night suborder
vision. Night monkeys are also called owl monkeys because of ▲ family
their round, flat face and eyes that resemble those of an owl.
Night monkeys have a thick, woolly fur that ranges in color
from gray to brown, with yellow to orange undersides. An or-
ange stripe runs down the back. Large white or gray patches sur-
round the eyes and the mouth. Three dark stripes extend from
the top of the nose and on each side of the head. The stripes vary
in darkness and width. Very small rounded ears seem almost ab-
sent in the thick fur. A sac under the chin can be inflated to make
vocalizations louder. The long, bushy tail is non-prehensile, or
incapable of grasping. It is used for balance when traveling
through the forest on hands and feet and for leaping.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Night monkeys are found in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil,
Colombia, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, and Venezuela.
HABITAT
Night monkeys inhabit evergreen tropical rainforests and de-
ciduous scrub forests. They also occupy forests along rivers.
DIET
Night monkeys eat mainly fruits, but also consume leaves,
flowers, insects, tree frogs, spiders, bats, birds, and eggs. They
forage, search for food, at all levels of the forest, from the
canopy down to the forest floor.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The IUCN lists the Andean night monkey as Vulnerable,
facing a high risk of extinction in the wild, because of small
populations and habitat destruction from deforestation. The
gray-bellied night monkey is also classified as Vulnerable due
to hunting by humans and collection for the pet trade and med-
ical research.
SPECIES
ACCOUNT THREE-STRIPED NIGHT MONKEY
Aotus trivirgatus
sac under the chin is used to produce loud vocalizations. The orange,
bushy tail, which is tipped in black, is non-prehensile. It is used for
maintaining balance when leaping on branches and moving on hands
and feet through the different levels of the forest. Males weigh about
1.8 pounds (0.8 kilograms). Females are slightly smaller. The mon-
keys measure 9.5 to 18.5 inches (24 to 47 centimeters) with a tail
length of 8.7 to 16.5 inches (22 to 42 centimeters).
Books:
Kavanagh, Michael. A Complete Guide to Monkeys, Apes and Other Pri-
mates. New York: The Viking Press, 1983.
Kinzey, Warren G., ed. New World Primates: Ecology, Evolution, and Be-
havior. New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1997.
Napier, John R., and Prue H. Napier. The Natural History of the Primates.
Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1986.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Primates of the World. Baltimore: The Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Web sites:
“Aotus trivirgatus (Northern Gray-Necked Owl Monkey).” The Pri-
mate Foundation of Panama. http://www.primatesofpanama.org/
academicresources/articles/monoculture/atrivirgatus.htm (accessed on
July 6, 2004).
The Squirrel Monkey Breeding and Research Resource. “Aotus Natural
History.” University of South Alabama Department of Comparative
Medicine. http://www.saimiri.usouthal.edu/aotus_natural_history.htm
(accessed on July 6, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Pitheciidae
Number of species: 28 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Pitheciids (PITH-uh-sidz; members of the family Pitheciidae)
subclass are small- to medium-sized monkeys, ranging from the small-
est, the titis, to the largest, the uakaris. Male bearded sakis and
order uakaris are about 20 percent larger than the females. Male and
monotypic order female white-faced sakis differ in coloration. The bald uakari
is easily recognized by its pinkish to bright red naked face. All
suborder
pitheciid species have long coats, except for the short-furred
▲ family bearded saki. The bald uakari alone has a short tail, about a
third of its body length. The rest of the species have long, non-
prehensile (nongrasping) tails.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Pitheciids are found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador,
French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, and Suriname.
HABITAT
Pitheciids inhabit a variety of rainforest habitats. Sakis pre-
fer the middle and lower layers of the canopy, as well as the
understory. They are found in savanna forests, mountain
forests, swamps, and forests along rivers, but not flooded
forests. Uakaris choose forests that get flooded from seasonal
rainfall for about six months. Titis occupy coastal forests, liv-
ing in the understory.
DIET
Sakis and uakaris feed mainly on seeds, especially from
tough-skinned fruits, while titis prefer fruit pulps. All species
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists Barbara
Brown’s titi and Coimbra’s titi as Critically Endangered, facing
an extremely high risk of extinction, due to habitat loss or
degradation from logging. The bearded saki is classified as En-
dangered, facing a very high risk of extinction, because of hunt-
ing and pet collection, as well as habitat loss from deforestation.
Six other species are listed as Vulnerable, facing a high risk of
extinction, and two species as Near Threatened, not currently
threatened, but could become so, due to several factors, in-
cluding hunting, capture for the pet trade, and habitat loss from
deforestation for timber and agriculture.
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS WHITE-FACED SAKI
Pithecia pithecia
BALD UAKARI
Cacajao calvus
Diet: Bald uakaris are seed specialists, preferring the seeds found in
unripe fruits and those with hard skins that abound in flooded rain-
forests. They eat young saplings on the ground when the waters dry
up. They also feed on flowers, insects, and snails.
Bald uakaris and people: Bald uakaris are hunted for food and
collected as pets.
MASKED TITI
Callicebus personatus
Periodicals:
Jones, Clyde, and Sydney Anderson. “Callicebus moloch.” Mammalian
Species 112 (December 29, 1978): 1–5.
Web sites:
Heilhecker, Ellen, and Chris Yahnke. “Callicebus personatus (Masked Titi).”
Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/
accounts/information/Callicebus_personatus.html (accessed July 6,
2004).
“What’s Out There in the Primate World?” Investigate Biodiversity.
http://investigate.conservation.org/xp/IB/speciesdiversity/ (accessed
July 6, 2004).
“White-faced Saki.” Como Park Zoo & Conservatory. http://www.
comozooconservatory.org/zoo/saki.htm (accessed July 6, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Atelidae
Number of species: 22 to 24
species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class The atelids (members of the Atelidae family) are the largest
New World primates. They range in color from yellowish beige
subclass
to dark red to black. Males and females of some howler species
order differ in color. Many spider monkeys have light-colored masks
monotypic order around their eyes. Howler and woolly monkeys have stocky
bodies and shorter limbs, while spider monkeys and muriquis
suborder have slimmer bodies and long tails. All tails are prehensile, ca-
▲ family pable of grasping tree branches, so that the monkeys usually
feed while suspended.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Atelids are found in Mexico, all of Central America (Belize,
Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and
Panama), and South America (including Argentina, Bolivia,
Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Paraguay,
Peru, and Venezuela).
HABITAT
Howler monkeys and muriquis inhabit secondary forests
with open canopies. Spider and woolly monkeys prefer full-
canopied primary forests, although spider monkeys are also
found in semideciduous and secondary forests.
DIET
Howler monkeys prefer leaves, while other atelids favor ripe
fruits. All diets are supplemented with flowers, seeds, and insects.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The IUCN lists eleven species as threatened because of con-
tinued hunting and habitat loss and degradation from human
activities. The variegated spider monkey, the northern muriqui,
and the yellow-tailed woolly monkey are listed as Critically En-
dangered, facing an extremely high risk of extinction, dying
out, in the wild. The Guatemalan black howler monkey, the
white-whiskered spider monkey, and the southern muriqui are
listed as Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction. The
Colombian woolly monkey is classified as Vulnerable, facing a
high risk of extinction, and two other species are listed as Near
Threatened, not currently threatened, but could become so.
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS VENEZUELAN RED HOWLER MONKEY
Alouatta seniculus
Habitat: Red howler monkeys prefer the forest canopy and under-
story. They inhabit secondary forests where the canopy is less devel-
oped but the ground vegetation is dense. They are also found in
mountain forests, mangroves, and forests by rivers and streams.
Books:
Emmons, Louise H. Neotropical Rainforest Mammals: A Field Guide.
Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1997.
Periodicals:
Campbell, Christina J. “Female-Directed Aggression in Free-Ranging
Ateles Geoffroyi.” International Journal of Primatology (April 2003):
223–237.
Wallace, Robert. “Diurnal Activity Budgets of Black Spider Monkeys,
Ateles Chamek in a Southern Amazonian Tropical Forest.” Neotropical
Primates (December 2001): 101–107.
Web sites:
Broekema, Iris. “Natural History of the Black-Handed Spider Monkey
(Ateles geoffroyi).” The Primate Foundation of Panama. http://www.
primatesofpanama.org/academicresources/articles/spiderblack.htm
(accessed on July 6, 2004).
Broekema, Iris. “Natural History of the Mantled Howler Monkey
(Aloutta palliata).” The Primate Foundation of Panama.
http://www.primatesofpanama.org/academicresources/articles/howler.
htm (accessed on July 6, 2004).
“Spider Monkey.” Honolulu Zoo. http://www.honoluluzoo.org/spider_
monkey.htm (accessed on July 6, 2004).
“What is a Woolly Monkey?” The Monkey Sanctuary. http://www.
ethicalworks.co.uk/monkeysanctuary/woolly.htm (accessed on July 6,
2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Cercopithecidae
Number of species: 131 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Old World monkeys are divided into the leaf-eating
monkeys (including langurs [lang-GURZ] and colobus and pro-
subclass
boscis monkeys) and the cheek-pouched monkeys (including
order macaques [muh-KOCKS] and mandrills). Most have subdued
monotypic order dark colorations with lighter undersides. Some, such as man-
drills, have spectacular color combinations. All species have for-
suborder ward-facing eyes and short snouts. The buttocks have two
▲ family hardened pads for prolonged sitting. Most have long tails. Leaf-
eaters have a four-chamber stomach for digesting their main
diet of plants. The cheek pouches are used for storing food to
be safely eaten in trees.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Leaf monkeys are found in Asia and Southeast Asia, except
for the colobus monkeys. Cheek-pouched monkeys are found
in Africa, including the Barbary macaque. All other macaques
are found in Southeast Asia.
HABITAT
Old World monkeys live in virtually all land habitats, in-
cluding grasslands, open dry forests, dense evergreen forests,
mangroves, swamps, and forests along rivers. Some live near
humans.
DIET
Leaf monkeys eat mainly leaves. Cheek-pouched monkeys
consume fruits, seeds, insects, and occasionally young leaves.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists five species as
Critically Endangered, facing an extremely high risk of extinc-
tion, due to hunting, as well as habitat loss and degradation
from agriculture, logging, and other human activities. These are
the eastern red colobus, the Tonkin snub-nosed monkey, the
Delacour langur, the white-headed langur, and the Mentawai
macaque. Twenty-two species are classified as Endangered, fac-
ing a very high risk of extinction in the wild; seventeen are Vul-
nerable, facing a high risk of extinction in the wild; and twenty
are Near Threatened, not currently threatened, but could
become so.
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS WESTERN RED COLOBUS
Piliocolobus badius
PROBOSCIS MONKEY
Nasalis larvatus
RHESUS MACAQUE
Macaca mulatta
MANDRILL
Mandrillus sphinx
Books:
Fleagle, John G. Primate Adaptation and Evolution, 2nd ed. San Diego,
CA: Academic Press, 1999.
Kavanagh, Michael. A Complete Guide to Monkeys, Apes and Other Pri-
mates. New York: The Viking Press, 1983.
Periodicals:
Angier, Natalie. “In Mandrill Society, Life Is a Girl Thing.” New York
Times on the Web. http://www.nytimes.com/library/national/
science/052300 sci-animal-mandrill.html (accessed on July 6, 2004).
Ferrero, Jean-Paul. “Swingers of Borneo.” International Wildlife
(November/December 1999): 53–57.
Laman, Tim. “Borneo’s Proboscis Monkeys Smell Trouble.” National
Geographic (August 2002): 100–117.
Web sites:
“Cercopithecids (Cercopithecidae).” Singapore Zoological Garden Docents.
http://www.szgdocent.org/pp/p-cercop.htm (accessed on July 6, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Hylobatidae
Number of species: 10 to 12
species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Gibbons have a thick coat that ranges in color from black to class
silvery gray to ash blond. They have a slender body and no tail.
subclass
The bare face is framed in white fur or other markings. The ex-
tremely long arms, with hooklike fingers, are used for brachi- order
ating (BRAKE-ee-ate-ing), or swinging from branch to branch. monotypic order
Scientists consider gibbons as the only true brachiators, having
powerful shoulder joints for reaching overhead and a wrist that suborder
can be rotated 180 degrees for switching position without tir- ▲ family
ing the arms and upper body. Gibbons are the only apes with
skin pads on their buttocks that allow them to sleep comfort-
ably sitting up.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Gibbons are found in Southeast Asia, including China,
India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos,
Vietnam, Malaysia, and Indonesia.
HABITAT
Gibbons prefer the upper forest canopy, where fruits are abun-
dant and spreading branches allow for continuous travel. They
also thrive in surviving areas of forests that have been logged.
DIET
Ripe fruits are gibbons’ main diet. Figs are their favorite.
They also feed on leaves, flowers, buds, shoots, bird eggs, young
birds, and insects.
Gibbons 551
BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION
Gibbons are predominantly arboreal (tree-
dwelling), defending their territory by chas-
ing intruders and shaking branches. They
sing to advertise ownership. Gibbons brachi-
ate by grasping one branch after another or
SINGING GIBBONS by propelling themselves through the air,
Gibbons typically begin their day by loosening their grasp. They walk upright on
singing. It is thought that singing serves to wide branches or on the ground, arms held
advertise territory ownership or readiness overhead to avoid tripping. They are diurnal
to mate. It also reinforces pair bonds (active during the day), but go to sleep be-
and family ties. Songs are loud and long, fore dark, sleeping in a sitting position.
lasting up to an average of fifteen to thirty The family consists of the parents and one
minutes. The songs, either solos or duets, to four juveniles. Females have single births
follow certain complicated patterns and every two or three years. The mother carries
are specific just to a particular species. the infant around her waist for the first two
Siamangs sing hooting-bark notes made months. When a juvenile reaches the age of
louder by their inflated throat sacs. five, the parent of the same sex may start
chasing it off. Offspring who refuse to leave
home stay in the vicinity of the family, but
keep a distance when feeding and sleeping.
Most leave home when they become sexually mature, or able
to reproduce, at age seven or eight.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The IUCN lists the Moloch gibbon and the eastern black gib-
bon as Critically Endangered, facing an extremely high risk of
extinction in the wild, due to hunting, as well as habitat loss
and degradation from logging and human settlement. The
hoolock gibbon and the black crested gibbon are listed as En-
dangered, facing a very high risk of extinction, due to habitat
loss and degradation from human activities. The pileated gib-
bon, the Kloss gibbon, and the golden-cheeked gibbon are clas-
sified as Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction, due to
habitat loss and degradation from human activities.
SPECIES
PILEATED GIBBON ACCOUNTS
Hylobates pileatus
Gibbons 553
A pileated gibbon family consists
of an adult pair and up to four
offspring. The family searches
for food together. (© Terry
Whittaker/Photo Researchers,
Inc. Reproduced by permission.)
Gibbons 555
Lar gibbon (Hylobates lar)
LAR GIBBON
Hylobates lar
Habitat: Lar gibbons prefer the high forest canopy where plentiful
fruits are found. They occupy evergreen and semi-evergreen forests.
They also inhabit monsoon deciduous forests, characterized by heavy
rainfall and dry periods during which leaves fall.
Gibbons 557
arms. They are territorial, chasing neighbors off their home bound-
aries and advertising ownership by loud singing.
The family consists of the mated pair and their young. However,
there have been reports of the adult male or female moving in with
the neighbors. Some stay permanently; others eventually return home.
Females give birth to one infant every two or three years. When a ju-
venile reaches the age of five, the parent of the same sex may force
it to leave. The young may continue to stay in the vicinity of the fam-
ily, but keeps a distance when feeding and sleeping. Young females
typically leave home by age eight.
Lar gibbons and people: The young are captured for the pet trade,
and the mothers are usually killed.
Conservation status: The IUCN lists the lar gibbon as Near Threat-
ened, not threatened, but could become so, due to habitat loss
and degradation from agriculture, logging, and capture for the pet
trade. ■
SIAMANG
Symphalangus syndactylus
Gibbons 559
Male and female siamangs have
a pinkish throat sac that can be
inflated to magnify the siamangs’
booming and barking calls. (© R.
Van Nostrand/Photo Researchers,
Inc. Reproduced by permission.)
Diet: Siamangs consume ripe fruits, leaves, flowers, shoots, and insects.
Siamangs and people: Some local people revere siamangs for their
impressive songs. Poachers hunt them to sell the meat for food and
body parts for medicinal use.
Books:
Fleagle, John G. Primate Adaptation and Evolution, 2nd ed. San Diego,
CA: Academic Press, 1999.
Hunt, Patricia. Gibbons. New York: Dodd, Mead, & Company, 1983.
Kavanagh, Michael. A Complete Guide to Monkeys, Apes and Other Pri-
mates. New York: The Viking Press, 1983.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Primates of the World. Baltimore: The Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Periodicals:
Brockelman, Walter Y., and Ulrich Reichard. “Dispersal, Pair Formation
and Social Structure in Gibbons, (Hylobates lar).” Behavioral Ecology and
Sociobiology (1998): 329–339.
Geissman, Thomas, and Mathias Orgeldinger. “The Relationship between
Duet Songs and Pair Bonds in Siamangs, Hylobates syndactylus.”
Animal Behaviour (2000): 805–809.
Gibbons, Ann. “Monogamous Gibbons Really Swing.” Science (1998):
677–678.
Web sites:
“Gibbon.” American Zoo and Aquarium Association Ape Taxon Advisory
Group (AZA Ape TAG). http://www.apetag.org/Ape%20Tag/gibbon.html
(accessed on July 6, 2004).
Gibbons 561
“Great Apes & Other Primates: Siamangs.” Smithsonian National Zoo-
logical Park. http://natzoo.si.edu/Animals/Primates/Facts/FactSheets/
Gibbons/Siamang/ (accessed on July 6, 2004).
“White-Handed Gibbon.” Honolulu Zoo. http://www.honoluluzoo.org/
whitehanded_gibbon.htm (accessed on July 6, 2004).
Other sources:
Gibbon Research Lab and Gibbon Network. http://www.gibbons.de
(accessed on July 6, 2004).
Gibbon Conservation Center. http://www.gibboncenter.org (accessed on
July 6, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Hominidae
Number of species: 7 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Gorillas, chimpanzees, and bonobos are dark-colored, while class
orangutans are reddish brown. All have arms that are longer than
subclass
their legs. Gorilla and orangutan males are twice as big as fe-
males. Great apes have forward-facing eyes for three-dimensional order
(height, width, and depth) viewing. They have powerful fingers monotypic order
and toes for gripping branches. They have no tails.
suborder
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE ▲ family
Orangutans are the only great apes residing in Asia, in the
countries of Indonesia and Malaysia. Gorillas and chimpanzees
live in most countries of Africa, while bonobos are found only
in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
HABITAT
Great apes generally occupy fully developed forest canopies
and dense shorter vegetation. They inhabit grasslands, bamboo
forests, swamp forests, and mountain forests.
DIET
The diet of great apes includes fruits, leaves, flowers, seeds,
barks, insects, and meat.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The IUCN lists the Sumatran orangutan as Critically En-
dangered, facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the
wild, due to hunting, as well as habitat loss and degradation
from agriculture and logging. The remaining five great ape
species are Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction,
for the same reasons.
SPECIES
BORNEAN ORANGUTAN ACCOUNTS
Pongo pygmaeus
WESTERN GORILLA
Gorilla gorilla
CHIMPANZEE
Pan troglodytes
HUMAN
Homo sapiens
Books:
Arsuaga, Juan Luis. The Neanderthal’s Necklace: In Search of the First
Thinkers. New York: Four Walls Eight Windows, 2001.
Bright, Michael. Gorillas: The Greatest Apes. New York: DK Publishing,
Inc., 2001.
Dunbar, Robin, and Louise Barrett. Cousins: Our Primate Relatives.
New York: DK Publishing, Inc., 2001.
Estes, Richard D. The Behavior Guide to African Mammals: Including
Hoofed Mammals, Carnivores, Primates. Berkeley, CA: The University of
California Press, 1991.
Fleagle, John G. Primate Adaptation and Evolution, 2nd ed. San Diego,
CA: Academic Press, 1999.
Grace, Eric S. Apes. San Francisco, CA: Sierra Club Books for Children,
1995.
Kaplan, Gisela, and Lesley J. Rogers. The Orangutans: Their
Evolution, Behavior, and Future. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2000.
Lindsey, Jennifer The Great Apes. New York: MetroBooks, 1999.
Lynch, John, and Louise Barrett. Walking with Cavemen. New York: DK
Publishing, Inc., 2003.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Primates of the World. Baltimore: The Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Povey, Karen. The Chimpanzee. San Diego, CA: Lucent Books, 2002.
Russon, Anne E. Orangutans: Wizards of the Rain Forest. New York:
Firefly Books, 2000.
Tattersall, Ian. Becoming Human: Evolution and Human Uniqueness.
New York: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1998.
Web sites:
Friend, Tim. “Chimp Culture.” International Wildlife (September/October
2000). Online at http:www.nwf.org/internationalwildlife/2000/chimpso.
html (accessed on July 7, 2004).
“Great Apes & Other Primates: Gorillas.” Smithsonian National Zoologi-
cal Park. http://natzoo.si.edu/Animals/Primates/Facts/FactSheets/
Gorillas/default.cfm (accessed on July 7, 2004).
Gunung Palung Orangutan Project. http://www.fas.harvard.edu/
gporang/index.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).
“Orangutans: Just Hangin’ On.” Public Broadcasting Service (PBS)
Nature. http://pbs.org/wnet/nature/orangutans/index.html (accessed
on July 7, 2004).
Sea World Education Department. “Gorillas.” Sea World/Busch
Gardens ANIMALS. http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/info-books/
gorilla/index.htm (accessed on July 7, 2004).
Stanford, Craig B. “Chimpanzee Hunting Behavior and Human Evolution.”
American Scientist Online http://www.americanscientist.org/template/
AssetDetail/assetid/24543?fulltext=true&print=yes (accessed on July 7,
2004).
●
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Number of families: 12 families
order C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class The order Carnivora (kar-NIH-vuh-ruh) refers to a group of
mammals whose evolutionary ancestors were carnivores, or
subclass
meat-eaters. Over several millions of years, these ancestors had
● order adapted to the rise of bigger and more powerful herbivores,
monotypic order their main prey, by developing carnassials (kar-NAH-see-uls),
bladelike teeth that slice through flesh. Powerful jaws that move
suborder up and down were especially useful for stabbing and holding
family prey and the incisors for biting off pieces of food.
Although the 264 species in the order Carnivora come from
the same ancestors, not all species eat only meat. Therefore,
while the carnassials are very pronounced in species that eat
large prey (cats, for example), those that are not purely car-
nivorous have less developed carnassials (bears). Some, like the
aardwolf that feeds on termites, and the giant panda that eat
mainly bamboo, have no carnassials at all.
Carnivores come in a wide range of sizes. The smallest car-
nivore, the least weasel, weighs about 1.76 ounces (50 grams).
In contrast, the southern elephant seal, the largest carnivore,
weighs about 5,300 pounds (2,400 kilograms). Some carnivores
are terrestrial (land-dwelling) mammals, including the familiar
dogs, cats, bears, raccoons, hyenas, mongooses, and skunks.
Land carnivores either walk on the soles and heels of their feet
(plantigrade) or on their toes (digitigrade). A combination of
strong bones in the feet and bendable wrists allow these mam-
mals to climb, run, jump, and overcome their prey. An unde-
veloped collarbone allows for increased movements of the arms
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Carnivores are found throughout the world. Some, however,
are not naturally occurring but have been introduced to some
areas.
HABITAT
Carnivores are found both on land and sea. Although most
terrestrial carnivores live on land, the polar bear spends most
of its time on sea ice, while the palm civet is arboreal (a tree-
dweller). The sea otter lives exclusively in the water, as op-
posed to other marine carnivores who forage in the sea and
breed on land.
DIET
The term carnivore literally means meat-eater, but not all
species in the order Carnivora live on a strict diet of meat.
Among the true carnivores are cats. Although lions in the Kala-
hari Desert have been known to eat melons, they only do so
for the moisture content, not for sustenance. Some mustelids
(weasels, martens, and otters) are also pure carnivores. The rest
of the mustelids (skunks, badgers, and tayras) are omnivores,
supplementing their meat diet with fruits, roots, and seeds. The
bears are generally omnivores, although most prefer a larger
proportion of plant food, including fruits, grasses, and roots.
The exceptions in the bear family are the giant panda that lives
exclusively on bamboo and the polar bear that consumes mainly
ringed seals.
Procyonids (raccoon family) are omnivores, with several
food specialists. Ringtails prefer meat, red pandas eat mainly
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) promotes the con-
servation of species, assesses their conservation status world-
wide, and publishes an annual list of threatened species. The
2003 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species lists 125 carnivores
as threatened. Five are listed as Extinct, no longer living: the
Falkland Island wolf, the Caribbean monk seal, the sea mink,
the Barbados raccoon, and the Japanese sea lion. The black-
footed ferret is classified as Extinct in the Wild. The five Crit-
ically Endangered species, facing an extremely high risk of
extinction, are the red wolf, the Ethiopian wolf, the Iberian
lynx, the Mediterranean monk seal, and the Malabar civet.
The Endangered list of carnivores, facing a very high risk of
extinction, consists of thirty-one species, made up of one dog,
Books:
Attenborough, David. The Life of Mammals. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 2002.
Ewer, R. F. The Carnivores. Ithaca, NY: Comstock Publishing Associates,
1998.
Kruuk, Hans. Hunter and Hunted: Relationships between Carnivores and
People. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
McLoughlin, John C. “The Rise of the Carnivores” and “The World of Mam-
malian Carnivores.” The Canine Clan. New York: The Viking Press, 1983.
Wade, Nicholas, ed. The Science Times Book of Mammals. New York:
The Lyons Press, 1999.
Whitaker, John O. Jr., and William J. Hamilton Jr. Mammals of the East-
ern United States, 3rd ed. Ithaca, NY: Comstock Publishing Associates,
1998.
Periodicals:
Tedford, Richard H. “Key to the Carnivores.” Natural History (April 1994):
74–77.
Web sites:
American Society of Mammalogists. Why Species Become Threat-
ened or Endangered: A Mammalogist’s Perspective. http://www
.mammal-society.org/committees/commconslandmammals/whyendan-
gered.pdf(accessed on June 23, 2004).
World Conservation Union. The IUCN Red List Collection. http://
www.iucn.org/redlistcollection/english/index.html (accessed on June
23, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Canidae
Number of species: 35 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Canids (members of the dog family) have a uniform body class
color with markings on the head and tail tip. Dogs typically
subclass
come in black, black and white, brown, or red. The only ex-
ception is the African wild dog that has patches of black, white, order
and yellow. The canid’s coat consists of a dense underfur and monotypic order
an overcoat of waterproof guard hairs, which retain a large
amount of body heat for survival in very cold climates. Canids suborder
range in weight from the fennec fox, at about 3 pounds (1.3 ▲ family
kilograms), to the gray wolf, which can be as heavy as 175
pounds (80 kilograms). They are digitigrade, walking on their
toes. This enables them to make quick stops and turns. A keen
sense of smell comes from more than 200 million scent cells
in the nose (humans have about five million scent cells).
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Canids live on every continent except Antarctica.
HABITAT
Most canids favor areas where forests meet open country.
Some live in deserts. The Arctic fox and some gray wolves oc-
cupy the tundra. The bush dog and raccoon dog prefer thick
forests near water. Canids have also adapted to human
environments.
DIET
Canids primarily prey on other mammals. Large prey include
elk and caribou, and small animals include rodents and rabbits.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The United States lists the red wolf as Endangered, facing a
very high risk of extinction in the wild, because of habitat loss
due to deforestation and hunting. The IUCN classifies the
African hunting wolf and the Ethiopian wolf as Endangered be-
cause of habitat loss resulting from human settlement and
killing.
SPECIES
GRAY WOLF ACCOUNTS
Canis lupus
Diet: Packs hunt large ungulates, or hoofed animals, such as elk and
deer, but lone wolves usually hunt smaller animals, including rabbits,
beavers, and mice. Wolves also eat carrion and prey on domestic live-
stock, insects, fish, and berries. In the Arctic, they eat birds, seals,
and caribou. An adult eats an average of 5.5 to 13 pounds (2.5 to 6
kilograms) of food per day. If food is unavailable, it can fast for two
or more weeks.
RED FOX
Vulpes vulpes
Physical characteristics: The largest of all foxes, the red fox is red-
dish brown with a white- or black-tipped bushy tail. It weighs 6 to
15 pounds (2.7 to 6.8 kilograms). The snout, backs of the ears, and
the lower legs and feet are black. Sensitive, pointed ears can detect
prey from 150 feet (45 meters) away. Sensitive whiskers guide the
fox in inflicting a killing bite on the prey’s body.
Diet: Red foxes prefer rodents but also feed on rabbits, squirrels,
insects, earthworms, birds, and carrion. They eat fruits and human
Red foxes and people: Red foxes are prized for their fur and for the
sport of fox hunting. However, a love-hate relationship exists between
foxes and humans. Some suburbanites treat them as pets, putting out
food for them. Others detest them for stealing house pets and livestock.
MANED WOLF
Chrysocyon brachyurus
Books:
Alderton, David. Foxes, Wolves and Wild Dogs of the World. New York:
Facts on File, 2004.
Gibson, Nancy. Wolves. Stillwater, MN: Voyageur Press, 2002.
Greenaway, Theresa. The Secret World of Wolves, Wild Dogs, and Foxes.
Austin, TX: Raintree Steck-Vaughn Publishers, 2001.
Periodicals:
Henry, J. David. “Spirit of the Tundra (Arctic and Red Foxes).” Natural
History (December 1998): 60–65.
Larivière, Serge, and Maria Pasitschniak-Arts. “Vulpes vulpes.” Mam-
malian Species 537 (December 27, 1996): 1–11.
Robbins, Jim. “Weaving a New Web: Wolves Change an Ecosystem.”
27, no. 3 (1998). Online at http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Publications/
ZooGoer/1998/3/weavingwolfweb.cfm (accessed on July 6, 2004)
Stewart, Doug. “Caught in a Dog Fight.” National Wildlife (June–July
1999): 34–39.
Walker, Tom. “The Shadow Knows (In Alaska’s Far North, the Arctic Fox
Shares its Secrets of Survival).” National Wildlife (February/March 2002):
46–53.
Web sites:
“Canid Species Accounts.” IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group.
http://www.canids.org/SPPACCTS/sppaccts.htm (accessed July 6,
2004).
“Delisting a Species.” U.S. Fish & Wildlife Services. http://
endangered.fws.gov/recovery/delisting.pdf (accessed July 6, 2004).
Gorog, Antonia. “Chrysocyon brachyurus (Maned Wolf).” Animal
Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/
information/Chrysocyon_brachyurus.html (accessed July 6, 2004).
Hinrichsen, Don. “Wolves Around the World: The Global Status
of the Gray Wolf.” Defenders of Wildlife. http://www.defenders.org/
publications/wolvesarworld.pdf (accessed July 6, 2004).
Ives. Sarah. “Wolves Reshape Yellowstone National Park.” National
Geographic Kids News. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/kids/2004/
03/wolvesyellowstone.html (accessed July 6, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Ursidae
Number of species: 8 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Bears have big heads, round ears, small eyes that face for- class
ward, very short tails, and stocky legs. They are plantigrade,
subclass
walking on the heels and soles of their feet like humans do.
Each paw has five curved claws that are not retractable, or can- order
not be pulled back. monotypic order
Bears come in many colors, from the familiar black, brown, suborder
and white to blonde, cinnamon, and blue-gray. Some have a
yellow, orange, or white chest marking in the form of a patch, ▲ family
a letter V or U, or a short horizontal line. Spectacled bears are
called “spectacled” because of the light markings around their
eyes. Among Malayan sun bears, the smallest species, males
are 4 to 5 feet (1.2 to 1.5 meters) long and weigh between 60
and 150 pounds (27 and 70 kilograms). In comparison, male
polar bears on average are 8 to 9 feet (2.4 to 2.7 meters) long
and weigh 900 to 1,300 pounds (400 to 590 kilograms).
Females, or sows, of all species are usually smaller than males,
or boars.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Spectacled bears are found in Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador,
Peru, and Venezuela. Brown bears live in the United States,
Canada, Europe, and Asia. American black bears inhabit
the United States, Mexico, and Canada. Malayan sun bears,
sloth bears, and Asiatic black bears thrive in Asia. Giant
pandas live in China, while polar bears occupy the Arctic
regions.
Bears 593
HABITAT
Bears live in a variety of habitats. For ex-
ample, spectacled bears can be found in
the dense rainforests of South America, and
Malayan sun bears thrive in tropical rain-
forests in Southeast Asia, while polar bears
SURVIVING IN THE ARCTIC live on the Arctic tundra.
The polar bear has a dense underfur next
DIET
to its skin and a water-repellent outer fur,
called guard hairs. The hairs are clear, hollow Bears are generally omnivores, eating both
tubes that conduct sunlight to the black skin, plants and animals. However, the polar bear
where heat is absorbed. The clear tubes is almost entirely carnivorous, eating mainly
reflect sunlight, making the outer coat ringed seals, while the giant panda lives ex-
appear white. Blending in with the whiteness clusively on bamboo. The sloth bear favors
of the ice and snow, the polar bear can easily termites and ants. The other species, while
sneak up on its prey. The hollow hairs also preferring plant sources, also eat young ani-
keep the bear afloat when swimming. A thick mals and fish.
layer of blubber, or fat, further insulates the
body from the cold. Compact ears also BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION
prevent heat loss. Fur-covered feet serve as Bears maintain a solitary lifestyle, living
snowshoes, while thickly padded soles alone, except when mating and rearing their
provide traction against slippage on ice. young. When food is plentiful, they share but
keep their personal space. Bears are usually
crepuscular (active at dawn and dusk). Their
excellent memory enables them return to past
food sources. They are agile tree climbers and fast runners,
reaching speeds of up to 30 miles per hour (48 kilometers per
hour). Polar bears and Asiatic black bears are expert swimmers.
Most bears mate during spring or summer, but the fertilized
egg undergoes delayed implantation, during which it takes
up to six months to attach to the uterus and start developing.
As a result, cubs are born tiny, ranging in weight from
about 11 ounces (325 grams) in sun bears to 21 ounces (600
grams) in polar and brown bears. Most sows have two cubs,
although some have as many as five. Depending on the species,
cubs may stay with their mothers for one to more than four
years.
Bears 595
American black bear (Ursus americanus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS AMERICAN BLACK BEAR
Ursus americanus
Alaska and Labrador, Canada. They are also found around campsites
and other places where human food and garbage are available.
Bears 597
rarely attack humans, although they may become aggressive in places
where human food is found. Some bears damage cornfields and
beehives.
GIANT PANDA
Ailuropoda melanoleuca
Bears 599
Giant pandas live in bamboo
forests in China. They are
an important symbol for
conservation. (© Keren
Su/Corbis. Reproduced by
permission.)
Diet: The giant pandas’ diet consists almost entirely of bamboo. Oc-
casionally they eat bulbs and small animals, such as bamboo rats and
musk deer fawns.
Bears 601
Polar bear (Ursus maritimus)
POLAR BEAR
Ursus maritimus
Geographic range: Polar bears live in the icy Arctic Ocean and in
the countries that extend into the ocean: United States (Alaska),
Canada, Russia, Norway, and Greenland (a territory of Denmark).
Habitat: Polar bears prefer the Arctic pack ice, formed when big
pieces of thick ice are frozen together. In summer, when the ice melts,
they live on land, staying close to the water.
Diet: Polar bears eat mainly ringed seals and occasionally bearded
seals. They also prey on walruses and belugas. In warmer months,
they hunt ducks and rabbits, as well as feed on mussels, berries, and
kelp, a brown seaweed.
Polar bears and people: Once hunted as trophies and for their fur
and meat, polar bears are now protected by the laws of the five coun-
tries where they live.
Bears 603
the bears from hunting their primary food source, the ringed seals, on
the sea ice. ■
Books:
Busch, Robert H. The Grizzly Almanac. New York: The Lyons Press, 2000.
Craighead, Lance. Bears of the World. New York: Voyageur Press, 2000.
Lumpkin, Susan, and John Seidensticker. Smithsonian Book of Giant
Pandas. Washington, D.C. and London, England: Smithsonian Institution
Press, 2002.
Patent, Dorothy Hinshaw. A Polar Bear Biologist at Work. New York:
Grolier Publishing, 2001.
Periodicals:
Conover, Adele. “Sloth Bears: They Eat Ants, but Take On Tigers.”
Smithsonian (January 2000): 88–95.
Fair, Jeff. “When Bears Go Fishing.” Ranger Rick (June 2001): 38–39.
Kleiman, Devra G. “Giant Pandas: Bamboo Bears.” ZooGoer 21, no. 2
(1992) Online at http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Publications/ZooGoer/
1992/2/giantpandasbamboobears.cfm (accessed on June 15, 2004).
Morrison, Jim. “The Incredible Shrinking Polar Bears.” National Wildlife
42, no. 2 (2004) Online at http://www.nwf.org/nationalwildlife/article.
cfm?articleId=880&issueId=66 (accessed on June 15, 2004)
Zoffka, Kennda. “Sleeping with the Bears.” Odyssey (January 2002):
38–39.
Web sites:
American Zoo and Aquarium Association Bear Advisory Group. “Bear
species.” The Bear Den. http://www.bearden.org/species.html (ac-
cessed on June 15, 2004).
“Black Bears.” National Park Service, Big Bend National
Park. http://www.nps.gov/bibe/teachers/factsheets/blackbear.htm (ac-
cessed on June 15, 2004).
Sea World Education Department. “Polar Bears.” SeaWorld/Busch
Gardens Animal Information Database. http://www.seaworld.org/
infobooks/PolarBears/home.html (accessed on June 15, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Procyonidae
Number of species: 16 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Procyonids (members of the Procyonidae family) range in class
size from the ringtail, at 2 pounds (1 kilogram), to the north-
subclass
ern raccoon, at 35 pounds (16 kilograms). Most have a rounded
head. The erect ears may be rounded or pointed. The snout order
may be short or long. Except for kinkajous, procyonids have monotypic order
long tails with alternating dark and light rings. In the kinka-
jou, the ringless tail is prehensile, able to grab on to tree suborder
branches. Fur coloration ranges from pale yellowish gray (ring- ▲ family
tail) to reddish brown (red panda) to grayish black (white-
nosed coati [kuh-WAH-tee]). Most have facial markings. Each
paw has five toes with short, recurved claws, or claws that curve
back. Procyonids are generally plantigrade, walking on the heels
and soles of their feet instead of on their toes.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Except for red pandas, procyonids are found throughout
Central America (including Costa Rica and Panama), South
America (including Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia,
Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela), the United States, Canada,
Mexico, Germany, and Russia. Red pandas live in Asia, in-
cluding China, India, Nepal, and Tibet.
HABITAT
Some procyonids prefer forested areas close to streams and
rivers where they can fish for food. Many inhabit a mixed conif-
erous-deciduous forest, with rich vegetation and canopies (up-
permost forest layers made up of the spreading branches of
SPECIES
NORTHERN RACCOON ACCOUNTS
Procyon lotor
RED PANDA
Ailurus fulgens
Diet: The red panda is a folivore, eating almost exclusively the leaves
of bamboo. On rare occasions, it eats fruits, berries, acorns, other
grasses, as well as bamboo rats, insects, young birds, and bird eggs.
It spends up to thirteen hours consuming 2 to 3 pounds (1 to 1.4
kilograms) of leaves. The panda has a carnivore’s digestive system
that is not adapted for processing plant fiber. Since it gets very little
nutrients from the small amount of digested food, it has to eat plenty
of leaves.
Red pandas and people: Red pandas are popular zoo animals. Some
Asian cultures make caps from the fur, believed to bring good for-
tune, especially to newlyweds.
Books:
Glatston, Angela R. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan for Pro-
cyonids and Ailurids: The Red Panda, Olingos, Coatis, Raccoons, and
their Relatives. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 1994.
Kite, Patricia. Raccoons. Minneapolis: Lerner Publications Company,
2004.
MacClintock, Dorcas. Red Pandas: A Natural History. New York: Charles
Scribner’s Sons, 1988.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Raccoons.” Walker’s Mammals of the World Online.
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. http://www.press.
jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/carnivora/carnivora.
procyonidae.procyon.html (accessed on July 6, 2004).
Zeveloff, Samuel I. Raccoons: A Natural History. Washington, D.C.:
Smithsonian Institution Press, 2002.
Web sites:
Heath, Terrell, and Josh Platnick. “Ailurus fulgens (Red Panda).” Animal
Diversity web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/
information/Ailurus_fulgens.html (accessed on July 6, 2004).
“Procyonids: Raccoons, Ringtails & Coatis.” Arizona-Sonora Desert
Museum. http://www.desertmuseum.org/books/nhsd_procyonids.html
(accessed on July 6, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Mustelidae
Number of species: 65 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Mustelids, members of the family Mustelidae, may either
have a slim, elongated body and long tail like weasels, mink,
subclass
martens, and otters, or a stocky body and short tail like bad-
order gers and wolverines. Some have webbed feet for swimming.
monotypic order Their fur may be uniform in color, striped, or spotted. They
may be white, silver, brown, or black in color. The smallest
suborder mustelid, the least weasel, is also the smallest carnivore, weigh-
▲ family ing about 1.76 ounces (50 grams).
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Mustelids are found on all continents except Antarctica. They
live in such countries as the United States, Canada, Mexico, Japan,
Mongolia, Great Britain, Ireland, Finland, Algeria, and Morocco.
HABITAT
Mustelids inhabit a wide range of habitats. Sea otters live ex-
clusively in the ocean, while river otters forage for food in water
but den (make a den, or place to live) on land. Some live in the
desert like the honey badgers, and others in tundra marshes, like
ermines. Some take over their prey’s dens, such as black-footed
ferrets. Others, including skunks and badgers live near humans
under abandoned buildings, in golf courses, and in parks.
DIET
Mustelids are either true carnivores, such as weasels, martens,
and otters, feeding mainly on meat, or omnivores, like skunks,
badgers, and tayras, consuming both animals and plants. Their
CONSERVATION STATUS
The United States classifies the black-footed ferret as En-
dangered due to habitat loss to agriculture and the declining
population of prairie dogs, its main prey. The IUCN lists the
black-footed ferret as Extinct in the Wild, and four otters, two
weasels, and one mink as Endangered, facing a very high risk
of extinction in the wild.
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS ERMINE
Mustela erminea
Ermines and people: Some people value ermines for killing rats and
mice. Americans used the black-tipped tails as ornaments, while
European royalties made ceremonial robes out of the whole fur.
STRIPED SKUNK
Mephitis mephitis
dens during the day and foraging at night when their prey are active.
They also thrive in the tundra, especially in marshes during the sum-
mer thaw. Skunks also live in suburban areas.
Striped skunks and people: Skunk musk, with its odor removed,
is an important perfume ingredient that enables perfume to evapo-
rate slowly and emit fragrance longer. Striped skunks kill rodents and
insects that destroy crops but they sometimes assault chickens and
damage beehives. In North America, they are carriers of rabies, an of-
ten deadly disease affecting the central nervous system and transmit-
ted through the skunk’s saliva.
EUROPEAN OTTER
Lutra lutra
freshwater pools are formed from abundant rainfall. They den on land,
inhabiting swamps along rivers and lakes, and on dry land among
tree roots and abandoned animal burrows.
Diet: European otters consume fish, frogs, crabs, small rodents, and
aquatic birds. They eat small prey in the water, but haul out larger
prey to shore. They eat the equivalent of 20 percent of their body
weight every day.
EUROPEAN BADGER
Meles meles
Books:
Darbyshire, John, and Laurie Campbell. Badgers. Moray, U.K.: Colin
Baxter Photography, 1998.
Foster-Turley, Pat, Sheila Macdonald, Chris Mason, and the IUCN/SSC
Otter Specialist Group, eds. Otters: An Action Plan for their Conserva-
tion. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 1990.
Ivy, Bill. Weasels. Danbury, CT: Grolier Educational Corporation, 1986.
Love, John A. Sea Otters. Golden, CO: Fulcrum Publishing, 1992.
Periodicals:
Bauman, Richard. “Getting Skunked: Understanding the Antics Behind
the Smell.” Backpacker (May 1993): 30–31.
Conniff, Richard. “You Can Call Him ‘Cute’ or You Can Call Him Hungry.”
Smithsonian (February 1997): 81–91.
King, Carolyn M. “Mustela erminea.” Mammalian Species 195 (April 8,
1983): 1–8.
Line, Les. “The Benefits of Badgers.” National Wildlife (December-
January 1995): 18–23.
Wade-Smith, Julia, and B. J. Verts. “Mephitis mephitis.” Mammalian
Species 173 (May 25, 1982): 1–7.
Weidensaul, Scott. “The Rarest of the Rare.” Smithsonian (November
2000): 118–128.
Web sites:
“Black-footed ferret.” U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. http://endangered.
fws.gov/i/A07.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).
