Seasons and Weather Main Ideas

• Seasons and weather occur

because of the changing
position of the earth in
relation to the sun.
• Weather extremes are related
to location on earth.

Places & Terms

solstice hurricane
A HUMAN PERSPECTIVE The smell of thousands of decaying corpses equinox typhoon

BASICS
hung in the air in what was once the thriving seaport of Galveston, Texas. weather tornado
The day before, winds estimated at 130 miles per hour roared through climate blizzard
the city. A storm surge of seawater more than 15 feet high pushed a wall
precipitation drought
of debris across the island of Galveston. Through this turmoil, Isaac
rain shadow
Cline’s family huddled