National Federation of Badger Groups. http://www.badger.org.uk/tb/
(accessed on July 7, 2004).
Division of Fish, Wildlife and Marine Resources. “Furbearer Profiles: The
Striped Skunk.” New York State Department of Environmental Conser-
vation. http://www.dec.state.ny.us/website/dfwmr/wildlife/wildgame/
skunkinny.htm (accessed on July 7, 2004).
Badgerland Home Page. http://www.badgerland.co.uk/main.html
(accessed on July 7, 2004).
“Mustelids.” Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum. http://www.desertmuseum
.org/books/nhsd_mustelids.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Viverridae
Number of species: 34 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Viverrids (civets, genets, and linsangs) have long, slender
bodies and short legs. Some have a uniform coloration, while
subclass
others are marked with spots, bars, or both. The fur is short.
order The tail, sometimes longer than the body, is bushy and may be
monotypic order ringed with alternating dark and light colors. The snout is
pointed, and the ears are erect. Most have five toes on each
suborder paw. Viverrids are the only carnivores with perineal (per-uh-
▲ family NEE-uhl) glands (perfume glands between the anus and the
genital organs) that produce a strong-smelling substance used
for defense, territory marking, and sexual communication.
These glands are most developed in civets and genets.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Viverrids are found in western Europe (including France,
Portugal, and Spain), Southeast Asia (including Thailand,
Malaysia, and Indonesia), and most of Africa.
HABITAT
Viverrids occupy tropical deciduous forests that provide
canopies (uppermost layer of a forest consisting of spreading
branches). They also inhabit tall grasses and thick brush for
cover. Some prefer wetlands, while others live near rivers and
streams.
DIET
Most viverrids eat rodents, insects, reptiles, frogs, birds,
crabs, carrion (dead and decaying flesh), eggs, fruits, and nuts.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The IUCN lists eight species as threatened. The Malabar civet
is classified as Critically Endangered, facing an extremely high
risk of extinction, due to habitat loss, predation, and hunting
by humans. The otter civet and the crested genet are listed as
Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction, because of
habitat loss/degradation, predation, and hunting by humans.
SPECIES
AFRICAN CIVET ACCOUNTS
Civettictis civetta
COMMON GENET
Genetta genetta
Books:
Attenborough, David. The Life of Mammals. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 2002.
Estes, Richard D. The Behavior Guide to African Mammals: Including
Hoofed Mammals, Carnivores, Primates. Berkeley, CA: The University of
California Press, 1991.
Kruuk, Hans. Hunter and Hunted: Relationships Between Carnivores and
People. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
Nowak, Ronald M. “African Civet.” Walker’s Mammals of the
World Online 5.1. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,
1997. http://www. press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_
world/ carnivora/carnivora.viverridae.civettictis.html (accessed on
June 23, 2004).
Nowak, Ronald M. “Civets, Genets, Linsangs, Mongooses, and Fossas.”
Walker’s Mammals of the World Online. 5.1. Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1997. http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/
walkers_mammals_of_the_world/carnivora/carnivora.viverridae.html
(accessed on June 23, 2004).
Nowak, Ronald M. “Genets.” Walker’s Mammals of the World Online.
5.1. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. http://www.press.
jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/carnivora/carnivora.
viverridae.genetta.html (accessed on June 23, 2004).
Schreiber, Arnd, Roland Wirth, Michael Riffel, and Harry Van Rompaey.
Weasels, Civets, Mongooses, and their Relatives: An Action Plan for the
Conservation of Mustelids and Viverrids. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 1989.
Periodicals:
Ray, Justina C. “Civettictis civetta.” Mammalian Species 488 (June 23,
1995): 1–7.
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Herpestidae
Number of species: 35 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Mongooses are a family, Herpestidae, of small to medium- class
sized, mainly carnivorous Old World mammals. Their overall
subclass
appearance suggests a small, generalized mammalian carnivore.
They have long bodies, short but powerful legs, and long, of- order
ten bushy tails. In some ways, they converge with (resemble) monotypic order
the mustelids (mammal family Mustelidae: weasels, badgers,
skunks, otters, wolverines) of the New World. suborder
HABITAT
Mongooses live in various types of forest, including humid
tropical rainforest, also dry grasslands and near-desert. They
shelter in self-made burrows in the ground or in termite
mounds, or in natural shelters like hollow logs and spaces
within rock piles.
DIET
Mongoose species have generalized, mainly carnivorous diets,
helping themselves to insects, crabs, millipedes, earthworms, rep-
tiles, amphibians, mammals, birds, birds’ eggs, fruits, and roots.
Before eating toads or caterpillars, a mongoose will roll them
back and forth on the ground to wipe off skin poisons of toads
and irritating hairs of caterpillars. Among mongoose species that
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN), includes on its Red
List of Threatened Species, four mongoose species considered
Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction, and five Endangered,
facing a very high risk of extinction. Three Vulnerable and three
Endangered species are in Madagascar. The main threats to mon-
goose species are habitat destruction, and, on Madagascar, habi-
tat loss plus competition and predation by introduced predators
like dogs and cats. Nevertheless, family Herpestidae, overall, is
flourishing.
SPECIES
RING-TAILED MONGOOSE ACCOUNTS
Galidia elegans
FOSSA
Cryptoprocta ferox
is furless and prominent, like a dog’s. The overall appearance and be-
havior suggests a cat rather than a dog.
The body is long and sleek and the legs are short but powerful, as
in a mongoose. The coat color is rich reddish-brown, the undersides
lighter but stained with an orange secretion from skin glands. This
secretion is more abundant in males than in females. There are five
padded digits on each of the four feet. Though its movements are of-
ten considered plantigrade, meaning that the entire foot, from the
toetips to the back of the heel, touch the ground when walking, fos-
sas have also been seen to walk digitigrade, that is, only on the toetips.
The large, prominent eyes are brown and lustrous, and have pupils
that can retract to vertical slits, as in cats. The ears are large, promi-
nent, and narrower than in typical mongoose species.
The fossa was originally classified as a direct descendant, little
changed, of the ancestor species that gave rise to cats (Felidae) and
Diet: The fossa is carnivorous and able to deal with nearly all sorts
of small to large prey animals on Madagascar, including the larger
lemur species, which can be bigger than house cats. Fossas also prey
upon snakes, tenrecs (native insectivorous mammals of Madagascar),
and rodents, most often introduced rats. Fossas only rarely feed on
insects and other invertebrates.
Fossas and people: The fossa has not fared well with humans in
Madagascar. Fossas raid chicken coops, leaving resentment behind,
and an aura of superstitious fear surrounds them.
Books:
Estes, R. The Behavior Guide to African Mammals. Berkeley and Los
Angeles: University of California Press, Ltd., 1991.
Garbutt, N. Mammals of Madagascar. New Haven, CT.: Yale University
Press, 1991.
Goodman, Steven M., and Jonathan P. Benstead, eds. The Natural His-
tory of Madagascar. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press,
2003.
Jolly, Alison. A World Like Our Own: Man and Nature in Madagascar.
New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1980.
Web sites:
“Carnivores of Madagascar.” Earthwatch. http://www.earthwatch.org/
expeditions/dollar/meetthescientists.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Hyaenidae
Number of species: 4 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
The spotted hyena (hi-EE-nah) is the largest of three species class
that include the striped and brown hyenas. Hyenas weigh about
subclass
57 to 190 pounds (26 to 86 kilograms). The aardwolf (ARD-
wolf), included in the Hyaenidae family, weighs about 20 to 30 order
pounds (9 to 14 kilograms). All hyaenids (members of the monotypic order
Hyaenidae family), except the spotted hyena, have long, shaggy
coats. A mane of hair down the back can be erected to make suborder
the animals look larger. All have a bushy tail and a sloping ▲ family
back. Anal gland secretions are used for marking territories.
Spotted hyena females have genitals resembling those of males.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Hyenas and aardwolves are found in the Middle East (in-
cluding Turkey, Israel, and Saudi Arabia), Pakistan, India, and
in Africa south of the Sahara Desert (except the rainforests of
The Democratic Republic of the Congo).
HABITAT
Hyenas and aardwolves occupy grasslands, bush country (wild,
uncultivated land), and open woodlands. They dig burrows (holes)
underground or live in burrows abandoned by other animals.
DIET
The striped and brown hyenas are mainly scavengers, feeding
off the leftover kills of other animals. They also eat hares (rela-
tives of rabbits), rodents, reptiles, vegetables, and fruits. Brown
hyenas along the Namib Desert eat South African fur seal pups
SPECIES
SPOTTED HYENA ACCOUNTS
Crocuta crocuta
Diet: Spotted hyenas mostly hunt rather than scavenge food. They
prey on animals several times their size, including gazelles, antelopes,
wildebeests, and zebras. They also eat the young of giraffes, hippota-
muses, and rhinoceroses, as well as reptiles, domestic livestock, and
human garbage. They tear pieces of flesh from prey, killing it in a few
minutes. They eat very fast, consuming flesh, skin, teeth, bones,
horns, and even hooves. A hyena can eat 33 pounds (15 kilograms)
of meat per feeding, throwing up indigestible food as pellets.
AARDWOLF
Proteles cristatus
Books:
Angier, Natalie. “Hyenas’ Hormone Flow Puts Females in Charge.” In The
Science Times Book of Mammals. New York: The Lyons Press, 1999.
Estes, Richard D. The Behavior Guide to African Mammals: Including
Hoofed Mammals, Carnivores, Primates. Berkeley, CA: The University of
California Press, 1991.
Ewer, R. F. The Carnivores. Ithaca, NY: Comstock Publishing Associates,
1998.
Periodicals:
Holekamp, Kay E, and Laura Smale. “Behavioral Development in the
Spotted Hyena.” BioScience (December 1998): 997–1005.
Koehler, C. E., and P. R. K. Richardson. “Proteles cristatus.” Mammalian
Species 363 (October 23, 1990): 1–6.
Pickrell, John. “Rebranding the Hyena.” Science News (April 27, 2002):
267–269.
Rieger, Ingo. “Hyaena hyaena.” Mammalian Species 150 (May 8,
1981): 1–5.
Web sites:
“Spotted Hyena.” Woodland Park Zoo Animal Fact Sheets.
http://www.zoo.org/educate/fact_sheets/savana/hyena.htm (accessed
on June 21, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Felidae
Number of species: 36 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Cats range in color from pale gray to brown, many with class
rosettes, spots, and stripes that help them blend in with their
subclass
natural surroundings. The head is rounded, with a short snout.
Ears are rounded or pointed. Sensitive whiskers are useful for order
night movements and for inflicting the fatal bite on a prey’s monotypic order
body. Tiny, rough projections on the tongue are used to scrape
meat off bones. Feet are padded for quiet stalking of prey. Claws suborder
in most species are retractable, or can be pulled back into a ▲ family
sheath of skin, to keep the nails sharp for climbing trees and
clasping prey. The cat’s ability to land on its feet from a fall is
due to a flexible spine that can turn the body around.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Cats naturally occur in most areas of the world, except
Australia, the polar regions, and some oceanic islands.
HABITAT
Cats inhabit all types of habitats with the exception of tun-
dra and polar ice. Most species occupy more than one type of
habitat.
DIET
Large cats prey on ungulates (hoofed animals) such as deer,
zebras, and wildebeests, but also eat other meat. Small cats eat
rabbits, hares, rodents, snakes, frogs, fish, and birds. Many con-
sume carrion (dead and decaying flesh).
Cats 657
BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION
Most cats are solitary, except when mat-
ing and raising young. Only lions form so-
cial groups. Cats defend territories but avoid
physical confrontations through different
means of communication. They scrape tree
IS IT REALLY TEAMWORK? trunks and scent-mark with urine and feces.
Contrary to popular opinion, lions who They use sounds, including roars, meows,
hunt together do not necessarily team up purrs, hisses, and growls. They also use body
to catch a prey animal. If members of the language. Most hunt at night, but may show
pride see that a lone member might be able increased activity at dawn and dusk. Many
to overcome the prey, they simply watch are excellent climbers, and some are good
and wait to share the food. Only when the swimmers. Males and females have several
members realize that a large prey cannot mating partners, producing an average of two
be caught unassisted would they risk injury to four kittens per litter. The young stay with
and jump in to help. their mother for up to eighteen months,
longer for big cats.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The United States classifies the Florida panther and the east-
ern puma as Endangered. The World Conservation Union
(IUCN) lists the Iberian lynx as Critically Endangered, facing
an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild; four species
as Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction; twelve
species as Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction; and eight
species as Near Threatened, not currently threatened, but could
become so.
SPECIES
LION ACCOUNTS
Panthera leo
Habitat: Lions prefer a mixture of thick bush, scrub, and grass that
afford cover for stalking and ambushing prey. They also live in open
woodlands and deserts.
Cats 659
Female lions may give birth to Diet: Lions prey on buffalo, zebra, and wildebeest. They also eat ro-
one to six cubs at a time.
dents, lizards, birds, and grass. An adult male eats as much as 110
Mothers help to nurse and
raise each other’s cubs. (Joe pounds (50 kilograms) per feeding, but may fast (go without food)
McDonald/Bruce Coleman Inc. for several days.
Reproduced by permission.)
Cats 661
Tiger (Panthera tigris)
TIGER
Panthera tigris
Diet: Tigers prey on deer, wild pigs, wild cattle, and occasionally
young elephants and rhinoceroses, birds, reptiles, and fish. An adult
eats up to 90 pounds (40 kilograms) per feeding. It hides surplus kill
to eat later.
Cats 663
used by some Asian cultures for medicine. They are killed for at-
tacking humans and livestock.
PUMA
Puma concolor
Cats 665
A puma can take down a large (67 to 78 centimeters) for the tail. They weigh about 75 to 264 pounds
animal by breaking the animal’s (34 to 120 kilograms).
neck with its powerful jaws.
(© Charles Krebs/Corbis.
Reproduced by permission.) Geographic range: Pumas are found in the United States, Canada,
Mexico, South America (including Argentina, Bolivia, and Venezuela),
and Central America (including Costa Rica, Guatemala, and Panama).
Habitat: Pumas prefer forested areas with cover for hunting and
resting. They are adaptable, also occupying mountain areas, swamp-
land, and grassland. They thrive in the desert, getting moisture from
the flesh of prey.
Diet: Pumas feed on deer and other large ungulates, large rodents,
rabbits, raccoons, and even bats, grasshoppers, and occasionally do-
mestic livestock. A puma eats 20 to 30 pounds (9.1 to 13.6 kilograms)
of meat per feeding, burying extra kill and returning later to feed.
Pumas and people: Human expansion into puma habitat has re-
sulted in close encounters with the animals. Pumas in the suburbs
and cities are likely to be killed.
Cats 667
Snow leopard (Uncia uncia)
SNOW LEOPARD
Uncia uncia
Diet: Snow leopards feed mainly on blue sheep and ibex, a wild
goat. They also eat small animals, including marmots, hares, and game
birds. They may take livestock, including young yaks, sheep, goats,
and horses. They occasionally eat plants.
Snow leopards and people: Snow leopards’ bones and body parts
have replaced tiger parts in traditional Asian medicine. Illegal hunt-
ing for fur continues in some Asian countries. Snow leopards are also
killed for preying on domestic livestock.
Cats 669
Bobcat (Lynx rufus)
BOBCAT
Lynx rufus
Behavior and reproduction: Bobcats are active at all hours, but most
active at dawn and dusk. They are good climbers and may rest in trees.
They are also excellent swimmers. Bobcats scent mark territorial
boundaries with urine and feces. They are solitary, except when mat-
ing and raising young. Males have several partners. An average litter
consists of two to three kittens, which stay with their mother for nine
to ten months. Young females stay close to their mothers’ home ranges,
while young males may travel far to establish their own territories.
Bobcats and people: In the 1960s and 1970s, bobcat furs were in
high demand due to restrictions in the trade of other cat furs. De-
mand for the furs continues, and research regarding the harvest of
bobcat fur continues as well.
Cats 671
Conservation status: The bobcat is not a threatened species. ■
Books:
Aaseng, Nathan. The Cougar. San Diego, CA: Lucent Books, Inc., 2001.
Alderton, David. Wild Cats of the World. New York: Facts on File, Inc.,
1993.
Lumpkin, Susan. Small Cats. New York: Facts on File, Inc., 1993.
Malaspina, Ann. The Jaguar. San Diego, CA: Lucent Books, Inc., 2001.
Schlaepfer, Gloria G. Cheetahs. New York: Benchmark Books, 2002.
Seidensticker, John. Tigers. Stillwater, MN: Voyageur Press, Inc., 1996.
Periodicals:
Newman, Cathy. “Nature’s Masterwork: Cats.” National Geographic
(June 1997): 54–76.
Packer, Craig, and Anne E. Pusey. “Divided We Fall: Cooperation among
Lions.” Scientific American (May 1997): 52–59.
Web sites:
“All About Tigers.” The Tiger Information Center. http://www.5tigers.org/
Directory/allabouttigers.htm (accessed on June 23, 2004).
“Cheetahs in a Hot Spot.” Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) Nature.
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/cheetahs/index.html (accessed on
June 23, 2004).
“Great Cats.” Smithsonian National Zoological Park. http://nationalzoo.
si.edu/Animals/GreatCats/catfacts.cfm (accessed on June 23, 2004).
“Species Accounts.” IUCN Species Survival Commission: Cat Specialist
Group. http://lynx.uio.no/catfolk/sp-accts.htm (accessed on June 23,
2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Otariidae
Number of species: 15 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Otariids, eared seals, have streamlined, smooth, bodies that class
allow them to move easily through water. A layer of blubber,
subclass
or fat, provides insulation. The dog-like head has small exter-
nal flaps for ears. Long whiskers are sensors for finding food order
and alerting against predators. Flippers can be turned forward monotypic order
for walking on land. In water, the front flippers function as
oars, while the back flippers steer and provide balance. Males suborder
are two to four times larger than females. ▲ family
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Otariids haul out on land near the waters they inhabit, in-
cluding the United States, Canada, Mexico, Argentina, Chile,
Ecuador, Peru, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand.
HABITAT
When breeding or molting, shedding fur, otariids gather
on rocky coastlines, sandy and gravel beaches, and caves.
They also breed in mainland areas in Africa, Argentina, and
Peru.
DIET
Otariids feed on krill, a small shrimp-like animal, fish, crus-
taceans like shrimps, crabs, and lobsters, mollusks such as
clams, mussels, squid, and octopuses, and penguins. A small
fur seal weighing 110 pounds (50 kilograms) consumes about
4 to 5 pounds (1.8 to 2.3 kilograms) of food per feeding.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) and the United
States classify the Steller sea lion as Endangered, facing an ex-
tremely high risk of extinction in the wild. They are at risk due
to extensive commercial fishing of pollock, its major prey fish,
human pollution, accidental tangling in commercial fishing
gear, and hunting by humans.
The IUCN lists many otariids as Vulnerable, facing a high
risk of extinction in the wild. The Galápagos fur seal is vulner-
able due to parasites and predators. The Juan Fernández fur seal
is threatened by a limited population as a result of inbreeding.
Guadalupe fur seals are vulnerable because of excessive har-
vesting. Northern fur seals are endangered by habitat loss or
degradation due to human activities. Hooker’s sea lions are at
risk due to accidental entanglement in fishing gear and human
hunting. Finally the Galápagos sea lion is vulnerable as a result
of El Niño events, illegal hunting, and tangling in fishing gear.
SPECIES
ANTARCTIC FUR SEAL ACCOUNTS
Arctocephalus gazella
Habitat: Antarctic fur seals live in the open seas and congregate on
land to breed, molt, and rest.
California sea lions and people: California sea lions are most fa-
miliar as talented performers in marine parks and circuses. Some fish-
ermen consider them pests because they steal fish from nets. Sea lions
have been trained by the U.S. Navy to detect suspicious swimmers
and divers near military ships and ports because they have excellent
underwater directional hearing and low-light vision and are able to
make repeated deep dives. A sea lion can approach an intruder with-
out being heard. Using its flippers, it will clamp a handcuffs-like de-
vice carried in its mouth onto the person’s leg, allowing sailors to
apprehend the suspect. The U.S. Navy has normally relied on sea li-
ons to recover practice mines undersea.
Habitat: Galápagos sea lions favor gently sloping sandy and rocky
beaches for breeding.
Diet: Galápagos sea lions feed on squid and fish, including sardines,
anchovies, mackerel, and rockfish in the upwelling waters, nutrient-
rich waters rising from the ocean depths, along the coasts. During El
Niño events, when fish populations either die or migrate, sea lions
dive down deeper into the ocean to feed on lantern fish.
Galápagos sea lions and people: Galápagos sea lions are popular
tourist attractions on the islands. They are illegally hunted for their
teeth for adornment, and the male genitals are believed to be aphro-
disiacs, items that intensify or arouse sexual desires, in some Asian
cultures.
Conservation status: The IUCN lists the Galápagos sea lion as Vul-
nerable due to El Niño events, tangling in fishing gear, and illegal
hunting for body parts. ■
Books:
Bonner, Nigel. Seals and Sea Lions of the World. New York: Facts on
File, Inc., 1994.
DuTemple, Leslie A. Seals and Sea Lions. San Diego, CA: Lucent Books,
Inc., 1999.
Grace, Eric S. Sierra Club Wildlife Library: Seals. Boston: Little, Brown
and Company, 1991.
Jackson, Michael H. Galápagos: A Natural History Guide. Calgary,
Canada: The University of Calgary Press, 1985.
Miller, David. Seals & Sea Lions. Stillwater, MN: Voyageur Press, 1998.
Nowak, Ronald M. “California Sea Lion.” Walker’s Mammals of the World
Online. 5.1 Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. http://
www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/pinnipedia/
pinnipedia.otariidae.zalophus.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).
Patent, Dorothy Hinshaw. Seals, Sea Lions and Walruses. New York:
Holiday House, 1990.
Reeves, Randall R., Brent S. Stewart, Phillip J. Clapham, and James A.
Powell. Guide to Marine Mammals of the World. New York: Alfred A.
Knopf, 2002.
Periodicals:
Holmes, Bob. “Exploring the Sensory Lives of Sea Lions.” Ranger Rick
(June 2000): 2.
Momatiuk, Yva, and John Eastcott. “The Art of Bullying (Behavior of North-
ern Fur Seals).” National Wildlife (August–September 1999): 50–56.
Web sites:
Bruemmer, Fred. “Comeback on a Castaway’s Island.” National Wildlife
Federation. http://www.nwf.org/internationalwildlife/2001/seal.html
(accessed on July 7, 2004).
“Golden Seals of the Skeleton Coast: Life amid the Wrecks.” Public
Broadcasting Service (PBS) Nature. http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/
goldenseals/index.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).
Murphy, Verity. “Let Slip the Sea Lions of War.” BBC News Online.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/2839155.stm (accessed
on July 7, 2004).
“Pinniped Species Information Page.” Seal Conservation Society.
http://www.pinnipeds.org/species/species.htm (accessed on July 7,
2004).
“Steller Sea Lion Biology.” North Pacific Universities Marine Mammal Re-
search Consortium. http://www.marinemammal.org/steller_sea_lion/
fastfacts.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Odobenidae
One species: Walrus (Odobenus
rosmarus)
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class The walrus is the second largest pinniped, after the elephant
subclass seal. Walruses are 44 to 126 inches (112 to 320 centimeters)
long and weigh 139 to 2,662 pounds (63 to 1,210 kilograms).
order Their streamlined, smooth, body allows for easy movement
monotypic order through water. They are sparsely covered with short, cinnamon
brown hair, which is darker in young walruses. In older males,
suborder
the hair is almost absent, giving a naked appearance. The wrin-
▲ family kled skin measures 0.75 to 2 inches (2 to 5 centimeters) thick.
Adult males have large, coarse bumps on the neck and shoul-
ders. Underneath the skin is a layer of blubber, or fat, about
0.4 to 6 inches (1 to 15 centimeters) thick, which protects
against the cold and serves as storage for food energy.
Although its head is quite small compared to the rest of its
body, the walrus has a powerful skull. If the seawater freezes
while the walrus is underwater, it uses its skull like a sledge-
hammer to break through the ice overhead, up to 8 inches (20
centimeters) in thickness. The walrus has no external ears, just
small openings covered by a fold of skin. About 600 to 700 stiff
whiskers form a mustache and act as antennas for detecting
prey. The thickened upper lip is used to feel around for food
in the muddy sediments of the ocean floor. Two air pouches
in the throat extend to the shoulders. They can be inflated to
function as life preservers, enabling the walrus to sleep or rest
in an upright position with its head above water. Males pro-
duce bell-like sounds with these inflated air pouches when
courting females.
Walrus 685
Though not considered
Threatened, the walrus is
protected by the governments of
the countries in which it lives.
Only native people are allowed
to hunt walruses legally. (Dotte
Larson/Bruce Coleman Inc.
Reproduced by permission.)
DIET
Walruses eat primarily bivalve mollusks, clams and mussels.
They also feed on marine worms, crabs, shrimp, octopus, squid,
and sea cucumbers. They occasionally eat fish and seals, in-
cluding spotted, ringed, and bearded seals. The walrus squirts
the muddy sediments on the ocean floor with water from its
mouth, exposing the mollusks. Then it sucks the meat out of
the shell. An adult walrus consumes about 4 to 6 percent of its
total body weight daily. It can eat 3,000 to 6,000 clams per meal.
Walrus 687
down. The calf can swim at birth. Calves remain with their
mothers for two years, although they forage for other food be-
fore being completely weaned from their mother’s milk. Young
females stay with female herds, while young males leave to join
all-male herds. The long nursing period means that females do
not give birth annually. Mothers are very protective of their
young, fighting off intruders with their tusks. They carry
their newborn on their back in the water. On land, they hold
their calf close to their body with their front flippers when they
perceive danger. Walruses have been known to guard one
another’s young and to adopt orphans.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Walruses are not a threatened species.
Books:
Bonner, Nigel. “The Walrus.” In Seals and Sea Lions of the World.
New York: Facts on File, Inc., 1994.
Knudtson, Peter. The World of the Walrus. San Francisco: Sierra Club
Books, 1998.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Walrus.” Walker’s Mammals of the World Online 5.1.
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. http:// www.press.
jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/pinnipedia/pinnipedia.
odobenidae.odobenus.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).
Patent, Dorothy Hinshaw. Seals, Sea Lions and Walruses. New York:
Holiday House, 1990.
Reeves, Randall R., Brent S. Stewart, Phillip J. Clapham, and James A.
Powell. Guide to Marine Mammals of the World. New York: Alfred A.
Knopf, 2002.
Web sites:
Alaska Science Center-Biological Science Office. “Pacific Walrus Re-
search.” U.S. Geological Survey. http://www.absc.usgs.gov/research/
walrus/home.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).
Sea World Education Department. “Walrus.” Sea World/Busch Gardens
Animal Information Database. http://www.seaworld.org/infobooks/
Walrus/home.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).
Vlessides, Michael. “In Search of the Tooth Walker.” National Wildlife
Federation. http://www.nwf.org/internationalwildlife/2000/walrusnd.
html (accessed on July 7, 2004).
Walrus 689
TRUE SEALS
Phocidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Phocidae
Number of species: 19 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class True seals have a tapered shape, with short hair covering
their body. Underneath the thick skin are 5 to 6 inches (11 to
subclass
13 centimeters) of blubber, or fat, that conserves body heat and
order stores food energy. They are also called earless seals, because
monotypic order they do not have external ears. The ears are just tiny openings
on each side of the rounded head. Unlike eared seals, true seals
suborder cannot rotate their back flippers for walking. For movement on
▲ family land, they crawl on their undersides, with the rear end and front
flippers pushing the body along. In water, the webbed back flip-
pers act as paddles, while the front flippers are used for steer-
ing and balance.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
True seals inhabit all oceans, except the Indian Ocean. Some
species live in inland lakes in Siberia, Russia, and Finland.
HABITAT
True seals forage, search for food, at sea, but haul out (get
out of the water) to land to breed, molt, or shed fur, and rest.
They prefer ice floes, large sheets of floating ice, or fast ice, ice
attached to a land mass. They also inhabit sand, cobble, and
boulder beaches, as well as caves and rocky outcrops.
DIET
True seals eat mostly fish. They also feed on krill, squid,
octopuses, and other seals.
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS HARP SEAL
Pagophilus groenlandicus
Physical characteristics: Harp seals got their name from the harp
pattern on their back. Adult males and females are light silvery gray
with a black face. In males, the harp marking is black. In females, the
marking may be broken into smaller patterns. Each seal measures
about 5.6 feet (1.7 meters). Males weigh about 297 pounds (135
kilograms) and females about 240 pounds (109 kilograms). Harp seals
have a thick layer of blubber that protects them from the cold and
stores food energy. The front flippers have strong, sharp claws for
hauling out of the water and moving across ice. The back flippers
function as oars for swimming but cannot be turned forward for
walking.
Geographic range: Harp seals live in the Arctic and the North
Atlantic Oceans. They breed off the coast of northeastern Canada,
off the east coast of Greenland, and in the White Sea off the north-
western coast of Russia.
Harp seals and people: In the 1970s and 1980s, pressure from con-
servationists caused the closing of American and European markets
for seal products. The seal trade has continued, with new markets in
Russia, China, Poland, and Ukraine bringing in millions of dollars for
the fur alone. In addition, seal genitals are marketed to Asian mar-
kets as aphrodisiacs (aff-roh-DEE-zee-acks), substances that are sup-
posed to increase sexual desire. In 2004, the Canadian government
announced an additional quota of 100,000 seals available for hunting
for an annual total of 350,000 seals.
Habitat: Hawaiian monk seals inhabit the Pacific Ocean waters sur-
rounding the northwestern Hawaiian islands. They breed, rest, and
molt on coral reef islands. A small number are found on the main
Conservation status: The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and IUCN
lists the Hawaiian monk seal as Endangered due to habitat loss to hu-
man expansion, lack of young females for mating, male mobbing of
females, reduced prey, and entanglement in ocean debris and com-
mercial fishing gear. ■
Books:
Bonner, Nigel. Seals and Sea Lions of the World. New York: Facts on
File, Inc., 1994.
Cossi, Olga. Harp Seals. Minneapolis: Carolrhoda Books, Inc., 1991.
Grace, Eric S. Sierra Club Wildlife Library: Seals. Boston: Little, Brown
and Company, 1991.
Le Boeuf, Burney J., and Richard M. Laws, eds. Elephant Seals: Popu-
lation Ecology, Behavior, and Physiology. Berkeley, CA: University of
California Press, 1994.
Patent, Dorothy Hinshaw. Seals, Sea Lions and Walruses. New York:
Holiday House, 1990.
Reeves, Randall R., Brent S. Stewart, Phillip J. Clapham, and James
A. Powell. Guide to Marine Mammals of the World. New York: Alfred
A. Knopf, 2002.
Periodicals:
Bruemmer, Fred. “Five Days with Fat Hoods.” International Wild-
life (January/Febrary 1999). Online at http://www.nwf.org/
internationalwildlife/1998/hoodseal.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).
Kovacs, Kit. “Bearded Seals: Going with the Floe.” National Geographic
(March 1997): 124–137.
Tennesen, Michael. “Testing the Depths of Life.” National Wildlife
(Feb/Mar 1999). Online at http://nwf.org/nationalwildlife/article. cfm?
articleId=187&issueid=67 (accessed on July 7, 2004).
Williams, Terrie M. “Sunbathing Seals of Antarctica : The Puzzle Is How
Do They Keep Cool? (Weddell Seals).” Natural History (October 2003):
50–56.
●
Class: Mammalia
Order: Cetacea
Number of families: 14 families
order C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Cetaceans (sih-TAY-shunz) are whales, dolphins, and por- class
poises. These mammals live, eat, reproduce, and rest in the wa-
subclass
ter. They range in size from that of a small human—5 feet (1.5
meters) and 110 pounds (50 kilograms)—to huge, building- ● order
sized animals of 110 feet (33 meters) and 400,000 pounds monotypic order
(180,000 kilograms). Their ancestors were land mammals. More
than fifty million years ago, these ancestors evolved physical suborder
characteristics that allowed them to live successfully in the wa- family
ter. Today scientists believe that the closest living land-based
relative of whales, dolphins, and porpoises is the hippopotamus.
All cetaceans share certain physical characteristics that allow
them to live their entire life in the water. Most notably, they
all have streamlined, smooth, bodies to cut down on friction
and turbulence as they move through the water. This stream-
lining has come about because the bones in their front legs are
shortened and compressed to form paddles called flippers that
have no fingers or claws. In addition, their back legs are so re-
duced that all that remains are a few internal pelvic bones.
Likewise, they have no external reproductive organs. Male
cetaceans have a retractable penis, which means that they can
draw it up inside their body. The nipples of the female are also
hidden in a slit within their belly.
The need to be streamlined has affected the shape of the skull
and the sense organs found it in. The bones of the skull and
the jawbones have become elongated, stretched out. The nos-
trils, usually on the front of the face in land mammals, have
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Cetaceans are found in all oceans of the world. In the Arc-
tic and Antarctic they avoid ice-covered water, since they must
rise to the surface to breathe. Dolphins live in the ocean, but
are also found in several freshwater rivers in Asia and South
America.
HABITAT
The ocean is divided into different zones or regions based
on depth, closeness to land, and underwater features. Cetaceans
inhabit virtually all ocean zones, including zones in semi-
enclosed water such as the Red and Black Seas. Cetaceans that
live in freshwater rivers inhabit clear, rapidly flowing water and
dark muddy water.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Interest in protecting cetaceans is high, and several organiza-
tions such as the American Cetacean Society and the Whale and
Dolphin Conservation Society in Great Britain work hard at pro-
moting conservation awareness among the public. Public pres-
sure has lead to the development of “dolphin-safe” fishing nets
and “dolphin-free” tuna, but many cetaceans are still drowned
when they accidentally become trapped in fishing gear. Estimates
of populations of different species are difficult to make, but the
population of many species appears to be declining. Some, such
as the baiji, a Chinese river dolphin, are Critically Endangered,
facing an extremely high risk of extinction.
Books:
Carwadine, Mark, and Martin Camm. Smithsonian Handbooks: Whales
Dolphins and Porpoises. New York: DK Publishing, 2002.
Gowell, Elizabeth T. Whales and Dolphins: What They Have in Common.
New York: Franklin Watts, 2000.
Mead, James G., and Joy P. Gold. Whales and Dolphins in Question: The
Smithsonian Answer Book. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution
Press, 2002.
Nowak, Ronald. M. “Order Cetacea.” In Walker’s Mammals of the World
Online 5.1. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/cet
acea/cetacea.html (accessed on July 8, 2004)
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Cetacea
Family: Platanistidae
One species: Ganges and Indus
dolphin (Plantanista
gangetica)
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
The single member of this family is a dolphin that lives in class
freshwater rivers on the Indian subcontinent. At one time, sci-
subclass
entists thought that there were two species in this family, the
Indus river dolphin and the Ganges river dolphin. However, re- order
cent genetic testing shows that even though these groups are monotypic order
separated geographically, they are the same species. Native peo-
ple call these dolphins “susu,” which sounds like the noise they suborder
make when they breathe. ▲ family
Ganges and Indus river dolphins are small, gray-brown dol-
phins. Adults measure between 5 and 8 feet (1.5 to 2.5 meters)
and weigh between 150 and 200 pounds (70 to 90 kilograms).
These dolphins have a long beak, or snout, and when they close
their mouth, their sharp front teeth are still visible. They use
these teeth to catch their prey, animals they hunt for food,
mainly fish. Ganges and Indus river dolphins have a small hump
behind the center of their back instead of a dorsal (back) fin.
Their flippers are broad and paddle-shaped, and their blowhole
is a single slit, set off-center on the top of their head. Unlike
other dolphins, the opening to their ear is below their eyes.
Ganges and Indus river dolphins have poorly developed eyes.
They are able to see only light and dark patterns, which is why
they are sometimes called blind river dolphins. Instead of re-
lying on sight to find food, they use a system called echoloca-
tion (eck-oh-loh-KAY-shun). Dolphins make sounds (scientists
disagree about how this is done) that seem to be focused
through the melon, a lump of fatty tissue in the dolphin’s
HABITAT
These dolphins live in freshwater rivers from sea level to an
elevation of 820 feet (250 meters). They can be found in clear,
swift-moving water or muddy, cloudy water. They are often
found where streams feed into the main river or where there
are eddies, which are currents in the water that run opposite
the main current. These river dolphins prefer living in water
10 to 30 feet deep (3 to 9 meters), but they are able to live in
water as shallow as 3 feet (1 meter). They can survive a
wide range of water temperatures, from about 46 to 91°F
(8 to 33°C).
DIET
Ganges and Indus river dolphins eat bottom-dwelling fish
such as carp and catfish, and occasionally shrimp and clams.
In captivity they eat from 1 to 3.3 pounds (0.5 to 1.5 kilograms)
of fish daily.
hunted for their oil, which is used in folk medicines for hu-
mans and livestock. Occasionally dolphin meat is eaten, and it
is often used as bait to attract other fish. Dolphins are also ac-
cidentally trapped and drowned in fishing nets. Human devel-
opment, such as dam building, water control projects, and
pollution have all decreased the river dolphin population.
CONSERVATION STATUS
River dolphins are Endangered, facing a very high risk of ex-
tinction. There may be fewer than one thousand individuals re-
maining in the Indus River, while the outlook is equally grim
in other river systems, including the Ganges River.
River dolphins are threatened mainly by human development.
Dam building, begun in the 1920s, still continues today. Not
only do dams isolate groups of dolphins, they interfere with mi-
gration and water flow. Heavy fishing, reducing water flow, and
preventing flooding all decrease the population of fish that are
the main source of food for these animals. In addition, pollution
Books:
Carwadine, Mark, and Martin Camm. Smithsonian Handbooks: Whales
Dolphins and Porpoises. New York: DK Publishing, 2002.
Gowell, Elizabeth T. Whales and Dolphins: What They Have in Common.
New York: Franklin Watts, 2000.
Mead, James G., and Joy P. Gold. Whales and Dolphins in Question: The
Smithsonian Answer Book. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution
Press, 2002.
Smith, Alison M., and Brian D. Smith. “Review Status and Threats to
River Dolphins and Recommendations for Their Conservation.” In Envi-
ronmental Reviews. Vol 6, edited by T. C. Hutchinson. Ottawa, Canada:
NRC Research Press, 1998, 189-206.
Web sites:
American Cetacean Society. http://www.acsonline.org (accessed on
July 8, 2004).
Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society. http://www.wdcs.org
(accessed on July 8, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Cetacea
Family: Lipotidae
One species: Baiji (Lipotes
vexillifer)
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class The baiji is a freshwater river dolphin that lives in the
Yangtze (yang-see) River in eastern China. It has a long, nar-
subclass
row beak (snout), which curves slightly upward and grows
order longer with age. It has a steeply sloped forehead and tiny eyes
monotypic order that are set high on the sides of the head. These eyes are only
slightly functional and leave the dolphin almost completely
suborder blind. This is why baijis use echolocation (eck-oh-loh-KAY-
▲ family shun) to navigate and find food. Baijis have about 130 teeth,
which are all alike in size and shape. The cone-shaped teeth
are made for catching fish, not chewing.
The baiji has short, round flippers and a low, triangular
shaped dorsal (back) fin. It has a very distinctive notch in the
middle of its fluke, or tail. The body is a bluish gray, fading into
white on its stomach. The average length for a baiji is between
6.5 and 8 feet (2 and 2.4 meters). Females grow to be larger
than males. They weigh between 220 and 355 pounds (100 and
160 kilograms).
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
The baiji lives along the 1,056 miles (1,700 kilometers) of
the Yangtze River in eastern China. During the late spring and
early summer, this freshwater dolphin moves to smaller streams
and lakes if the water is high enough. At one time the lakes of
Dongting and Poyang were home to the baiji year-round, but
with the drop in water level these lakes can no longer support
its presence.
Baiji 715
takes to collect the echoes, their strength, and
their direction, dolphins construct a “sound pic-
ture” of their environment. This process is so
sensitive that they can “see” an object less than
one-half inch (1.25 centimeters) across at a dis-
tance of 50 feet (15 meters).
The baiji is a very fast and strong swimmer
and has been seen swimming over 60 miles
(100 kilometers) in three days going against the
current. While resting, the baiji stays in areas
of very slow current.
Little is known about how this animal re-
produces, because there have been no studies
conducted on baiji reproduction. It is thought
that males become mature at four years of age,
while females mature at the age of six. A sin-
gle calf is born in the spring, after a pregnancy
of ten to eleven months. These calves are about 3 feet (91 cen-
timeters) long and weigh between 6 and 11 pounds (2.5 and
4.8 kilograms). The baiji can live up to twenty-five years in the
wild.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Hope of saving the baijis is dim. Although it was declared a
National Treasure of China and has been protected from hunting
Baiji 717
FOR MORE INFORMATION
Books:
Carwadine, Mark, and Martin Camm. Smithsonian Handbooks: Whales
Dolphins and Porpoises. New York: DK Publishing, 2002.
Ellis, Richard. Dolphins and Porpoises. New York: Knopf, 1989.
Gowell, Elizabeth T. Whales and Dolphins: What They Have in Common.
New York: Franklin Watts, 2000.
Mead, James G., and Joy P. Gold. Whales and Dolphins in Question: The
Smithsonian Answer Book. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution
Press, 2002.
Nowak, Ronald. M. Walker’s Mammals of the World. Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1995.
Smith, Alison M., and Brian D. Smith. “Review Status and Threats to
River Dolphins and Recommendations for Their Conservation.” In Envi-
ronmental Reviews. Vol. 6, edited by T. C. Hutchinson. Ottawa, Canada:
NRC Research Press, 1998.
Web sites:
American Cetacean Society. http://www.acsonline.org (accessed on
July 8, 2004).
Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society. http://www.wdcs.org
(accessed on July 8, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Cetacea
Family: Pontoporiidae
One species: Franciscana dolphin
(Pontoporia blainvillei)
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Franciscana dolphins are also called La Plata dolphins, class
because the first described specimen, or animal, came from
subclass
the mouth of La Plata River, Uruguay, in 1884. These dolphins
are considered river dolphins, even though they live in the order
ocean near the shoreline. Originally scientists thought that the monotypic order
franciscana dolphin moved from fresh water to salt water dur-
suborder
ing its lifetime, but now they know that it spends its entire life
in the ocean. In the past, franciscana dolphins have been clas- ▲ family
sified in several different dolphin families, but they are cur-
rently classified in a family of their own.
The franciscana dolphin is one of the smallest members of
the cetacean order. They measure between 4.4 and 5.7 feet (1.3
and 1.7 meters) and weigh between 75 and 115 pounds (34
and 53 kilograms). Females are larger than males. Franciscana
dolphins are gray-brown on their back and lighter underneath.
Young franciscana dolphins are darker than older animals. Very
old animals can appear almost white.
The most notable feature of the franciscana dolphin is its
long, slender beak, or snout. They have the longest beak of any
dolphin. Their beak may be 15 percent of their body length.
Franciscana dolphins have triangular dorsal, or back, fins
with rounded tips. Their flippers are broad and short. This
dolphin has between 208 and 242 teeth small teeth. The blow-
hole, or nostril, is a crescent-shaped slit. Unlike the Ganges and
Indus river dolphins, franciscana dolphins have good eyesight.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Franciscana dolphins are found in the Atlantic Ocean along
the coasts of Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina in South America.
Their northern boundary is near Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and their
southern boundary is the Valdes Peninsula in Argentina. Their
distribution within this range is uneven. In some places they
are rare or absent, and in others they are more common.
HABITAT
Franciscana dolphins are usually found within 33 miles (53
kilometers) of shore in waters no more than 30 feet (10 meters)
deep. Often they are found in muddy, murky water with poor vis-
ibility. They seem to prefer estuaries, which are places where rivers
empty into the ocean and fresh water mixes with salt water.
DIET
Franciscana dolphins eat a wide variety of small bottom-
dwelling fish, squid, octopus, and shrimp. Most of the fish they
feed on are less than 4 inches (10 centimeters) long.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The wild population of franciscana dolphins is unknown. Be-
cause of this, they are given a Data Deficient conservation sta-
tus. However, it is estimated that up to 1,500 of these animals
are drowned every year by becoming tangled in gillnets and
other fishing gear. Scientists believe that as a result, the wild
population is decreasing. In addition, because these dolphins
live close to shore, they are more at risk for habitat pollution
than dolphins that live in the open ocean.
Books:
Carwadine, Mark, and Martin Camm. Smithsonian Handbooks: Whales
Dolphins and Porpoises. New York: DK Publishing, 2002.
Gowell, Elizabeth T. Whales and Dolphins: What They Have in Common.
New York: Franklin Watts, 2000.
Mead, James G., and Joy P. Gold. Whales and Dolphins in Question: The
Smithsonian Answer Book. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution
Press, 2002.
Nowak, Ronald. M. “Franciscana, or La Plata Dolphin.” Walker’s Mammals
of the World Online 5.1. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,
1997. http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world /
cetacea/cetacea.pontoporiidae.pontoporia.html (accessed on July 8,
2004).
Web sites:
American Cetacean Society. http://www.acsonline.org (accessed on
July 8, 2004).
Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society. http://www.wdcs.org
(accessed on July 8, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Cetacea
Family: Iniidae
One species: Boto (Inia geoffrensis)
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Botos, also called Amazon river dolphins or pink river dol-
phins, live only in fresh water rivers in South America. They
subclass are the largest and most abundant of the river dolphins. Adult
order botos range in length from 6.6 to 8.5 feet (2 to 2.5 meters) and
in weight from about 185 to 400 pounds (85 to 180 kilograms).
monotypic order
Males are larger than females. Young animals are usually dark
suborder gray. As they mature, their color changes and they become pink.
▲ family However, individuals that live in dark, muddy water tend to re-
main darker than those that live in clear water.
Botos have thick bodies and a large slender beak (snout) that
contains about 140 teeth. Instead of a distinct dorsal (back) fin,
they have a small triangular peaked ridge along their back. Their
flippers are large and pointed. Botos are very flexible, allowing
them to live in shallow, cluttered environments. One reason for
their flexibility is that their cervical vertebrae, or neck bones,
are not fused or joined, giving them the freedom to twist and
turn their head easily.
Botos have good eyesight both above and under water. How-
ever, because they often live in dark, murky water, they usu-
ally rely on echolocation (eck-oh-loh-KAY-shun) to avoid
objects and find food. The forehead of a dolphin is a lump of
fatty tissue called the melon. Dolphins make sounds (scientists
disagree about how this is done) that seem to be focused
through the melon and skull. These sounds are then sent out
into the environment. When the sounds bounce back, the echo
is passed through special tissue in the lower jaw to the inner
ear. From the time it takes to collect the echoes, their strength,
Boto 725
Boto (Inia geoffrensis)
Boto 727
BOTOS AND PEOPLE
Botos are not hunted, but are sometimes intentionally killed
to prevent them from destroying fishing gear. Botos are asso-
ciated in folklore with misfortune and bad luck.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Although the population of botos in the wild is not known,
it is estimated to be in the tens of thousands. Botos are consid-
ered Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction. The biggest
threat comes from human development. In 2000, there were ten
dams on the Amazon River that fragmented, or separated, groups
of botos and interfered with their free movement. More dams
are planned on the rivers that botos inhabit. In addition, water
control projects that prevent the forest from flooding during the
rainy season reduce food available for fish. This causes the fish
population to decrease, meaning the botos will also have less
food. Other threats to the boto include mercury pollution from
the mining of gold near the rivers, other types of pollution as-
sociated with human development, and accidental drowning in
fishing gear. Although the boto is protected by law in some parts
of its range, enforcement is difficult and not very effective.
Books:
Carwadine, Mark, and Martin Camm. Smithsonian Handbooks: Whales
Dolphins and Porpoises. New York: DK Publishing, 2002.
Gowell, Elizabeth T. Whales and Dolphins: What They Have in Common.
New York: Franklin Watts, 2000.
Mead, James G., and Joy P. Gold. Whales and Dolphins in Question: The
Smithsonian Answer Book. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution
Press, 2002.
Nowak, Ronald. M. Walker’s Mammals of the World Online 5.1. Balti-
more: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. http://www.press.jhu.edu/
books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/ (accessed on July 8, 2004)
Web sites:
American Cetacean Society. http://www.acsonline.org (accessed July 8,
2004).
Convention on Migratory Species. http://www.cms.int/ (accessed July 8,
2004).
Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society. http://www.wdcs.org
(accessed July 8, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Cetacea
Family: Phocoenidae
Number of species: 6 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Porpoises are mostly ocean-dwelling marine mammals, al- class
though some species can also live in freshwater rivers. They are
subclass
often confused with dolphins. In casual conversation many
people incorrectly use the terms dolphin and porpoise to mean order
the same thing. Both porpoises and dolphins came from a com- monotypic order
mon ancestor, ancient relative, however they have been distinct
families for about eleven million years. suborder
Porpoises have a blunt snout, as opposed to the beak and ▲ family
elongated snout of dolphins. Their dorsal, back, fins are trian-
gular. They have thick, stocky bodies that help them to con-
serve heat in cold waters. There are several differences between
the skulls of porpoises and dolphins, but the most obvious is
in the teeth. Porpoises have between sixty and 120 almost tri-
angular, spade-shaped teeth, while dolphins have cone-shaped
teeth. Most members of this family lack a melon. The melon is
a fatty organ on the forehead. This gives their heads a tapered
rather than a bulging look.
Porpoises range in weight from 90 to 485 pounds (40 to 220
kilograms) and in length from 4 to 7 feet (1.2 to 2.2 meters).
The smallest porpoise is the vaquita (vah-KEE-tah), which lives
in the Gulf of California in Mexico. Dall’s porpoise and the
spectacled porpoise are the two largest porpoises. In all species
except the spectacled porpoise, females are larger than males.
Porpoises range in color from black to gray to tan. Gener-
ally, their backs are dark and their bellies are lighter. Some,
such as the spectacled porpoise and Dall’s porpoise, have quite
Porpoises 729
distinctive black and white markings. Others, such as the fin-
less porpoise, are a single dull color.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Porpoises are found along the coasts of large parts of North
and South America (except the tropics and subtropics), Europe,
and in the Mediterranean and Black Sea. They are also found
off the coast of Siberia and northern Japan.
HABITAT
Porpoises live in a variety of ocean habitats. The spectacled
porpoise lives in cold, open ocean in the Southern Hemisphere.
Another Southern Hemisphere porpoise, Burmeister’s porpoise,
lives in warmer, shallow waters along the coast of South Amer-
ica. This porpoise can also live in freshwater rivers. The finless
porpoise and the vaquita also like shallow warm water. The har-
bor porpoise and Dall’s porpoise both live in cold water habitats.
DIET
Porpoises are carnivores, meat eaters. They eat mainly fish.
The type of fish they prefer depends on the habitat in which
they live. They also eat squid and octopus. Some also eat shrimp
and mollusks (hard shelled animals like clams). Many porpoises
migrate seasonally in order to follow the fish they feed on. Their
natural predators, animals that hunt them for food, are some
sharks, killer whales, and bottlenosed dolphins.
Porpoises use echolocation (eck-oh-loh-KAY-shun) to help
find food. They make sounds (scientists disagree about how this
is done) that are sent out into the environment. When the sounds
bounce back, the echo is passed through special tissue in the lower
jaw to the inner ear. From the time it takes to collect the echoes,
their strength, and their direction, the animal can construct a
“sound picture” of its environment. This system is extremely sen-
sitive and allows the animal to locate very small objects.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The vaquita is the least abundant porpoise. There may be
only a few hundred individuals remaining. The vaquita is con-
sidered Critically Endangered, facing an extremely high risk of
extinction in the wild. It lives in northern Mexico in the Gulf
of California where there is a lot of commercial fishing. The
main threat to its survival is being accidentally killed by be-
coming entangled in fishing nets.
The harbor porpoise is listed as Vulnerable, facing a high
risk of extinction. It is a protected species in the United States
and Canada. Threats to its survival include pollution and acci-
dental death in fishing gear. Little is known about the popula-
tion levels of the other four species of porpoises.
Porpoises 731
Harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS HARBOR PORPOISE
Phocoena phocoena
Geographic range: Harbor porpoises are found along the U.S. and
Canadian coasts in the North Atlantic, around Greenland and north-
ern Europe, in the Mediterranean Sea, and the northern Pacific along
the North American coast and in Asia as far south as northern Japan.
Habitat: These animals live in cold costal waters, bays, tidal chan-
nels, and estuaries. They appear to prefer water between 65 and 200
feet (20 and 60 meters) deep.
Diet: Harbor porpoises eat cold water fish such as herring and mack-
erel. They also eat squid and octopus.
Porpoises 733
Burmeister’s porpoise (Phocoena spinipinnis)
BURMEISTER’S PORPOISE
Phocoena spinipinnis
Books:
Carwadine, Mark, and Martin Camm. Smithsonian Handbooks: Whales,
Dolphins and Porpoises. New York: DK Publishing, 2002.
Porpoises 735
Ellis, Richard. Dolphins and Porpoises. New York: Knopf, 1989.
Nowak, Ronald. M. Walker’s Mammals of the World Online 5.1. Balti-
more: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. http://www.press.jhu.edu/
books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world (accessed on July 7, 2004).
Web sites:
American Cetacean Society. http://www.acsonline.org (accessed on
July 7, 2004).
Culik, Boris and Convention on Migratory Species. Phocoena phocoena.
http://www.cms.int/reports/small_cetaceans/data/P_phocoena/p_
phocoena.htm (accessed July 7, 2004).
Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society. http://www.wdcs.org (ac-
cessed on July 7, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Cetacea
Family: Delphinidae
Number of species: 34 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Dolphins are found in all oceans and many rivers of the class
world. They are often confused with other aquatic animals. Dol-
subclass
phins arose from the same ancestor as porpoises, but have been
a separate family for at least eleven million years. In addition, order
the common names of some dolphins lead to confusion. For monotypic order
example, the killer whale is actually a dolphin. With genetic
testing now available, some re-classification of individual dol- suborder
phin species is occurring. ▲ family
Dolphins have long, streamlined, torpedo-shaped bodies
adapted to life in the ocean. Generally they are fast, acrobatic,
agile swimmers. The bones in what would be the hand and arm
of a land animal are compressed into a web of bones to make
flippers. Their back legs are so reduced that all that remains
are a few internal pelvic bones. They have strong, muscular
tails. Dolphins breathe through a single blowhole on top of their
head. All dolphins have a melon, a fatty organ on their fore-
head that they use for echolocation. Echolocation (eck-oh-loh-
KAY-shun) involves making sounds that bounce off objects.
Sense organs pick up the echo or reflected sound and use in-
formation about the echo’s timing, direction, and strength to
determine the location of objects. They have a single type of
cone-shaped tooth, but the number of teeth ranges from four
to about 260, and the size varies with the size of the species.
Dolphins are able to taste, but not smell.
Within this family there are many physical differences in size
and color. The smallest dolphin is the endangered Hector’s
Dolphins 737
dolphin. They are about 4.5 feet (1.4 meters) long and weigh
about 117 pounds (53 kilograms). The largest is the killer
whale, which can measure 30 feet (9 meters) and weigh 12,000
pounds (5,600 kilograms). Dolphins come in many colors, in-
cluding black, white, gray, tan, brown, orange, and pink. Some
have distinctive color patterns, while others are a single color.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Dolphins are found in every ocean and sea and in many ma-
jor river systems. They are the largest family of cetaceans.
HABITAT
Dolphins live in salt water, fresh water, and brackish water, a
mixture of salt and fresh water. They live in both the open ocean
and in coastal waters, although more live shallow water. Their
distribution is determined mainly by the availability of prey.
DIET
Dolphins are carnivores, meat eaters. They eat fish and squid
and capture their food one fish at a time. The type of fish they
prefer depends on the zone of the ocean that they inhabit. Killer
whales eat fish, but they also hunt seals, sea lions, other dol-
phins, whales, porpoises, and sea birds.
Dolphins use echolocation to navigate and find prey. Echolo-
cation allows dolphins to use high-pitch sounds that bounce
off objects in order to determine their location. In some species,
echolocation is so sensitive that it can locate an object less than
0.5 inch across (1.25 centimeters) at a distance of 50 feet
(15 meters).
Dolphins 739
CONSERVATION STATUS
The conservation status of dolphins depends upon the
species. Hector’s dolphin is considered Endangered, facing a
very high risk of extinction in the wild, because it is often killed
accidentally by fishing gear. Population estimates are not avail-
able for most species.
Dolphins are threatened by hunting, accidental capture in
fishing nets, pollution, and capture for display in captivity. In
the 1990s public pressure resulted in the development of dol-
phin-free fishing nets and the sale of dolphin-free tuna. These
changes have resulted in a substantial decrease in the number
of dolphins accidentally harvested during fishing. Dolphins are
protected in the United States under the 1972 Marine Mammal
Protection Act and are the focus of many conservation and re-
search organizations.
SPECIES
KILLER WHALE ACCOUNTS
Orcinus orca
Geographic range: Killer whales live in all the oceans of the world,
but are most abundant in cold water areas such as the Arctic and
Antarctic.
Habitat: Killer whales prefer cold water, but can live in warmer
temperatures. They tend to live in water that is less than 650 feet
(200 meters) deep. Rarely they have been known to swim up rivers
such as the Columbia in the United States and the Thames in England.
Diet: Killer whales have the most varied diet of any dolphin. They
hunt fish, seals, sea lions, other dolphins, porpoises, and whales. Their
Dolphins 741
Killer whales chase sea lions
onto the beach, and then attack
them. (© François Gohier/Photo
Researchers, Inc. Reproduced by
permission.)
Killer whales and people: Most people know of killer whales from
exhibits at marine parks and movies. Since they can regularly be seen
near shore, they are often the object of dolphin-watching tours. In
1985, the first killer whale was successfully born in captivity. That
Dolphins 743
Common bottlenosed dolphin (Tursiops truncatus)
Diet: These animals eat fish, squid, and shrimp. They often feed
cooperatively, herding fish together to make them easier to catch. In
Dolphins 745
Spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris)
SPINNER DOLPHIN
Stenella longirostris
Diet: Spinners are carnivores. They tend to feed at night and eat
mainly fish, squid, octopus, and shrimp.
Spinner dolphins and people: Spinners were the first dolphins cap-
tured for display in marine parks because of their ability to leap and
spin, but they do not survive well in captivity. Their amazing leaps
and spins attract ecotourists who want watch these animals in their
natural habitat. Because they often associate with tuna, they are some-
times accidentally killed by fishing gear.
Dolphins 747
FOR MORE INFORMATION
Books:
American Cetacean Society, Chuck Flaherty and David G. Gordon. Field
Guide to the Orcas. Seattle: Sasquatch Books, 1990.
Carwadine, Mark, and Martin Camm. Smithsonian Handbooks: Whales
Dolphins and Porpoises. New York: DK Publishing, 2002.
Ellis, Richard. Dolphins and Porpoises. New York: Knopf, 1989.
Gowell, Elizabeth T. Whales and Dolphins: What They Have in Common.
New York: Franklin Watts, 2000.
Mead, James G., and Joy P. Gold. Whales and Dolphins in Question: The
Smithsonian Answer Book. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution
Press, 2002.
Nowak, Ronald. M. “Dolphins.” In Walker’s Mammals of the World
Online 5.1. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. http://
www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/cetacea/
cetacea.delphinidae.html (accessed on July 8, 2004)
Web sites:
American Cetacean Society. http://www.acsonline.org (accessed on July
8, 2004).
“Animal Information.” Sea World. http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info
(accessed on July 8, 2004).
Dolphin Research Center. http://www.dolphins.org (accessed on July 8,
2004).
Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society. http://www.wdcs.org (ac-
cessed on July 8, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Cetacea
Family: Ziphiidae
Number of species: 21 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Beaked whales are the second largest family of living whales. class
They get their name from their long, narrow snout, or beak. In
some species, the snout slopes gradually into the forehead. In subclass
others, the forehead bulges out over the beak. Beaked whales order
breathe through a blowhole on top of their head. They have a
monotypic order
melon, a fatty organ in their forehead that they use for echolo-
cation (eck-oh-loh-KAY-shun). suborder
Beaked whales are toothed whales. However, all species ex- ▲ family
cept Shepherd’s beaked whale have very few teeth. Males usu-
ally have only one or two teeth in the lower jaw and just stubs
or no visible teeth at all in the upper jaw. The lower jaw teeth
grow into tusks in some species. In females of some species,
the teeth never erupt, or break through the skin, although in
x rays they can be seen in the jaw.
Beaked whales are medium-sized whales ranging from about
13 to 42 feet (4 to 13 meters) in length and weighing up to
25,000 pounds (11,500 kilograms). They have cigar-shaped
bodies that are thicker in the middle than at either end. Their
dorsal (back) fin is small and set farther back toward the tail
than in other whales. The bones in what would be the hand
and arm of a land animal are compressed into a web of bone
to make small flippers that fit against their body in depressions
called flipper pockets. The back legs are so reduced that all that
remains are a few internal pelvic bones. Beaked whales have
strong, muscular tails that, unlike most other whales, are not
notched. They range in color from light brown to gray to black.
Males and females may have different color patterns.
HABITAT
Beaked whales are mainly deep water whales. They can be
found beyond the continental shelf in water as shallow as 660
feet (200 meters) and as deep as 9,900 feet (3,000 meters). Most
live at depths of 3,300 to 9,900 feet (1,000-3,000 meters). These
whales are often found around underwater formations such as
canyons, shelf edges, and seamounts. A seamount is an under-
water mountain that does not break the surface.
DIET
Beaked whales are good divers. Scientists believe that they
feed on squid, fish, shrimp, and crabs that live on or near the
ocean floor, because they have discovered these animals plus
stones in the stomachs of dead beaked whales.
Beaked whales have well-developed melons and use echolo-
cation to find and catch their prey. Echolocation involves mak-
ing sounds or clicks that are then focused through the melon
and skull. These to sounds bounce off objects. Sense organs
pick up the echo or reflected sound and use information about
its the timing, direction, and strength to determine the loca-
tion of objects. This is particularly useful, since little sunlight
penetrates to the depths where these animals feed.
Since beaked whales have few teeth, they feed by sucking in
their food. They have up to six groves in their throat that can
expand and along with their strong tongue suck prey into their
mouth. These whales also have between four and fourteen
chambers, or sections, to their stomach.
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS NORTHERN BOTTLENOSED WHALE
Hyperoodon ampullatus
Diet: Unlike other members of this family that eat squid, the Shep-
herd’s beaked whale appears to eat mainly fish.
Shepherd’s beaked whale and people: There have been only about
half a dozen sightings of this whale outside of strandings.
Books:
American Cetacean Society, Chuck Flaherty, and David G. Gordon. Field
Guide to the Orcas. Seattle: Sasquatch Books, 1990.
Carwadine, Mark, and Martin Camm. Smithsonian Handbooks: Whales
Dolphins and Porpoises. New York: DK Publishing, 2002.
Mead, James G., and Joy P. Gold. Whales and Dolphins in Question: The
Smithsonian Answer Book. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution
Press, 2002.
Nowak, Ronald. M. Walker’s Mammals of the World Online 5.1. Balti-
more: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. http://www.press.jhu.edu/
books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world (accessed on July 8, 2004)
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Cetacea
Family: Physeteridae
Number of species: 3 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class The family of sperm whales contains the largest toothed
whale—the giant sperm whale—and two smaller toothed whales.
subclass
All are dark gray above, lighter gray on the belly, and have erupted
order (visible) teeth only in the lower jaw. Although these animals range
monotypic order in size and weight from 9 feet (2.7 meters) and 600 pounds (270
kilograms), to 60 feet (18.3 meters) and 125,000 pounds (57,000
suborder kilograms), they have other physical features in common.
▲ family All members of this family have a spermaceti (spur-mah-CEE-
tee) organ in their forehead. This produces a waxy substance
called spermaceti. At the animal’s body temperature, it is a clear
yellowish liquid. After processing, it becomes a white waxy solid.
It was prized in the 1800s and 1900s for making smoke-free
candles and soap and as a way to waterproof cloth (called oil-
skins). Later it was used in cosmetics, ointments, as a lubricant
for watches and machinery, and in automatic transmission fluid.
Today it has been replaced by human-made oils and waxes.
The purpose of the spermaceti organ is not clear. Some sci-
entists think that it helps the whale regulate its buoyancy, or
ability to sink or float, during dives. Others believe that it is
used to focus the sounds made for echolocation (eck-oh-loh-
KAY-shun) and communication. Echolocation involves making
sounds that bounce off objects. Sense organs pick up the echo
or reflected sound and use information about the timing, di-
rection, and strength to determine the location of objects.
Echolocation allows whales to find food in water so deep that
there is no natural sunlight.
DIET
Sperm whales eat mainly squid, although they will also
eat fish, crabs, and octopus that live on or near the ocean
bottom.
SPECIES
SPERM WHALE ACCOUNTS
Physeter macrocephalus
Habitat: These whales live in deep water and are often found near
underwater features such as seamounts (underwater mountains that
do not rise above the surface of the ocean) and sharp drop-offs.
Sperm whales and people: Sperm whales have been hunted since
the early 1700s, with peak whaling activity between 1880 and 1930
and 1950 to 1975. They are valued for their spermaceti, oil, and am-
bergris (AM-bur-gris), a waste product used in manufacturing per-
fumes. Whale meat is also eaten in some countries such as Japan.
Habitat: Pygmy sperm whales live in deep ocean and less deep wa-
ter over continental shelves. They prefer moderate or warm waters
and avoid the very cold waters of the Arctic.
Books:
American Cetacean Society, Chuck Flaherty, and David G. Gordon. Field
Guide to the Orcas. Seattle: Sasquatch Books, 1990.
Carwadine, Mark, and Martin Camm. Smithsonian Handbooks: Whales
Dolphins and Porpoises. New York: DK Publishing, 2002.
Mead, James G., and Joy P. Gold. Whales and Dolphins in Question: The
Smithsonian Answer Book. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution
Press, 2002.
Nowak, Ronald. M.Walker’s Mammals of the World Online 5.1. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. http://www.press.jhu.edu/
books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world (accessed on July 8, 2004).
Web sites:
American Cetacean Society. http://www.acsonline.org (accessed on
July 8, 2004).
Bird, Jonathan. “Sperm Whales: The Deep Divers of the Ocean.” Oceanic
Research Group. http://www.oceanicresearch.org/spermwhales.htm
(accessed on July 8, 2004).
Culik, Boris. “Kogia breviceps.” Convention on Migratory Species.
http://www.cms.int/reports/small_cetaceans/data/K_breviceps/K_
breviceps.htm (accessed on July 8, 2004).
Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society. http://www.wdcs.org
(accessed on July 8, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Cetacea
Family: Monodontidae
Number of species: 2 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Beluga whales and narwhals are the only two living species class
in this family. Although they look quite different, these species
subclass
share certain physical characteristics, including a very small
beak and small head. Their neck bones (cervical vertebrae) are order
not fused or joined together, giving them the ability to turn monotypic order
their head without turning their entire body. Neither species
has a dorsal (back) fin, only a ridge where the fin normally is suborder
found. The lack of a fin is unusual in whales. Members of this ▲ family
family range in size from 13 to 16 feet (4 to 5 meters) and in
weight from 1,500 to 3,500 pounds (680 to 1,600 kg).
Both species change color as they age. Belugas are born gray,
but gradually become white by the time they reach maturity at
seven to nine years. Narwhals are born gray. As young animals,
they become almost completely blue-black. In adulthood they
become mottled (spotted) dark gray, with more dense splotches
on the back and less dense ones on the belly. In old age, they
become white.
The main difference in these species is in their teeth. Belu-
gas have simple teeth in both the upper and lower jaw. Nar-
whals have only two teeth in the upper jaw. In females, these
teeth do not erupt or become visible. In males, one tooth be-
comes a spiraled tusk that may be 10 feet (3 meters) long.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Both these species live in the Arctic oceans, although their
distribution is not continuous.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Beluga whales are considered Vulnerable, facing a high risk
of extinction, dying out. Not enough is known about the size
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS BELUGA
Delphinapterus leucas
Habitat: Belugas live in cold water of almost any depth. During the
summer they gather in shallow water at the mouths of rivers. At other
times, they migrate through deep, open ocean. They can survive in fresh
water, and have been occasionally found in rivers far from the ocean.
Diet: Belugas eat a wide variety of squid, fish, crabs, shrimp, clams,
worms, and octopus that they find by echolocation (eck-oh-loh-KAY-
shun). They can easily dive to depths of 3,300 feet (1,000 meters).
Their teeth are not made for capturing prey. Instead, they suction
food into their mouths and swallow it whole.
NARWHAL
Monodon monoceros
Habitat: Narwhals live in colder water than any other whale. They
follow the ice pack, moving north in the summer as it retreats and
south in the winter as it grows. They often swim long distances un-
der thick ice, coming up to breathe in small cracks called leads.
Diet: Narwhals feed along the sea bottom, eating squid and deep
water fishes. They can dive to depths of about 3,300 feet (1,000 me-
ters) and stay under water for up to twenty-five minutes. They locate
their food by echolocation. Echolocation involves making sounds that
bounce off objects. Sense organs pick up the echo or reflected sound
and use information about its the timing, direction, and strength to
determine the location of objects.
Narwhals and people: The ivory in the tusks of narwhals has com-
mercial value. It is often carved into jewelry or decorations. The tusks
are also sold as curiosities to collectors. In earlier times, narwhal tusks
brought back by sailors may have given rise to the story of the uni-
corn, a one-horned horse.
Books:
American Cetacean Society, Chuck Flaherty, and David G. Gordon. Field
Guide to the Orcas. Seattle: Sasquatch Books, 1990.
Carwadine, Mark, and Martin Camm. Smithsonian Handbooks: Whales
Dolphins and Porpoises. New York: DK Publishing, 2002.
Mead, James G., and Joy P. Gold. Whales and Dolphins in Question: The
Smithsonian Answer Book. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution
Press, 2002.
Nowak, Ronald. M. Walker’s Mammals of the World Online 5.1. Balti-
more: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. http://www.press.jhu.edu/
books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world (accessed on July 8, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Cetacea
Family: Eschrichtiidae
One species: Gray whale
(Eschrichtius
robustus)
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Gray whales are very large animals that weigh 30 to 40 tons class
(27,200 to 36,300 kilograms) and are 45 to 50 feet (13.8 to 15
subclass
meters) in length. Females are larger than males. These whales
have a streamlined body with a narrow head. The upper jaw order
overlaps with the lower jaw, and they have two to four throat monotypic order
grooves. Each groove is about 5 feet (1.4 meters) long and al-
lows the throat to expand when the whale takes in water for suborder
filter feeding. ▲ family
Gray whales are baleen (buh-LEEN or BAY-leen) whales.
They do not have teeth. They filter feed using 130 to 180 over-
lapping plates called baleen plates that hang from the upper
jaw. These plates are made of a material called keratin (KARE-
ah-tin). This fingernail-like material frays out into thin hairs at
the end of each strand to make a strainer. Each baleen plate is
white and about 2 to 10 inches (5 to 25 centimeters) in length.
Gray whales have a 10-inch (25-centimeter) layer of blub-
ber, or fat, to keep them warm in freezing cold water. Their
skin is dark with gray patches and white splotches. Their skin
also shows many scars and patches from white barnacles and
orange whale lice. Often many more of these patches are found
on the left side of the whale than on the right because of the
way the whale scrapes along the ocean floor while feeding.
Although the gray whale does not have a dorsal (back) fin,
it does have a large dorsal hump about two-thirds of the way
back on its body. Behind the hump is a row of six to twelve
knuckles that extend to its fluke, otherwise known as its tail.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
DEVIL FISH Gray whales migrate between northwest
Alaska in the Chukchi Sea, where they live
Gray whales got the nickname “devil
during the summer, and the Baja Peninsula
fish” from early whalers who hunted off the
of Mexico, where they live during the win-
coast of the Baja Peninsula. They got this
ter. A few individual gray whales live year-
name because the gray whale mother is so
round in the Straits of Juan de Fuca, located
protective of its calf. The mother will make
between the state of Washington and Van-
any sacrifice, including death, to protect
couver Island, Canada, and off the coast of
her young. Soon whalers found that it was
California. Most whales, however, make the
too dangerous to hunt these whales from
10,000-mile (16,000-kilometer) trip from
boats in the water, so they started a new
Mexico to the Arctic yearly.
technique where they would herd the
whales toward the beach and harpoon
them from land. HABITAT
Gray whales prefer shallow coastal water
but dive to the ocean floor to feed. Every year
gray whales spend two to three months mi-
grating 10,000 miles (16,000 kilometers) from their summer
home in Alaska to the warmer coastal waters off of the Baja
Peninsula, Mexico, where they stay all winter.
DIET
Gray whales eat a variety of small shrimp, krill, squid, and
octopus, along with plankton and mollusks. They are seasonal
feeders, doing most of their feeding between May and Novem-
ber in the Arctic, but they are unique among baleen whales be-
cause they are bottom feeders. To eat, they dive to the bottom
and roll on to their right side. They suck the stirred-up bottom
mud and water into their mouth. This is filtered through the
whale’s baleen plates, trapping the food near the tongue where
it can be eaten.
CONSERVATION STATUS
At one time there were three separate gray whale popula-
tions in the world. A population in the North Atlantic became
Books:
Carwadine, Mark, and Martin Camm. Smithsonian Handbooks: Whales
Dolphins and Porpoises. New York: DK Publishing, 2002.
Gowell, Elizabeth T. Whales and Dolphins: What They Have in Common.
New York: Franklin Watts, 2000.
Mead, James G., and Joy P. Gold. Whales and Dolphins in Question: The
Smithsonian Answer Book. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution
Press, 2002.
Web sites:
American Cetacean Society. http://www.acsonline.org (accessed on July
8, 2004).
“Baleen Whales.” SeaWorld/Busch Gardens Animal Information
Database. http://www.seaworld.org/infobooks/Baleen/home.html (ac-
cessed on July 8, 2004).
International Whaling Commission. http://www.iwcoffice.org/ (accessed
on July 8, 2004).
Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society. http://www.wdcs.org (ac-
cessed on July 8, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Cetacea
Family: Neobalaenidae
One species: Pygmy right whale
(Caperea marginata)
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
The pygmy right whale is the smallest of the baleen (buh- class
LEEN or BAY-leen) whales. It ranges from 5.2 to 7.2 feet (1.6-
subclass
2.2 meters) in length and weighs around 4.5 tons (4,000
kilograms). Females are larger than males. The largest female order
ever recorded was 21.3 feet (6.45 meters), while the largest monotypic order
male was 20 feet (6.05 meters). The pygmy right whale is the
only species in this family and should not be confused with suborder
right whales in the family Balaenidae. ▲ family
Like all baleen whales, the pygmy right whale is a filter
feeder. Pygmy right whales do not have teeth. Instead, it has
many overlapping plates, called baleen plates, which hang like
a curtain from the upper jaw. These plates are made of a ma-
terial called keratin (KARE-ah-tin). This horny, fingernail-like
material frays out into thin hairs at the end of each strand to
make a strainer. The whale opens its mouth to feed and sucks
in a lot of water. It then pushes the water out through the baleen
plates and uses its tongue to lick up food that remains.
The pygmy right whale’s head is one-fourth the size of its
body. Its most noticeable characteristics are a highly arched jaw
and large lips. Inside the pygmy’s mouth are 460 ivory-colored
baleen; these are lined up, with 230 on each side of the upper
jaw. This baleen is thought to be more flexible and tougher
than the baleen of any other species. Each piece varies from 1
to 28 inches (2.5 to 70 centimeters) wide and can be as long
as 4 inches (10 centimeters). The size of each baleen depends
on where it is in the mouth.
HABITAT
Pygmy right whales live where the surface water is between
41 and 68°F (5 and 20°C). Not much else is known about the
habitat preferences of this whale.
DIET
The pygmy right whale eats small squid, octopus, krill, and
shrimp-like marine animals. Their method of feeding has never
been observed, but it is thought that this whale uses a surface-
skimming technique instead of diving deep to feed.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Only a few dozen pygmy right whales have ever been ex-
amined, and only a few hundred have been identified. They are
not on the endangered species list because of a lack of infor-
mation, but are still thought to be threatened with extinction.
They are the only baleen whales not to have been threatened
by large-scale commercial hunting. There is concern that this
whale might be confused with the Antarctic minke whale,
which it resembles. The Antarctic minke whale is still hunted
by Japanese whalers. The pygmy is thought to be threatened by
global climate change, but not by toxic pollution. Overall, it
seems to be so rare not because of the lack of animals, but be-
cause of a lack of data and research.
Books:
Nowak, Ronald. M. Walker’s Mammals of the World. Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1995.
Web sites:
American Cetacean Society. http://www.acsonline.org (accessed on
July 8, 2004).
“Caperea marginata: Pygmy Right Whale.” Cetacea. http://www.cetacea.
org/pright.htm (accessed on July 8, 2004).
Cover, Sarah. “Caperea marginata (Pygmy Right Whale).” Animal
Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/
information/Caperea_marginata.html (accessed on July 8, 2004).
“Fishin’ for Facts: Pygmy Right Whale.” Whale Times. http://www.
whaletimes.org/pygrtwha.htm (accessed on July 8, 2004).
Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society. http://www.wdcs.org
(accessed on July 8, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Cetacea
Family: Balaenidae
Number of species: 4 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Right whales and bowhead whales are baleen (buh-LEEN or class
BAY-leen) whales. Like all baleen whales, these whales are fil-
subclass
ter feeders. Right whales and bowhead whales do not have teeth.
Instead, they have many overlapping plates, called baleen plates order
that hang like a curtain from the upper jaw. These plates are monotypic order
made of a material called keratin (KARE-ah-tin). This horny
fingernail-like material frays out into thin hairs at the end of suborder
each strand to make a strainer. The whale opens its mouth to ▲ family
feed and sucks in a lot of water. It then pushes the water out
through the baleen plates and uses its tongue to lick up food
that remains, caught by the plates.
Right whales and bowhead whales are generally between 43
and 65 feet (13 to 20 meters) long. They weigh between 168,000
and 224,000 pounds (76,200 to 101,600 kilograms). They have
large heads and a curved mouth that allows them more baleen
surface than baleen whales with a straight mouth. Because they
are mammals, whales must come to the surface of the water to
breathe. They breathe through a blowhole located on top of
their head. The blowhole is connected to the lungs.
Bowhead and right whales are almost entirely black, but they
do have a patch of white around their chin, as well as a band
of lighter color on their tail. The easiest way to tell the differ-
ence between a bowhead whale and a right whale is that right
whales have bumps around their head, near their mouth, and
around their eyes. These bumps are actually places where small
animals known as whale lice live. These parasites are not
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Right and bowhead whales can be found
throughout most of the world’s oceans and
WHALES AND MYTHS seas. They go farther into the Arctic than
Whales have played an important role in many other whales and are capable of break-
popular culture. In the story of Pinocchio, ing through newly formed ice up to 9 inches
a father and his wooden boy are swallowed (23 centimeters) thick. These whales do not
by a whale. In Moby Dick, Captain Ahab generally enter the warmest waters close to
pursues a white whale that attacks his ship. the equator.
While these tales tell us of the fear that
people have had of whales for centuries, it HABITAT
is important to remember that whales do Right whales and bowhead whales travel
not feed on people. Most large whales are long distances and can live in a variety of
not even capable of swallowing a person. habitats. They generally find warmer tem-
peratures for birthing along coastal regions
and bays. They are capable of traveling far
into the polar regions and navigating through icy waters to find
krill for feeding.
DIET
Right whales and bowhead whales feed on small marine an-
imals called krill by using their baleen. They do this by taking
in water and krill as they open their large mouth. Next, they
close their mouth most of the way, until only the baleen is ex-
posed between their lips at the sides of the mouth, like a sieve
(SIV). Then they push the water through the baleen and out
between their lips, but the krill are trapped in the baleen and
are left in the whale’s mouth. By scraping the baleen with their
huge tongue, the whales are able to swallow the food that is
left after the water rushes out.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Bowhead whales and southern right whales are considered
at low risk for extinction, dying out. However northern Pacific
right whales and northern Atlantic right whales are considered
Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild,
and it is thought that fewer than 250 mature individuals re-
main. Since commercial whaling began, the population of these
two endangered species has been reduced by 95 percent. It is
questionable whether they will ever recover.
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS BOWHEAD WHALES
Balaena mysticetus
Diet: Bowheads feed both near the surface and on the ocean floor.
This gives them a highly varied diet of small marine animals. They
eat as many as sixty different species.
Diet: North Atlantic right whales feed on almost any small marine
animal that it can filter through its baleen. They are known to feed
at the surface and to also dive in order to feed off the ocean floor
where the water is not too deep.
North Atlantic right whales and people: North Atlantic right whales
have been hunted for almost a thousand years because of the meat,
oil, and baleen that they can provide. Today large amounts of money
are spent on preserving and restoring the small remaining population.
They are also an important part of the whale watching industry.
Books:
Hess, Bill. Gift of the Whale: The Inupiat Bowhead Hunt, a Sacred
Tradition. Seattle: Sasquatch Books, 1999.
Kraus, Scott, and Ken Malory. The Search for the Right Whale. New York:
Crown Publishers, 1993.
Web sites:
“Family Balaenidae (Bowhead Whales and Right Whales).” Animal Di-
versity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/
information/Balaenidae.html (accessed on July 8, 2004).
International Whaling Commission. http://www.iwcoffice.org (accessed
on July 8, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Cetacea
Family: Balaenopteridae
Number of species: 7 or 8 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Rorquals (ROAR-kwulz) are large baleen (buh-LEEN or BAY- class
leen) whales. Like all baleen whales, they are filter feeders. These
whales do not have teeth. Instead, they have many overlapping subclass
plates called baleen plates that hang like a curtain from the up- order
per jaw. These plates are made of a material called keratin
monotypic order
(KARE-ah-tin). This horny, fingernail-like material frays out
into thin hairs at the end of each strand to make a strainer. suborder
Rorquals also have a set of ridges and groves along the bottom ▲ family
of their mouth and throat. When they open their mouth to feed,
the grooves expand and make the inside of their mouth very
large so that they can suck up a lot of water. They then push
the water out through the baleen plates and use their tongue to
lick up food that remains.
Rorqual whales can be anywhere between 32 to 102 feet (10
to 31 meters) long and weigh as much as 200 tons (181
metric tons). Some rorquals have a dorsal fin on their backs,
and others have particular bumps or ridges on their head and
back that help to distinguish them from other rorquals. Females
are usually larger than males.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Rorquals are found in all of the oceans of the world and the
seas that connect to these oceans. They do not live in the parts
of the Arctic and Antarctic Ocean that are covered by ice, since
they must come to the surface to breathe. Rorquals are more
often found in shallower parts of the ocean that are closer to
land. These areas are called continental shelves.
Rorquals 795
HABITAT
Rorquals can be seen most often in open waters over conti-
nental shelves. They can sometimes be found in bays and in-
lets near land.
DIET
Rorqual whales eat small fish, squid, and other small marine
animals. Much of their diet is made up by krill, which are tiny
shrimp-like animals. They obtain their food by filtering large
quantities of water through their baleen. Normally they feed at
depths no greater than 300 feet (91 meters) and stay under wa-
ter no longer than ten minutes.
To capture the large amount of food that they need, rorquals
expand their mouth and open it wide. Then they close their
mouth most of the way, leaving only the baleen exposed, like
a sieve (siv) between their lips, and squeeze the water out by
ramming their tongue against the baleen. This pushes out the
water and leaves the food behind. The blue whale, the largest
rorqual, can eat 8 tons (7.3 metric tons) of krill per day.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The International Whaling Commission, set up in 1946 by
twenty countries, has attempted to monitor and establish lim-
its on the number of whales and the kinds of whales that are
killed each year. In 1972, the United States Congress passed
the Marine Mammal Protection Act banning hunting of marine
mammals and the purchasing of their products from other
countries. While these efforts have brought an end to most
whale hunting worldwide, they may have been too late for many
rorqual species. Today, the blue whale, the sei whale, and the
fin whale are considered Endangered, facing a very high risk of
extinction in the wild. Humpback whales are considered Vul-
nerable, facing a high risk of extinction in the wild. Studies
done by the International Whaling Commission have estimated
that there are fewer than five hundred blue whales remaining
in the world.
Rorquals 797
Blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS BLUE WHALE
Balaenoptera musculu
Habitat: Blue whales spend the spring months in the colder waters
close to the poles, but migrate toward the warmer regions closer to
the equator for the other eight months.
Diet: Blue whales eat only during the spring for about four months
when they feed in colder waters. The rest of the year, they live off
stores of blubber, fat, that they build up during the feeding season.
Blue whales eat krill and generally avoid other marine life. When they
are feeding, they can eat 8 tons (7.3 metric tons) of krill per day.
Blue whales and people: When whalers began using ships that al-
lowed them to haul up whales no matter how large they were, the
blue whale populations dropped dramatically. Because of their size,
blue whales were highly prized, as whalers could bring in large
amounts of oil, blubber, and meat with a single kill. During the years
of 1930 and 1931, almost 30,000 blue whales were killed. During the
1960s, the blue whale gained protection from the International Whal-
ing Commission. The blue whale may not survive much longer. Some
scientists predict that the remaining population of about five hundred
whales is not large enough to support a recovery. In recent decades
the blue whale has taken a place in popular culture, and its image
has helped to promote conservation efforts and ecotourism activities
such as whale watching.
Rorquals 799
Northern minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata)
Habitat: Northern minke whales live at the edge of the polar ice
fields, and sometimes even enter the fields of ice. They prefer water
close to shore, and will enter bays and inlets.
Diet: Although a large part of their diet is krill and small schooling
fish, the northern minke whale feeds on many foods that other
rorquals generally avoid, including larger fish such as salmon, cod,
and mackerel.
Northern minke whales and people: Meat from this rorqual, as well
as many other rorquals, is sought after in Japan and Korea as a spe-
cial delicacy. Their meat is extremely expensive. Despite the Inter-
national Whaling Commission’s 1986 ban on hunting, these whales
are still taken illegally because of the high price their meat brings.
Rorquals 801
Humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae)
HUMPBACK WHALE
Megaptera novaeangliae
Diet: Like most rorquals, humpback whales eat krill or small ma-
rine animals that they catch by filtering large quantities of water
through their baleen. While the largest part of their diet is krill, the
humpback whale also eats a variety of small fish. Each whale eats
about 1.5 tons (1.4 metric tons) of food a day.
Books:
Clapham, Phil. Humpback Whales (World Life Library). Stillwater, MN: Female humpback whales nurse
Voyageur Press, 1996. their young for about one year,
Cooper, Jason. Baleen Whales. Vero Beach, FL: The Rourke Book and have a new calf about every
Company, 1996. other year. (V. & W. Villoch/
Bruce Coleman Inc. Reproduced
Miller-Schroeder, Patricia. Blue Whales. Austin, TX: Raintree Steck-Vaughn, by permission.)
1998.
Web sites:
American Cetacean Society. http://www.acsonline.org (accessed on
July 8, 2004).
International Whaling Commission. http://www.iwcoffice.org/ (accessed
on July 8, 2004).
Myers, Phil. “Family Balaenopteridae (Rorquals).” Animal Diversity
Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Balaenopteridae.html (accessed on July 9, 2004).
Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society. http://www.wdcs.org (ac-
cessed on July 8, 2004).
Rorquals 803
AARDVARK
Tubulidentata
●
Class: Mammalia
▲
Order: Tubulidentata
One family: Orycteropodidae
One species: Aardvark (Orycteropus
afer)
monotypic order
C H A P T E R
DIET
Aardvarks began eating termites thirty-five million years ago, Termites are the aardvark’s
preferred food. Aardvarks will dig
and that’s still their preferred meal. A hill of termites is not at a termite mound and eat the
enough to satisfy an aardvark, however, so it searches for en- escaping termites, or look for a
tire termite colonies. These colonies march in columns 33 to whole colony on the move and
eat them as they march along.
130 feet (10 to 40 meters) long, which makes it easy for the (© Nigel J. Dennis/Photo
aardvark to suck the termites through its nostrils. When at- Researchers, Inc. Reproduced by
tacking a termite mound, the aardvark starts digging at the base permission.)
with his front claws. Once the termites begin escaping, it ex-
tends its tongue and traps them with its sticky saliva. Aard-
varks also eat ants and locusts, a type of grasshopper.
In addition to these insects, aardvarks eat an underground
fruit of the cucumber species, probably as a source of water.
Cucumis humifructus is known in South Africa as the “aardvark
pumpkin” or “aardvark cucumber.” One tribe of native people,
the !Kung San, call this plant “aardvark dung” because the aard-
vark buries its feces outside abandoned aardvark burrows and
the plant grows from seeds left in the aardvark’s feces.
Aardvark 805
Aardvark (Orycteropus afer)
CONSERVATION STATUS
Aardvarks are classified as Vulnerable, facing a high risk of
extinction in the wild, by the World Conservation Union
(IUCN).
Books:
Joyce, Peter. From Aardvark to Zebra: Secrets of African Wildlife.
Cape Town, South Africa: Struik, 2000.
McColaugh, Doreen Wolfson. Wild Lives Guidebook. African Wildlife
Federation, 1997. Online at http://www.awf.org/wildlives/60 (accessed
on July 9, 2004).
Web sites:
African Wildlife Federation. http://www.awf.org (accessed on July 9, 2004).
“Science & Nature: Animals.” BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/
reallywild/amazing/aardvark.shtml (accessed on July 9, 2004).
Aardvark 807
ELEPHANTS
Proboscidea
●
Class: Mammalia
▲
Order: Proboscidea
One family: Elephantidae
Number of species: 3 species
monotypic order
C H A P T E R
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
African elephants live in central Africa, from Democratic
Republic of the Congo to Mauritania. Asian elephants inhabit
India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia,
Vietnam, Laos, Malaysia, Nepal, Bangladesh, and southern China.
HABITAT
Elephants live only in tropical and subtropical regions, but
they occupy a wide range of habitats, including savannas (a
mixture of grassland and woodland), rainforests, mountains,
semi-deserts, and deciduous (trees that lose their leaves every
year) forests. Elephants eat a wide variety of plants, so it is im-
portant that they live in an area that provides this essential di-
versity. Water is another requirement. They must live within a
day’s walking distance of water in order to survive. Also of great
importance is that the elephant has room to move about freely
without coming into contact with humans.
Elephants have been known to change wooded area into
open grassland by destroying trees.
DIET
Elephants are herbivores, plant eaters, who eat a wide range of
various plant types, including grasses, trees, vines, and shrubs.
They consume between one hundred and five hundred species of
plants, and eat everything edible on each plant, including twigs,
bark, flowers, roots, bulbs, leaves, and shoots. Tree bark is fa-
vored because it provides essential minerals and other nutrients.
What elephants eat depends on the season. During the rainy
season, 50 to 60 percent of an elephant’s diet is made up of
new grasses. As those grasses dry out in the African and Asian
sun, the elephants eat more fruit and shrubs, which account
for about 70 percent of their diet. Bamboo is a staple, basic
food, for elephants residing in the forests of Asia. Elephants in
the rainforests of Africa and Malaysia eat more leaves and fruits.
Elephants eat 220 to 660 pounds (100 to 300 kilograms) of
food daily. Anywhere from twelve to eighteen hours of each day
Elephants 809
is spent eating. Where elephants live determines their behavior
in terms of food gathering. Elephants in forest areas travel slowly,
eating plants as they cover about 3 miles (5 kilometers) each day.
Elephants who live in woodlands and grasslands spend the hottest
parts of the day in the wooded areas and graze in the grassland
as the temperatures cool down. Elephants drink up to 53 gallons
(200 liters) of water each day in hot weather. When water is hard
to find, they dig holes in dried-up streams or lake beds until wa-
ter seeps in, then they suck it up through their trunks.
An elephant’s trunk is a major eating utensil. Smaller items
are plucked or picked up with the trunk while larger items like
branches are torn away from the tree by putting the trunk
around them and twisting. To reach the top of trees, elephants
stand on their hind legs, which give them a total reach, com-
bined with the stretch of the trunk, of 26 feet (8 meters). Ele-
phants have also been observed pushing over and uprooting
trees. The trunk is also important for drinking and is used like
a straw. The elephant sucks water up its trunk only until it can
be squirted into its mouth. Water never reaches the elephant’s
nose. An elephant’s trunk can hold 2.2 gallons (8.5 liters) of
water. The only time elephants eat without the use of their
trunks is when they are nursing from their mothers.
Tusks are also useful for eating. They can strip bark from
trees, dig for roots and water, and scrape salt and other nutri-
ents from soil or rock. Food is chewed by grinding the lower
jaw against the upper jaw, using a forward and backward mo-
tion. The molars, back teeth, of an elephant are flat-topped, each
one independent from its own root. The molars are held to-
gether by a cement-like material and form blocks of enamel and
dentin about 11.8 inches (30 centimeters) long. As each set
wears down, another larger set moves forward to replace it. Ele-
phants have a total of six pairs of teeth blocks, each weighing
up to 8.8 pounds (4 kilograms). The final pair emerges into
place around forty years of age and takes about twenty years to
wear out. At that time, the elephant dies of a combination of
starvation, malnutrition, and old age.
Because elephants do not digest food effectively, only about 40
percent of food by weight is used. The intestine is 115 feet (35
meters) long in comparison the human adult intestine is about
12 to 13 feet (3.7 to 4.0 meters) long. When the elephant is full
the intestine weighs up to a ton (0.9 metric tons). An elephant
expels an average of 220 pounds (100 kilograms) of feces daily.
Elephants 811
been used for carving because it’s hard yet has elasticity, flex-
ibility. Elephants play an important role in Asian culture espe-
cially. Evidence points to their domestication, taming for
human use, as early as the third millennium B.C.E. in India.
Soon after, they were used in the military to knock down en-
emy buildings. Royalty used to hunt while riding on elephants’
backs. In the United States, elephants are raised in captivity in
zoos and circuses.
CONSERVATION STATUS
All elephants are listed as Endangered, facing a very high
risk of extinction in the wild, by the World Conservation Union
(IUCN). They are threatened by habitat loss and poaching,
illegal hunting, for ivory, meat, and hides.
SPECIES
ASIAN ELEPHANT ACCOUNTS
Elephas maximus
Elephants 813
Asian elephants have just one
finger at the tip of their trunk.
The finger helps them to grasp
leaves and pull them off trees
for eating. (C. C. Lockwood/
Bruce Coleman Inc. Reproduced
by permission.)
Habitat: Asian elephants live primarily in forests that are wet or par-
tially moist, those containing bamboo, and grassland. They must live
with a day’s walking distance of water.
SAVANNA ELEPHANT
Loxodonta africana
Elephants 815
Adult African savanna elephant
(Loxodonta africana) and calf
drinking water (© St. Meyers/
OKAPIA/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Reproduced by permission.)
FOREST ELEPHANT
Loxodonta cyclotis
Elephants 817
After a pregnancy of twenty-two Geographic range: The forest elephant is thinly scattered throughout
months, female African forest
West Africa but has substantial populations in Central African rainforests.
elephants give birth to a
newborn that weighs 265
pounds (120 kilograms). Habitat: Forest elephants must live near water, and in areas with
(© Christophe Ratier/Photo varied vegetation.
Researchers, Inc. Reproduced by
permission.) Diet: Adults consume 220 to 660 pounds (100 to 300 kilograms)
of plant food daily, which they chew with their molars. Forest ele-
phants drink up to 53 gallons (200 liters) of water each day.
Books:
Alexander, Shana. The Astonishing Elephant. New York: Random House,
2000.
de Waal, Frans. Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans
and Other Animals. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997.
Masson, Jeffrey Moussaieff, and Susan McCarthy. When Elephants
Weep: The Emotional Lives of Animals. Surrey, U.K.: Delta, 1996.
Moss, Cynthia. Echo of the Elephants: The Story of an Elephant Family.
New York: William Morrow, 1992.
Moss, Cynthia. Elephant Memories. New York: William Morrow, 1988.
Payne, Katy. Silent Thunder: In the Presence of Elephants. New York:
Penguin USA, 1999.
Periodicals:
Newman, Steve. “Elephants in Mourning.” Los Angeles Times Syndicate
(November 2001).
Web sites:
African Wildlife Foundation: Amboseli Elephant Research Project. http://
www.awf.org/wildlives/elephant.php (accessed July 9, 2004).
“The Elephants of Africa.” Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). www.
pbs.org/wnet/nature/elephants (accessed on July 9, 2004).
“Elephant Information.” Friends of Elephants. http://www.friendsofelephants
.org/links/elephantInfo.html (accessed July 9, 2004).
The Elephant Information Repository. http://elephant.elehost.com/
(accessed July 9, 2004).
“Understanding Elephants.” The Africa Guide. http://www.africaguide.
com/features/trvafmag/005.htm (accessed July 9, 2004).
World Wildlife Fund: Endangered Flagship Species. http://www.panda.
org/about_wwf/what_we_do/species/what_we_do/flagship_species/
index.cfm (accessed July 9, 2004).
Elephants 819
HYRAXES
Hyracoidea
●
Class: Mammalia
▲
Order: Hyracoidea
One family: Procaviidae
Number of species: 5 to 11 species
monotypic order
C H A P T E R
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Hyraxes live mainly in Africa. The rock hyrax has been seen
from Lebanon to Saudi Arabia.
HABITAT
Hyraxes easily adapt to their surroundings and can work
with any kind of shelter so long as it provides the necessary
Hyraxes 821
are relieved by drinking the ash of burnt hairs mixed with honey
or water. Also, some tribes wrap newborn babies in hyrax skin
to ensure health and vitality.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Three hyrax species are listed as Vulnerable, facing a high
risk of extinction in the wild. Because these three species are
found primarily in the African forests, their status is probably
the result of habitat destruction, as well as being hunted for food
and their fur. No other species has been given special status.
SPECIES
SOUTHERN TREE HYRAX ACCOUNTS
Dendrohyrax arboreus
Hyraxes 823
The male southern tree hyrax
emits shrill shrieks in order to
claim his territory, and to keep
in contact with his family
throughout the night. (Illustration
by Joseph E. Trumpey.
Reproduced by permission.)
Southern tree hyraxes and people: Some African people eat the
southern tree hyrax and use the skin to make rugs and clothing. They
are also used as medicine. Southern tree hyraxes play important roles
in African spiritual traditions as well.
ROCK HYRAX
Procavia capensis
Diet: Rock hyraxes eat quickly, with some members of the colony
keeping watch for predators while the rest feed on leaves, fruit, lizard
Hyraxes 825
and bird eggs, and long grasses. When they eat,
rock hyraxes take a mouthful of food, then quickly
check out their surroundings. Because their great-
est predators are birds of prey, the rock hyrax must
be able to look into the sky to avoid being swooped
down upon and eaten. For this reason, they have
a protective film over their pupils that allows them
to look directly into the sun without damaging
their eyes.
Rock hyraxes and people: Some African tribes hunt the rock hyrax
for food, and it is mentioned numerous times in the Bible as “conie,”
which means “rabbit.”
Books:
Mostue, Trude. Wild About Animals. London: Madcap, 1999.
Ricciuti, Edward R., Jenny Tesar, and Bruce Glassman, eds. What on
Earth is a Hyrax? Detroit: Gale Group, 1996.
Web sites:
“Hyrax.” Out to Africa. http://www.outtoafrica.nl/animals/enghyrax.
html?zenden=2&subsoort_id=4&bestemming_id=1 (accessed on July 9,
2004).
“Hyrax.” Science Daily. http://www.sciencedaily.com/encyclopedia/hyrax
(accessed on July 9, 2004).
“The Hyrax: More Elephant than Rodent.” BBC Science & Nature:
Animals. http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/animals/features/155index.shtml
(accessed on July 9, 2004).
“Rock Hyrax.” Nature Niche. http://natureniche.tripod.com/hyrax.html
(accessed on July 9, 2004).
“Rock Hyrax.” Wildlife Safari Info. http://www.wildlifesafari.info/hyrax_
rock.html (accessed on July 9, 2004).
World Wildlife Fund. http://www.panda.org/ (accessed on July 9, 2004).
Hyraxes 827
DUGONGS, SEA COWS,
AND MANATEES
Sirenia
●
Class: Mammalia
Order: Sirenia
Number of families: 2 families
order C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Dugongs, sea cows, and manatees are mammals that vary in
length from 9.8 feet (3 meters) to 32.8 feet (10 meters) and weigh
subclass
anywhere from 992 pounds (450 kilograms) to more than 9,920
● order pounds (4,500 kilograms). Sirenians (sye-REEN-ee-unz), mem-
monotypic order bers of the order Sirenia, are nearly hairless and skin texture
varies from smooth to rough. They have no back limbs, only
suborder short, flexible forelimbs that they use to help them swim. The
family tail of the manatee is paddle-shaped while that of the dugong
and sea cow is fluked with long, horizontal fins, like a whale.
Eyes are small, and their ears are not visible. Sirenians vary in
color from gray to brown. The manatee has both upper and lower
molars, flat teeth suitable for chewing, which are replaced on a
regular basis throughout its lifetime. Male dugongs have tusks,
and all dugongs have molars that are not replaced. Sea cows were
toothless. All appear to have whiskers.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Sirenians live in tropical, subtropical, and temperate, or mild,
regions throughout the world. The exception to this is Steller’s
sea cow, now extinct, which lived only in the frigid waters of
the northwestern Pacific Ocean.
HABITAT
Manatees and dugongs live in shallow, warm coastal waters
that contain plentiful vegetation. Some manatees exist in estuar-
ies (EST-yoo-air-eez), mouth of a river where fresh water mixes
with salt water, others occupy both sides of the Atlantic Ocean.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Several species of manatees are threatened, according to the
World Conservation Union (IUCN). The dugong is listed as
Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction. It is also listed as
Endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Sirenia are
in danger due to habitat destruction brought on by human ac-
tivities such as recreational boating and fishing. Today great
conservation efforts are being made around the world in hopes
of keeping the dugong and manatee from the sharing the fate
of Steller’s sea cow.
Books:
Harman, Amanda. Manatees and Dugongs. New York: Benchmark
Books, 1997.
Glaser, Karen, and John Elliott Reynolds III. Mysterious Manatees.
Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida in association with Santa Fe,
NM and Harrisburg, VA: The Center for American Places, 2003.
Powell, James. Manatees. Stillwater, MN: Voyageur Press, 2003.
Ripple, Jeff, and Doug Perrine. Manatees and Dugongs of the World.
Stillwater, MN: Voyageur Press, 2002.
Silverstein, Alvin and Virginia. The Manatee. Brookfield, CT: Millbrook
Press, 1995.
Web sites:
“Dugong, a Sea Cow.” BBC Science & Nature: Animals.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/wildfacts/factfiles/3073.shtml (accessed
on July 9, 2004).
“Dugong (Seacow).” Unique Australian Animals. http://australiananimals
.net/dugong.htm (accessed on July 9, 2004).
“Dugongs.” Enchanted Learning. http://www.enchantedlearning.com/
subjects/mammals/manatee/Dugongprintout.shtml (accessed on July
9, 2004).
“France Celebrates Twin Sea Cows.” BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/
1/hi/world/europe/3290551.stm (accessed on July 9, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Sirenia
Family: Dugongidae
Number of species: 2 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
The near-hairless dugong and sea cow can be as long as 9.8 class
feet (3 meters) for the dugong and from 23 to 33 feet (7 to 10
subclass
meters) for Steller’s sea cow. They have no hind limbs, and the
tail is forked, similar to that of a whale. Their front limbs are order
flipper-like and without nails. Dugongs are found in various monotypic order
colorations of gray and brown, though it is unknown what color
suborder
the sea cow was. Dugongs can weigh more than 881 pounds
(400 kilograms), and scientists estimate that Steller’s sea cow ▲ family
weighed more than 9,920 pounds (4,500 kilograms).
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Dugongs live in the tropical and subtropical Indo-Pacific.
Steller’s sea cow was found in the western North Pacific Ocean.
HABITAT
Dugongids live in coastal waters that contain sea grass.
Steller’s sea cow lived with macroalgae, large, plant-like algae
(AL-jee) also called kelp.
DIET
Dugongs primarily feed on sea grasses that grow on the
ocean’s floor in shallow water. Steller’s sea cow reportedly fed
on the surface and was never recorded as diving. Because the
sea cow was toothless, it had to crush its food between stud-
ded plates at the front of their upper and lower jaws.
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS STELLER’S SEA COW
Hydrodamalis gigas
Diet: The sea cow ate kelp by crushing it with studded plates
located at the front of its mouth, on both the upper and lower jaw.
DUGONG
Dugong dugon
Geographic range: Dugongs live in sea grass beds and shallow trop-
ical and subtropical waters of the Indo-Pacific from eastern Africa to
the Philippines and the South China and East China Seas.
Diet: Dugongs eat various sea grasses from the ocean floor. Some-
times, in its consumption of sea grass, it will ingest bottom-dwelling
invertebrates such as crabs and shrimp. Unlike other sirenians,
dugongs cannot hold their breath for long and must surface often for
air, which is why the shallow waters are their preferred habitat.
Books:
Bryden, M. M., H. Marsh, and P. D. Shaughnessy. Dugongs, Whales,
Dolphins and Seals: A Guide to the Sea Mammals of Australasia.
St Leonards, Australia: Allen & Unwin, 1998.
Web sites:
“Dugong, a Sea Cow.” BBC Science & Nature: Animals. http://www.bbc.
co.uk/nature/wildfacts/factfiles/3073.shtml (accessed on July 9,
2004).
“Dugongs.” CRC Reef Research Centre. http://www.reef.crc.org.au/
aboutreef/wildlife/dugong.html (accessed on July 9, 2004).
“Dugongs.” Humane Society of the United States. http://www.hsus.org/
ace/18871 (accessed on July 9, 2004).
“Facts About Dugongs.” Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority.
http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/info_services/publications/dugong/
(accessed on July 9, 2004).
Vernon, Jennifer. “Dugongs Draw Hungry Sharks to Australia Bay.”
National Geographic News (January 23, 2004). Online at http://news.
nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/01/0123_040123_dugongcam.
html (accessed on July 9, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Sirenia
Family: Trichechidae
Number of species: 3 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
The almost-hairless manatee is 9 to 13 feet (3 to 4 meters) class
long and weighs between 1,100 and 3,300 pounds (500 to 1,500
subclass
kilograms), depending on the species. Manatees never stop
growing as long as they are alive. The tail is paddle-like, and order
the flipper-like forelimbs have three to four fingernails except monotypic order
in the Amazonian manatee, which has no fingernails. Manatees
are brownish gray. Their eyes are tiny and are placed on the suborder
sides of the head. Their flexible lips help them manipulate food ▲ family
so that they can get it into their mouths.
Manatees have a well-developed sense of smell and hear very
well. Their eyesight, however, is not very good. Manatees com-
municate through a series of whistles and chirps.
The manatee is a relative of the elephant. The nose or snout
of a manatee acts much like the trunk of an elephant in that it
is used to gather food and bring it to the mouth. Their finger-
nails or toenails, depending on how you look at it, are also sim-
ilar to those of the elephant.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Manatees live on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. In the
west, they are found from the southeastern United States
throughout the Caribbean region to southeastern Brazil and in
rivers of the Amazon River Basin. Manatees migrate, travel from
one region to another, seasonally, to Florida coastal waters dur-
ing the winter months. In the east, they live along the African
coast, from Senegal to Angola.
Manatees 841
HABITAT
Manatees live in shallow coastal waters
and estuary (EST-yoo-air-ee) waters, where
saltwater and fresh water mix. They also need
areas where marine vegetation is plentiful.
CONSERVATION STATUS
All manatees are considered Endangered, facing a very high
risk of extinction in the wild, according to the World Conser-
vation Union (IUCN). The main cause of death is habitat de-
struction and human activity, specifically recreational boating
accidents.
Manatees 843
West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT WEST INDIAN MANATEE
Trichechus manatus
Diet: West Indian manatees eat more than sixty species of vegeta-
tion including sea grasses, algae, and water hyacinths. They eat be-
tween 10 and 15 percent of their body weight every day.
Manatees 845
during mating season as well as the winter months, when they migrate
to seek refuge in warmer waters.
These polygamous manatees are ready to breed between the ages
of two-and-a half and six years, and females give birth every two-and-
a-half to three years. Each one-year pregnancy results in the birth of
one calf, though twins make up 1 to 2 percent of all births. Mothers
nurse, feed with mother’s milk, their young. The West Indian mana-
tee can live for more than fifty years.
The manatee has no major predator. Death is usually caused by
human activity.
West Indian manatees and people: The West Indian manatee has
been hunted as a source of meat, fat, oil, bone, and hide, though it
is now protected under law. Those laws, however, are difficult to en-
force. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that 25 percent of
all Florida manatee deaths are due to boating accidents.
Books:
Faulkner, Douglas. Of Manatees and Man. Philadelphia: Xlibris Corp.,
2000.
Foott, Jeff, and Barbara Sleeper. In the Company of Manatees:
A Tribute. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2000.
Web sites:
Bayan-Gagelonia, Ruby. “The Florida Manatee.” Ecofloridamag.com
http://www.ecofloridamag.com/archived/manatees.htm (accessed on
July 9, 2004).
Manatee Junction. http://www.manateejunction.org/ (accessed on
July 9, 2004).
“Manatees.” Defenders of Wildlife. http://www.defenders.org/wildlife/
new/manatees.html (accessed on July 9, 2004).
Wonderful World of the Manatee. http://www.manateeworld.net/
index.php (accessed on July 9, 2004).
Manatees 847
ODD-TOED UNGULATES
Perissodactyla
●
Class: Mammalia
Order: Perissodactyla
Number of families: 3 families
order C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Ungulates (UNG-gyuh-luhts) are hoofed mammals. What
makes perissodactyls (puh-RIH-suh-dack-tuhlz) different from
subclass
artiodactyls (ar-tee-oh-DACK-tuhlz), is the number of toes. The
● order presence of a single toe links the horse family (including horses,
monotypic order zebras, and asses), tapir, and rhinoceros together. This single
toe is actually a combination of three toes that bear the weight
suborder together, with the middle toe being the largest of the three.
family Tapirs have four toes on the front feet and three on the back,
while rhinoceroses (frequently called “rhinos”) have three on
all feet, and horses have just one.
The smallest perissodactyl is the mountain tapir, which
weighs up to 485 pounds (220 kilograms). The white rhinoc-
eros is the largest and can weigh more than 7,700 pounds
(3,500 kilograms). Male rhinos and horses are bigger than
females, but the opposite is true for tapirs.
Horses are medium sized with long heads and the ears stand
up. The long neck is covered by a short-haired mane except in
the domestic horse, whose mane falls to one side. All horses
have long tails, and the ass and zebra have short hair at the tip.
The large, heavy body of the rhino sits on top of short, thick
legs. The eyes are small and located on each side of the head.
Though their vision is not well developed, their hearing is excel-
lent and their erect ears are rather big. Some rhinos’ skin is all but
naked, while other rhinos are covered with fine hair. The horns
of the white rhino can grow to reach 70 inches (175 centimeters).
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Perissodactyls are found in Asia, Africa, and America in lim-
ited populations. Tapirs are found in Central and South Amer-
ica and in southeastern Asia. Rhinos live throughout Central
and East Africa below the Sahara Desert and in the tropical re-
gion of Asia. Horses are found in eastern and southern Africa
and Asia from Near East to Mongolia. Domestic horses live
throughout the world, and there are several wild populations
in North America and western Australia.
HABITAT
Tapirs prefer to live near permanent bodies of water and en-
joy tropical forests. The exception is the mountain tapir, who
lives in the Andes Mountains.
Rhinos can be found in rainforests, grasslands, and scrub-
lands (region similar to grassland but which includes scrub
vegetation). These mammals must live near water for drink-
ing and bathing. Asian rhino fossils have been found in the
Himalayas at an altitude of 16,100 feet (4,900 meters), though
today they’re found at altitudes of up to just 6,600 feet (2,000
meters).
Horses live in grasslands and desert scrublands. Plains zebra
and the mountain zebra prefer greener grasslands and savan-
nas where vegetation is more plentiful.
Tapirs are also solitary mammals. They spend part of the day
wallowing in mud or standing water, or simply rest in the shade.
Territorial by nature, tapirs mark their territory with their urine.
Most activity takes place at night. Tapirs swim with ease and wa-
ter is at the center of their existence. Water provides not only
food, but also safety from intruders. Able to hold their breath for
minutes at a time, tapirs will seek safety from predators by im-
mersing themselves in water. They have an acute sense of smell
and hearing, but like other perissodactyls, cannot hear well.
Though usually silent, they do communicate through grunts and
whimpers at closer range, through whistles over greater distances.
Tapirs are sexually mature at two to four years of age. They
breed year round, and females are receptive every two months.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Nine species of Perissodactyla are listed as Endangered,
facing a very high risk of extinction, or Critically Endangered,
Books:
Kalman, Bobbie. Endangered Rhinoceros. New York: Crabtree Publish-
ing Company, 2004.
Murray, Julie. Zebras. Edina, MN: ABDO Publishing Co., 2002.
Penny, Malcolm. Zebras: Habitats, Lifestyles, Food Chains, Threats.
Milwaukee: Raintree Publishers, 2003.
Web sites:
African Wildlife Foundation. http://www.awf.org (accessed on July 9,
2004).
“Management and Protection.” Horses America. http://www.
horsesamerica.com/pages/management.htm (accessed on July 9, 2004).
Myers, P. “Order Perissodactyla.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animal-
diversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Perissodactyla.
html (accessed July 9, 2004).
“Wild Horses: An American Romance, Teaching Resources Page
Activities.” Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). http://www.pbs.org/
wildhorses/wh_teaching/wh_teaching.html (accessed on July 9, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Perissodactyla
Family: Equidae
Number of species: 7 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Equids (EH-qwidz; horses, zebras, and asses) are built for
speed, with long legs that allow them to move efficiently. Their
subclass
single stomachs allow them to eat foods high in fiber because
order digestion occurs rapidly, and their single-toed hooves make
monotypic order navigating over rocks and hard surfaces easy.
suborder There are three species of zebra, and each has a different
▲ family stripe pattern. All equids have short coats, though those living
in higher altitudes may grow thicker coats. There is very little
size difference between the sexes.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Equids live in Africa below the Sahara Desert, in the Middle
East, Arabia, Central Asia, and Mongolia.
HABITAT
Equids graze throughout the day, and various species live in
deserts to grassland and shrubland (similar to grassland, only
with small trees and shrubs as well).
DIET
Equids eat grasses high in fiber, which makes them more dif-
ficult to chew and digest. Their teeth are made for breaking
down the reedy plants, however, and their single stomach al-
lows for quick digestion.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Of the seven species, one is Extinct, died out, in the Wild;
one is Extinct altogether; one is Critically Endangered, facing
an extremely high risk of extinction; two are Endangered, fac-
ing a very high risk of extinction; and one is Vulnerable, fac-
ing a high risk of extinction. Wild equids are threatened
primarily by hunters, but also by livestock grazing in their habi-
tat, and inter-breeding with domestic horses and donkeys.
SPECIES
GREVY’S ZEBRA ACCOUNTS
Equus grevyi
Diet: This zebra eats grasses, but will feed on shrubs and small trees
or plants if drought conditions deplete the supply of grasses.
Grevy’s zebra and people: Grevy’s zebra is killed for its meat and
hide as well as for medicinal purposes. Although these zebras eat the
coarse grasses that livestock cannot feed upon, their habitat contin-
ues to be threatened and depleted by domestic livestock, which com-
petes for grazing land.
KIANG
Equus kiang
Kiang and people: Kiang are hunted for their meat in some areas.
PRZEWALSKI’S HORSE
Equus caballus przewalskii
Habitat: Like the kiang, this horse lives in grassland and steppe
regions. It was last seen in the steppes of the Gobi desert.
Books:
Dines, Lisa. American Mustang Guidebook: History, Behavior, and
State-by-State Directions on Where to Best View America’s Wild Horses.
Minocqua, WI: Willow Creek Press, Inc., 2001.
Draper, Judith. The Book of Horses and Horse Care. New York:
Barnes & Noble, 2003.
Periodicals:
Meadows, Robin. “An Equid Primer.” Zoogoer (September/October
1997). Online at http://natzoo.si.edu/Publications/ZooGoer/1997/5/
equidprimer.cfm (accessed July 9, 2004).
Moretti, Laura. “Mestengo. Mustang. Misfit.” Animals’ Voice Online
at http://www.animalsvoice.com/PAGES/features/horses1.html (ac-
cessed July 9, 2004).
Web sites:
Ballenger, L., and P. Myers. “Family Equidae.” Animal Diversity Web.
http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Equidae.html (accessed July 9, 2004).
“Grevy’s Zebra.” Saint Louis Zoo. http://www.stlzoo.org/animals/
abouttheanimals/mammals/hoofedmammals/grevyszebra.htm (accessed
on July 9, 2004).
“How Do a Zebra’s Stripes Act As Camouflage?” How Stuff Works.
http://science.howstuffworks.com/question454.htm (accessed July 9,
2004).
“Nature: Horses.” Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). http://
www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/horses/ (accessed on July 9, 2004).
“Nature: Wild Horses of Mongolia.” Public Broadcasting Service (PBS).
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/mongolia/ (accessed July 9, 2004).
“Przewalski Horse.” International Museum of the Horse. http://www.imh.
org/imh/bw/prz.html (accessed on July 9, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Perissodactyla
Family: Tapiridae
Number of species: 4 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Tapirs (TAY-purz) have muscular bodies that are powerful class
enough to push through thick jungle growth. Males are slightly
subclass
smaller than females. The head is small with flat sides and a
slight upward arch. The front trunk acts as a nose. Eyes are order
small and the ears are round and able to move on their own. monotypic order
The rump is flat. Tapirs are skinnier than rhinos, and their short
legs are powerful. suborder
The tapir’s weight rests on the third toe of each of the four ▲ family
feet. Hind feet are three-toed, while front feet are four-toed. In
three of the four species, the coat is short; the mountain tapir
has longer fur. Coat color varies and can be dun, a reddish brown
color, whitish gray, coal black, and black-and-white two-tone.
Newborns have horizontal stripes and dots for the first year.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Tapirs live in South America, Central America, and South-
east Asia, including Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam,
and Sumatra.
HABITAT
With the exception of the mountain tapir, these mammals
live in lowland rainforests and other moist forest regions. Moun-
tain tapirs prefer cloud forests, tropical forests that are covered
with constant clouds year-round, and paramo, treeless plateaus
of tropical South America and the Andes Mountains. Lowland
tapirs are found in grasslands and woodlands at lower elevations
Tapirs 865
in South America. All tapirs swim and spend a good deal of time
in rivers and lakes. Females often need secluded forests in which
to give birth and raise their young.
DIET
Tapirs eat small branches and leaves as well as fresh sprouts.
They pull the food from trees using their teeth and their mo-
bile snout. They also eat fallen fruit and water plants. On moun-
tains, they eat in a zigzag pattern and eat just a little bit from
each plant. This method of eating keeps food plentiful. If food
is out of reach, they will reach up, with hind feet planted firmly
on the ground and front feet pushing against rocks or other
natural objects. Lowland tapirs have been reported eating
stranded fish in the Amazon. Tapirs tend to eat before the sun
rises and after it sets.
Tapirs 867
Lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS LOWLAND TAPIR
Tapirus terrestris
aquatic plants and walk on river bottoms as they feed. Lowland tapirs
play an important role in their ecosystem by dispersing seeds. When
they eat, they spit some of the seeds out, which can grow into plants.
This keeps food and plant life plentiful.
Tapirs 869
Lowland tapirs and people: In native religions, the tapir is endowed
with magical powers. This species is hunted for its meat, leather, and
body parts for use in medicine. Lowland tapirs are important to their
ecosystem because of their ability to disperse seeds.
MALAYAN TAPIR
Tapirus indicus
Tapirs 871
Young tapirs are born with
stripes and spots on their coat,
which they lose as they mature.
This Malayan tapir’s adult coat is
growing in. (© Terry
Whittaker/Photo Researchers,
Inc. Reproduced by permission.)
Diet: Malayan tapirs prefer tender leaves and shoots from certain
trees and bushes. They eat moss and a variety of fruits. A Thailand
study revealed that this species preferred thirty-nine plant species of
which 86.5 percent were eaten as leaves, 8.1 percent as fruit, and
5.4 percent as twigs with leaves. Because they do not digest the seeds
as well as multi-stomached animals, their feces contains seeds that
eventually lead to new plant life.
Malayan tapirs and people: Malayan tapirs are hunted in some ar-
eas of Asia for meat and other products and illegally traded in other
areas. Humans have always been the prime enemy of the Malayan tapir.
Books:
Emmons, Louise H. Neotropical Rainforest Mammals: A Field Guide,
2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997.
Kricher, John. A Neotropical Companion, 2nd ed. Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 1999.
Web sites:
“Animal Bytes: Tapirs.” Sea World. http://www.seaworld.org/
AnimalBytes/tapirs.htm (accessed on July 9, 2004).
“Brazilian or Lowland Tapir.” Enchanted Learning. http://www
.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/mammals/tapir/Tapirprintout.shtml
(accessed on July 9, 2004).
“Malayan Tapir.” Animal Info. http://www.animalinfo.org/species/
artiperi/tapiindi.htm (accessed on July 9, 2004).
“Malayan Tapir.” Animal Planet. http://animal.discovery.com/fansites/
jeffcorwin/carnival/lilmammal/malayantapir.html (accessed on July 9,
2004).
“The Tapir Gallery.” Tapir Preservation Fund. http://www.tapirback.com/
tapirgal/ (accessed on July 9, 2004).
Tapirs 873
RHINOCEROSES
Rhinocerotidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Perissodactyla
Family: Rhinocerotidae
Number of species: 5 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Rhinoceroses (commonly called “rhinos” [RYE-nose]) weigh
more than 2,200 pounds (1,000 kilograms) as adults. Their
subclass
barrel-shaped bodies are supported by short legs that end in
order three-toed feet. The mobile ears are large, tiny eyes are situ-
monotypic order ated on either side of the head, and the neck and tail are
short. Rhino horns are not made of bone, but of keratin
suborder (KARE-ah-tin), the same material in hooves, hair, and fin-
▲ family gernails. They are not attached to the skull. These horns never
stop growing, and they will re-grow should they be knocked
out in battle or otherwise.
Skin thickness varies with the species. Rhinos have large
sweat glands scattered over the skin that allows them to sweat
often and a lot to help keep them cool. Their eyesight is poor,
but their sense of hearing is well developed and facilitated by
ears that can swivel. Their most acute sense is that of smell.
Rhinos vary in coloration from gray to brown.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Found in Africa and Southeast Asia.
HABITAT
Different species prefer different habitats. The white rhino
likes grasslands and savannas (similar to grasslands but with
small trees and bushes), while the black rhino prefers bush-
land and semidesert. The Indian rhino is found on meadows
DIET
Rhinos are vegetarians and feed primarily on leaves, fruit,
grasses, and stems. They have one stomach, which could lead
to poor digestion. Because of their large size, however, rhinos
have longer periods of digestion, making it more efficient.
Rhinos need water not only for drinking, but for wallowing in
as well.
Rhinoceroses 875
HUMAN GREED SPELLS DEATH FOR BLACK RHINOS
For nearly twenty years, the African Wildlife rhinos in a fenced-in area less than 1 square
Foundation has been committed to rhinoceros mile (less than 1 square kilometer). Today
conservation. Much of its funding supports it is larger than 38 square miles (98 square
black rhino protection and conservation in the kilometers) and is home to fifty-seven
Tsavo East National Park in Kenya. rhinos, half of whom were born in the
sanctuary.
In the 1970s, the black rhino population
was between six and eight thousand. By Although the numbers are slowly rising, it
1989, however, the population had dwindled isn’t happening without a cost. In May 2003
to twenty. Poaching is the sole reason for the two park rangers were murdered in an effort
decline of the rhino population throughout to protect the rhinos from poachers.
Africa. As a way to counterbalance this tragic Poaching continues throughout rhino ranges,
pattern, Tsavo East created the Ngulia Rhino but sanctuaries like NRS are key to bolstering
Sanctuary (NRS) in 1985. It began with three the rhino population.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The only species that isn’t threatened is the white rhino, though
it once was in serious jeopardy. Today, the Javan, Sumatran,
and black rhinos are Critically Endangered, facing an extremely
high risk of extinction, while the Indian rhino is considered
Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction. Poaching
(illegal hunting) is to blame for the threat to all rhinos.
SPECIES
SUMATRAN RHINOCEROS ACCOUNTS
Dicerorhinus sumatrensis
Rhinoceroses 877
A newborn Sumatran rhinoceros,
born at the Cincinnati Zoo in
2001, is the first Sumatran
rhinoceros to be born in captivity
in 112 years. (AP/Wide World
Photo/Cincinnati Zoo.
Reproduced by permission.)
Diet: This species eats mostly twigs and leaves of small trees and
shrubs. It also enjoys fruits and herbs. Although these rhinos feed on
undergrowth along streams, they will reach higher shoots and twigs
by walking on plants and pressing down on the trunk of saplings with
their round bodies.
Rhinoceroses 879
Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis)
INDIAN RHINOCEROS
Rhinoceros unicornis
Diet: This species uses its upper lip to grasp grass stems and bushes.
The lip folds back when the rhino wants to graze. The tall grasses of
Rhinoceroses 881
Indian rhinoceroses and people: Tourists ride on elephants’ backs
to view Indian rhinos in some sanctuaries. Local people aren’t as fond
of the animals, as the rhinos tend to eat crops at night. In some in-
stances, Indian rhinos have killed humans.
WHITE RHINOCEROS
Ceratotherium simum
Rhinoceroses 883
White rhinos live in groups of Mozambique, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Namibia, and northeast South
one dominant male, females and Africa. Today the white rhino occupies fragments of these areas and
their offspring, and some young
males. (Photograph by Harald
is restricted to game preservations and national parks.
Schütz. Reproduced by
permission.) Habitat: The white rhinoceros prefers the drier savanna regions in
southern Africa, yet prefers the moist savanna in the northern range.
Diet: The southern white rhino eats grasses and also ingests herbs
and occasionally woody shrubs. Short grasses are the preferred food
year-round, though later in the dry season, interest turns to some of
the taller grasses. The northern rhino prefers short grasses but in-
cludes medium-tall grasses in its foraging.
Books:
Cunningham, Carol, and Joel Berger. Horn of Darkness: Rhinos on the
Edge. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2000.
Martin, Louise. Rhinoceros. Vero Beach, FL: Rourke Publishing, LLC., 2003.
Toon, Steve, Colin Baxter, and Ann Toon. Rhinos: Natural History and
Conservation (WII). Stillwater, MN: Voyageur Press, 2002.
Periodicals:
Mill, Frances. “A Horse is a Horse, Of Course—A Rhinoceros is a Horse.”
Boys’ Life (February-March, 2004).
Slattery, Derek M. “Africa Rhino Conservation.” PSA Journal (July 1, 2003).
Web sites:
“Black Rhino Looks Tough, But is Powerless at the Hands of Man.”
African Wildlife Foundation: News and Headlines (May 12, 2004).
Online at http://www.awf.org/news/17013 (accessed July 8, 2004).
Rhinoceroses 885
Ellis, E. “Ceratotherium simum (White Rhinoceros).” Animal Diversity Web.
http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Ceratotherium_simum.html (accessed on July 8, 2004).
Fahey, B. “Rhinoceros unicornis (Indian Rhinoceros).” Animal
Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/
information/Rhinoceros_unicornis.html (accessed on July 8, 2004).
“Rhino Fact Sheet.” Care for the Wild. http://www.careforthewild.org/
rhinos.asp (accessed on July 8, 2004).
“Rhinoceros.” Defenders of Wildlife. http://www.kidsplanet.org/
factsheets/rhinoceros.html (accessed on July 8, 2004).
“Sumatran Rhinoceros.” Blue Planet Biomes. http://www.blueplanetbiomes
.org/sumatran_rhino.htm (accessed on July 8, 2004).
“Wild Lives: Rhinoceros.” African Wildlife Foundation. http://www.awf
.org/wildlives/5 (accessed on July 8, 2004).
“White Rhino.” Save the Rhino. http://www.savetherhino.org/rhino_
facts/white_rhinoceros.phtml (accessed on July 8, 2004).
●
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Number of families: 10 families
order C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Because there are as many as 227 species of artiodactyls class
(ar-tee-oh-DACK-tuhlz), they vary greatly in physical charac-
subclass
teristics. The smallest is the mouse deer, which weighs less
than 2 pounds (1 kilogram) and stands up to 14 inches ● order
(35 centimeters) to the shoulder. The hippopotamus is the monotypic order
largest, weighing in at nearly 10,000 pounds (up to 4,500
suborder
kilograms). Head and ear sizes and shapes vary, as do neck
lengths, but the eyes are usually big, with long lashes. Tail and family
leg lengths vary, and fur can be short or long.
Ungulates (UNG-gyuh-luhts) are hoofed mammals. What
makes artiodactyls different from perissodactyls (puh-RIH-suh-
dack-tuhlz), is the number of toes. With the exception of two
species, all artiodactyls have an even number of toes (two or
four) on each foot. The hooves are hard and ideal for fast run-
ning, though they vary in size depending on the size and mass
of the animal. Almost all species have weapons, including
horns, antlers, and tusks or canines (the four pointed teeth near
the front of the mouth, two on each jaw).
Artiodactyls’ coats have two layers: a short underfur and
longer guard hairs on top. The top hairs repel water, and the
two layers together help control body temperature. Most species
have glands that are used for communication. These glands se-
crete strong-smelling chemicals and substances. The animals
use these to mark territory. Animal behaviorists agree that the
role of these glands in general is not completely clear.
HABITAT
Habitats vary greatly. Regardless of biome, though, every ar-
tiodactyl needs abundant vegetation in order to survive. These
animals are found in valleys and on mountaintops, in deserts
and tundras. Depending on the species, they will choose habi-
tats that will protect them as they go about their daily activities.
For example, bighorn sheep live in open grasslands and mead-
ows near cliffs. The meadow allows them to feed while the
cliffs provide security from predators, animals that hunt them
for food.
DIET
Except for two species, artiodactyls are herbivores (plant
eaters). This is probably one of the reasons the order has
thrived—vegetation is an abundant food source in almost
any ecosystem, and so these animals are able to live almost
anywhere.
All artiodactyls have at least one “false stomach” located in
front of the actual stomach. Some have three. These false stom-
achs aid digestion. Because mammals don’t have the enzymes
that make digestion of plants possible, they rely on microorgan-
isms to help break down plant tissues. These microorganisms,
in combination with the action of false stomachs, make for highly
effective digestion. Artiodactyls are ruminants, meaning they
chew their food, swallow it, then regurgitate (re-GER-jih-tate;
vomit) it back into the mouth to be chewed another time.
CONSERVATION STATUS
One hundred sixty species of Ariodactyla are on the IUCN
Red List of threatened mammals. Two are Extinct in the Wild;
seven are Extinct; eleven are Critically Endangered, facing an
extremely high risk of extinction; twenty-six are Endangered,
facing a very high risk of extinction; thirty-five are Vulnerable,
facing a high risk of extinction; sixty-six are not currently
threatened, but could become so; and thirteen are Data Defi-
cient, not enough information to make a determination.
Books:
Hames, Michael, Denise Koshowski, et al. Hoofed Mammals of British
Columbia. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2000.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 6th ed. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Web sites:
“Order Artiodactyla.” Ultimate Ungulate. http://www.ultimateungulate.
com/Artiodactyla.html (accessed on July 9, 2004).
“Artiodactyls.” Enchanted Learning. http://www.enchantedlearning.
com/subjects/mammals/classification/Artiodactyls.shtml (accessed on
July 9, 2004).
“Artiodactyls.” GeoZoo. http://www.geobop.com/mammals/art/index.
php (accessed on July 9, 2004).
Myers, P. “Order Artiodactyla.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity
.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Artiodactyla.html (accessed
on July 9, 2004).
The Nature Conservancy. http://nature.org (accessed on July 9, 2004).
“Wild Meat, Livelihoods Security and Conservation in the Tropics.” Over-
seas Development Institute. http://www.odi-bushmeat.org (accessed on
July 9, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Suidae
Number of species: 16 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Pigs are medium-sized mammals whose thick bodies weigh
anywhere from 77 to 770 pounds (35 to 350 kilograms). Some
subclass
domesticated, tamed, breeds weigh up to 990 pounds (450 kilo-
order grams). Pigs measure 34 to 83 inches (86 to 211 centimeters)
monotypic order in length and stand 21 to 43 inches (53 to 109 centimeters)
high. The exception is the pygmy hog, which is the smallest
suborder species and never grows longer than 28 inches (71 centimeters).
▲ family The neck is short and the head is long and pointed. The snout
is able to move separately from the head. The eyes are small, the
ears are long, and each foot has four toes. The two middle toes
are flattened and have hooves. The upper canines, cone-shaped
teeth on each side of the front of the mouth, are big and curve
upward, protruding from the mouth. Skin color varies, depend-
ing on the species, from brown to near black. Some species have
manes or tufts of hair. Others have warts on the face.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Pigs live on every continent except Antarctica. They also oc-
cupy a number of oceanic islands. They are not indigenous (in-
DIJ-un-us), native, to all ranges, but have been introduced by
humans.
HABITAT
Pigs live in altitudes of up to 13,000 feet (4,000 meters) and
choose their habitats depending upon the availability of food,
weather conditions, and the predator, animals that hunt pigs for
DIET
Wild pigs are omnivorous, eating meat and plants, feeding
on leaves, grasses, seeds, fruits, eggs, young trees, carrion, or
dead animals, invertebrates, or animals without backbones, and
small vertebrates, animals with backbones. They also enjoy
mineral licks where they ingest nutrient-rich soil or water.
Pigs 893
taken off mother’s milk as early as five weeks,
while others wait until thirty-two weeks of
age. Sexual maturity of young is reached at
eight months in some species, and at two to
five years in others.
Primary predators of wild pigs are bobcats,
GOOD NEWS FOR THE BABIRUSA coyotes, and black bears.
In February 2004, the Paguyaman
PIGS AND PEOPLE
Forest increased in size from 120 square
miles (311 square kilometers) to 200 Wild pigs and humans do not get along
square miles (518 square kilometers). This well. Wild pigs seriously damage crops by
forest is on Sulawesi, the island home to eating them or digging them up by the roots.
most of the remaining babirusa population. Humans hunt pigs for their meat and they
provide natives in Asia and parts of Africa
In addition, a poacher, illegal hunter,
with income through commercial hunting.
was prosecuted in 2002 for participating in
Some wild pigs carry disease that threatens
illegal trade. Such prosecution had never
domestic livestock. In some cultures, pigs are
taken place before that, and it has served
used in place of money. Domestic pigs are
to discourage other would-be poachers. As
used in scientific and medical research, and
a result, the number of babirusas sold
their organs have been used as replacements
weekly in the local markets fell from fifteen
for human organs. Humans have been the re-
in 1991 to two in 2004.
cipients of pig hearts, kidneys, livers, lungs,
and pancreas (PAN-kree-us) tissue.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The babirusa and the Philippine warty hog are Vulnerable,
facing a high risk of extinction in the wild. The Javan pig is
Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild.
The pygmy hog and the Visayan warty pig are Critically En-
dangered, facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the
wild. There is no enough data about the Vietnam warty pig,
but it may be extinct, died out.
The main threats to these wild pigs are hunting and loss of
habitat. Although some pigs are protected by law from hunt-
ing, those laws are not well enforced.
SPECIES
FOREST HOG ACCOUNTS
Hylochoerus meinertzhageni
Pigs 895
Forest hogs are active mainly at Diet: Forest hogs eat mainly grass. They will eat carrion and eggs
night, though they come out
occasionally. This species also eats dung, feces.
during the day if humans are not
around. They eat mostly grass.
(David Madison/Bruce Coleman Behavior and reproduction: Forest hogs are active mostly at night,
Inc. Reproduced by permission.) though they will come out during daylight if humans are not around.
The social group is made up of one male, several adult females, and
offspring. Home ranges overlap, and each has a number of paths lead-
ing to feeding sites, mineral licks, and water holes. Hyenas are the
primary predators.
Mating occurs most often towards the end of a rainy season, and
pairs do not bond. After 151 days of pregnancy, sows give birth to a
litter of two to four piglets, but sometimes as many as eleven. Piglets
remain in thick cover for one week and then stay with the sow. Young
are weaned, no longer drink mother’s milk, at nine weeks.
Forest hogs and people: Forest hogs are hunted for their meat.
Some tribes use the hides for war shields. Others believe that killing
the forest hog brings bad luck.
BABIRUSA
Babyroussa babyrussa
Pigs 897
Diet: Babirusas feed on fruit, nuts, leaves, roots,
and some animal material. They also eat soil and
rock at the mineral licks. Both sexes have been
known to eat their young.
Pigs 899
Eurasian wild pigs have been females and their young. Adult males are solitary, lone. These pigs
known to travel to other areas
are active 40 to 65 percent of the time.
when food is scarce.
(© Uwe Walz/Jacana/Photo
Researchers, Inc. Reproduced by Eurasian wild pigs and people: Eurasian wild pigs are eaten by hu-
permission.) mans more than any other species of pig. Because they do major dam-
age to crops, they are considered a pest by many locals. Eurasian wild
pigs are hunted commercially and for food. Their skulls are displayed
as protection from evil spirits. Domesticated pigs are used as money
for the payment of fines or fees for brides in some cultures.
Books:
Prothero, Donald R., and Robert M. Schoch. Horns, Tusks, and Flippers:
The Evolution of Hoofed Mammals. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University
Press, 2003.
Sonder, Ben. Pigs & Wild Boars: A Portrait of the Animal World. New
York: Todtri Productions, 1998.
Periodicals:
Bagla, Pallava. “World’s Tiniest Wild Pig Subject of Big Rescue.” National
Geographic News (January 28, 2003). Online at http://news
.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/01/0128_030128_pygmyhogs.h
tml (accessed on July 7, 2004).
Web sites:
Baribusa.org. http://earth-info-net-babirusa.blogspot.com/ (accessed on
July 7, 2004).
“The Joy of Pigs.” Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) Nature. http://
www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/pigs/index.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).
“Sus scrofa, Eurasian Wild Pig.” Ultimate Ungulate. http://www
.ultimateungulate.com/Artiodactyla/Sus_scrofa.html (accessed on July 7,
2004).
Pigs 901
PECCARIES
Tayassuidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Tayassuidae
Number of species: 3 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Peccaries (PECK-ar-eez) weigh 30.9 to 110.3 pounds (14 to
50 kilograms), depending on the species, and are 20 to 24 inches
subclass
(50.8 to 61 centimeters) tall. The body is similar to that of a pig,
order but the legs are longer and slimmer. Peccaries’ coats are bristly
monotypic order and short but get longer from the midsection to the hindquar-
ters. There is a scent gland located near the base of the tail that
suborder emits a musky smell. The snout is well developed. Peccaries have
▲ family canines (the cone-shaped side teeth found in the front part of
the mouth on both jaws). They have numerous stomachs, which
enhance digestion, but do not have a gallbladder (a muscular or-
gan attached to the liver used to store bile, which aids digestion).
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Peccaries are found in southwestern North America to
Mexico and Central America, as well as South America.
HABITAT
Peccaries live in the desert areas of the southwestern United
States and northern Mexico. They also occupy the tropical
forests and rainforests of Central America as well as the wet-
lands and forests of South America. They can be found in the
dry tropical thorn forests of Bolivia, Paraguay, and Argentina
known as the Chaco.
DIET
Peccaries eat a wide variety of foods, allowing them to flour-
ish in habitats other animals might find harsh. Depending on
CONSERVATION STATUS
The Chacoan peccary is listed as Endangered, facing a very
high risk of extinction, by the IUCN, primarily due to habitat
loss, but also because it is hunted for bushmeat (wild meat).
Peccaries 903
Collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT COLLARED PECCARY
Tayassu tajacu
Peccaries 905
Collared peccaries and people: This species is the most widely
hunted of all peccaries. Its meat is a source of food and money for
many rural Peruvians.
Books:
Yule, Lauray. Javelinas. Tucson, AZ: Rio Nuevo Publishers, 2004.
Periodicals:
Port-Carvalho, Marcio. “Predation of an Infant Collared Peccary by a
Harpy Eagle in Eastern Amazonia.” Wilson Bulletin (March 1, 2003).
Web sites:
“Collared Peccary.” Desert USA. http://www.desertusa.com/
magnov97/nov_pap/du_collpecc.html (accessed on July 9, 2004).
“Collared Peccary.” Animal Planet. http://animal.discovery.com/
fansites/jeffcorwin/carnival/lilmammal/javelina.html (accessed on July
9, 2004).
“Jaguar, Tapir, and Other Large Mammals.” Peru Nature. http://www.
perunature.com/info04.asp (accessed on July 9, 2004).
“Javelina.” Big Bend National Park. http://www.nps.gov/bibe/
teachers/factsheets/javelina.htm (accessed on July 9, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Hippopotamidae
Number of species: 2 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Hippopotamuses (often called hippos) have huge, round class
bodies that sit atop short legs. Males weigh 600 to 4,000 pounds
subclass
(270 to 1,800 kilograms) and measure 60 to 106 inches (152
to 270 centimeters). Females weigh between 500 and 3,000 order
pounds (230 to 1,500 kilograms) and measure 58 to 106 inches monotypic order
(150 to 270 centimeters). Hippos have four toes on each foot
with slight webbing between them. Though the skin looks hair- suborder
less, there is a sparse covering of fine hairs over the entire body. ▲ family
The hippo has no sweat glands, but it does have skin glands
that secrete a fluid. Experts believe this liquid acts as a sun-
screen as well as an antiseptic (germ-killer). Hippos vary in
color from slate brown to mud brown, and in certain lighting
give off shades of purple.
The head is big with a wide mouth. The canines (pair of
pointed teeth located in the front of the mouth on both jaws)
and incisors (four front teeth, situated between the canines on
both jaws) look like tusks and grow continuously throughout
the hippo’s lifetime.
The nostrils, eyes, and ears are located high on the face,
which allows the animal to remain submerged for a long time
with very little of its body showing. The hippo has a multi-
chambered stomach, which allows for fermentation (break-
down) of food for more efficient digestion.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Hippos live throughout Africa.
Hippopotamuses 907
HABITAT
Common hippos like deep freshwater locations during the
day, but venture out of the water at night to graze. The pygmy
hippo lives in the forest and spends its day near or in water.
Water is important to the hippo because if it can’t submerge it-
self, its skin will crack from dehydration and overheating.
DIET
Hippos are vegetarians and eat mainly grasses, though the
pygmy hippo also feeds on fruits and ferns. All hippos eat by
nipping off the vegetation with their powerful lips. They eat
about 88 pounds (40 kilograms) of grasses each night.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The pygmy hippo is listed as Vulnerable, facing a high risk
of extinction, dying out, by the IUCN, and two other species
are Extinct. The common hippo has a healthy population, but
is vulnerable to extinction in West Africa. The primary threat
to hippos is loss of habitat.
Hippopotamuses 909
Common hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS COMMON HIPPOPOTAMUS
Hippopotamus amphibius
Habitat: The common hippo needs water deep enough to keep its
body wet or the skin will crack from overheating. For the same reason,
it enjoys wallowing in mud. Hippos leave the water at night to feed,
sometimes traveling as far as 20 miles (32 kilometers) in one night.
Diet: The common hippo grazes on short grasses. The grasses be-
come known as hippo lawns because they are nipped off so close to
the ground. There has been one case of cannibalism (eating one’s own
species) documented.
Hippopotamuses 911
but calves remain with their mothers until after the birth of the next
calf. Common hippos are polygamous (puh-LIH-guh-mus; have more
than one mate).
Conservation status: Though not listed by the IUCN, the total num-
ber of common hippos is low, especially in West Africa, where popu-
lations are as low as fifty. In order to rule out extinction, populations
need to number at least five hundred in any given region or area. ■
PYGMY HIPPOPOTAMUS
Hexaprotodon liberiensis
Habitat: Pygmy hippos are forest animals that spend the day in or
near water and roam the land at night to forage. They also live along
swamp borders.
Hippopotamuses 913
Pygmy hippopotamus calves stay Diet: Feeds on a diet of fruits, ferns, and grasses.
with their mothers for about
three years. (Tom Brakefield/
Bruce Coleman Inc. Reproduced
Behavior and reproduction: These hippos are usually found in
by permission.) pairs, as they are not as social as common hippos. They also are not
as aggressive.
Females give birth either on land or in water after a pregnancy last-
ing 190 to 210 days. Each delivery results in one calf that weighs an
average of 12.6 pounds (5.7 kilograms). Unlike the common hippo
calves, pygmy calves will not follow their mothers on food expeditions,
but stay in hiding and wait to be nursed two or three times a day. By
the age of five months, they weigh ten times more than they did at
birth. These calves live with their mothers until the age of three years.
Books:
Eltringham, S. Keith. The Hippos: Natural History and Conservation.
London: Academic Press, 1999.
Leach, Michael, and Frank Sloan, eds. Hippopotamus: Habitats, Life
Cycles, Food Chains, Threats. Milwaukee: Raintree Publishers, 2000.
Perry, Phyllis J. Jean. Freshwater Giants: Hippopotamuses, River
Dolphins and Manatees. New York: Scholastic Library Publishing, 1999.
Web sites:
“Hippopotamus.” ExZooberance. http://www.exzooberance.com/
virtual%20zoo/they%20walk/hippopotamus/hippopotamus.htm (accessed
on May 22, 2004).
“Hippopotamus.” Nature-Wildlife. http://www.nature-wildlife.com/
hipptxt.htm (accessed on May 22, 2004).
“Hippopotamus.” Young People’s Trust for the Environment. http://
www. yptenc.org.uk/docs/factsheets/animal_facts/hippopotamus.html
(accessed on May 22, 2004).
“Pygmy Hippopotamus.” Wonderclub. http://wonderclub.com/Wildlife/
mammals/pygmyhippopotamus.htm (accessed on May 22, 2004).
Shefferly, N. “Hippopotamus amphibius.” Animal Diversity Web.
http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Hippopotamus_amphibius.html (accessed on May 22, 2004).
“Wildlives: African Animals: Hippopotamus.” African Wildlife Foundation.
http://www.awf.org/wildlives/140 (accessed on May 22, 2004).
Hippopotamuses 915
CAMELS, GUANACOS, LLAMAS,
ALPACAS, AND VICUÑAS
Camelidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Camelidae
Number of species: 6 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class The average height of camels is 6 to 7.5 feet (1.8 to 2.3
meters), and vicuñas, guanacos, llamas, and alpacas are 3 to 4.3
subclass
feet (.90 to 1.3 meters) tall. Camels weigh between 1,000 and
order 1,800 pounds (454 to 816 kilograms); vicuñas, guanacos, lla-
monotypic order mas, and alpacas weigh between 88.8 and 265.5 pounds (40 to
120 kilograms).
suborder
Camelidae have long, thin necks, small heads, and slender
▲ family snouts. Their tough mouths allow them to eat thick grasses
and thorny plants without pain. Camels have kneepads
which protect them as they fold their legs beneath their bod-
ies to rest.
Each foot has two flat toes. Their thick coats protect them
from cold temperatures, and only the camel sheds its hair as
temperatures rise. Camels also have special muscles that allow
them to close their nostrils and lips for long periods of time so
that they do not breathe in large amounts of sand or snow.
Camels also have humps that store fat as a source of energy
when food reserves are low. The better they eat, the fatter the
hump or humps grow.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Camelidae are found from the Arabian Peninsula to Mongo-
lia, and in western and southern South America. Alpaca and
llamas are now found throughout North America since they
have become popular ranch animals.
DIET
Camelids need very little water. They graze on various
grasses and salty plants, which help them retain what little wa-
ter they do drink. Dromedaries and guanacos drink salty wa-
ter no other animals could tolerate.
Both kinds of camel eat thorny desert shrubs as well as any
other vegetation found in desert or semi-arid regions. Like some
other mammals, they do not chew their food completely before
swallowing it. After eating, they regurgitate, bring up from the
stomach, the food, re-chew it, swallow again, and digest it.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Camels, alpacas, and llamas are not listed by the World Con-
servation Union (IUCN) because they are domestic animals.
However, wild Bactrian camels are listed as Critically Endan-
gered, facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild,
due to heavy hunting and competition with domestic livestock
for water and land. Vicuñas and guanacos are listed as Vulnera-
ble, facing a high risk of extinction in the wild. Vicuñas had been
hunted almost to the point of extinction for their fur and meat.
SPECIES
DROMEDARY CAMEL ACCOUNTS
Camelus dromedarius
Diet: Dromedary camels eat thorny plants, dry grasses, and salty
plants that grow in the desert. Since they eat only a few leaves from
each plant, their food supply is relatively stable. Because they do not
drink much water, dromedary camels need six to eight times more
ALPACA
Lama pacos
Diet: Alpacas feed on grasses, shrubs, and trees. The digestive sys-
tem of an alpaca is highly efficient, which allows them to thrive on
poor vegetation where other animals could not.
LLAMA
Lama glama
Llamas are believed to have numerous mates. One male can mate
with up to thirty females. Pregnancy lasts about eleven months.
Books:
Frisch, Aaron. Llamas. Mankato, MN: The Creative Company, 2003.
Karr, Kathleen. Exiled: Memoirs of a Camel. New York: Marshall
Cavendish, 2004.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Guanaco, Llama, and Alpaca.” Walker’s Mammals of
the World 5.1 Online. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/
artiodactyla/artiodactyla.camelidae.lama.html (accessed on May 28,
2004).
Periodicals:
Freeman, Darren. “Alpaca Ranchers Spur Livestock Trend N.C. Farming
Don’t Worry—The Llama-Like Animals Don’t Spit at People.” The Virgin-
ian Pilot (March 28, 2004): Y1.
Web sites:
“About Alpacas.” AlpacaInfo.com. http://www.alpacainfo.com/newsite/
about/history.html (accessed on May 28, 2004).
“Information About Camels.” LlamaWeb. http://www.llamaweb.com/
Camel/Info.html (accessed on May 28, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Tragulidae
Number of species: 4 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Chevrotains look like tiny hornless deer with small heads, ta- class
pered snouts, skinny legs, and thick bodies. From head to rump,
subclass
they measure 17 to 19 inches (44 to 85 centimeters), and they
weigh 4.4 to 29 pounds (2 to 13 kilograms). Their backs are order
rounded and somewhat higher toward their rear ends, like the monotypic order
backs of rats. Their ears are tiny and covered with hair, which
is short and thick over their entire body. The coat is reddish suborder
brown to brown with patterns of white and brown spots and ▲ family
stripes on various areas, depending on the species. Males have
tusk-like teeth on top, but females have small, cone-shaped ca-
nines, teeth on either side of the four front teeth with one set
on each jaw. Chevrotains have three fully developed stomach
chambers, which allows for efficient digestion. Each foot has
four toes.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Chevrotains are found in Southeast Asia and east central
Africa.
HABITAT
Asian chevrotains live in rainforests, lowland forests, man-
grove forests, and thickets. They prefer areas with thick vege-
tation during the day and venture into open area at night. The
vegetation provides refuge from predators. African chevrotains
live in tropical rainforests and thick growth along water courses.
This species escapes predators by diving into the water.
Chevrotains 927
DIET
Chevrotains eat grasses and leaves, favor-
ing young shoots, fallen fruits, and seeds.
They have been seen eating small animals
occasionally.
Chevrotains 929
Lesser Malay mouse deer (Tragulus javanicus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT LESSER MALAY MOUSE DEER
Tragulus javanicus
Habitat: Lesser Malay mouse deer live in lowland forests. They are
also found near water in thick vegetation, hollow trees, and among rocks.
Diet: Lesser Malay mouse deer eat leaves, buds, grass, and fallen fruits.
Lesser Malay mouse deer and people: This species is hunted for
its smooth skin, which is used for the production of leather goods
such as wallets and handbags.
Chevrotains 931
Conservation status: Although not threatened according to the
IUCN, the lesser mouse deer population is threatened by habitat de-
struction and hunting. Their range and numbers have increased due
to conservation efforts. ■
Books:
Morris, Kathy, John Morris, and I. Nyoman Kartana. Mouse Deer and
Crocodile: An Asian Folktale. Arlington, VA: Bamboo Books, 1999.
Web sites:
Starr, Christopher K. “Anansi the Spider Man: A West African Trickster
in the West Indies.” Acarology Conference, August 1999. http://users.
carib-link.net/rfbarnes/anansi.htm (accessed on June 1, 2004).
Strawder, N. “Tragulus javanicus.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Tragulus_
javanicus.html (accessed on June 1, 2004).
“Tragulus javanicus.” Ultimate Ungulate. http://www.ultimateungulate
.com/Artiodactyla/Tragulus_javanicus.html (accessed on June 1, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Ardiodactyla
Family: Cervidae
Number of species: 57 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Deer have long bodies and long legs. Coats are various shades class
of brown; some species have white fur to blend in with the arc-
subclass
tic environment. They have an enhanced sense of smell. All are
capable swimmers and fast runners. Males of nearly every order
species have velvet-covered antlers that they shed each year; in monotypic order
some species, females also have antlers. Hooves help them
suborder
navigate snow, but deep snows can lead to death due to lack
of mobility, which results in predation and starvation. ▲ family
Males are usually larger than females. Deer species vary in
weight from 22 pounds (10 kilograms) to 1,764 pounds
(800 kilograms).
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Deer are found everywhere except Australia and Africa.
HABITAT
Depending on the species, deer live in a variety of habitats.
Most deer species prefer areas with thick forest undergrowth.
DIET
Deer are herbivores (plant eaters) that eat lichens (fungus
found on trees), leaves, twigs, shoots, berries, and grasses. They
have four stomach chambers, which allow them to chew and
swallow their food and then regurgitate (vomit) it later for fur-
ther chewing. This makes digestion more efficient.
Deer 933
BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION
Some deer are solitary (lone), but most species are polygy-
nous (puh-LIH-juh-nus; one male to several female mates). De-
pending on species, they live in mother-offspring pairs or herds
numbering into the tens of thousands of individuals.
Gestation (pregnancy) periods vary depending on species,
but usually single births, sometimes twins, result. Calves are
nursed (fed mother’s milk) for a short time. Most babies are
born able to walk, even run, within hours.
Predators include wolves, grizzly bears, coyotes, mountain li-
ons, foxes, and wild cats. Life expectancy varies by species. Some
deer live an average of two years, while others can live past the
age of fifteen years.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Of the fifty-seven species, twenty-seven are included on the
IUCN Red List. One is Extinct, died out; one is Critically En-
dangered, facing an extremely high risk of extinction; four are
Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction; six are Vul-
nerable, facing a high risk of extinction; four are Near Threat-
ened, not currently threatened, but could become so; and eleven
are considered Data Deficient, meaning there is not enough in-
formation to determine a conservation status. Reason for
threats include overexploitation by humans as well as habitat
destruction.
SPECIES
SIBERIAN MUSK DEER ACCOUNTS
Moschus moschiferus
Deer 935
The Siberian musk deer’s highly
arched back distinguishes it
from other species of deer.
(© M. K. Ranjitsinh/Photo
Researchers, Inc. Reproduced by
permission.)
Siberian musk deer and people: Humans hunt this species for their
musk, which is produced by an abdominal gland in males and val-
ued for its cosmetic and medical uses.
INDIAN MUNTJAC
Muntiacus muntjak
Deer 937
Indian muntjacs eat some small Habitat: Indian muntjacs live in tropical rainforests, deciduous
animals. They catch them by
forests, and scrub forests as well as hilly areas, grasslands, and sa-
biting with their canine teeth
and “punching” them with their vannas. They must remain near a water source.
strong front legs. (© W. Perry
Conway/Corbis. Reproduced by
Diet: Feed on herbs, fruit, birds’ eggs, small animals, seeds, sprouts,
permission.)
and grasses found at the edge of the forest or in a clearing. They catch
animals by biting with their canines and punching with their strong
forelegs.
Deer 939
Red deer (Cervus elaphus)
RED DEER
Cervus elaphus
Habitat: Red deer prefer to live in forested areas, but in regions where
forests have been cleared, this species has adapted. They can be found
in open plains, marshlands, mountain terraces, and meadows.
Diet: Red deer feed mostly on twigs, leaves, and stems of broadleaf
trees and shrubs, needles and branches of fir trees, herbs, lichens,
fruits, and fungi. They enjoy willow, oak, poplar, and mountain ash
trees. Those found in North America depend on western hemlock,
fir, western red cedar, willow, and ferns. They also eat skunk cab-
bage, wall lettuce, and red elderberry.
Deer 941
nine and twelve months. At one-and-a-half years of age, red deer are
ready to mate. Stags live to the age of twelve years in the wild, fe-
males to ten. Predators include foxes, wild cats, golden eagles, and
wolves, which prey on the young.
Red deer and people: This deer is hunted for its meat (venison)
and for sport. Teams of red deer pulled coaches in ceremonial pro-
cessions connected with the hunting goddess Diana in Ancient Rome.
Humans are the red deer’s primary predator today.
WHITE-TAILED DEER
Odocoileus virginianus
Deer 943
Almost 70 percent of the Geographic range: This deer is found in southern Canada and all
white-tailed deer’s diet consists
of the United States except for Hawaii, Alaska, and the southwest.
of tree and shrub leaves and
twigs. (© Raymond Gehman/ Also lives throughout Central America to Bolivia.
Corbis. Reproduced by
permission.) Habitat: Although they have adapted to live in a variety of habitats
ranging from swamps and farmland to forest, white-tailed deer pre-
fer to live in areas with dense thickets (growths of bushes) and clear
edges (for food).
Diet: Almost 70 percent of this deer’s diet consists of tree and shrub
leaves and twigs. Adults need 5 to 11 pounds (2.5 to 5 kilograms) of
food daily. In winter, stored body fat allows them to subsist on 2
pounds (1 kilogram) daily. Though watering places are often at the
center of home ranges, this animal can go without water if succulent
(water-based) plants are available.
Deer 945
Southern pudu (Pudu pudu)
SOUTHERN PUDU
Pudu pudu
Southern pudu and people: Hunted for food and sport. The southern pudu is the
smallest deer in the world.
(© Tom McHugh/Photo
Conservation status: Endangered due to habitat destruction and
Researchers, Inc. Reproduced by
domestic dogs. ■ permission.)
Deer 947
Moose (Alces alces)
MOOSE
Alces alces
Habitat: Moose live in forests where there is snow in winter. They like
territory with ponds and lakes. Because they are not able to sweat, moose
need to live in cooler climates. In summer, they cool off in water.
Diet: Moose eat bark and branches during winter and enjoy leaves,
herbs, and aquatic plants in summer. In winter, adults eat 22 to
30 pounds (10 to 13 kilograms) of food each day; that amount
doubles in summer and spring. Moose can also eat toxic plants.
Deer 949
Moose and people: Moose meat is a main source of food for many
people. In North America, more than fifty thousand moose are har-
vested annually for meat and sport. They are a main attraction in the
ecotourism industry.
REINDEER
Rangifer tarandus
Deer 951
The moss is especially important because it contains
a chemical that acts like antifreeze and keeps body
fluids from freezing. Lichens are an important
source of carbohydrates and are eaten year-round.
Books:
Geist, Valerius. Deer of the World: Their Evolution, Behaviour, and Ecol-
ogy. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1998.
Web sites:
Fox, D. and P. Myers. “Cervidae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cervidae.h
tml (accessed on June 3, 2004).
“Indian Muntjac.” Sedgwick County Zoo. http://www.scz.org/animals/
m/muntjac.html (accessed on June 3, 2004).
“Moose Biology with Kristine Bontaites.” Mooseworld. http://www.
mooseworld.com/biologist.htm (accessed on June 3, 2004).
“Pudu puda.” Ultimate Ungulate. http://www.ultimateungulate.com/
Artiodactyla/Pudu_puda.html (accessed on June 3, 2004).
“Red Deer.” Young People’s Trust for the Environment. http://www.
yptenc.org.uk/docs/factsheets/animal_facts/red_deer.html (accessed
on June 3, 2004).
“Science & Nature: Animals: Red Deer, Wapiti, Elk.” BBC. http://www.
bbc.co.uk/nature/wildfacts/factfiles/199.shtml (accessed on June 3,
2004).
“White-tailed Deer.” Natureworks. http://www.nhptv.org/natureworks/
whitetaileddeer.htm (accessed on June 3, 2004).
Deer 953
OKAPI AND GIRAFFE
Giraffidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Giraffidae
Number of species: 2 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Giraffes stand up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) to the top of the
head and weigh 460 to 4,250 pounds (210 to 1,930 kilo-
subclass
grams). When compared to the long neck (up to 8 feet, or
order 2.4 meters), the body is short. Legs are long and end in
monotypic order hooves the size of dinner plates. Their tails grow up to 39
inches (1 meter) and have a tassel at the end. Males are usu-
suborder ally larger than females.
▲ family Eyes are large, and the long tongue (19 inches [45 cen-
timeters]) is black. Both sexes have short horns of about 5
inches (13.5 centimeters) in length, though males’ are
thicker. Males also have a middle horn and four or more small
bumps.
The okapi (oh-KOP-ee) never weighs more than 550 pounds
(250 kilograms), and its head is horse-like in shape. Its neck
is not as long as the giraffe’s. Where the giraffe’s coat is vari-
ous shades of brown with patterns of cream-colored hair, the
okapi’s coat is dark brown with white stripes on the upper legs,
white “socks” on the ankle, and dark rings at the leg joints.
Both species walk with their weight supported alternately on
their left and right legs, like camels. They use their necks to
maintain balance.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Giraffids (giraffes and okapis) are found only in sub-Saha-
ran Africa.
HABITAT
Giraffes live in savannas (tropical or subtropical community
characterized by small trees and shrubs among herbs and
grasses). Okapis live in tropical lowland forests.
DIET
Giraffes are browsers (eaters of shrubs, trees, and herbs) that
eat mostly deciduous foliage in the rains and evergreen species
during other seasons. They also eat fruit and grass now and
then, and will drink water if available, but most of it comes
through the plants they eat. Okapis eat buds, leaves, and
branches as well as clay high in sulfur (to supplement their
mineral intake).
CONSERVATION STATUS
Neither species is threatened.
SPECIES
GIRAFFE ACCOUNTS
Giraffa camelopardalis
Diet: Giraffes feed on leaves of more than 100 tree and shrub
species. They use their tongues and thin lips to select only the most
nutrient-dense leaves. Male giraffes can eat up to 145 pounds (66 kilo-
grams) of food a day, but can also survive on as little as 15 pounds
(7 kilograms) a day when food is scarce. They have four stomach cham-
bers, which allows them to digest food more efficiently by swallowing
food whole, regurgitating (vomiting), chewing, and swallowing again.
They will drink water if available, but this makes them vulnerable to
predators, so they often drink with a friend keeping watch.
OKAPI
Okapia johnstoni
Behavior and reproduction: Most active during the day. Not terri-
torial, but males will fight for dominance. Okapis are usually silent
but will make coughing sounds during rutting (mating) season. Okapi
young are more vocal and make coughing and bleating sounds like a
lamb. They groom one another and exhibit playful behavior.
Okapis give birth to a single calf from August to October after
about fifteen months of pregnancy. Females retreat into the dense for-
est growth to give birth. Protective mothers warn off trespassers by
beating the ground with their front legs. Lifespan is thirty years in
captivity. The main predator of the okapi is the leopard.
Okapis and people: Zoos keep and breed okapis today. When
the species was initially discovered, zoos lost many okapis in trans-
port because they were unable to survive the long boat and train
rides.
Books:
Leach, Michael, et al. Giraffe: Habitats, Life Cycles, Food Chains, Threats.
Milwaukee: Raintree, 2002.
Lyndaker, Susan, et al. Okapi: Mysterious Animal of Congo-Zaire. Austin:
University of Texas Press, 1999.
Sherr, Lynn. Tall Blondes. Kansas City, MO: Andrews McMeel Publishing,
1997.
Periodicals:
Meadows, Robin. “A Neck Up on the Competition.” Zoogoer (July/
August 1996). http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Publications/ZooGoer/1996/
4/neckuponcompetition.cfm (accessed on June 4, 2004).
Web sites:
“Okapi.” The Big Zoo. http://www.thebigzoo.com/Animals/Okapi.asp
(accessed on June 4, 2004).
Palkovacs, E. “Okapi johnstoni.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Okapia_
johnstoni.html (accessed on June 4, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Antilocapridae
One species: Pronghorn
(Antilocapra
americana)
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Pronghorn measure 52.1 to 58.8 inches (132.3 to 149.4 cen- class
timeters) long and have a shoulder height of 32.7 to 37 inches
subclass
(83.1 to 94 centimeters). They weigh 87 to 129 pounds (40 to
59 kilograms). These long-legged runners have stocky bodies, order
and their coat is various shades of brown on top, with sides and monotypic order
underparts creamy white. Males have brownish black patches
from below the ears and downward 3 to 4 inches (7.6 to 10.2 suborder
centimeters). Pronghorn have a short mane on the back of the ▲ family
neck, and their tails are short (4 inches, or 10.2 centimeters).
The rump is covered by two patches of white hair. This animal
is able to regulate the amount of insulation provided by its coat
by erecting or flattening its hairs.
Both sexes have horns covered in keratin (KARE-ah-tin; pro-
tective material that makes up hair and fingernails). There are
two branches, or prongs, one curving forward and another,
shorter one pointing directly back. Males shed their horns every
year; females shed them irregularly. Pronghorn have superb vi-
sion. Researchers believe that the placement of their eyes high
on top of their skulls allows for them to keep a watch for preda-
tors while continuing to feed on lower-elevated grounds.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Found in western North America.
HABITAT
Pronghorn can be found in abundant numbers in short-grass
prairies where shrubs are readily available even with snow cover.
Pronghorn 963
PRONGHORN IN COLORADO
According to NationalGeographic.com, one cattle. The two animals eat different plants,
of the earliest mentions of the pronghorn is in so all have enough to eat.
the expedition diaries of explorers Meriwether
Winter months have proven particularly
Lewis and William Clark. As often happens
harsh for the Colorado pronghorn population
today, they compared the pronghorn to goats,
on the Pawnee National Grasslands, however.
antelopes, and gazelles.
During the winter, the animals create
The pronghorn population has taken a herds of about 100 individuals. Because
rollercoaster ride in terms of numbers. From Colorado has suffered serious drought in the
an estimated thirty to sixty million in the early twenty-first century, there isn’t enough food to
1800s, they declined to less than 15,000 by go around. Vieira reported, “Our usual fawn
1915. As of 2004, there are an estimated production was fifty to sixty fawns per one
one million on the plains of North America. hundred does. Now it’s fallen to eighteen per
According to Colorado Division of Wildlife one hundred.” In addition to starvation, the
biologist Mark Vieira, the number of lack of vegetation is prohibiting pronghorn
pronghorn in that state fell to around 2,000 from manufacturing antibodies necessary for
at the end of the twentieth century but has warding off disease.
grown to a steady 55,000 as of 2004. He “We are really desperate for moisture now.
explained to Rocky Mountain News reporter If we could get two good years, we could bring
Gary Gerhardt that pronghorn thrive in this the population back,” Viera said. Most prong-
region because they don’t compete with horn live in Montana and Wyoming.
Pronghorn 965
Pronghorn males may fight Pronghorn live in herds, sometimes loosely scattered, but al-
during the breeding season.
ways highly organized. When threatened, they’ll raise their white
(© Stephen J. Krasemann/Photo
Researchers, Inc. Reproduced by rump hairs and snort, alerting other herd members to gather to-
permission.) gether more closely. They are active during daylight and night-
time, with peak activity occurring just after sunrise and before
sunset. They spend most of their time feeding or sleeping, the
latter of which they do in short spurts and frequently through-
out the day.
Home ranges vary greatly and are dependent on quality of
habitat, group size, season, and history of land use. Winter
and summer ranges may be as far apart as 100 miles (160
kilometers). Bucks will mark their territory with urine and
feces.
Pronghorn are polygynous (puh-LIH-juh-nus; one male has
several female mates), and mating occurs between July and early
October. Pregnancy lasts eight and a half months; a single fawn
is born in the spring if this is the doe’s first birth. Successive
births usually result in twins, rarely triplets. By day four, fawns
are able to outrun humans. Fawns nurse (drink mother’s milk)
CONSERVATION STATUS
Pronghorn are not threatened.
Books:
Byers, John A. Built for Speed: A Year in the Life of Pronghorn.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003.
Frisch, Aaron. Pronghorn Antelope. North Mankato, MN: Smart Apple
Media, 2002.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Pronghorn.” Walker’s Mammals of the World
Online 5.1. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. http://
www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/artiodactyla/
artiodactyla.antilocapridae.antilocapra.html (accessed on July 8, 2004).
O’Gara, Bart, Jim D. Yoakum, and Richard E. McCabe. Pronghorn: Ecol-
ogy and Management. Boulder, CO: University Press of Colorado, 2004.
Periodicals:
Gerhardt, Gary. “Unique Pronghorn are a Sight to Behold; Speedy Ani-
mals Often Overlooked in Wildlife.” Rocky Mountain News (May 1, 2004).
Tabor, Thomas C. “The Pronghorn: Back from the Edge of Oblivion.”
Countryside & Small Stock Journal (May 1, 2004).
Pronghorn 967
Web sites:
“The Pronghorn.” Desert USA. http://www.desertusa.com/mag99/may/
papr/pronghorn.html (accessed on July 8, 2004).
“Pronghorn.” Great Plains Nature Center. http://www.gpnc.org/
pronghor.htm (accessed on July 8, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Bovidae
Number of species: 137 to 138
family C H A P T E R species
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Found in Africa, Europe, Asia, and North America.
HABITAT
Bovids occupy a wide variety of habitats, including grass-
lands, swamps, tropical forests, arctic tundra, desert, cliff faces,
and mountain ledges. Most abundant in tropical forests and
grasslands. They occupy different habitats at different times of
the year, with migration (seasonal movement from region to
region) dependent upon food supply.
CONSERVATION STATUS
As of 2004, 114 species are listed on the IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species. Loss of habitat is the main reason for threat.
Increasing human populations require more land and natural
resources. Hunting has affected bovid populations as well, but
to a lesser degree.
SPECIES
WATER BUFFALO ACCOUNTS
Bubalus bubalis
plains. They not only drink the water, but spend much of the day
partially submerged so that they remain cool and ward off insects.
Diet: This bovid eats grasses, herbs, aquatic plants, and other
vegetation.
AMERICAN BISON
Bison bison
horns that go out on the sides and curve upward. Females’ horns are
shorter, skinnier, and more curved.
Habitat: This bovid needs plenty of grassland and meadow for graz-
ing. It lives in mixed wood forests as well as prairies and plains.
Diet: The American bison is not picky about what it eats. They eat
huge quantities of low-quality forage (grasses, herbs, and shrubs) and
supplement their diet with berries and lichen (fungi found growing
on trees). Uses head to remove snow from vegetation during winter.
BLACK WILDEBEEST
Connochaetes gnou
THOMSON’S GAZELLE
Gazella thomsonii
Habitat: Prefer the short grassy plains and savannas (tropical plant
community characterized by shrubs and trees amidst cover of grasses
and herbs) so that large herds can feed together. During the drier sea-
son, they move to the taller grasslands.
Diet: Grasses make up about 90 percent of this bovid’s diet during the
dry season, but it also feeds on shrubs and seeds, alfalfa, hay, and leaves.
Thomson’s gazelle and people: These gazelles are hunted for food
and skins.
KIRK’S DIKDIK
Madoqua kirkii
SEROW
Capricornis sumatraensis
Diet: Eats a variety of grasses, shoots, and leaves. Does not migrate
or move far in its feeding.
BIGHORN SHEEP
Ovis canadensis
Diet: Bighorns eat grasses, herbs, and shrubs. Those that live in the
desert eat desert plants.
Bighorn sheep and people: Prized for its majestic horns, the
bighorn is hunted as a trophy as well as for meat.
Books:
Geist, Val. Buffalo Nation: History and Legend of the North American
Bison. Stillwater, MN: Voyageur Press, 2002.
Lott, Dale F. American Bison: A Natural History. Berkely, CA: University
of California Press, 2003.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Antelopes, Cattle, Bison, bBuffalo, Goats, and
Sheep.” Walker’s Mammals of the World Online 5.1. Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1997. http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/
walkers_mammals_of_the_world/artiodactyla/artiodactyla.bovidae.html
(accessed on June 7, 2004).
Robbins, Ken. Thunder on the Plains: The Story of the American Buffalo.
New York: Atheneum, 2001.
Periodicals:
Mills, James Edward. “Wisconsin Bison are Plentiful and Popular.”
Wisconsin State Journal (June 5, 2004).
Web sites:
“American Bison.” NatureWorks. http://www.nhptv.org/natureworks/
americanbison.htm (accessed on June 7, 2004).
“Bighorn Sheep.” Desert USA. http://www.desertusa.com/big.html
(accessed on June 7, 2004).
“Black Wildebeest.” Singapore Zoological Gardens-Docent. (accessed on
June 7, 2004).
Fox, D., and P. Myers “Bovidae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Bovidae.h
tml (accessed on June 7, 2004).
“Wildlives: African Animals: Dikdiks.” African Wildlife Foundation. http://
www.awf.org/wildlives/67 (accessed on June 7, 2004).
“Wildlives: African Animals: Thomson’s Gazelle.” African Wildlife Foun-
dation. http://www.awf.org/wildlives/156 (accessed on June 7, 2004).
●
Class: Mammalia
▲
Order: Pholidota
One family: Manidae
Number of species: 7 species
monotypic order
C H A P T E R
Pangolins 989
These animals have no teeth. To grab food
they have a long and muscular tongue, able
to extend a great distance. In the smaller
species, the tongue measures about 6 to 7
inches (16 to 18 centimeters). In larger
species the tongue stretches about 16 inches
PANGOLIN TRAFFIC (40 centimeters). The tongue is sticky and
either round or flat, depending on the species.
Trafficking, buying and selling illegally,
appears to be one of the most harmful
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
threats to the population of pangolins.
Authorities have seized trucks, crates, and Pangolins are found in the tropical, hot
bags full of pangolin flesh, scales, and and humid climate, and subtropical areas of
entire animals. Traffickers sell the animals Africa and Asia.
and their parts to buyers who use the
HABITAT
animals for food, and because these
animals are believed to have healing Pangolins live in a variety of habitats, in-
properties to help various other ailments. cluding forests, thick bush, sandy areas, and
For example, trafficking in pangolins in open grasslands. Some species of pangolins
China increases during colder months, are arboreal, live in trees, and shelter in tree
because of the belief that pangolin blood hollows. Other species live on the land and
helps keep the body warm and enhances stay in burrows, holes, dug either by other
sexual performance. animals or themselves.
DIET
Pangolins eat almost exclusively on ants
and termites. They snatch up individual insects, and also dig
up entire ant hills and termite nests.
Pangolins 991
disease that can damage the heart, and it used to treat other
diseases. Certain groups of people mix the scales with bark from
certain trees because it is believed to ward off witchcraft and evil
spirits. Sometimes the scales are burned to keep wild animals
away. Some tribes believe that pangolins flesh has aphrodisiac,
enhancing sexual desire, values. And in certain areas, pangolins
are sacrificed for rainmaking ceremonies.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Four species of pangolins are listed as Near Threatened, not
currently threatened, but could become so, in the World
Conservation Union (IUCN) Red List. Deforestation, the clear-
ing of forests, has destroyed these animals natural habitat and
caused a decrease in their population. In many areas, pangolins
are legally protected animals. Aside from humans, leopards,
lions, and tigers, are the main predatory threat of pangolins.
SPECIES
GROUND PANGOLIN ACCOUNT
Manis temminckii
Pangolins 993
Ground pangolins live in forests, and Tanzania, to the northern parts of South Africa. The ground pan-
thick brush, and grasslands.
golin is the most common and most widely distributed pangolin in
During the day these animals
sleep in burrows that they dig. Kenya and Tanzania.
(© Nigel J. Dennis/Photo
Researchers, Inc. Reproduced by Habitat: Ground pangolins live in forests, thick brush, and grass-
permission.)
lands. They live in areas with both high and low rainfall amounts.
Ground pangolins and people: The pangolins are prized for the
supposed medicinal properties of their various body parts.
Books:
Clutton-Brock, Juliet, and Don E. Wilson, ed. Smithsonian Handbooks:
Mammals. New York: Dorling Kindersley Publishing, 2002.
Jordan, E. L. Animal Atlas of the World. Maplewood, NJ: Hammond In-
corporated, 1969.
Macdonald, David, ed. The Encyclopedia of Mammals. New York: Facts
on File Publications, 1984.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 5th ed. Baltimore
and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.
Periodicals:
“Pangolins in Profile.” Asia Africa Intelligence Wire (August 4, 2002).
“Wildlife Markets and Disease Transmission: The Problem Is, Pigs Do
Fly.” Life Science Weekly (July 28, 2003): 24.
Wise, Jeff. “Get Your Pangolins Here.” Esquire (July 1994): 30.
Web sites:
Myers, Phil. “Pholidota.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.
ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pholidota.html (accessed
on May 22, 2004).
“Pangolin or Scaly Anteater.” NepalNet. http://www.panasia.org.sg/
nepalnet/ecology/pangolin.htm (accessed on May 22, 2004).
“Pangolin, Temnick’s ground.” U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. http://
ecos.fws.gov/species_profile/SpeciesProfile?spcode=A060 (accessed
on May 22, 2004).
“Pholidota.” American Zoo. http://www.americazoo.com/goto/index/
mammals/pholidota.htm (accessed on May 22, 2004).
“Wildlives: African Animals.” African Wildlife Foundation. http://www.
awf.org/wildlives/178 (accessed on May 5, 2004).
Pangolins 995
RODENTS
Rodentia
●
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Number of families: 28 families
order C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Rodents make up the largest group of mammals, representing
approximately 43 percent of all mammalian species. Families in
subclass
the order Rodentia include rats, mice, porcupines, hamsters,
● order beavers, squirrels, chipmunks, lemmings, muskrats, and guinea
monotypic order pigs (rabbits are not rodents). These families range in size from
the pygmy mice, which are 4.7 inches long (12 centimeters) and
suborder weigh 0.1 ounces (4 grams), to the capybara, which is 39.4 inches
family long (100 centimeters) and can weigh 110 pounds (50 kilo-
grams). Most rodents are relatively small animals, such as mice,
rats, and squirrels.
While there is a broad range of characteristics among the
families, the feature that sets rodents apart from other family
members is their teeth. Rodents have one pair of upper incisors
(the chisel-shaped teeth at the front of the mouth), and one
pair of lower incisors. These teeth grow continually through-
out their life. The outer surfaces of the incisors have a thick
enamel (hard white substance) layer. Behind the incisors is a
large gap in the tooth rows. There are no canines, spade-shaped
teeth located next to the incisors. Typically there are only a few
molars at the rear of the jaws. The number of teeth rarely is
more than twenty-two.
The name Rodentia comes from the Latin verb rodere mean-
ing to gnaw, a name suitable for a rodent that is constantly
gnawing! Rodents’ incisor teeth grow throughout their life and
they grind their incisor teeth together to wear them down. If
for some reason the rodent is unable to wear its incisors down,
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Rodents are found in all parts of the world, including the
Arctic tundra, desert, and oceanic islands. About 70 percent of
all rodents are rats and mice, and these animals are found on
every continent.
HABITAT
The habitats of rodents are varied and numerous, from arid
(extremely dry) deserts to the arctic tundra. There are rodents
that live predominantly underground, others that live on land,
and others are primarily arboreal (living in trees). Some species
spend most of their life in the water, while others live in the
desert. Some live close to humans in urban areas and even
houses, while others make their home deep inside wetlands and
rainforests. Rodents can be found in almost every habitat and
on every continent except Antarctica.
DIET
All the families of rodents eat a wide range of foods. Most
rodents are herbivorous, plant eaters, eating a wide range of
Rodents 997
plant materials, including seeds, stems, leaves, roots, and flow-
ers. Many of these species eat primarily seeds. Some species,
such as the grasshopper mouse, eat insects and spiders. Other
species, such as the Australian water rat, are primarily carniv-
orous (meat-eating), preying (eating animals for food) on small
fish, frogs, and mollusks. Many are to some degree omnivo-
rous, eating both plants and animals. Still others have highly
specialized meals, eating only a few species of invertebrates, an-
imals without a backbone, or fungi.
Rodents 999
PLAGUE OF RATS
In 1347 a ship from Caffa, on the Black killed a quarter of the European population,
Sea, came ashore at Messina, Sicily. Along about twenty-five million people.
with its goods, the ship was also carrying flea- At that time, people blamed the plague on
infested rats. Most people on board were many causes, including fumes, God’s wrath,
already dead, and the ships were ordered out and the unlucky alignment of planets. It is
of the harbor, but it was too late—the plague, now known that the plague was caused by a
or Black Death, had reached Europe. The bacterium that lived in the stomach of fleas.
disease, which may have begun in Asia or These fleas mainly infect rodents, particularly
Egypt, killed within days of infection and the black rats. When the flea bites, either a rat
European population was quickly decimated. or a human, it spits some bacteria out into
(The nursery rhyme “Ring Around the Rosy” the bite wound. The bacteria were passed
is traced to the plague’s rose-colored from one rat to another by these fleas,
wounds). By 1349, the Black Death had causing the bacterium to spread. Large
swept through nearly every town and village numbers of infected rats died and the fleas
in Britain. It is estimated that the plague began biting humans.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The IUCN lists 669 species of rodents under varying degrees
of threat and endangerment (facing varying risks of extinction
in the wild) as of 2004. There are 32 species that are listed as
Books:
Clutton-Brock, Juliet, and Don E. Wilson, eds. Smithsonian Handbooks:
Mammals. New York: Dorling Kindersley Publishing, 2002.
Jordan, E. L. Animal Atlas of the World. Maplewood, NJ: Hammond
Incorporated, 1969.
Macdonald, David, ed. The Encyclopedia of Mammals. New York: Facts
on File Publications, 1984.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 5th ed. Baltimore
and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Order Rodentia.” Walker’s Mammals of the World 5.1
Online. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press: 1997. http://
www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/rodentia/
rodentia.html (accessed on July 8, 2004).
Periodicals:
Adams, Jonathan. “A Nose for Trouble (trained rats).” Newsweek Inter-
national (January 12, 2004): 42.
Dickson-Ramos, Holly. “The World’s Largest Rodent.” Faces: People,
Places, and Culture (January 2004): 36.
Marchand, Peter J. “A Squirrel’s Glide to a Long Life.” Natural History
110, no. 8 (October 2001): 18.
Ostfeld, Richard S. “Little Loggers Make a Big Difference: The Tastes of
Two Small Rodents—the Meadow Vole and the White-Footed Mouse—
Can Determine What Trees Grow in a Forest.” Natural History (May
2002): 64.
Travis, John. “Mining the Mouse: A Rodent’s DNA Sheds Light on the
Human Genome.” Science News (February 22, 2003): 122.
“World’s Largest Rodent Risks Extinction.” United Press International
(September 20, 2002): 1008263 .
Web sites:
Myers, P. “Order Rodentia (Rodents).” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Rodentia.
html (accessed on July 8, 2004).
Davis, William B., and David J. Schmidly. “Order: Rodentia.” The Mammals
of Texas—Online Edition. http://www.nsrl.ttu.edu/tmot1/ordroden.htm
(accessed on July 8, 2004).
Rodents 1001
Lockwood, Burleigh. “Order: Rodentia.” The Chaffee Zoo. http://www.
chaffeezoo.org/animals/rodentia.html (accessed on July 8, 2004).
“Introduction to the Rodentia.” University of California Berkeley, Museum
of Paleontology. http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/mammal/rodentia/
rodentia.html (accessed on July 8, 2004).
“Rat and Mouse FAQs.” The Rat & Mice Club of America. http://www.
rmca.org/Resources/faqs.htm (accessed on July 8, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Aplodontidae
One species: Mountain beaver
(Aplodontia rufa)
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
This animal is also commonly called sewellel, named after the class
Chinook (American Indian tribe) word for a robe made from its
subclass
pelts. There is only one species of mountain beaver and they are
not closely related to the true beaver. These animals are about order
the same size as a squirrel, with a head and body length of monotypic order
14.3 inches (36 centimeters), and a tall length of approximately
1.2 inches (3 centimeters). suborder
They have a thickset, heavy body and short limbs. Eyes and ▲ family
ears are small. The head is broad and relatively flat. The neck
is short and thick. All the limbs have five well-developed claws.
These animals appear nearly tail-less because the tail is so short.
They have strong incisors (chisel-shaped teeth at the front of
the mouth).
The fur on these animals is thick, short, and typically a gray-
ish, dark brown or reddish brown color, with sparse guard hair,
which are coarse hairs that form the outer fur. Lighter, thick
fur lies underneath, which is called the underfur. Guard hairs
protect the underfur. Its belly is a slightly paler color, a white
or chestnut brown. There is a small white patch of short fur at
the bottom of its ears.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Mountain beavers are found in North America along the
Pacific Coast. They live in southwestern British Columbia to north-
western California, in certain coastal areas as far south as San
Francisco Bay, and in the Sierra Nevada of eastern California.
tightly closed and may not open fully until about fifty days later.
After about eight weeks, offspring are nearly half-grown and
able to leave the nest. Offspring reach sexual maturity late in
the second year of life.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists the mountain
beaver as Near Threatened, not currently threatened, but could
Books:
Clutton-Brock, Juliet, and Don E. Wilson, eds. Smithsonian Handbooks:
Mammals. New York: Dorling Kindersley Publishing, 2002.
Macdonald, David, ed. The Encyclopedia of Mammals. New York: Facts
on File Publications, 1984.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Sewellel or Mountain Beaver.” Walker’s Mammals
of the World 5.1 Online. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/
rodentia/rodentia.aplodontidae.aplodontia.html (accessed on May 3,
2004).
Periodicals:
Drew, Lisa. “Creatures that Time Forgot.” National Wildlife (June–
July, 2002).
Valadka, Andrius. “Meet One of Nature’s Survivors: The Mountain Beaver
(Aplodontia rufa) is the World’s Oldest Living Rodent.” Nature Canada
(Summer 1988): 6–7.
Web sites:
Newell, T. “Aplodontia rufa.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.
ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Aplodontia_rufa.html
(accessed on May 17, 2004).
Altig, Ron. “Mountain Beaver: Aplodontia rufa.” Enature.com. http://www.
enature.com/fieldguide/showSpeciesSH.asp?curGroupID=5&shapeID=1
038&curPageNum=1&recnum=MA0073 (accessed on May 15, 2004).
Landes, Charles. “The Mountain Beaver (Aplodontia.” Mount Rainier
Nature News Notes (Nature Notes). http://www.nps.gov/mora/notes/
vol3-3a.htm (accessed on May 15, 2004).
“Lewis and Clark Expedition: Scientific Encounters.” National Park
Service. http://www.cr.nps.gov/nr/travel/lewisandclark/encounters.htm
(accessed on May 13, 2004).
“Mountain Beaver.” American Zoo. http://www.americazoo.com/goto/
index/mammals/139.htm (accessed on May 13, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Sciuridae
Number of species: 260 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Squirrels are some of the most familiar rodents. They are small
to medium-sized animals with relatively long tails. Squirrels have
subclass five toes on the back feet and four on the front feet, with a well-
order developed claw on each digit. Eyes are relatively high on the head
and spread apart to allow them a wide range of vision. Size, fur,
monotypic order
shape, and tail features depend upon the type of squirrel. There
suborder are three general body forms in these animals: flying squirrels,
▲ family ground squirrels, and tree squirrels.
Flying squirrels have large, bushy tails and bodies adapted
for moving between trees. They are generally slim with long
legs. A furred membrane, double layer of thin skin, extends
between the wrist and ankle, which allows them to glide. They
have large eyes. Their fur is soft and dense and is generally
brown, gray, or blackish in color. The underside is a paler color.
Ground squirrels range widely in size. The marmots are the
largest ground squirrels, with weights of up to 16.5 pounds
(7.5 kilograms); the smallest are the American chipmunks,
which weigh up to 5 ounces (142 grams). These squirrels are
typically short legged with muscular bodies. Their tails are
furry, but generally not as bushy as those of tree squirrels.
Tree squirrels have long, bushy tails, sharp claws and large
ears. Some have well-developed ear tufts. Tree squirrels also
range extensively in size, from the pygmy squirrels that is about
the size of a mouse, to the fox squirrels that can measure 18 to
27 inches (46 to 69 centimeters). Their hind legs are extremely
long and they have long curved claws. Their tails are almost as
long as their bodies.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists two squirrel
species as Critically Endangered, facing an extremely high risk of
extinction in the wild; nine species as Endangered, facing a very
high risk of extinction; twenty-six species as Vulnerable, facing a
high risk of extinction in the wild; and thirty-four species as Near
Threatened, not currently threatened, but could become so.
SPECIES
SOUTHERN FLYING SQUIRREL ACCOUNTS
Glaucomys volans
Diet: These squirrels eat nuts, seeds and berries. They will also eat
bird eggs, bird nestlings, insects and occasionally dead mice.
EASTERN CHIPMUNK
Tamias striatus
Habitat: Black-tailed prairie dogs live in open, flat and arid, ex-
tremely dry, grassy plains.
ALPINE MARMOT
Marmota marmota
Alpine marmots and people: Some people have long believed that
alpine marmot fat rubbed into the skin could relieve arthritis. In
Europe these animals have been a source of fur, meat, and fat for the
last thousand years. The reliance of these animals for their food has
decreased and some people consider them agricultural, farming, pests.
They are also hunted for trophies in some areas, and hunting has
caused the population of these animals to decline. Alpine marmots
have become a symbol for the Alps.
GRAY SQUIRREL
Sciurus carolinensis
Habitat: Gray squirrels prefer forests and woodlands but they are
often seen in urban parks and yards.
Diet: Gray squirrels eat primarily tree seeds and nuts, including
acorns, hickory nuts, beechnuts, and butternuts. They also feed on
berries, mushrooms, buds, and flowers.
Books:
Clutton-Brock, Juliet, and Don E. Wilson, eds. Smithsonian Handbooks:
Mammals. New York: Dorling Kindersley Publishing, 2002.
Macdonald, David, ed. The Encyclopedia of Mammals. New York: Facts
on File Publications, 1984.
Periodicals:
Cohen, Jonathan. “Squirreley Fun.” Ranger Rick (December 2001): 10.
Marchand , Peter J. “A Squirrel’s Glide to a Long Life .” Natural History
(October 2001): 18–19.
McMahan, Kim Hone. “Outwit, Baffle Squirrels .” Knight Ridder/Tribune
News Service (June 5, 2003): K6208.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Squirrels, Chipmunks, Marmots, and Prairie Dogs.”
Walker’s Mammals of the World Online 5.1. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
Web sites:
Jansa, S., and P. Myers. “Family Sciuridae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Sciuridae.
html (accessed on June 2, 2004).
“The Life of Mammals.” BBC: Science and Nature: Animals.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/animals/mammals (accessed on June 2,
2004).
“Mammal Guide.” Animal Planet. http://animal.discovery.com/guides/
mammals/habitat/alpine/alpmarmot.html (accessed on June 1, 2004).
“Mammals.” Canadian Museum of Nature. http://nature.ca/note-
books/english/mon2.htm (accessed on June 2, 2004).
“Sciuridae.” Discover Life. http://www.discoverlife.org/nh/tx/Vertebrata/
Mammalia/Sciuridae/ (accessed on June 2, 2004).
The Squirrel Place. http://www.squirrels.org/ (accessed on June 2,
2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Castoridae
Number of species: 2 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Beavers are among the largest of the rodents. They have
a combined head and body length of 31 to 58 inches (80 to
subclass
140 centimeters). The flat, paddle-like tail is about 9.8 to
order 17.7 inches (25 to 45 centimeters) long. The tail is broad and
monotypic order scaly. A typical beaver can weigh 33 to 75 pounds (15 to
33 kilograms), with a few beavers weighing in at 100 pounds
suborder (45 kilograms). Males and females are similar in size.
▲ family Beavers’ bodies are stocky with short limbs. Each limb has
five clawed digits. The back feet, which are larger than the front,
are webbed. The claws on the hind feet’s first and second toes
are split, appearing as a double claw. They have long, curved
incisors, chisel-shaped teeth at the front of the mouth, that are
an orange-brown color. The incisors grow continuously.
Their eyes are small and their ears are short. Their ears are
set far back on their heads, which are broad and rounded.
Beavers can close both their ears and nostrils when underwa-
ter. Beavers have a skin fold inside their mouths, which allows
them to grasp onto items in their teeth without water entering
their throat.
Beavers’ fur is dense, made up of a fine coat of soft fur, called
underfur, beneath long guard hairs, coarse hairs that form the
outer fur and protect the underfur. The short underfur helps
the beaver with water shedding and insulation. Fur color is a
glossy yellowish brown to black. Their bellies are slightly paler
in color, ranging from a brown to yellowish brown. The tail
and feet are black.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Beavers are found in North America, northern Europe, and
northern Asia. After a decrease in population, these animals have
been reintroduced to Russia, Scandinavia, and Argentina. They
are also found in Chile.
HABITAT
Beavers live primarily along streams, ponds, lakes, swamps
and other waterways, in areas where they can build dams. They
are found mainly in areas with a year-round water flow, but are
found occasionally in roadside ditches, drainage ditches, and
sewage ponds. They are have also become more common in
urban areas.
DIET
Beavers feed primarily on the bark and outer layers of decidu-
ous trees such as birch, willow, alder, sweet gum, magnolia,
maple, and dogwood. They eat twigs, leaves, and roots of trees
and shrubs. They also eat various parts of aquatic plants, espe-
cially the young shoots of water lilies. During the warmer months,
they may add grasses, corn, and other plants to their diet.
Beavers 1023
dams are used by several generations of
beavers.
Beavers may create multiple homes in their
territory. Homes can take the form of a bur-
row, hole or tunnel, along a bank to make a
den, or a wood lodge. Built of sticks and mud,
COUSINS TO A MAMMOTH the dome-shaped lodge is generally sur-
Today’s beaver had a mega cousin that rounded by the water backed up by the dam.
lived millions of years ago and was one of The lodge may eventually reach more than
the largest rodents ever known. The giant 6.6 feet (2 meters) above the surface of the
beaver was estimated at 7 to 8 feet (2.1 to water. Each home may have several under-
2.4 meters) long and weighed 450 to 700 water entrances, which must reach below the
pounds (204 to 318 kilograms). The giant winter ice. In some areas, especially near large
beaver roamed North American marshlands rivers, beavers dig complex dens instead of
until about 10,000 years ago, when they building lodges. Burrows also may have un-
disappeared. The giant beaver ate plant derwater entrances that lead to the dry areas.
materials and spent a lot of time in the Beavers live in colonies, groups, of four to
water. Unlike today’s beavers, giant beavers eight related individuals. Generally, the
had ridged cutting teeth and did not build colony consists of a mated pair of adults and
dams. Fossil evidence of the giant beaver young that are less than two years old. There
ranges from Florida to northern Canada. is usually only a single breeding female in a
colony. A single beaver colony sometimes
maintains several dams to control water flow.
The oil that beavers’ glands produce is used to mark their
territory. This oil is also used to grease the beaver’s fur coat to
make it water repellent. Constant grooming and this oil keeps
beavers’ fur waterproof. It uses its second claw on its hind feet
for grooming. Males and females display territorial behavior and
will fight trespassing beavers. Communication is through
postures, scent marking, tail slapping, and vocalizations, in-
cluding a whistling or whining call.
In the winter, beavers anchor sticks and logs underwater to
feed on during winter. If their pond freezes over, they swim be-
neath the ice and feed on previously stored food. The senses of
hearing, smell, and touch are well developed.
Beavers usually mate for life and are monogamous, have one
mate. If one of the pair dies, the beaver may then find another
mate. Females are dominant. Mating takes place once a year
from January to March. Gestation, pregnancy, is 100 to 110
days. Females generally have three to four offspring, called kits,
but can have anywhere from one to nine. Offspring generally
will nurse for two to three months.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Populations of beavers, once extremely low, are gaining in
numbers. The Eurasian beaver is listed as Near Threatened,
not currently threatened, but could become so, by the World
Conservation Union (IUCN).
Beavers 1025
North American beaver (Castor canadensis)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT NORTH AMERICAN BEAVER
Castor canadensis
Habitat: Like all beavers, the North American beaver is aquatic and
lives near water in the form of a pond, stream, lake, or river.
Diet: North American beavers eat a variety of plant material. They pre-
fer the cambium, the soft layer between the wood and bark, and leaves
of trees such as aspen, birch, aspen, willow, cottonwood, and alder. Their
diet also can include aquatic plants, such as pond weeds, water-lilies,
and cattails. North American beavers also eat grasses, shrubs, and herbs.
Conservation status: The IUCN does not list the North American
beaver as a threatened species. ■
Books:
Clutton-Brock, Juliet, and Don E. Wilson, eds. Smithsonian Handbooks:
Mammals. New York: Dorling Kindersley Publishing, 2002.
Beavers 1027
Macdonald, David, ed. The Encyclopedia of Mammals. New York: Facts
on File Publications, 1984.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 5th ed. Baltimore
and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.
Periodicals:
Hair, Marty. “Busy Beavers Work to Build Homes.” Knight Ridder/Tribune
News Service (February 26, 2004): K5424.
Stewart, Doug. “I’ll Be Dammed! Once Nearly Extinct, Beavers are Mak-
ing a Comeback—Sometimes a Little Too Close to Home.” Time (March
29, 2004): 42–43
Wilkinson, Todd. “The Benefits of Beavers.” National Parks (January–
February 2003): 30–32
Web sites:
Lindsey, Donald W., and Christy Brecht. “American Beaver.” Discover
Life. http://www.discoverlife.org/nh/tx/Vertebrata/Mammalia/Castoridae/
Castor/canadensis/ (accessed on June 1, 2004).
Myers, P. “Castoridae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.
ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Castoridae.html (accessed
on June 1, 2004).
“North American Beaver, Canadian Beaver.” BBC Science & Nature:
Animals. http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/wildfacts/factfiles/615.shtml
(accessed on June 1, 2004).
“Rodents: Castorida.” Animals Online. http://www.animals-online.be/
rodents/bevers/european_beaver.html (accessed on June 1, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Geomyidae
Number of species: 36 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Pocket gophers have stout, heavy set bodies that have a class
tube-like shape. The length of their bodies varies depending upon
subclass
the species from 5 to 14 inches (13 to 36 centimeters). Males are
generally larger than females. Their legs are relatively short and order
powerful. The five claws on their thick front legs are long, sharp, monotypic order
and curved. The third claw is the longest. Their hands are broad.
suborder
The pocket gopher does not appear to have a neck. They
have short, almost hairless tails, which are extremely sensitive ▲ family
to the touch. Eyes and ears are small, and surrounded by
numerous hairs that prevent soil from getting in. They have
large and sharp incisors, chisel-shaped teeth at the front of the
mouth. They also have whiskers that extend from their nose.
The “pocket” part of their name refers to fur-lined pouches,
one on each side of their mouth, in which they carry food. The
name gopher comes from the French word gaufre meaning waf-
fle or honeycomb, and refers to the network of passages that it
digs. The pouches open into the mouth and extend from
the mouth region back to the shoulders. When filled with food,
the pouches make the pocket gopher’s head appear almost twice
its size. Pocket gophers can turn these pouches inside out
for cleaning.
Pocket gophers have loose and flexible skin. The skin is thick
around the head and throat. Fur color varies widely, even
within a species. The color generally matches the color of
freshly turned soil, a light brown to almost black. Fur is gen-
erally soft, and is short in species living in hot environments.
HABITAT
Pocket gophers live in almost any area that has soil that they
can dig. They are found in meadows, forests, deserts, rain-
forests, and fields, from dry, extremely hot, climates at sea level
to extremely cold climates in mountainous areas. They do not
travel far, and occur in isolated areas. They spend most of their
lives underground, though they surface at times to gather food.
In certain parts of the country, the older animals may move to
moister areas during dry periods.
DIET
Pocket gophers are herbivores, plant eaters. These animals
feed primarily on the underground parts of plants, especially
the roots, bulbs, and tubers. They also cut stems and carry them
in their cheek pouches to their storage chambers.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists fifteen species
of pocket gophers as threatened. The Oaxacan (wah-HAH-kan)
pocket gopher and Querétaro pocket gopher are listed as
Critically Endangered, facing an extremely high risk of extinc-
tion. The Michoacan pocket gopher is considered Endangered,
facing a high risk of extinction.
SPECIES
VALLEY POCKET GOPHER ACCOUNT
Thomomys bottae
Books:
Clutton-Brock, Juliet, and Don E. Wilson, ed. consultants. Smithsonian
Handbooks: Mammals. New York: Dorling Kindersley Publishing, 2002.
Macdonald, David, ed. The Encyclopedia of Mammals. New York: Facts
on File Publications, 1984.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 5th ed. Baltimore
and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Pocket Gophers.” Walker’s Mammals of the World
Online 5.1. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/
rodentia/rodentia.geomyidae.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).
Periodicals:
Benedix, J. H. Jr. “A Predictable Pattern of Daily Activity by the Pocket
Gopher Geomys bursarius.” Animal Behaviour (September 1994):
501–509.
Brower, Kenneth. “The Proof is in the Pellet.” Audubon (March 2004): 78.
Web sites:
Myers, P. “Family Geomyidae (Pocket Gophers).” Animal Diversity Web.
http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Geomyidae.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).
“Pocket Gophers.” Colorado Division of Wildlife. http://wildlife.state.co.
us/Education/mammalsguide/pocket_gophers.asp (accessed on July 7,
2004).
“The Pocket Gopher.” Forest Preserve District of Cook County (Illinois).
http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/natbltn/400-499/nb493.htm (accessed
on July 7, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Heteromyidae
Number of species: 60 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Pocket mice, kangaroo rats, and kangaroo mice, sometimes
called heteromyids (members of the family Heteromyidae), are
subclass
small- to medium-sized rodents with external, fur-lined cheek
order pouches. The pouches open in front of the mouth and go back
monotypic order along the shoulders. They have fairly large eyes and short,
rounded ears. Pocket mice use all four feet while walking,
suborder while kangaroo rats and mice use only their rear two feet for
▲ family walking. Kangaroo rats and mice have long tails with white
tips or tufts on the end, along with relatively short front limbs.
Pocket mice have shorter, less noticeable tails. Kangaroo rats
and mice have good hearing. Kangaroo rats and mice have soft
and silky fur, while pocket mice have coats that range from
silky to spiny. The coat color varies from light to dark, de-
pending on species and habitat, often matching the soil color
on which they live.
Adults are 1.7 to 14.6 inches (4.3 to 37 centimeters) long
and weigh between 0.2 and 6.9 ounces (5 and 195 grams).
Kangaroo rats weigh between 1.2 and 6.9 ounces (33 and 195
grams); kangaroo mice weigh between 0.4 and 0.6 ounces
(10 and 17 grams); and pocket mice weigh between 0.2 and
3.0 ounces (5 and 85 grams).
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Heteromyids are found in the western United States, south-
western Canada, Mexico, Central America, and northern
South America.
DIET
Heteromyids eat mostly seeds, but also eat green vegetation
and, in some species, insects. Desert species can go without
water for long periods of time. They leave their burrows at night
to dig through soil with their forelimbs to gather seeds into their
cheek pouches. When pouches are full, they return to one of
their caches (KASH-uhz), hidden supply areas, which are used
throughout the animal’s home range. Heteromyids defend their
territory aggressively when they have collected many seeds.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Four species of pocket mice, kangaroo rats, and kangaroo
mice are listed by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) as
Critically Endangered, facing an extremely high risk of extinc-
tion in the wild. One species is listed as Endangered, facing a
very high risk of extinction in the wild, and one species is Vul-
nerable, facing a high risk of extinction. The IUCN also lists
nine species as Near Threatened, not currently threatened, but
could become so. Many species are threatened with excessive
destruction and fragmentation, breaking up, of habitat and the
loss of plant life.
SPECIES
SAN JOAQUIN POCKET MOUSE ACCOUNTS
Perognathus inornatus
Habitat: They inhabit arid grasslands that contain sandy soils and
are sparsely populated by desert shrubs.
Giant kangaroo rats and people: Giant kangaroo rats are consid-
ered keystone species.
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Dipodidae
Number of species: About 50
species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class The Dipodidae family includes small to medium-sized
rodents that walk on two or four legs. In general, their back
subclass legs are slightly or much longer than their front legs. They have
order long tails, and the jerboas’ tails often have a distinctive black-
and-white “banner” at the end. These mammals’ fur is either
monotypic order
coarse or soft and colors range from soft brown to brownish
suborder yellow to purplish-brown. The Dipodidae rodents range in
▲ family length from 1.8 to 9 inches (4.5 to 23 centimeters) and weigh
from 0.2 to 15 ounces (6 to 415 grams). The birch mice and
jumping mice walk on four legs and are small, mouselike crea-
tures with long tails and small, narrow heads. Birch mice have
four legs of equal length, while the back legs of jumping mice
are somewhat longer than their front legs. Both birch mice and
jumping mice have short, blunt claws. Jerboas can be small or
medium sized, and jump or walk on their back legs. Unlike the
birch mice and jumping mice, which are mainly nocturnal but
are sometimes active during the day, jerboas are strictly night-
time creatures. They can run very quickly through sparse brush.
Their heads are large, with wide muzzles and flat snouts, and
they have large eyes for better nighttime vision. Jerboas have
compact, short bodies with short front legs and long, strong
back legs. They can have either long or short claws and three,
four, or five toes. All members of the Dipodidae family are
remarkable for their jumping ability—probably an adaptation
for evading predators in open country. Many of the mammals
can cover 10 feet (3 meters) in a single jump, using their long
tails to balance. In most species, the three central bones of the
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
The Dipodidae family is widespread throughout the world,
and its species are present in North America, northern Africa,
the Arabian Peninsula, Europe, and Asia, where they are
believed to have originated.
HABITAT
Birch mice, jumping mice, and jerboas occupy a wide range
of habitats around the world. Birch mice are most often found
in thickets, forests, fields, moors, and steppes. Jumping mice
tend to live in woodlands, grasslands, and alpine meadows,
where they concentrate in the thick growth near streams, rivers,
and marshes. Jerboas are adapted to desert environments and
occupy moving sands, rocky plateaus, dry mountainsides, and
even clay depressions. Many of the species will live in only very
specific places, while others are less selective.
DIET
Birch mice and jumping mice eat berries, fungus, nuts, fruits,
and insects. Jerboas are omnivores, and eat insects, fruits, seeds,
bulbs, plant parts, and even other jerboas.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Two species, the Armenian birch mouse and the Iranian
jerboa, are listed as Critically Endangered, facing an extremely
high risk of extinction, dying out, by the IUCN. Three other
species are Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction;
three are Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction; and nine
are considered Near Threatened, not currently threatened, but
could become so.
SPECIES
ACCOUNT HAIRY-FOOTED JERBOA
Dipus sagitta
Books:
Boitani, Luigi. Simon and Schuster’s Guide to Mammals. New York: Fire-
side Books, 1990.
Corbet, G. B., and J. E. Hill. A World List of Mammalian Species. Oxford,
U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1991.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Birch Mice and Jumping Mice.” Walker’s Mammals
of the World Online 5.1. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,
1997. http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_
world/rodentia/rodentia.zapodidae.html (accessed on June 13, 2004).
Nowak, Ronald M. “Jerboas.” Walker’s Mammals of the World Online
5.1. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. http://www.press.
jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/rodentia/rodentia.
dipodidae.html (accessed on June 13, 2004).
Simon, Noel. Nature in Danger: Threatened Habitats and Species.
Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1995.
Web sites:
“Family Dipodidae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.
umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Dipodidae.html (accessed June 24,
2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Muridae
Number of species: More than
1,326 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Rats, mice, and relatives, sometimes called murids (MYOO- class
rids; members of the family Muridae), are divided into seventeen
subclass
subfamilies, including voles and lemmings, hamsters, Old World
rats and mice, South American rats and mice, and many others. order
As a result of the large number of species, there is much monotypic order
variation in the physical characteristics of murids.
suborder
Voles and lemmings are small rodents with a broad, rounded
head; small eyes and ears; thick, cylindrical body; and short legs ▲ family
and tail. Most species’ fur is some shade of brown with paler
underparts. Lemmings look a lot like voles, but most species are
stockier, with heavier bodies and shorter tails. Adults are 3.5 to
24.5 inches (8.5 to 62 centimeters) long and weigh between
0.5 ounces and 4 pounds (15 grams to 1.8 kilograms).
Hamsters are mouse-like Old World rodents with large cheek
pouches used to carry food; stout body; short legs; wide,
(sometimes) furry feet; and short, furry tails. They have front
paws with four digits and a short thumb, and hind feet with five
digits. Their soft, thick fur varies in color (depending on the
species) from gray to reddish brown, and their underparts can
be white, gray, or black. They have excellent senses of hearing
and smell, but poor eyesight (even though they have large, round
eyes). Adults are 2 to 13.4 inches (5 to 34 centimeters) long and
weigh between 0.9 and 31.7 ounces (25 to 900 grams).
Old World rats and mice have long tails (sometimes longer
than the body) that are either furry or scaly; strong feet; long
hind feet; and opposable digits on their front feet. Adults have
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Rats, mice, and relatives are found throughout the world
except for the extreme polar regions of Earth.
HABITAT
Rats, mice, and relatives live in many different habitats in-
cluding open flatlands, savannas (flat grasslands), grasslands,
prairies, steppes (treeless plains that are often somewhat dry and
grass-covered), woodlands, forests, deserts, scrublands, foothills,
jungles, rainforests, wetlands, cultivated lands and fields, and
along waterways and water bodies. They are found from dry tem-
perate (mild) climates to wet tropical environments.
DIET
Most species of rats, mice, and relatives eat at least a few of
the following foods: grasses, seeds, grains, root vegetables such
as bulbs and tubers, green plant parts, conifer needles, nuts,
berries, fruits, insects and insect larvae (LAR-vee), fish, lizards,
frogs, baby birds, crabs, tadpoles, salamanders, fungus, lichens,
mosses, other small vertebrates (animals with a backbone) and
invertebrates (animals without a backbone), and carrion (de-
caying animals).
CONSERVATION STATUS
Almost 450 species of murids are listed on the World Con-
servation Union’s (IUCN) Red List. Of these, twenty-one are
Extinct, died out; fifty are Critically Endangered, facing an
extremely high risk of extinction in the wild; seventy-four are
Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild; and
110 are Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction in the wild.
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS MUSKRAT
Ondatra zibethicus
NORWAY LEMMING
Lemmus lemmus
BLACK-BELLIED HAMSTER
Cricetus cricetus
Diet: Their diet includes grains, beans, roots, green plant parts, in-
sect larvae (especially beetle larvae), frogs, earthworms, and field
mice. They often store cereal grains, seeds, peas, and potatoes in win-
ter burrows.
Habitat: Egyptian spiny mice live in arid (dry) and semi-arid envi-
ronments like deserts and savannas, often preferring to be around
rocks. They live in burrows and are sometimes found in trees, but are
considered to be terrestrial, ground-living, animals.
Conservation status: The Australian jumping mouse is not The Australian jumping mouse’s
threatened. ■ large hind feet allow it to jump
higher than 3.2 feet (1 meter).
(© Tom McHugh/Photo
Researchers, Inc. Reproduced
by permission.)
Behavior and reproduction: Hispid cotton rats are active during the
day and night, and are able to swim. They breed throughout the year.
The gestation period is about twenty-seven days. Litter size is from one
to fifteen pups, with northern populations having larger litters. Young
are well developed at birth; eyes open within thirty-six hours of birth;
and are weaned in ten to fifteen days. Males are able to reproduce within
sixty to ninety days, and females within ten to forty days.
Hispid cotton rats and people: Scientists observe hispid cotton rats
to help them determine how environmentally healthy an area is.
GAMBIAN RAT
Cricetomys gambianus
Diet: Their diet consists of insects, fruits (especially palm fruits and
kernels), seeds, roots, nuts, leaves, snails, and crabs.
Gambian rats and people: People buy and sell Gambian rats within
the pet trade. These animals transmit diseases, such as monkeypox,
to humans. Some people hunt them.
Books:
Feldhemer, George A., Lee C. Drickamer, Stephen H. Vessey, and Joseph
F. Merritt. Mammalogy: Adaption, Diversity, and Ecology. Boston: WCB
McGraw-Hill, 1999.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 6th ed. Baltimore
and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Vaughan, Terry A., James M. Ryan, and Nicholas J. Czaplewski. Mam-
malogy, 4th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders College Publishing, 2000.
Whitfield, Philip. Macmillan Illustrated Animal Encyclopedia. New York:
Macmillan Publishing Company, 1984.
Wilson, Don E. and DeeAnn M. Reeder, eds. Mammal Species of the
World, 2nd ed. Washington, D.C. and London: Smithsonian Institution
Press, 1993.
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Anomaluridae
Number of species: 7 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
The scaly-tailed squirrels range in size from 7.3 to 18.5 class
inches (18.5 to 46 centimeters) along their head and bodies,
with tail length measuring between 5.4 and 18.4 inches (13.8 subclass
to 45 centimeters). They generally weigh between 7 ounces and order
4 pounds (200 to 1,800 grams). The family Anomaluridae (from monotypic order
words meaning “strange-tailed”) look very much like regular
squirrels (family Sciuridae) from the outside because they have suborder
adapted to similar environments, but major differences in their ▲ family
skulls, teeth, and other internal items show that they have no
close relationship. Scaly-tailed squirrels, unlike regular tree
squirrels, have a furred “gliding membrane” on each side of
their bodies that stretches in a square shape between the front
legs and the back legs and also between the hind legs and the
tail. Only one genus, the mainly diurnal (active during the day)
Zenkerella, lacks this membrane and cannot glide. The mem-
brane is supported in front by a strut-like, rigid section of
cartilage that extends from the elbow joint, rather than from
the wrist, as in the true flying squirrels. They are the only glid-
ing mammals in Africa. Scaly-tailed squirrels are so named be-
cause of the double rows of overlapping, spiky scales on the
underside of the tails for one-third of its length along the base.
When the animals land after a glide, the scales help to keep
them from skidding on tree trunks, and also help them climb
up trees. Their silky tails are bushy on top and have strongly
colored tufts. They have strong digits for manipulating food
and climbing, and very long whiskers and large ears for their
mainly nocturnal activity. Their heads are large and placed
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Scaly-tailed squirrels are native to the
INTESTINAL FORTITUDE middle region of Africa, and live mainly south
Because bark has few nutrients, the of the Sahara Desert in west, central, and east
scaly-tailed squirrels who eat it have very Africa. Countries in which they appear
long intestines so that their bodies have a regularly are Sierra Leone, Kenya, Angola,
longer time to extract nourishment. In fact, Mozambique, Ghana, Liberia, Senegal, Congo,
about half of an adult scaly-tailed squirrel’s Cameroon, Gabon, the Central African
body weight and mass is made up of its Republic, and Ivory Coast.
intestines. To compensate for this heavy
HABITAT
load, the animals’ skeletons are extremely
light so that they can still glide effectively. Scaly-tailed squirrels prefer the open
woodlands of east, central, and west Africa
and the rainforests of west and central Africa.
DIET
Larger scaly-tailed squirrels eat bark and twigs from more
than a dozen species of tree, but their favorites are miombo,
velvet tamarind, ironwood, owala oil, and awoura. They occa-
sionally also eat insects and gum (tree sap). The smaller squir-
rels eat almost nothing besides gum and insects.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Despite logging of their food trees and a general decline in
habitat quality and quantity, scaly-tailed squirrel species are not
considered threatened.
SPECIES
ACCOUNT LORD DERBY’S ANOMALURE
Anomalurus derbianus
Books:
Kingdon, J. The Kingdon Field Guide to African Mammals. Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1997.
Periodicals:
Dawson, M. R., et al. “Rodents of the Family Anomaluridae (Mammalia)
from Southeast Asia.” Annals of Carnegie Museum 72, no. 3 (2003):
203–213.
Julliot, C., et al. “Anomalures (Rodentia, Anomaluridae) in Central Gabon:
Species Composition, Population Densities and Ecology.” Mammalia 59
(1995): 441–443.
Web sites:
Fact Index. “Anomaluridae.” http://www.fact-index.com (accessed on
June 14, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Pedetidae
One species: Springhare (Yerbua
capensis)
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Springhares look like very small kangaroos. Their name
actually means “jumping hare” in Afrikaans (one of the official
subclass
languages of the Republic of South Africa). They have a body
order length of 13 to 17 inches (33 to 44 centimeters) when stand-
monotypic order ing upright on their hind legs, a tail length of 14 to 19 inches
(35 to 49 centimeters), and weigh 6 to 9 pounds (2 to 5 kilo-
suborder grams). Springhares have short front legs and long, powerful
▲ family hind legs. Their front legs are one quarter of the length of their
hind legs. Each front leg has five toes with long, sharp, curved
claws that are used for digging. Each hind leg has four toes
with claws that look like hoofs. The second toe from the out-
side is longer than the other toes. The heels, soles of their feet,
and base of their toes do not have any hair covering them.
Springhares have short, blunt heads, big eyes, and long
eyelashes. Their ears are narrow, have thin hairs on the upper
half, are naked on the inside, and are about 3 inches (7 cen-
timeters) long. At times, their ears have the tendency to droop
to their sides. They also have a tragus (TRAY-gus; prominence
in front of the ear’s opening) that folds back and closes the
opening of the ear to keep out sand when digging. Their necks
are thin and muscular.
Long, soft, straight hairs cover springhares’ bodies. Spring-
hares are colored pink-brown to gray on their upper half with
some black or white hairs in the fur. On the lower half, they
are brown-white. This same color also spreads upward in front
of their thighs and on the inside of their legs. Their tails are
Springhare 1077
Springhare (Yerbua capensis)
DIET
Springhares mostly eat grass stems, bulbs, and fleshy roots.
When they live in crop-cultivated areas, they will eat corn,
peanuts, barley, oats, and wheat. Sometimes, they eat plant
stems. This can be seen especially in grazed areas where they
eat the lower stems or roots after other animals have already
eaten the upper grass layers. When they have a very difficult
time finding food, they will eat beetles, locusts, or other insects.
When springhares eat, they sit up and use their tails as support.
They like to eat in darkness, so they do not usually stay out and
feed when there is a full moon.
occasionally be seen during the day. Their large eyes are signs
that they are active during nighttime.
Springhares live alone or with another adult and young. They
are not known for creating social units and usually do not com-
municate, with the exception of occasional low grunts. They can
get along with one another in captivity, but aggression can also
occur. When in the wild, they can also make male-female pairs.
Birds of prey, large carnivores, and humans are the main preda-
tors of springhares. Sometimes, when springhares first come out
of their burrows at the beginning of the night, they leap into the
air to try to scare off any predators that may be waiting for them.
They cannot fight very well, but if they are very close to a preda-
tor, in an enclosed area, they will bite and kick fiercely with their
hind feet, which have very sharp claws. However, it is more typ-
ical that they hop away from predators using their hind legs and
head toward their burrow. Their great senses of sound, smell, and
sight help them to stay away from predators. They also help them
to notify other springhares of predators.
Springhares can be born at any time of the year. Females give
birth in bare areas of their burrows, usually having only one off-
spring at a time, but twins do occur in rare cases. The average
female springhare will have one young three times per year. At
Springhare 1079
birth, springhares weigh around 9 to 11 ounces (256 to 312
grams). When they are seven weeks old, the young leave their
mothers. They eat a lot of grasses at this point. They are then
finished growing and go off to make their own burrows.
Springhares stand on their hind feet when in an upright pos-
ture and can travel using all four feet when they are eating or
moving from place to place. When they jump, their tail be-
comes horizontal or curled upward. They can jump around 6
to 9 feet (1 to 3 meters) high and can also swerve sharply when
they’re chased by humans or other predators.
SPRINGHARES AND PEOPLE
Humans hunt springhares in areas where they cause damage
to crops. The springhares cause problems by destroying seed
and root systems in these areas. They can also be hunted as a
source of food to humans, especially in South Africa. People
may also kill them for their fur. One method they use to cap-
ture springhares, whether for fur or food, is to flood their bur-
rows with water, so that the springhares must come out, and
can be more easily captured. Another method is to chase them
by foot, but it can be difficult to grab hold of them. Springhares
may also be dangerous to humans since they can transmit dis-
eases like the bubonic plague, rickettsiasis, babesiasis, theile-
riosis, and toxicosis paralysis through parasites they may carry.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists springhares as
Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction in the wild. This is
due to the fact that their population is decreasing from poor
habitat quality and hunting by humans.
Web sites:
Jackson, A. “Pedetes capensis.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animal-
diversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pedetes_capensis.
html (accessed on May 21, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Ctenodactylidae
Number of species: 5 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Gundis are small rodents with soft, thick, and silky fur. Their class
fur helps to insulate their bodies from harm due to extreme sun
subclass
exposure. They have large, blunt heads, flat skulls, and short,
round ears. Their very round, large eyes help them to adjust order
quickly to bright sunlight when they come out of their rock monotypic order
shelters. They have a fringe of hair around the inner margin of
their ears that protects the ears from sand that can be easily suborder
blown by the wind. Gundis have long vibrissae (stiff hairs that ▲ family
can be found near the nostrils or other parts of the face in many
mammals). They also have short legs and short, furry tails. Their
back feet are longer than their front feet, each foot having four
digits (fingers or toes). On the hind feet, the two inner digits
have stiff bristles that serve as a comb for the gundis’ fur. The
digits also have small, very sharp claws. Gundis have flexible
ribcages, which help them squeeze into small spaces.
The color of gundis is anywhere from gray to yellow-red, the
underparts usually having a whitish color. The rocks that they
live among determine their overall color, because blending into
their surroundings serves as protection. Overall, they have the
appearance of guinea pigs. Their head and body length is 6
to 10 inches (15 to 25 centimeters). Their tail length is 0.3 to
2 inches (1 to 6 centimeters), and they can weight up to 6
ounces (171 grams), and the females are larger than the males.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Gundis can be found in northern Africa.
Gundis 1081
HABITAT
Gundis live in rocky hills, cliffs, and mountains in deserts,
sub-deserts, or on the edges of deserts. The rocks that make up
their habitat can be of any age, but they cannot be extremely
large. Gundis may even be found housed in building sites.
Within these living areas, gundis find fissures (long, deep, and
narrow openings or cracks), crevices, and caves to use for
permanent or temporary shelter. They find ledges, flat rocks,
and boulder tops to use for sunbathing. They prefer to live in
areas where they can get exposure to the morning, as well as
the evening sun. Gundis do not have adaptations for water con-
servation or temperature control, so they take advantage of the
shade and wind in the areas where they live. This helps them
to cool off during hot afternoons in the desert.
DIET
Gundis are herbivores (plant-eating animals) and mainly eat
leaves, stalks, flowers, and plant seeds. They cannot gnaw well,
so they mainly eat these softer foods. Food is usually somewhat
difficult to find in their habitat, so they have to travel far to
find it. Gundis do not store food or reserve fat in their bodies,
so their search for nourishment is never-ending. They usually
will take food back to their shelter so that they can safely eat.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The felou gundi is the only species that is listed as Vulner-
able, facing a high risk of extinction, by the World Conserva-
tion Union (IUCN), due to a decrease in its range and habitat.
The other species are not globally threatened, although they
could be threatened locally by human disturbances.
Gundis 1083
Mzab gundi (Massoutiera mzabi)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT MZAB GUNDI
Massoutiera mzabi
Books:
Alderton, David. Rodents of the World. New York: Facts on File, 1996.
Gundis 1085
Delany, M.J. “Rodents.” In Reader’s Digest Encyclopedia of Animals,
edited by Dr. Harold G. Cogger, et al. Sydney, Australia: Weldon Own Pty
Limited, 1993.
Gould, Dr. Edwin, and McKay, Dr. George, eds. Encyclopedia of Mam-
mals, 2nd ed. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1998.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Gundis.” In Walker’s Mammals of the World, 6th ed.
Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Web sites:
Myers, P. “Ctenodactylidae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animal-
diversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Ctenodactyli-
dae.html (accessed on May 22, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Myoxidae
Number of species: 26 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Dormice look a lot like squirrels or chipmunks. Their fur is class
thick and soft and most species have long, bushy tails. Their
tails help them to balance. Species are different sizes, but their subclass
average head and body length falls into the range of 1.6 to order
8 inches (4.1 to 20.3 centimeters), their tail length ranges from monotypic order
1.5 to 6.5 inches (3.8 to 16.5 centimeters), and they weigh from
0.5 to 7 ounces (15 to 200 grams). They are nocturnal, active suborder
at night, so they have large eyes and sensitive vibrissae, stiff ▲ family
hairs that can be found near the nostrils or other parts of the
face in many mammals. They can also hear very well. These
traits help them to function at night. Dormice also live in trees,
so they have pads on the soles of their feet and strong, short
curved claws on their four front toes and five hind toes so that
they can grab onto the trees. Both their legs and toes are short.
They can also hang upside down from branches by turning their
hind feet backwards and grabbing onto the branches.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Dormice are found in Europe, Africa, central and western
Asia, and Japan.
HABITAT
Dormice can be found in deciduous forests, woodlands,
grasslands, gardens, parks, rocky areas, or scrub areas. Within
these areas, they create nests where they rest during the day.
These nests are built off of the ground in holes in trees, rocky
crevices, abandoned burrows, building attics, or in wedges of
Dormice 1087
tree branches. The nests are ball-shaped, and are made out of
leaves, grass, moss, lichen, shredded bark, other plant pieces,
and saliva. They are lined with hair or feathers.
DIET
Dormice are omnivores, they eat plants and animals. Most
of the time, they get their food from the trees in which they
live. In the early spring and early summer, they eat buds and
tree flowers. In the summer, they eat insects, small rodents, and
bird eggs. In the late summer and fall, they eat fruit, berries,
seeds, and nuts. They also eat snails and young birds. The spe-
cific type of food that they eat depends on their lifestyles and
living areas, which is different from species to species. They
also eat a lot during the fall in order to build up a layer of body
fat to live on when they hibernate, go into a resting state
during the winter season.
BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION
Dormice usually live in small groups where half are younger
dormice. Families hibernate together during winter. Hiberna-
tion occurs for about seven months. During this time period,
their body temperature drops and their breathing and heartbeat
slows down. They curl into a ball, with their tail covering their
mouth so that they lose the least amount of water. They may
wake up during this period in order to eat stored food, but this
does not happen frequently. This extended resting time helps
the dormice survive when there are low temperatures and lit-
tle food to be found. Hibernation ends around April, when the
weather gets warmer. At that time, they eat a lot of food and
begin their mating season.
Dormice usually are not protective of their territory, but this
changes during the mating season, when males become aggres-
sive about their territory. Males use calls to attract the females.
Males mate with more than one female during the mating sea-
son. The females can give birth from May to October. They are
pregnant for three to four weeks. They can have anywhere from
two to ten babies in a litter, although four babies is an average.
The mother gives birth in her nest, in a tree hollow, on a branch,
or maybe even underground in a shelter. When the young are
born, they are pink, blind, and weigh around 0.07 ounces
(2 grams). They grow gray hair by the time they are seven days
old. When they are eighteen days old, they can see and hear and
have brown hair. They are soon able to go out and find food with
CONSERVATION STATUS
More than half of dormice species are at risk. Dormice are
threatened by loss of habitat and climate change, which changes
their habitats and causes temperature shifts. The World Conser-
vation Union (IUCN) lists four dormice species as Endangered,
facing a very high risk of extinction; four as Vulnerable, facing
a high risk of extinction; and five as Near Threatened, not
currently threatened, but could become so.
Dormice 1089
Edible dormouse (Myoxus glis)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT EDIBLE DORMOUSE
Myoxus glis
escapes.
Books:
Alderton, David. Rodents of the World. New York: Facts on File, Inc.,
1996.
Dormice 1091
“Dormice” and “Fat Dormouse, or Edible Dormouse.” In Walker’s Mam-
mals of the World, 6th ed. Vol. II. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity Press, 1999.
“Dormouse.” In National Geographic Book of Mammals. Washington, DC:
National Geographic Society, 1998.
“Edible Dormouse.” In Smithsonian Handbooks: Mammals. New York:
DK Publishing, 2002.
Macdonald, David, ed. The Encyclopedia of Mammals. Volume III. New
York: Facts on File, Inc., 2001.
Web sites:
“Myoxus glis.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.
umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Myoxus_glis.html (accessed on
June 12, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Petromuridae
One species: Dassie rat (Petromus
typicus)
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Dassie rats look a lot like squirrels. Soft and silky hair class
covers their bodies, with the exception of the undersides, which
subclass
are yellow and hairless. The hairs are joined together in groups
of three or five. Their fur color is usually brown, gray, or buff, order
or a combination of those colors. These colors help them blend monotypic order
into the surrounding rocks in their habitat. This sort of cam-
ouflage helps keep birds from spotting them from above. suborder
Dassie rats have blunt heads; big eyes; short, black, round ▲ family
ears; and long, black vibrissae, stiff hairs that can be found near
the nostrils or other parts of the face in many mammals. The
tail is shorter than the head and body length, and long hairs
cover the end part of their tails. Their tails have soft joints, which
allow the tail to break off at the base if a predator, animal that
hunts it for food, grabs a dassie rat by the tail. The dassie rat
can simply release its tail and escape, relatively unharmed.
Dassie rats’ front feet have four toes with claws. The thumbs
on the front feet are short. Their hind feet have five toes with
short, curved claws. The hind feet also have thicker hairs that
look like tiny combs and are probably used for grooming. The
soles of their feet have round, naked pads that help them
to move around in the rocky areas where they live. Their feet
are narrow. The head and body length of males is 10.9 to
14.0 inches (27.9 to 36.0 centimeters) and the head and body
length of females is 9.9 to 14.0 inches (25.3 to 35.8 centimeters).
Males weigh 6.0 to 7.4 ounces (170 to 210 grams) while females
weigh 8.8 to 9.2 ounces (250 to 261 grams). Their flexible ribs
and flat skulls help them to flatten their bodies, and squeeze
into small areas when necessary. This can be helpful when es-
caping from predators. The nipples on females are on their
sides, rather on their undersides, so if they are squeezed into a
small space, the young can still feed.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Dassie rats can be found in the Southwest Arid Zone of
Africa, from southwestern Angola to the central and western
parts of Namibia to the northwestern Northern Cape Province
in South Africa.
HABITAT
Dassie rats live in areas with a lot of rocks on hills or moun-
tains. This environment allows them to find small areas
between or under the rocks to crawl into in case of an attack
by a predator. When examining living areas, dassie rats will
DIET
Dassie rats are herbivores, plant-eating
animals. They eat leaves, berries, seeds,
grasses, twigs, and shrubs. They look for this
food on the ground or in bushes, and take it
back to their shelters. They may use grasses
and leaves to build a nest in the shelter. Dassie
rats can regurgitate (re-GER-jih-tate), throw
up partially digested food, into their mouths
where they chew it again and then swallow
it. They are also coprophagous (kuh-PRAH-
fuh-gus), which means that they eat their own
pellets, or dung, for additional nutrients.
Dassie rats can make their
They do not usually drink water, but get all the water they need bodies almost flat, and squeeze
from their food instead. into small crevices or cracks to
escape predators. (Nigel
Dennis/African Imagery.com.
BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION Reproduced by permission.)
Dassie rats are active during the daytime, especially during
the early morning and the late afternoon. They sunbathe un-
der rocks that shelter them from possible attacks by birds. They
often urinate in one spot, which makes the rocks at this spot
become white due to stains from the urine. A dassie rat may
live alone, with another dassie rat, or in a group. However, they
only travel alone or with one other dassie rat.
When a predator attacks, dassie rats squeeze into a crack or
other small area, quickly escape by jumping on rocks, or let
out a warning whistling call to show that they are scared. Dassie
rats are able to squeeze into very small cracks that most other
animals would not be able to enter.
The dassie rat mating season is from November to December.
Females give birth to one or two babies once a year, when the
CONSERVATION STATUS
Dassie rats are not listed as threatened by The World
Conservation Union (IUCN), but there is only a small popula-
tion and they are not present in a large number of areas.
Books:
Alderton, David. Rodents of the World. New York: Facts on File, Inc.,
1996.
“Dassie Rat.” In Walker’s Mammals of the World, 6th ed. Vol. 2.
Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Macdonald, David, ed. The Encyclopedia of Mammals. Vol. 3. New York:
Facts on File, Inc., 2001.
Web sites:
Myers, Phil. “Family Petromuridae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Petromuridae.html (accessed on June 12, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Thryonomyidae
Number of species: 2 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
The two species in the cane rat family, the greater cane rat class
and the lesser cane rat, are very similar in appearance, except
subclass
for the fact that one is larger and heavier than the other. The
second-largest rodents in their native continent of Africa after order
the South African porcupine, the cane rats range in length from monotypic order
1.3 to 2.6 feet (40.9 to 79.3 centimeters) and in weight from
3.1 to 14.3 pounds (1.4 to 6.5 kilograms). Males are much larger suborder
and heavier than females. Cane rats are sturdy-looking animals, ▲ family
with solid, stocky bodies, short, brown, bristly, scaly tails, and
small ears. Their speckled fur is sharp-ended and coarse, and
can be any shade between grayish and yellowish brown. Cane
rats have white lips, chins, and throats, with large, chisel-like
incisor teeth that grow continuously. The upper teeth are
grooved and bright orange. Their muzzles are squared and
padded at the nose. These rodents have short, thick legs with
heavily padded feet and straight, powerful claws with five dig-
its in front and four in back. Their skin is very thin and tears
easily, although it also heals quickly. Likewise, the tail will
break off easily if the animal is caught by it. Sexually mature,
those ready to mate, cane rats have orange-tinted fur in their
genital areas. Cane rats do not seem to see well, but their senses
of hearing and small are keen. Despite their heavy appearance,
they are extremely fast and agile creatures.
GEOGRAPHIC RA\NGE
Both species are native to Africa, where they occupy habi-
tats south of the Sahara Desert. They may be found everywhere
HABITAT
Although they look similar, the greater
A GENTLE GIANT and lesser cane rats prefer different environ-
When threatened, cane rats thump their ments. The greater species is semi-aquatic
powerful rear feet on the ground to alert and searches out marshes and reed beds near
others while emitting a piercing whistling rivers and streams, while the lesser species
sound. Although its teeth are formidable, a looks for dry ground in moist savannas, or
frightened cane rat will virtually always run grasslands. Both animals are excellent swim-
with great speed into dense vegetation and mers and require tall grasses for hiding and
toward the nearest open water rather than foraging purposes.
turning to fight. If captured, the animals
thrash frantically and are frequently DIET
injured. When enclosed in a box or crate, Cane rats are herbivores, plant eaters, and
the rats often use their padded noses as eat a wide variety of grasses and other plant
battering rams to try to escape. matter, as well as fruits, nuts, bark, and cul-
tivated crops. Cane rats ferment their food in
a special organ called the cecum (SEE-kum)
to help digest it. They produce two kinds of
feces: hard and soft pellets. Both are excreted, but the animals
eat the soft pellets to extract any nutrients remaining in them.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Abundant in all areas with suitable habitat, neither the lesser
nor the greater cane rat is threatened.
SPECIES
ACCOUNT GREATER CANE RAT
Thryonomys swinderianus
Physical characteristics: The larger of the two cane rat species, the
(male) greater cane rat ranges in length from 26.1 to 30.9 inches (67.0
to 79.2 centimeters) and in weight from 11 to 14.3 pounds (5 to
6.5 kilograms), although there are reports of these animals weighing
as much as 19.8 pounds (9 kilograms). Females are generally smaller.
Greater cane rats have powerful, stocky bodies, massive heads, and
small, broad, fur-covered ears. Perhaps their most striking feature is
their gigantic, bright-orange incisor teeth. The animals have thick,
coarse, pointed hair over its body that varies in shades of brown on
top and much lighter fur underneath, with orange-tinted fur in the
genital areas of mature adults. The forefeet are smaller than the back
Greater cane rats and people: Like their smaller cousins, the
greater cane rat is viewed by humans as both an important food source
and a serious threat to cultivated crops.
Books:
De Graff, G. The Rodents of Southern Africa. Durban and Pretoria:
Butterworths, 1981.
Mills, M., et al. The Complete Book of South African Mammals. Cape
Town: Struik Winchester, 1997.
National Research Council. Microlivestock: Little-Known Small Animals
with a Promising Economic Future. Washington, DC: National Academic
Press, 1991.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Cane Rats.” In Walker’s Mammals of the World
Online 5.1. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
http://www.www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/
rodentia (accessed on June 15, 2004).
Periodicals:
Van der Merwe, M. “Breeding Season and Breeding Potential of the
Greater Cane Rat Thryonomys swinderianus in Captivity in South Africa.”
South African Journal of Zoology 34, no. 2 (1999): 69–73.
Web sites:
Animals Online. “Great Cane Rat Thryonomys swinderianus: Fact Sheet.”
http://www.animals-online.be (accessed on June 15, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Bathyergidae
Number of species: 14 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
African mole-rats are small to medium-sized rodents with class
streamlined bodies 3.2 to 11.0 inches (83 to 281 millimeters) in
subclass
length and with a weight of 1.2 to 31.0 ounces (34 to 896 grams).
African mole-rats bodies are covered in hair that is thick and order
short, except for one species. They have robust heads, small eyes, monotypic order
very small ears, and flattened pig-like noses. The stiff hairs are
thicker on the front of the face and around the eyes. Their necks suborder
are muscular so there is not much change in size from their head ▲ family
to body and their limbs are short giving their bodies an overall
cylindrical appearance. On the outer edges of their hind feet and
on their short tail they also have stiff hairs, except for one species.
They also have stiff hairs that are used for touching that are scat-
tered all over their bodies. Under their loose skin they have long,
strong muscles. The African mole-rats have large, ever growing,
white incisors, sharp-edged teeth which are flat, in the front of
the mouth used for cutting and tearing food.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
African mole-rats are found in sub-Saharan Africa.
HABITAT
African mole-rats inhabit dry regions such as savannas, or flat
grasslands, and open woodlands. The rodents are not found in
dense forests. They are usually found in areas with plants that
provide an underground food source such as bulbs, tubers, and
rootstalks. African mole-rats live in burrow systems consisting
of a complicated network of foraging tunnels. The tunnels
DIET
They eat bulbs, tubers, and corms, the underground stem
base of plants such as the crocus or gladiolus. Food is either
eaten when it is found or brought back to a central storage area
near the nest. Large food sources are often left to grow, and
eaten on from time to time.
BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION
African mole-rats are considered by experts to show the
widest range in social structure of all mammals. They are soli-
tary rodents, and spend much of their time underground.
Almost all species dig by biting the soil with their large incisor
teeth or in one genus (JEE-nus), a group of animals with sim-
ilar characteristics, by loosening soil with strongly developed
forefeet. Muscular lips with strong hairs keep soil out of the
mouth. The loosened soil is pushed under their bodies with their
forefeet and then collected and kicked behind them with their
hind feet until it is kicked out of the surface opening.
Courtship and mating activities are short encounters between
a male and female. Pups at about two months of age begin to make
their own burrows. Colonies of social African mole-rats have
divisions of labor for reproductive activities. A single female, the
queen, and a few chosen males do the mating. Remaining mem-
bers, who are related to the breeders, are helpers. They remain
members of the colony unless environmental conditions allow
them to go out on their own or if a breeder dies. If the breeding
female dies, some of the oldest females in the colony become
sexually active and often fight for the highest position of breeding
female. The gestation period, the amount of time the offspring is
in the womb, is forty-four to 100 days. Litter, a group of young
animals born at the same time from the same mother, size is from
less than four up to twenty-eight, depending on the species.
AFRICAN MOLE-RATS AND PEOPLE
African mole-rats are considered pests in farmlands and in
urban developments. Their burrows often damage roads, air-
port runways, and other such structures. They can also chew
through underground cables, irrigation pipes, and other
human-made objects.
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS DAMARALAND MOLE-RAT
Cryptomys damarensis
Behavior and reproduction: Damaraland mole-rats are highly The Damaraland mole-rat uses
its incisors for digging. (Wendy
organized and social creatures. They use their incisor teeth for digging.
Dennis/FLPA—Images of Nature.
These rodents live in colonies of up to forty animals. The colony con- Reproduced by permission.)
sists of a single breeding female, her several male partners, and their
non-breeding offspring. The breeding animals control the colony. Pups
of breeders remain as non-breeding helpers. Breeding occurs through-
out the year. The gestation, pregnancy, period is seventy-eight to ninety-
two days. The litter size is one to five, but averages three. The breeding
female can have up to four litters in one year. Breeders can live more
than ten years.
NAKED MOLE-RAT
Heterocephalus glaber
Diet: Their diet consists of geophytes that are found through the
coordinated foraging, searching for food, of colony members. They
almost constantly dig tunnels in search of irregular food supplies and
to escape snakes, their primary predator. The animals also eat feces,
solid bodily waste; in fact, the breeding female and the weaning pups
often beg for feces from colony members.
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Hystricidae
Number of species: 11 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
The Old World (living in Africa, Asia, and Europe) porcu- class
pines (called “quill pigs” in Latin) take their English name from
the formidable spines, quills, and bristles that cover their sides, subclass
back, and tail. Their heads and bodies together range in length order
from between 13.8 to 36.6 inches (35 to 93 centimeters) and the
monotypic order
animals usually weigh between 3.3 to 66.1 pounds (1.5 to
30 kilograms). The eleven species fall into three genera ( JEN- suborder
uh-ruh; plural of genus): Hystrix, the Old World porcupines; ▲ family
Trichys, which are more slender mammals with flatter, shorter,
and less-developed quills; and Atherura, which includes the
brush-tailed porcupines. Most of the species have short tails, but
others can have tails up to half of their head-body length. Eyes
are usually small and can see only poorly, but the mammals’
small ears are very keen. Nostrils are often S-shaped and con-
tribute to a strong sense of smell.
Species in the Hystrix genus ( JEE-nus) are stocky, somewhat
lumbering animals with rounded, blunt heads; mobile, fleshy
noses; split upper lips; and coats of thick flattened or cylindri-
cal spines. The mammals stay on the ground at all times, never
venturing into trees like their cousins, the New Age porcupines
of North America. Hystrix alone among the porcupines has
chambers in its skull that can be inflated, possibly to increase
the ability to smell underground food sources. This slow-
moving genus has short, thick front and back feet, with five
digits on each foot, although the “thumb” on the front feet is
much smaller than the other digits. Their claws are short and
the pads on their feet are bare and smooth. The whole sole of
DIET
Mostly herbivores, plant eaters, Old World porcupines eat
numerous kinds of plant material and human-cultivated crops.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Although many porcupine species are extremely adaptable
to changing environmental conditions, some are threatened,
according to the World Conservation Union (IUCN). The
Malayan porcupine is listed as Vulnerable, facing a high risk of
extinction in the wild; and the thick-spined and North African
crested porcupines are Near Threatened, not currently threat-
ened, but could become so.
SPECIES
INDIAN CRESTED PORCUPINE ACCOUNTS
Hystrix indica
Habitat: This species seeks out habitat with rocky outcroppings and
hillsides, but may be found at elevations up to 11,480 feet (3,500
meters) where vegetation is abundant. It requires shelter during the day,
and uses caves or other animals’ abandoned holes for that purpose.
Diet: The South African porcupine uses its powerful claws to dig
up tubers, roots, and bulbs of many kinds. They especially like such
cultivated crops as sugar cane, pineapples, bamboo, melons, cocoa
South African porcupine and people: This species is hunted for its
meat in many locations where people consider it a delicacy, while the
porcupine’s destructive and voracious feeding habits make them the
enemy of many farmers, gardeners, and landscapers.
Books:
Alderton, David. Rodents of the World. New York: Facts on File, 1996.
Gould, Edwin, and George McKay, eds. Encyclopedia of Mammals, 2nd
ed. San Diego: Academic Press, 1998.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 6th ed. Vol. 2.
Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Vaughn, Terry A. et al. Mammology, 4th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders
College Publishing, 2000.
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Erethizontidae
Number of species: 19 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
New World porcupines are some of the largest North Ameri- class
can rodents. They are stocky animals with many sharp quills,
subclass
modified guard hairs, and spines that in most species are hidden
beneath long fur but are visible in others. Quills lie facing down- order
ward and spines cover most of their upper bodies and tail, monotypic order
except for a few species that have no spines. The animals have
a prehensile, able to grasp by wrapping around, tail that can reach suborder
about one-fourth to over one-half its length. Its head consists of ▲ family
a blunt muzzle, small rounded eyes that are nearly hidden by
hair, and small rounded ears. Its body has humped shoulders,
short bowed legs, and long curved claws. Adults are 15.5 to 51.0
inches (40 to 130 centimeters) long and weigh between 6.5 and
22.0 pounds (3 to 10 kilograms).
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
New World porcupines are found in North, Central, and
South America, from Canada and Alaska to Argentina.
HABITAT
These porcupines live primarily in trees throughout rain-
forests and deciduous and coniferous woods, except for one
species that lives in deserts and a few others that are found in
plantations and other cultivated areas.
DIET
New World porcupines eat fruits, seeds, leaves, and bark.
CONSERVATION STATUS
New World porcupines are not threatened.
SPECIES
NORTH AMERICAN PORCUPINE ACCOUNTS
Erethizon dorsatum
PREHENSILE-TAILED PORCUPINE
Coendou prehensilis
the length being its tail. They weigh between 9 and 12 pounds (4.0
and 5.5 kilograms).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Chinchillidae
Number of species: 6 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Known for their luxuriously thick fur, these cuddly-looking, class
rabbit-like animals range in head-and-body length from 11.8 to
subclass
23.6 inches (30 to 60 centimeters) and can weigh from 1.1 to
19.8 pounds (0.5 to 9 kilograms). Females are usually larger order
than males. The animals’ fur, which vary in color from brown monotypic order
to bluish gray to pearly white, have a uniform, soft underfur.
suborder
The chinchillas and mountain viscacha have especially fine,
silky fur, as well as special bristles on their back feet to groom ▲ family
themselves. As many as sixty hairs can grow out of one hair
follicle. All the species have bushy tails. Viscachas are gener-
ally larger than chinchillas, while chinchillas have much larger
ears and longer tails relative to their size. All of the species have
broad, large heads, thick necks, and strong feet and rear legs.
With its distinctive black-and-white facial pattern, the plains
viscacha is unique among the family. Depending on their
native environment, some of the animals are adapted to jump-
ing, while others have evolved to burrow. The pads of their feet
are hairless, and front feet are usually shorter than the back
feet, which are long and bony. The four digits on their front
feet are dexterous and useful in manipulating food. Their cheek
teeth grow continuously and must be worn down regularly. The
pupils of their eyes are cat-like, with vertical slits.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
This family of mammals occurs only in western and
southern South America, but their largest populations are in
HABITAT
While most of the viscacha species tend to remain at eleva-
tions below 1,640 feet (500 meters), the mountain viscacha and
chinchillas colonize areas from 13,120 to 16,400 feet (4,000 to
5,000 meters). The plains viscacha lives in grasslands with
sparse vegetation, but all the other species seek out rocky ar-
eas where they can dig their burrows and hide from numerous
predators.
DIET
Chinchillids (members of the Chinchillidae family) are
mainly herbivores, plant eaters, and live on seeds and grass,
although those species endemic at higher elevations also eat
mosses and lichens. All species occasionally eat insects as well.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Due to overharvesting, the long-tailed chinchilla is listed as
Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction, by the World
Conservation Union (IUCN), while the short-tailed chinchilla
is Critically Endangered, facing an extremely high risk of ex-
tinction. The animals are now protected by law in their native
habitats, although this is of limited benefit due to their remote
habitats. Conservation groups have attempted to reintroduce
chinchillas to Andean habitats, but with no success so far.
SPECIES
ACCOUNT LONG-TAILED CHINCHILLA
Chinchilla lanigera
Diet: The long-tailed chinchilla eats mainly grass and seeds of any
available plants, but sometime eats insects and bird eggs as well.
Books:
Burton, J. The Collins Guide to the Rare Mammals of the World.
Lexington, MA: The Stephen Greene Press, 1987.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Chinchillas.” In Walker’s Mammals of the World On-
line 5.1. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. http://
www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/rodentia
(accessed on June 23, 2004).
Redford, K. H. Mammals of the Neotropics: The Southern Cone. Vol. 2.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992.
Periodicals:
Jimenez, J. “The Extirpation and Current Status of Wild Chinchillas,
Chinchilla lanigera and C. brevicaudata.” Biological Conservation 77
(1995): 1–6.
Web sites:
“Long-tailed Chinchilla; Chinchilla lanigera.” ARKive Images of Life on
Earth. http://www.arkive.org (accessed on June 23, 2004).
“Chinchilla lanigera.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.
ummz.umich.edu (accessed on June 23, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Dinomyidae
One species: Pacarana (Dinomys
branickii)
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Also known as Branick’s giant rat after the Polish count who class
first described the species in 1873, the pacarana is the sole mem-
subclass
ber of the Dinomyidae (“terrible mouse”) family. The name
pacarana comes from a Tupi Indian term meaning “false pig.” order
Full-grown pacaranas weigh between 22 and 33 pounds (10 to monotypic order
15 kilograms), and from nose to rump measure from 28 to
31 inches (730 to 790 millimeters). Their tails are usually suborder
7.5 inches (190 millimeters) long. Sturdy and compactly built, ▲ family
their heads are broad and large in proportion to their bodies.
They have short but extremely powerful limbs with four digits
and formidable claws on each. Pacaranas have a thick coat of
coarse, grayish brown or blackish hair with rows of white spots
on the back half of the body. The animal has bushy, white
whiskers on either side of its blunt snout and a deeply split up-
per lip. It is the third-largest rodent on Earth, after the capy-
bara and the beaver, and some people say it looks like a gigantic
guinea pig or spineless porcupine.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
A South American rodent, pacaranas’ sparse populations may
be found in the mountainous areas of a band running through
western Venezuela, western Colombia, central Ecuador, Peru,
part of western Brazil, and into northwestern Bolivia.
HABITAT
In Peru, this species occupies suitable habitat from 800 to 6,600
feet in elevation (240 to 2,000 meters), but in Venezuela they
Pacarana 1135
occur up to 7,870 feet (2,400 meters).
Pacaranas live in montane forests and rainfor-
est valleys of the Andes Mountains. They pre-
fer to live in cracks in rock walls or
outcroppings, but caves are also attractive
habitats.
PACARANAS IN SAN DIEGO?
DIET
Although their ancestors’ native land of
Colombia is thousands of miles away, a Pacaranas are mainly vegetarian and espe-
thriving colony of pacaranas has been cially favor palm berries and other fruits
established at the San Diego Zoo. The as well as the stems and leaves of tender
animals can live for at least thirteen years young plants.
in captivity, and are easily trained to
perform in shows. BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION
Because most pacarana behavior has been
studied among captive animals, biologists
know little about how these animals act in the wild. However,
we do know that they are active mostly at night, when they spend
most of their time in solitary searches for food. They occasion-
ally climb trees to get to food sources, but spend most of their
time on the ground, sitting up on their haunches to manipulate
food with their forelimbs. They do not seem to dig, despite their
sturdy claws. Although their Latin name indicates a placid na-
ture and slow-moving ways, pacaranas are well equipped to de-
fend themselves and have a strong will to do so. They can be
surprisingly vicious in attacks on interlopers and predators, an-
imals that hunt them for food, alike, including pet dogs and other
pacaranas. They can climb well and walk on two feet occasion-
ally for various purposes. Adults often live alone, but have also
been observed cohabitating in pairs and family groups. Their
communication with each other is fairly sophisticated and fea-
tures seven different sounds, including singing, hissing, tooth
chattering, stamping their front feet, and whining.
Pacaranas make a sound like crying to attract mating part-
ners, and then engage in an elaborate courtship ritual during
the breeding season in about November through January. The
ritual has been described as a mixture of dancing and wrestling,
with much sniffing, growling, and whimpering as a male and
female stand on their hind legs to grapple with each other and
interlock their front cutting teeth. Head-tossing is common
prior to the male mounting the female, which he does after
approaching her with dramatically trembling legs. Females
CONSERVATION STATUS
The IUCN has classified the pacarana as Endangered, facing
a very high risk of extinction. Its normally low population
Pacarana 1137
The pacarana is a slow-moving,
nocturnal herbivore found in the
Andes Mountains. (Francisco
Erize/Bruce Coleman Inc.
Reproduced by permission.)
Periodicals:
White, T. G. “Dinomys branickii.” Mammalian Species 410 (1992).
Web sites:
“Animal Info-Pacarana.” Animal Info-Information on Endangered Mam-
mals. http://animalinfo.org (accessed on June 23, 2004).
“Comparative Placentation.” University of California, San Diego Medical
School. http://medicine.ucsd.edu/cpa/pac.html (accessed on June 23,
2004).
“Dinomys branickii.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.
umich.edu (accessed on June 23, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Caviidae
Number of species: 17 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Cavies and maras, also called cavids (members of the family class
Caviidae), range in size from 8 to 30 inches (20 to
subclass
75 centimeters) and have a vestigial, no longer functional, tail.
They generally have plump, robust bodies with large heads, and order
short limbs and ears. Their fur in the wild is short and coarse. monotypic order
Cavids have high-crowned jaw teeth that grow continuously.
The size and shape of cavids range from small, tailless, short- suborder
legged cavies with body lengths of 5.9 to 15.7 inches (15 to ▲ family
40 centimeters) and weights of 7.0 to 21.1 ounces (200 to
600 grams) to the larger, rabbit-like salt-desert cavies and maras
with shorter tails and, slender limbs, that are 17.7 to 29.5 inches
(45 to 75 centimeters) in length and weighs 2.2 to 35.2 pounds
(1 to 16 kilograms). Cavies have four clawed front toes and
three clawed rear toes. The rock cavy has padded feet and
claw-like toes that help it climb rocks and trees. Cavies have
flat-crowned teeth that are always growing.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Cavies are found over most of South America, except Chile
and some areas of the Amazon River basin. Maras inhabit south-
ern Bolivia, Peru, and Argentina.
HABITAT
Cavies and maras are found in a variety of habitat, depend-
ing on the species. These include marshes, tropical floodplains,
rocky mountain meadows, grassland, desert, and areas with lots
DIET
Cavies and maras are herbivores, meaning
NAME GAME they eat only plants, including grasses and
Guinea pigs are neither pigs nor from cacti (KACK-tie, or KACK-tee), and plant
the African country of Guinea. So how did material, such as seeds, flowers, and fruits.
they get their common name? One theory
is that when they were first introduced into BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION
Great Britain in the 1500s, they were the Cavies and maras are diurnal, meaning
closest animal to a pig that could be bought they sleep at night and are active during the
for a guinea, an old British coin. Another is day, or crepuscular (kri-PUS-kyuh-lur),
that the sounds they make reminded meaning they are active at twilight. They do
people of pigs, and since they were shipped not hibernate and live in burrows they dig or
to Europe via Guinea, people thought they were dug by other animals. They are gener-
originated from there. ally very social, living in pairs or groups.
Cavies and maras have a variety of mating
regimens, including hierarchical promiscuity
(HI-uh-raar-kick-al prah-miss-KYOO-it-ee), which is frequent
sexual intercourse based upon ranking or status in the group;
polygamy (puh-LIH-guh-mee), where they have multiple mates
in a single breeding season; and monogamy (muh-NAH-guh-
mee), which is having sexual relations with a single partner
during the breeding season. They breed year round and pro-
duce multiple litters per year. Cavids have a gestation period,
pregnancy, of fifty to seventy days. The number of offspring
per litter is usually one to three but can be up to seven. Maras
and salt-desert cavies have seasonal breeding patterns and have
litters of one or two young.
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS ROCK CAVY
Kerodon rupestris
Geographic range: Rock cavies are found in eastern Brazil from the
state of Piaui to northern Minas Gerais.
Diet: Rock cavies are herbivores, meaning they eat only plants and
plant material. Their diet primarily consists of tender leaves and
shoots of plants.
Rock cavies and people: Rock cavies are easily tamed and make
suitable pets. Brazilians who live in the rock cavy habitat area use the
mammal as food and medicine.
MARA
Dolichotis patagonum
Maras and people: Maras are hunted in the wild for food and their
skin. They are also tamed and used as pets.
Books:
Harris, Graham. A Guide to the Birds and Mammals of Coastal
Patagonia. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998.
Macdonald, David. The New Encyclopedia of Mammals. Oxford, U.K.:
Oxford University Press, 2001.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 6th ed. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Siino, Betsy Sikora. The Essential Guinea Pig. Hoboken, NJ: Howell Book
House, 1998.
Waters, Jo. The Wild Side of Pet Guinea Pigs. Chicago: Heinemann
Library, 2004.
Periodicals:
Kolar, Patricia. “The C. porcellus: (a.k.a.) Pocket Pet.” Hopscotch
(August–September 2002): 46–48.
Kostel, Ken. “Guinea-zilla.” Science World (December 8, 2003): 6–7.
Morales, Edmundo. “The Guinea Pig in the Andean Economy: From
Household Animal to Market Commodity.” Latin American Research Re-
view (Summer 1994): 129–143.
Rowe, D. L., and R. L. Honeycutt. “Phylogenetic Relationships, Ecologi-
cal Correlates, and Molecular Evolution Within the Cavioidea (Mammalia,
Rodentia).”Molecular Biology and Evolution 19 (2002): 263–277.
Web sites:
“Dolichotis patagonum.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.
ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Dolichotis_patagonum.
html (accessed on May 4, 2004)
“Family Caviidae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.
umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Caviidae.html (accessed on May 4,
2004)
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Hydrochaeridae
One species: Capybara
(Hydrochaeris
hydrochaeris)
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Capybaras are the world’s largest rodents. They resemble class
guinea pigs but are much larger. They have large, broad heads
subclass
with short, rounded ears and eyes placed far back on the head.
Their snout is heavy and blunt with a large upper lip and order
big nostrils. Their neck and legs are short. Adults weigh monotypic order
between 110 and 173.8 pounds (50 to 79 kilograms) and
have a head and body length of 39.4 to 51.2 inches (100 suborder
to 130 centimeters). ▲ family
Capybaras have four toes on their front legs and three on
their back legs, all with short and strong claws. Their feet are
partially webbed, making them good swimmers. Their front legs
are shorter than the hind legs.
Their bodies are covered with short, coarse fur ranging
in color from reddish brown to grey on the upper body and
light yellow to brown on the lower body. Adult males have
a bare, raised area at the top of their snouts that contains a
scent gland that is used to mark their territories. The tail is
short and not functional. Female capybaras are usually larger
than males.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Capybaras are found on the eastern side of the Canal Zone
in Panama, and on the east side of the Andes Mountains in
South America, including Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, French
Guiana, Guyana, Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia, Ecuador, Brazil,
and northeastern Argentina.
Capybara 1147
HABITAT
Capybaras live in areas of dense trees and
plants near rivers, streams, lakes, ponds,
marshes, and swamps. There are four areas in
South America where there are large concen-
trations of capybaras: the llanos (plains) in
FISHING FOR CAPYBARAS Venezuela, the Pantanal wetlands in western
Capybara meat is considered a delicacy Brazil, the Taim lowlands in southern Brazil,
in parts of South America, especially and Marajó Island, at the mouth of the
Venezuela and Colombia. It is particularly Amazon River in northeastern Brazil.
popular during Lent, the period of forty days
DIET
before Easter, when eating meat is
prohibited by some Christian religions such Capybaras are herbivores, meaning they
as the Catholic Church. The reason for its are plant-eaters. Much of their time is spent
popularity is that in the 1700s, the Vatican grazing and foraging for food, which consists
declared capybaras to be fish, allowing primarily of protein-rich grasses. An adult
them to be eaten during Lent. The Catholic eats 6 to 8 pounds (2.7 to 3.6 kilograms) of
Church has never reclassified the capybara grasses a day. They also eat water plants,
as a mammal. fruits, and vegetables, including wild melons
and squashes.
Since grasses are difficult for most mammals
to digest, the capybara’s digestive system has adapted to make it
easier. One of these adaptations is a large fermentation chamber
in the intestines called the cecum (SEE-kum). Capybaras also en-
gage in coprophagy (kuh-PRAH-fuh-gee), which means they eat
some of their own feces. These softer feces are rich in nutrients.
Capybara 1149
Newborns capybaras can see size of the range varies, depending on the season. Home ranges
soon after birth and eat grass
of groups often overlap. A group tends to get larger during the
after one week. Young
capybaras stay together in a dry season and smaller in the wet season when groups tend to
group and females will allow break into smaller groups as more marshes and wetlands are
infants other than their own to available. There are core areas within a group’s range that it
nurse. (Erwin and Peggy
Bauer/Bruce Coleman Inc. will protect for its exclusive use.
Reproduced by permission.) Mating occurs throughout the year but is highest in April and
May. Females usually have one litter per year although two lit-
ters are not uncommon if conditions are favorable. The female
gestation period, the time they carry their young in the womb,
is 104 to 156 days. Litter size ranges from one to eight, with
five being the average. Newborns can see soon after birth and
can eat grass after one week. Young capybaras stay together in
a group and females will allow infants other than their own to
nurse. Both males and females reach puberty, the age of sexual
maturity, at about fifteen months of age. The average lifespan
in the wild is eight to ten years. In captivity, several capybaras
have lived for more than twelve years.
Capybaras have several natural predators, animals that hunt
them for food, in the wild, including jaguars, anacondas (large
CONSERVATION STATUS
The capybara is not currently threatened, according to the
IUCN. Hunting and exterminations by humans have caused
populations to decline in some areas, particularly Venezuela
and Peru, while they remain stable in others. However, some
conservationists say the overall numbers are in decline.
Books:
Alho, C. J. R., Z. M. Campos, and H. C. Gonçalves. “Ecology, Social
Behavior, and Management of the Capybara (Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris)
in the Pantanal of Brazil.” In Advances in Neotropical Mammalogy, edited
by K. H. Redford and J. F. Eisenberg. Gainesville, FL: Sandhill Crane
Press, 1989.
Herrera, E. “Reproductive Strategies of Female Capybaras: Dry-Season
Gestation.” In The Behaviour and Ecology of Riparian Mammals, edited
by N. Dunstone and M. L. Gorman. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University
Press, 1998.
Macdonald, David. The New Encyclopedia of Mammals. Oxford, U.K.:
Oxford University Press, 2001.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 6th ed. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Periodicals:
Johnson, Owain. “World’s Largest Rodent Risks Extinction.” United Press
International (September 20, 2002.)
Jones, Bart. “In Venezuela, Rodent Has Cuisine Status.” The Atlanta
Journal-Constitution (August 18, 1999): D12.
Capybara 1151
Rowe, D., and R. Honeycutt. “Ecological Correlates, Molecular Evolution,
and Phylogenetic Relationships within the Rodent Superfamily
Cavioidea.” Molecular Biology and Evolution 19, no. 3. (2002): 263–277.
Thomas, Z., et al. “On the Occurrence of the Capybara , Hydrochaerus
hydrochaeris (Linnaeus, 1776) in the Dry Chaco of Paraguay (Mammalia:
Rodentia: Hydrochaerus.)” Faunistische Abbandlungen Dresden 22,
no. 2 (2002): 423–429.
Web sites:
Ciszek, D., and C. Winters. “Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris.” Animal Diversity
Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Hydrochaeris_hydrochaeris.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Dasyproctidae
Number of species: 12 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Agoutis are medium sized rodents, about the size of a class
rabbit, with long, thin legs and a squirrel-like face. Their bod- subclass
ies are slender in the front and bulkier in the rear. There are
two genera (JEN-uh-rah; plural of genus, a group of related order
animals): Dasyprocta and Myoprocta. Agoutis have a head and monotypic order
body length of 12.6 to 25.2 inches (32 to 64 centimeters) and suborder
weigh 1.3 to 8.8 pounds (0.6 to four kilograms). They have a
large head, plump body, and glossy fur. Their faces have promi- ▲ family
nent noses with whiskers, large eyes, and small ears positioned
high on their head.
The tail on Dasyprocta species is a barely visible nub, while
the tail on Myoprocta species is longer and readily visible. There
is a wide range of colors within agoutis. In most species, the
fur on their lower bodies is usually white, yellow, or buff. Their
upper body fur ranges from pale orange, several shades of
brown, to black. Several species have faint stripes. Their hind
legs have three toes and are longer than their front legs, which
have four toes. All toes have sharp, hoof-like claws.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Agoutis are found from southern Mexico to southern Bolivia
and northern Argentina. Their range includes Brazil, Belize,
Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras,
Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Paraguay, El Salvador, and Venezuela.
They have also been introduced into the Cayman Islands.
Agoutis 1153
HABITAT
Agoutis are found throughout the forests
of Central and South America, usually in ar-
eas with heavy brush, and near streams,
rivers, ponds, and marshy areas. They gen-
erally graze in open areas and grassland.
SOWING THE SEEDS
DIET
The agouti is an important component in
the health and regeneration of the Agoutis are primarily herbivores, meaning
rainforests. When food is plentiful, they will they are plant-eaters, although they will oc-
bury seeds of fruit and other forest trees to casionally eat seafood. Their diet consists pri-
eat later when food is scarce. This helps marily of fruit. They also eat tender leaf
distribute seeds of a wide variety of tropical plants, seeds, wild vegetables, freshwater
trees, including Virola nobilis, a giant canopy crabs, and fungi. They have extremely hard
tree of the rainforest. They often follow teeth, which they use to crack open nuts, in-
groups of monkeys and eat fruit the cluding the tough Brazil nut.
monkeys drop from trees.
BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION
The agouti is diurnal, meaning it is most ac-
tive during the day. Agoutis are fast and agile. Their movements
include walking, trotting, galloping, and they can jump up to
6.6 feet (2 meters) from a stationary position. They live mostly
on the ground, making nests inside hollow logs or under above-
ground tree roots. They also make burrows under stream banks.
Agoutis have a remarkable sense of direction and are able to
find nuts or fruits easily, even months after they have buried
them. In the wild, the agoutis’ main predators are jaguars,
ocelots, snakes, birds of prey, cats, dogs, and humans. In the
wild, agoutis have a lifespan of thirteen to twenty years.
Agoutis are monogamous (muh-NAH-guh-mus), meaning
they mate with only one partner during a period of time, and
mate for life. They are able to breed throughout the year but
especially when there is an abundance of fruit. Agoutis reach
puberty, the age of sexual maturity, at six months. The female
agouti has one or two litters per year, each consisting of one
to four babies. Her gestation period, the time she carries her
young in the womb, is 104 to 120 days.
Agoutis 1155
Central American agouti (Dasyprocta punctata)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT CENTRAL AMERICAN AGOUTI
Dasyprocta punctata
Agoutis 1157
Diet: Central American agoutis are primarily herbivores, meaning they
eat plants, although they occasionally eat seafood. Their diet consists
primarily of fruit, which they are able to hear falling to the ground from
far away. They also eat tender leaf plants, wild vegetables, freshwater
crabs, fungi, and insects. When feeding, the Central American agouti
sits on its hind legs and holds the food in its front paws, much like a
common squirrel. It turns the fruit around several times, peeling it with
its teeth.
Books:
Bernard, Hans Ulrich. Insight Guide: Amazon Wildlife, 4th ed. London:
Insight Guides, 2002.
Eisenberg, J. F., and K. H. Redford. Mammals of the Neotropics. Vol. 3,
The Central Tropics: Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1999.
Periodicals:
Asquith, N. M., et al. “The Fruits the Agouti Ate: Hymenaea courabil Seed
Fate When Its Disperser is Absent.” Journal of Tropical Ecology 15
(1999): 229–235.
Lambeth, Ellen. “The Tree, the Bee, and the Agouti.” Ranger Rick (March
2000): 26.
Lee, T. E. Jr., et al. “The Natural History of the Roatán Island Agouti
(Dasyprocta ruatanica), a Study of Behavior, Diet, and Description of
Habitat.” The Texas Journal of Science 52 (2000): 159–164.
Taylor, David. “The Agouti’s Nutty Friend.” International Wildlife
(March–April 2000).
Web sites:
Myers, Phil. “Dasyproctidae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiver-
sity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Dasyproctidae.html (ac-
cessed on July 12, 2004).
Agoutis 1159
PACAS
Agoutidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Agoutidae
Number of species: 2 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class There are two species of paca: Agouti paca, commonly known
as the paca, and Agouti taczanowskii, commonly known as
subclass
the mountain paca. Though the genus name Agouti may be
order confusing, pacas and agoutis (family Dasyproctidae) are
monotypic order not in the same family. Pacas are among the largest of all
rodents, with a head and body length of 20 to 30.5 inches
suborder (50 to 77.4 centimeters) and weight of 13.2 to 31 pounds (6
▲ family to 14 kilograms.) Their tail length is 5 to 9 inches (13 to
23 centimeters).
The paca resembles the mountain paca in most features, ex-
cept the paca is slightly larger, has thinner and harsher fur,
shorter nostrils, larger eyes, and thicker claws.
In both species, the upper body fur varies from reddish
brown to dark chocolate or smoke-gray. There is a pattern of
white or pale yellow irregular spots on the sides, arranged in
rows of two to seven. The average number of rows is four. One
or two upper rows are shorter and limited to the rear half of
the body. Two or more middle rows run from the neck to
the rump.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Pacas are found from southern Mexico to northern
Argentina. Their range includes Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia,
Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana,
Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay,
Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela.
Pacas 1161
CONSERVATION STATUS
Pacas and mountain pacas are not listed as threatened by the
IUCN. However, several wildlife surveys show their numbers
in the wild are dwindling, due to extensive hunting and habi-
tat destruction by humans.
SPECIES
PACA ACCOUNT
Agouti paca
Pacas 1163
Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Suri-
name, and Venezuela.
Diet: Pacas are herbivores that feed on leaves, stems, roots, seeds,
and fruit, especially avocados and mangos. Pacas do not climb trees
so they depend on tree-climbing animals such as monkeys, to drop
fruit from trees.
Pacas and people: Pacas are hunted by humans for their meat. They
are often killed by farmers who see them as pests.
Books:
Domestication and Husbandry of the Paca (Agouti paca) (FAO Conser-
vation Guide: 26). United Nations, NY: Food and Agriculture Organiza-
tion of the United Nations (FAO), 1995.
Eisenberg, J. F., and K. H. Redford. Mammals of the Neotropics. Vol. 3,
The Central Tropics: Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1999.
Macdonald, David. The New Encyclopedia of Mammals. Oxford, U.K.:
Oxford University Press, 2001.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 6th ed. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Periodicals:
Laska, M., et al. “Food Preferences and Nutrient Composition in Captive
Pacas, Agouti paca (Rodentia, Dasyproctidae).” Mammalian Biology
(January 2003): 31–41.
Pérez, Elizabeth M. “Agouti paca.” Mammalian Species (December
1992): 1–7.
Pimentel, Domingos S., and Marcelo Tabarelli. “Seed Dispersal of the
Palm Attalea oleifera in a Remnant of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest.”
Biotropica (March 2004): 74–84.
Ramirez–Pulido, Jose, et al. “New Records of Agouti paca
(Linnaeus) from the Mexican State of Puebla.” The Texas Journal of Sci-
ence (August 2001): 285.
Web sites:
Fox, David L. “Agouti paca.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Agouti_paca.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).
Pacas 1165
TUCO-TUCOS
Ctenomyidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Ctenomyidae
Number of species: 58 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Tuco-tucos are small to medium-sized rodents with heavily
built bodies, strong and large heads, and short, powerful legs.
subclass
Their general appearance is that of the pocket gopher (Ge-
order omyidae), found in North America. The head and body length
monotypic order is 8.6 to 16.9 inches (22 to 53 centimeters) and they weigh
from 3.5 ounces to 2.4 pounds (100 grams to 1.1 kilograms).
suborder Their skin is loose on their bodies, making it easier for them
▲ family to turn around in their narrow burrows. They have tiny ears
and short, stiff, hairless tails. The front paws of tuco-tucos are
longer than the hind legs.
They have very distinct bright orange incisors, the two long,
flat, sharp teeth at the front of the mouth, that are wide and
powerful. Their fur is thick and long. It varies in color between
species, including different shades of cream, red, brown, gray
and black. The upper body fur is generally darker than the lower
body fur.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Central and southern South America, including Argentina,
Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay.
HABITAT
Tuco-tucos range from the tropics to the sub-Antarctic re-
gions at the tip of South America. They seem to prefer coastal
areas, grassland, rainforest, deciduous forest, the large treeless
semi-arid grassy plains called steppes, and meadows. They are
Tuco-Tucos 1167
Tuco-tucos have one or two mating periods each year where
the female produces a litter of babies. The gestation period, the
time they carry their young in the womb, varies from species
to species but generally is 100 to 120 days. Litter sizes vary
from one to seven babies, called pups. Males and females reach
are sexually mature, able to mate, at about eight months. The
average lifespan of a tuco-tuco in the wild is about three years.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The Magellanic tuco-tuco is listed as Vulnerable, facing a high
risk of extinction, by the IUCN due to declining habitat. In south-
ern Patagonia, an area of Argentina between the Andes
Mountains and the south Atlantic Ocean, extensive grazing by
sheep on grasses and plants eaten by the highland tuco-tuco and
other agricultural activities, have caused the animal to become
rare and endangered. Three species are listed as Near Threat-
ened, at risk of becoming threatened, by the IUCN: mottled tuco-
tuco, Natterer’s tuco-tuco, and social tuco-tuco. No other species
are listed as threatened by the IUCN.
SPECIES
PEARSON’S TUCO-TUCO ACCOUNT
Ctenomys pearsoni
Tuco-Tucos 1169
Pearson’s tuco-tuco leaves its Diet: Pearson’s tuco-tuco are herbivores. Their diet consists
burrow only to find food and to primarily of grasses, herbs, shrubs, and roots.
mate. It defends its burrow
against intruders. (Illustration by
Joseph E. Trumpey. Reproduced Behavior and reproduction: The Pearson’s tuco-tuco is solitary and
by permission.) individuals come together only to mate. The animal is territorial, mean-
ing it is protective of an area it considers home and claims exclusively
for itself. It will aggressively defend its territory and burrow from other
tuco-tucos. It leaves its burrow only to find food and to mate. It has
several vocalizations, including a sound to warn intruders away from
its territory. It also has an excellent sense of hearing and can detect a
human moving from about 165 feet (50 meters) away.
The mating season for Pearson’s tuco-tuco in Peru is during the
dry season and the babies are born in the wet season, when there is
an abundance of plants. Female Pearson’s tuco-tucos have one litter
of babies per year. The number of babies ranges from two to four.
They are believed to be polygamous, meaning they take more than
one mate during the breeding season.
Pearson’s tuco-tuco and people: They are rarely hunted and be-
cause they are so solitary, they have no known significance to humans.
Books:
Macdonald, David. The New Encyclopedia of Mammals. Oxford, U.K.:
Oxford University Press, 2001.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 6th ed. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Redford, Kent H., and John F. Eisenberg. Mammals of the Neotropics:
The Southern Cone, Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay. Chicago: Uni-
versity of Chicago Press, 1992.
Wilson, Don E., and DeeAnn M. Reeder. Mammal Species of the World—
A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference, 2nd ed. Washington, DC: Smith-
sonian Institution Press, 1993.
Periodicals:
“Social Tuco-tucos Develop More Variety.” Science News (August 26,
2000): 143.
El Jundi, Tarik A. R. J., and Thales R. O. De Freitas. “Genetic and Demo-
graphic Structure in a Population of Ctenomys lami (Rodentia-Ctenomyi-
dae).” Hereditas (February 2004): 18–23.
Lacey, Eileen A., and John R. Wieczorek. “Ecology of Sociality in Rodents:
A Ctenomyid Perspective.” Journal of Mammalogy (November 2003):
1198–1211.
Lessa, Enrique P., and Joseph A. Cook. “The Molecular Phylogenetics of
Tuco-Tucos (Genus Ctenomys, Rodentia: Octodontidae) Suggests an
Early Burst of Speciation.” Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
(February 1998): 88–99.
Schwartz, Lisa E., and Eileen A. Lacey. “Olfactory Discrimination of Gen-
der by Colonial Tuco-Tucos (Ctenomys sociabilis.)” Mammalian Biology
(January 2003): 53–60.
Web sites:
Myers, P. “Ctenomyidae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.
ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Ctenomyidae.html (ac-
cessed on July 12, 2004).
Tuco-Tucos 1171
OCTODONTS
Octodontidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Octodontidae
Number of species: 13 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Octodonts are similar in appearance and size to gerbils and
rats. They have stocky bodies, large heads, pointed noses, and
subclass
medium-sized rounded ears. Octodonts have rear legs that are
order slightly shorter than their front legs. They have four clawed
monotypic order toes on their front paws and five on their back paws.
Octodonts have a head and body length of 5 to 8.7 inches
suborder
(125 to 221 millimeters) and a tail length of 1.5 to seven inches
▲ family (40 to 180 millimeters). Their weight ranges from 2.8 to
10.6 ounces (80 to 300 grams). They have long, dense, silky
fur that is yellow, brown, or gray on their upper bodies and
white or cream on their underside. One exception is the coruro,
which is almost entirely black.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Octodonts are found in southwest Peru, Chile, Argentina,
and southwest Bolivia.
HABITAT
The octodont habitat ranges from coastal scrub brush to bar-
ren rocky outcroppings in mountains. They are found in desert,
deciduous forest, grassland, and foothills.
DIET
Octodonts are herbivores, meaning they eat only plants. All
but one species eat mainly at night. The degu feeds during the
early morning and early evening. Most species eat a diet of grass,
CONSERVATION STATUS
The Mocha Island degu is listed by the World Conservation
Union (IUCN) as Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction,
due to their small distribution area. The plains viscacha rat is
listed as Vulnerable due to a loss of at least 20 percent of its pop-
ulation within ten years. Other species are not listed by IUCN.
Octodonts 1173
Degu (Octodon degus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT DEGU
Octodon degus
Degus and people: Degus are used for laboratory research. They
are also sold as pets in the United States. In the wild, degus are
often killed by farmers who consider them to be agricultural pests,
blaming them for destroying grain fields, orchards, and vineyards.
Octodonts 1175
FOR MORE INFORMATION
Books:
Boruchowitz, David. The Guide to Owning a Degu. Champaign, IL: TFH
Publications, 2002.
Griffiths-Irwin, Diane, and Julie Davis. How to Care for Your Degu.
Champaign, IL: TFH Publications, 2001.
Macdonald, David. The New Encyclopedia of Mammals. Oxford, U.K.:
Oxford University Press, 2001.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 6th ed. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Vanderlip, Sharon (DVM), and Michele Earle-Bridges. Degus. Hauppauge,
NY: Barrons Educational Series, 2001.
Periodicals:
Bacigalupe, Leonardo D., et al. “Activity and Space Use by Degus: A
Trade-Off Between Thermal Conditions and Food Availability?” Journal
of Mammalogy (February 2003): 331–318.
Begall, Sabine, et al. “Activity Patterns in a Subterranean Social Rodent,
Spalacopus cyanus (Octodontidae).” Journal of Mammalogy (February
2002): 153–158.
Begall, Sabine, and Milton H. Gallardo. “Spalacopus cyanus (Rodentia:
Octodontidae): An Extremist in Tunnel Constructing and Food Storing
Among Subterranean Mammals.” Journal of Zoology (May 2000): 53–60.
Gallardo, M. H., and F. Mondaca. “The Systematics of Aconaemys
(Rodentia, Octodontidae) and the Distribution of A. sagei in Chile.”
Mammalian Biology (April 2002): 105–112.
Kenagy, G. J., et al. “Microstructure of Summer Activity Bouts of Degus
in a Thermally Heterogeneous Habitat.” Journal of Mammalogy (April
2004): 260–267.
Torres-Mura, Juan C., and Luis C. Contreras. “Spalacopus cyanus.”
Mammalian Species(December 4, 1998): 1–5.
Woods, Charles A., and David K. Boraker. “Octodon degus.” Mammalian
Species (November 21, 1975): 1–5.
Web sites:
Cloyd, Emily. “Octodon degus.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Octodon_
degus.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).
Myers, Phil. “Family Octodontidae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Octodontidae.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Abrocomidae
Number of species: 4 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Chinchilla rats have large, round ears, large eyes, and an class
elongated head. They have short legs with four toes on the front
subclass
feet and five toes on the back feet. The head and body length
of the chinchilla rat is 6 to 10 inches (15 to 25 centimeters with order
a tail length of 2.4 to 7.2 inches (6 to 18 centimeters). They monotypic order
weigh from 7.1 to 10.6 ounces (200 to 300 grams).
suborder
The fur of the chinchilla rat is thick and soft. Fur coloring
is silver-gray or gray-brown on the upper body and light brown, ▲ family
cream, white, or yellow on its underside.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
They are found from coastal areas to the Andes Mountains
in southern Peru, northern Chile, northwest Argentina, and
central Bolivia.
HABITAT
Chinchilla rats live in rock crevices and elaborate burrows
under rocks or at the base of shrubs.
DIET
Chinchilla rats are herbivores, meaning they eat only plants.
The feed at night on seeds, fruits, and nuts.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The Bolivian chinchilla rat is listed as Vulnerable, facing a
high risk of extinction in the wild, due to its population being
confined to a small area. The other chinchilla rats are not listed
as threatened by the IUCN.
SPECIES
ASHY CHINCHILLA RAT ACCOUNT
Abrocoma cinerea
Ashy chinchilla rats and people: Ashy chinchilla rats are some-
times hunted by humans for their fur, which is sold at local fur mar-
kets and has a low value. It is sometimes sold to tourists as real
chinchilla fur.
Books:
Macdonald, David. The New Encyclopedia of Mammals. Oxford, U.K.:
Oxford University Press, 2001.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 6th ed. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Periodicals:
Braun, Janet K., and Michael A. Mares. “Systematics of the Abrocoma
cinerea Species Complex (Rodentia: Abrocomidae), with a Description of a
New Species of Abrocoma.” Journal of Mammalogy (February 2002): 1–19.
Huchon, Dorothée, and Emmanuel J. P. Douzery. “From the Old World to
the New World: A Molecular Chronicle of the Phylogeny and Biogeogra-
phy of Hystricognath. Rodents.” Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
(August 2001): 238–251.
Meserve, Peter, et al. “Role of Biotic Interactions in a Small Mammal As-
semblage in Semiarid Chile.” Ecology (January 1996): 133–148.
Meserve, Peter L., et al. “Thirteen Years of Shifting Top-Down and
Bottom-Up Control.” BioScience (July 2003): 633–646.
Web sites:
Myers, Phil. “Family Abrocomidae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Abrocomidae.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).
Nash, Natalee. “Abrocoma cinerea.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Abro-
coma_cinerea.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Echimyidae
Number of species: 78 species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class The physical characteristics of spiny rats vary greatly from
species to species, from rat-sized to the size of a small cat. Their
subclass head and body length is from 4.13 to 18.9 inches (10.5 to
order 48 centimeters) and a tail length of 0.2 to 16.6 inches (0.5 to 42
centimeters). They weigh from 0.46 to 2.9 pounds (210 to 1,300
monotypic order grams). In appearance, most species of spiny rat are rat-like, with
suborder pointed noses, although several species have blunt noses and re-
semble squirrels. Their front feet have four toes while their hind
▲ family
feet have five.
Spiny rats got their name because most species have spiny
or bristly fur, most noticeably on their backs and rumps. The
spiny qualities vary between species: the armored rat has well-
developed spines, spiny rats, or casiragua, have broad and stiff
hair, and the punaré has soft fur with no hint of spines.
Fur color also varies greatly between species, with upper
body fur being gray or various shades of brown, and white or
cream on their undersides. Several species, including the toro
and the white-faced arboreal spiny rat have black-and-white or
white faces.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Spiny rats are found throughout southern Central America
and northern and central South America, from southern
Honduras to northern Argentina and Chile.
HABITAT
Spiny rats live in a wide variety of habitats, from species that
live exclusively in treetops, to forest floor dwellers to those that
CONSERVATION STATUS
The IUCN lists three species of spiny rats as Extinct, or died
out; one species as Critically Endangered, facing an extremely
high risk of extinction; five species as Vulnerable, facing a high
risk of extinction in the wild; and nine species are Near Threat-
ened, not currently threatened, but could become so. The re-
maining species are not listed as threatened by the World
Conservation Union (IUCN).
SPECIES
SPINY RAT ACCOUNT
Proechimys semispinosus
Spiny rats and people: Spiny rats are trapped and eaten by local
people.
Conservation status: The IUCN does not consider the spiny rat to
be threatened. ■
Periodicals:
Adler, Gregory H. “Impacts of Resources on Populations of a Tropical
Forest Rodent.” Ecology (January 1998): 242–255.
Lambert, Thomas D., and Gregory H. Adler. “Microhabitat Use by a Trop-
ical Forest Rodent, Proechimys semispinosus, in Central Panama.”
Journal of Mammalogy (February 2000): 70–76.
Lara, Marcia C., and Patton, James L. “Evolutionary Diversification of
Spiny Rats (Genus Trinomys, Rodentia: Echimyidae) in the Atlantic For-
est of Brazil.” Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society (December
2000): 661–686.
Marcomini, Monique, and Elisabeth Spinelli de Oliveira. “Activity Pattern
of Echimyid Rodent Species from the Brazilian Caatinga in Captivity.”
Biological Rhythm Research (April 2003): 157–166.
Matacq, Marjorie D, et al. “Population Genetic Structure of Two Ecolog-
ically Distinct Amazonian Spiny Rats: Separating History and Current
Ecology.” Evolution (July 2000): 1423–1432.
Morato, Manaf P., et al. “Profile of Wild Neotropical Spiny Rats
(Trinomys, Echimyidae) in Two Behavioral Tests.” Physiology and Be-
havior (July 2003): 129–133.
Web sites:
Myers, Phil. “Family Echimyidae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Echimyidae.
html (accessed on July 12, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Capromyidae
Number of species: 14 living
species
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Hutias are medium to large, stocky rodents with broad,
round heads. They have small eyes and short, rounded
subclass
ears. Their head and body length is 14 to 32 inches (36 to
order 80 centimeters) and their tail length is 1.4 to 17 inches (3.5
monotypic order to 43.1 centimeters). They weigh 1.1 to 18.7 pounds (0.5 to
8.5 kilograms). Their stomachs are divided into three com-
suborder partments, making it one of the most complex stomachs in
▲ family all rodents.
Hutias have short legs and five toes on each foot. Each toe
has a strong, usually curved, claw. Their fur is generally thick
and coarse and the color is usually various shades of black,
brown, or gray, with the underside fur being slightly lighter.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Hutias are found exclusively in the Caribbean, particularly
Cuba, the Bahamas, Jamaica, Haiti, and the Dominican
Republic.
HABITAT
Hutias usually live in forests, plantations, scrublands, marshy
areas, and mountainous, rocky areas of rainforest. Brown’s
hutia, also known as the Jamaican hutia, usually lives on ex-
posed areas of limestone in the interior of Jamaica. They build
their nests in rock crevices or tunnels. The largest populations
of hutia are in Cuba, including the Cuban hutia, black-tailed
hutia, and prehensile-tailed hutia.
Hutias 1189
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists five species that
have recently become Extinct, died out; six species that are
Critically Endangered, facing an extremely high risk of extinc-
tion; and four species that are Vulnerable, facing a high risk of
extinction.
SPECIES
CUBAN HUTIA ACCOUNT
Capromys pilorides
Geographic range: These hutias live on mainland Cuba and its sur-
rounding islands.
Hutias 1191
The Cuban hutia uses its strong
claws to climb trees. (Frank W.
Lane/FLPA—Images of Nature.
Reproduced by permission.)
Diet: Cuban hutias are omnivores, meaning they eat both plants and
flesh, but eat mostly plants. Their diet includes leaves, fruit, bark,
lizards, and small animals.
Behavior and reproduction: Cuban hutias are shy and usually live
in pairs, although pairs have often been observed living in larger,
loosely-associated groups. They are extremely social among others of
their species. They are primarily arboreal, meaning they live mostly
in treetops, and diurnal, meaning they are most active during the day.
One of the Cuban hutias’ main types of social behavior is a combi-
nation of grooming and play wrestling between a pair.
Cuban hutias breed all year but births peak in June. Females have
a gestation period, the length of time they carry their young in the
womb, of 110 to 140 days. Females have one to six babies per litter
with the average litter size of two or three offspring. The mothers
nurse their young until they are about five months old and reach
sexual maturity at ten months. The average lifespan is eight to
eleven years.
Cuban hutias and people: Cuban hutias are hunted by humans for
their meat. In some areas of Cuba they are in such abundance that
they are considered an agricultural pest by farmers.
Books:
Macdonald, David. The New Encyclopedia of Mammals. Oxford, U.K.:
Oxford University Press, 2001.
National Research Council. “Hutia.” In Microlivestock: Little-Known Small
Animals with a Promising Economic Future. Washington, DC: National
Academies Press, 1991. Online at http://books.nap.edu/books/
030904295X/html/251.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 6th ed. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Periodicals:
Huchon, Dorothée, and Emmanuel J. P. Douzery. “From the Old World to
the New World: A Molecular Chronicle of the Phylogeny and Biogeogra-
phy of Hystricognath Rodents.” Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
(August 2001): 238–251.
Nedbal, Michael A., et al. “Molecular Systematics of Hystricognath
Rodents: Evidence from the Mitochondrial 125 rRNA Gene.” Molecular
Phylogenetics and Evolution(September 1994): 206–220.
Web sites:
Myers, Phil. “Family Capromyidae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Capromyidae.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).
Reis, Brianna. “Capromys pilorides.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Capromys_pilorides.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).
Raffo, Erica. “Geocapromys_brownii.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Geocapromys_brownii.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).
Hutias 1193
COYPU
Myocastoridae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Myocastoridae
One species: Coypu (Myocastor
coypus)
family C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class The coypu, sometimes called the South American beaver
or nutria, looks like a muskrat, only larger. It has a stout
subclass
body that is highly arched and a large, somewhat triangular
order head. It has small eyes and ears on the upper part of its
monotypic order head. Coypus have a head and body length of 1.4 to 2.1 feet
(43 to 63.6 centimeters), and a tail length of 0.8 to 1.4 feet
suborder (25.5 to 42.5 centimeters. They weigh from 11 to 37 pounds
▲ family (5 to 17 kilograms).
They have short, hairless legs with the hind feet longer than
the front feet. Each hind foot has five toes, four of which are
connected by webbing. The fifth toe is used for grooming. The
front feet have four long, flexible toes without webbing, and a
non-functioning thumb. Their tails are long, round, and hair-
less. One of the coypu’s most distinguishing features is its large,
wide, bright orange incisors, the flat, sharp-edged teeth at the
front of the mouth used for gnawing and cutting and tearing
food. They can close their lips behind the incisors, allowing
them to gnaw while underwater. Their ears, nose, and nostrils
are located near the top of the head so they are above water
when the coypu is swimming.
Coypus have two types of hair; soft, dense under fur, and
outer fur of long, course, bristly hair, called guard hair. The
undercoat is dark gray and the outer coat is various shades of
red, brown and yellow. The stomach fur is soft and dense and
usually a pale yellow. The fur on the chin and around the nose
is usually white.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
The coypu is native to southern South America, from the
middle of Bolivia and southern Brazil to Tierra del Fuego at the
southern tip of the continent, including Argentina, Chile,
Paraguay, and Uruguay. It has been introduced into North
America, Europe, northern Asia, east Africa, and the Middle
East where there are populations in the wild. In the United
States, it is found in fifteen states coast to coast but particularly
in Louisiana, Florida, Oregon, and Maryland. In Canada, it is
found in British Columbia, Ontario, and Quebec. It is found
throughout continental Europe, including France, Germany,
Scandinavia, Austria, Russia, and Poland. Other non-native
populations include those in Israel, Zimbabwe, and Japan.
HABITAT
Coypus adapt well to a wide range of habitats, including
rainforest, deciduous forest, coniferous forest, scrub forest,
Coypu 1195
Coypus are not native to the grassland, wetland such as swamps and marshes, and the banks
United States, but were brought
to Louisiana to raise for fur. A
or shores of lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams.
number escaped, and now breed
in the wild. (© YVA Momatiuk DIET
and John Eastcott/Photo
Researchers, Inc. Reproduced by South American coypus are omnivores, meaning they eat both
permission.) plants and flesh, although they eat mostly plant material.
Coypus in other parts of the world are herbivores, meaning they
eat only plants. Their diet consists of a wide variety of plants and
plant material, including aquatic plants such as rushes, arrow-
head, smartweed, reeds, cattail, bullwhip, alligator weed, and
duckweed. They also eat plant leaves, stems, roots, bark, clover,
and cultivated crops such as sugarcane, sugar beets, and
soybeans. On occasion, coypus in South America will eat insects,
mussels, snails, mollusks, and earthworms.
Coypu 1197
COYPUS AND PEOPLE
The fur of coypus is valued for its soft, velvety texture and
people in South America, North America, Europe, and Japan
eat the meat. Much of the meat and fur from South American
comes from captive coypu breeding farms while in the United
States it comes from coypus hunted in the wild, especially in
Louisiana and Maryland.
In the 1930s, coypus were introduced into southeast
England and the population there quickly grew. Coypus were
blamed for destroying native marsh plants along riverbanks and
raiding cultivated crops. Their burrows were also believed to
weaken and damage river and stream banks. In the 1980s, the
British government began an intensive campaign to eradicate
(remove completely) coypus from England and in 1989, the
government officially declared the program a total success with
the killing of the last coypu.
There are eradication efforts underway in the United States,
Japan, and France.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Coypus are not currently threatened, according to the World
Conservation Union (IUCN). Their numbers are declining
along many rivers and lakes in Argentina due to hunting and
trapping by humans. The eradication efforts in the United
States, France, and Japan are likely to significantly reduce pop-
ulations in those areas.
Books:
Periodicals:
“Coypu Invasion.” Sea-River Newsletters (October 27, 2003): 118.
Felipe, A. E., et al. “Characterization of the Estrous Cycle of the Myocastor
coypus (Coypu) by Means of Exfoliative Colpocytology.” Journal of
Mastozoologia Neotropical (July–December 2001): 129–137.
Guichón, M. Laura, et al. “Social Behavior and Group Formation in the
Coypu (Myocastor coypus) in the Argentinean Pampas.” Journal of
Mammalogy (February 2003): 254–262.
Kamerick, Megan. “Nutria Bounty Lures Hunters into Effort to Save
Land.” New Orleans CityBusiness (December 23, 2002).
Nickens, Edward T. “Exotic Species: Trying to Show the Door to a
Marsh Munching Immigrant from South America.”National Wildlife
(December–January 1999): 14.
Woods, Charles A., et al. “Myocastor coypus.” Mammalian Species
(June 5, 1992): 1–8.
Web sites:
D’Elia, Guillermo. “Myocastor coypus.” Animal Diversity Web.
http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Myocastor_coypus.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).
Coypu 1199
PIKAS, RABBITS, AND HARES
Lagomorpha
●
Class: Mammalia
Order: Lagomorpha
Number of families: 2 families
order C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Lagomorphs are small to medium-sized mammals catego-
rized into two families: Leporidae (rabbits and hares) and
subclass
Ochotonidae (pikas [PEE-kuhz]). Rabbits and hares have long
● order hind legs adapted for running at fast speeds over open ground.
monotypic order Pikas are small mammals with large, round ears and resemble
guinea pigs in size and appearance. Adult rabbits and hares have
suborder a body length of 10 to 28 inches (25.4 to 71.1 centimeters) and
family weigh 14 ounces to 15.3 pounds (400 to 7,000 grams). They
have short, furry tails and ear sizes vary greatly and generally
are shorter in rabbits and longer in hares. The main exceptions
are the rabbit breeds known as lops, which have long, floppy
ears. Females are generally larger than males. Hares generally
are larger than rabbits and have black-tipped ears.
Rabbits and hares usually have thick, soft fur that comes in
a wide spectrum of colors, shades, and combinations, includ-
ing black, white, brown, beige, tan, blue, orange, red, pink,
cream, lilac, silver, and lavender.
Pikas are small, compact mammals with short front and rear
legs. They range in length from 5 to 12 inches (125 to 300 mil-
limeters) and weigh 3.5 to 7 ounces (100 to 200 grams). Pikas
lack a noticeable tail. They have long, soft fur that is usually
gray or brown.
Lagomorphs have eyes set high on their head, looking side-
ways, giving them a wide field of vision. They have weak but
flexible necks, allowing them to turn their heads with a wide
range of motion. Lagomorphs have a single opening to pass
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Lagomorphs are found on every continent except Antarctica.
They are native to every continent they are found on, except
Australia where they were introduced.
HABITAT
Pikas are found in two distinct habitats. Some live among
rocks and rocky areas. Others live in meadows, steppes (semi-
arid, grass-covered plains), shrubs and desert. Hares live in
arctic tundra, steppes, wetlands, forests, and deserts. Rabbits
live in pine and deciduous forests, desert, mountainous areas,
scrubland, tropical rainforest, near rivers and streams, rocky
outcroppings, grasslands, and areas of dense brush or other
low-lying vegetation.
DIET
Lagomorphs are herbivores, meaning they are plant-eaters,
with a primary diet of grasses and herbs but also will feed on
fruit, seeds, leaves, shoots, and bark.
BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION
Behavior and reproduction differs widely between rabbits
and hares, and pikas, and within each group. Pikas are mainly
diurnal, meaning they are mostly active during the day.
Rabbits and hares are generally nocturnal, meaning they are
mostly active at night. Some species are crepuscular (kri-PUS-
kyuh-lur), meaning they are most active at dawn and twilight.
Various environmental conditions and the effects of nearby
humans may cause species to alternate between nocturnal,
diurnal, and crepuscular activities.
Pikas have several types of social structures. Those that live
in rocky areas of North America are unsocial, with males and
females having separate territories and rarely interacting except
to mate. Pikas in rocky areas of Asia live in pairs within a com-
munal territory. Burrowing pikas, in contrast, are extremely
social animals. Families of up to thirty individuals live within
burrows and there are about ten family groups within a territory.
There is a lot of interaction between family members, including
grooming, playing, and sleeping together.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Six species of lagomorphs are listed by the World Conserva-
tion Union (IUCN) as Critically Endangered, facing an extremely
high risk of extinction. Twelve species are listed as Endangered,
facing a very high risk of extinction; fourteen species are listed
as Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction; and one species,
the Sardinian pika is listed as Extinct, died out. Eight species are
listed as Near Threatened, not currently threatened, but could
become so.
The primary reason for declining populations of lagomorphs
are loss of habitat, disease, especially the pox virus myxomatosis
(mix-oh-mah-TOE-sus), and conversion of habitats to agricul-
tural use by humans.
Books:
Macdonald, David. The New Encyclopedia of Mammals. Oxford, U.K.:
Oxford University Press, 2001.
Miller, Sara Swan. Rabbits, Pikas, and Hares. New York: Franklin Watts,
Inc., 2002.
Morris, Ting. Rabbit (Animal Families.) Mankato, MN: Smart Apple
Media, 2004.
National Research Council. “Rabbits.” In Microlivestock: Little-Known
Small Animals with a Promising Economic Future. Washington, DC: Na-
tional Academies Press, 1991. Online at http://books.nap.edu/books/
030904295X/html/179.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).
National Research Council. “Domestic Rabbit.” In Microlivestock: Little-
Known Small Animals with a Promising Economic Future. Washington,
DC: National Academies Press, 1991. Online at http://books.nap.
edu/books/030904295X/html/183.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 6th ed. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Periodicals:
Chapman, Joseph A., et al. “Sylvilagus floridanus.” Mammalian Species
(April 15, 1980): 1–8.
Cohen, Philip. “Rabbit-Human Stem Cell Claims Provoke Controversy and
Doubt: Scientists in China Say Stem Cell Capable of Forming Muscle or
Nerve Tissue can be Derived by Interspecies Cloning, Overcoming the
Shortage of Human Eggs.” New Scientist (August 23, 2003): 14.
Graur, Dan, et al. “Phylogenetic Position of the Order Lagomorpha (Rab-
bits, Hares, and Allies.)” Nature January 25, 1996): 333–335.
Hacklander, Klaus, et al. “The Effect of Dietary Fat Content on Lactation
Energetics in the European Hare (Lepus europaeus).” Physiological and
Biochemical Zoology (January 2002): 19–28.
Krebs, Charles J., et al. “What Drives the 10-Year Cycle of Snowshoe
Hares?” BioScience (January 2001): 25.
Roach, John. “Rabbit Woes: Easter Icons Face Survival Struggles.”
National Geographic News (April 17, 2003). Online at http://news.
nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/04/0417_030417_rabbits.html (ac-
cessed on July 12, 2004).
Smith, Andrew T., and Marla L. Weston. “Ochotona princeps.” Mammalian
Species (April 26, 1990): 1–8.
Sohn, Emily. “Now Mammals are Feeling the Heat.” New Scientist
(October 5, 2002): 9.
Web sites:
House Rabbit Society. http://www.rabbit.org (accessed on July 12,
2004).
Myers, Phil. “Order Lagomorpha.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Lagomor-
pha.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).
IUCN/SSC Lagomorph Specialist Group. http://www.ualberta.ca/
dhik/lsg (accessed on July 12, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Lagomorpha
Family: Ochotonidae
Number of species: 30 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
All pikas (PEE-kuhz) are similar in appearance, being small, class
compact mammals with large, round ears and short front and
subclass
rear legs. They resemble guinea pigs in size and appearance,
ranging in length from 5 to 12 inches (12.5 to 30.0 centime- order
ters) and weighing 3.5 to 7 ounces (100 to 200 grams). Pikas monotypic order
lack a noticeable tail. They have long, soft fur that is usually
gray or brown, often with red accents. suborder
▲ family
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Pikas are found in the mountains of western North America,
including Alaska and the Yukon, and the mountains and plains
of central Asia, including the Himalayan and Ural mountain
ranges. The countries they live in include Iran, Afghanistan,
Pakistan, Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, Russia, Japan, Mongolia, North
Korea, and China.
HABITAT
Pikas are found in two distinct habitats. Some live among
rocks and rocky areas. Others live in meadows, steppes (semi-
arid, grass-covered plains), shrubs and desert.
DIET
Pikas are herbivores, meaning they eat primarily plants.
Pikas 1205
at night. They have several types of social
structure. Those that live in rocky areas of
North America are unsocial, with males and
females having separate territories and rarely
interacting except to mate. Pikas in rocky ar-
eas of Asia live in pairs within a communal
VICTIM OF GLOBAL WARMING territory. Burrowing pikas, in contrast, are ex-
tremely social animals. Families of up to thirty
Many scientists believe the American
individuals live within burrows and there are
pika will become the first mammal to
about ten family groups within a territory.
become extinct due to the effects of global
There is much interaction between family
warming. The American pika lives in the
members, including grooming, playing, and
high mountains of the western United
sleeping together.
States and Canada but as the climate gets
warmer, the mammals are forced to move Pikas breed in the spring, with peak breed-
to higher elevations to find suitable ing occurring in May and early June. Female
habitats. A study between 1994 and 1999 pikas reach sexual maturity as early as
in the Great Basin, eastern Sierra Nevada, twenty-one days of age. The gestation, or
and western Rocky Mountains found a 30 pregnancy, period is about thirty days. Lit-
percent drop in the population of American ters consist of one to thirteen babies and are
pikas. Scientists believe the decline of the cared for exclusively by the mother. Females
American pika should be a wake-up call breed for a second time shortly after the first
about the consequences of global litter is born and usually produce a second
warming, which many blame on human litter before the end of summer. Some pika
pollution of the atmosphere. species can have as many as five litters per
years, including the Afghan pika, with each
litter having up to eleven babies. Pikas are
born blind and nearly hairless but grow quickly, reaching adult
size in forty to fifty days.
Pikas have a keen sense of sight and hearing, which helps
them detect predators, such as weasels, hawks, eagles, and owls.
When a pika feels threatened, it issues a loud, shrill, alarm bark
and nearby pikas immediately hide in their burrows or in rock
crevices. The one exception is when a weasel is detected, the
pika remains silent, since the small weasel can follow pikas into
their hiding places. Pikas live an average of one to two years
and more rarely, four to six years in the wild.
Pikas 1207
American pika (Ochotona princeps)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS AMERICAN PIKA
Ochotona princeps
Pikas 1209
Northern pika (Ochotona hyperborea)
NORTHERN PIKA
Ochotona hyperborea
Books:
Macdonald, David. The New Encyclopedia of Mammals. Oxford, U.K.:
Oxford University Press, 2001.
Miller, Sara Swan. Rabbits, Pikas, and Hares. New York: Franklin Watts,
Inc., 2002.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 6th ed. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Periodicals:
Brown, Paul. “American Pika Doomed as First Mammal Victim of Climate
Change.”The Guardian (August 21, 2003).
Buck, Kelly L., and Brandon Sheafor. “Selection of Phenolics in Alpine
Plans by Ochotona princepes (North American Pikas).” The Ohio Journal
of Science (March 2003): A-11.
Smith, Andrew T., and Marla L. Weston. “Ochotona princeps.”
Mammalian Species (April 26, 1990): 1–8.
Sohn, Emily. “Now Mammals are Feeling the Heat.” New Scientist
(October 5, 2002): 9.
Pikas 1211
Web sites:
Myers, Phil, and Anna Bess Sorin. “Family Ochotonidae (Pikas).” Animal
Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/
information/Ochotonidae.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).
Jansa, Sharon. “Ochotona princeps (American Pika).” Animal Diversity
Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Ochotona_princeps.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Lagomorpha
Family: Leporidae
Number of species: 62 species
family C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
Adult rabbits and hares have a body length of 10 to 28 inches class
(25.4 to 71.1 centimeters) and weigh 14 ounces to 15.3 pounds subclass
(400 grams to 7 kilograms). They have short, furry tails and ear
sizes vary greatly and generally are shorter in rabbits and longer order
in hares. The main exceptions are the rabbit breeds known as monotypic order
lops, which have long, floppy ears. Females are generally larger
suborder
than males. Hares generally are larger than rabbits and have
black-tipped ears. ▲ family
Rabbits and hares usually have thick, soft fur that comes in
a wide spectrum of colors, shades, and combinations, including
black, white, brown, beige, tan, blue, orange, red, pink, cream,
lilac, silver, and lavender.
Hares and rabbits have eyes set high on their head, looking
sideways, giving them a wide field of vision. They have
weak but flexible necks, allowing them to turn their heads
with a wide range of motion. They have a single opening
to pass both urine and feces. They also have a specialized
part of their large intestine, called the cecum (SEE-kum),
which acts as a fermentation chamber that aids in digestion
of grasses.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Hares and rabbits are found on every continent except
Antarctica. They are native to every continent they are found
on, except Australia where they were introduced.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Two species are listed by the World Conservation Union
(IUCN) as Critically Endangered, facing an extremely high risk
of extinction; eight species are listed as Endangered, facing a very
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS SNOWSHOE HARE
Lepus americanus
MOUNTAIN HARE
Lepus timidus
DESERT COTTONTAIL
Sylvilagus audubonii
Behavior and reproduction: The breeding season for the desert cot-
tontail is from January to August, with multiple litters per year, and
Books:
Morris, Ting. Rabbit (Animal Families). Mankato,
MN: Smart Apple Media, 2004.
National Research Council. “Rabbits.” In Microlive-
stock: Little-Known Small Animals with a Promising
Economic Future. Washington, DC: National
Academies Press, 1991. Online at http://books.
nap. edu/books/030904295X/html/179.html (ac-
cessed on July 12, 2004). Desert cottontails live in desert
and forest areas. (John
National Research Council. “Domestic Rabbit.” In Microlivestock: Little- Shaw/Bruce Coleman Inc.
Known Small Animals with a Promising Economic Future.Washington, Reproduced by permission.)
DC: National Academies Press, 1991. Onlin at http://books.nap.edu/
books/030904295X/html/183.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 6th ed. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Swanson, Diane. Welcome to the World of Rabbits and Hares. Portland,
OR: Graphic Arts Center Publishing Co., 2000.
Swanson, Diane. Rabbits and Hares (Welcome to the World of Animals).
Milwaukee: Gareth Stevens, 2002.
Periodicals:
Angerbjörn, Anders, and John E. C. Flux. “Lepus timidus.” Mammalian
Species (June 23, 1995): 1–11.
Chapman, Joseph A., and Gale R. Willner. “Sylvilagus audubonii.” Mam-
malian Species (September 21, 1978): 1–4.
Chapman, Joseph A., et al. “Sylvilagus floridanus.” Mammalian Species
(April 15, 1980): 1–8.
Hacklander, Klaus, et al. “The Effect of Dietary Fat Content on Lactation
Energetics in the European Hare (Lepus europaeus).” Physiological and
Biochemical Zoology (January 2002): 19–28.
Krebs, Charles J., et al. “What Drives the 10-Year Cycle of Snowshoe
Hares?” BioScience (January 2001): 25.
Web sites:
House Rabbit Society. http://www.rabbit.org (accessed on July 12,
2004).
Myers, Phil, and Anna Bess Sorin. “Family Leporidae.” Animal Diversity
Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Leporidae.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).
●
Class: Mammalia
▲
Order: Macroscelidea
One family: Macroscelididae
Number of species: 15 species
monotypic order
C H A P T E R
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Sengis are found throughout Africa except western Africa
and the Sahara Desert region. They are most common and
diverse in southern and eastern Africa.
Sengis 1223
HABITAT
Sengis live in deciduous forest, rainforest,
grassland, and desert areas of Africa, especially
where there is an abundance of water. They
are found in the thick ground cover of coastal
bush forests, rocky outcroppings, and high-
IDENTITY CRISIS
land and lowland forests.
Sengis or elephant shrews have been
one of the most often misclassified species DIET
of animals. Scientists who first classified Sengis are insectivores, meaning they eat
the mammal in the mid 1800s placed it in primarily insects. Their diet of insects
the order Insectivora along with true shrews includes ants, termites, beetles, spiders, cater-
(family Soricidae). It got its name because pillars, and worms. However, several species
its long down-turned nosed resembled an are omnivores, meaning they eat insects,
elephant’s trunk and physically looked like flesh, and plants. Their diet includes toads,
a shrew. It was reclassified in the order frogs, lizards, fruits, seeds, and plants. One
Scandentia (tree shrews) and then species, the golden-rumped sengi, is an
reclassified again as an ungulate, a group omnivore, meaning it eats only flesh, mainly
of mammals with hooves that include
insects and small animals.
horses and giraffes. Later, it was classified
as a lagomorph, along with rabbits and BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION
hares. More recently, examination of the
Sengis are mainly diurnal, meaning they
elephant shrew’s molecular structure
are most active during the day, but during
indicates it is a distinct order and the order
Macroscelidea was established. Based on
hot weather, they can be nocturnal, meaning
genetic evidence, the elephant shrew, now they are most active at night. Several species
called the sengi, is related to the proposed are crepuscular, meaning they are most ac-
superorder Afrotheria composed of six tive during early morning and twilight. They
orders, whose members include elephants, have well developed senses of sight, hearing,
manatees, and aardvarks. and smell. Most species are territorial, mean-
ing they are protective of an area they con-
sider home and claim exclusively for
themselves. Pairs of males and females usually have separate
but overlapping and sometimes identical territories.
Most species of sengis are believed to be monogamous
(muh-NAH-guh-mus), meaning they have only one sexual
partner during a breeding season or lifetime. Several species are
solitary and males and females get together for only several days
to mate. Females usually produce several litters a year, each with
usually one or two babies, but more rarely with three or four.
The gestation period, the time the female carries the young in
her womb, is about sixty days.
Sengis 1225
Checkered sengi (Rhynchocyon cirnei)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT CHECKERED SENGI
Rhynchocyon cirnei
Books:
Macdonald, David. The New Encyclopedia of Mammals. Oxford, U.K.:
Oxford University Press, 2001.
Sengis 1227
Nicoll, Martin E., and Galen B. Rathbun. African Insectivora and Elephant
Shrews: An Action Plan for Their Conservation. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN,
1990.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 6th ed. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Periodicals:
Downs, Calleen T., and M. R. Perrin. “The Thermal Biology of Three
Southern African Elephant Shrews.” Journal of Thermal Biology
(December 1995): 445–450.
Fredericks, Ilse. “Elephant Shrews May Help Astronauts.” Africa News
Service (September 21, 2003).
Koontz, Fred W., and Nancy J. Roeper. “Elephantulus rufescens.”
Mammalian Species (December 15, 1983): 1–5.
Rathbun, Galen B. “Rhynchocyon chrysopygus.” Mammalian Species
(June 8, 1979): 1–4.
Tabuce, Rodolphe, et al. “A New Genus of Mavroscelidea (Mammalia)
From the Eocene of Algeria: A Possible Origin for Elephant Shrews.”
Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology (August 2001): 535–546.
Web sites:
Myers, Phil. “Order Macroscelidea.” Animal Diversity Web.
http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Macroscelidea.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).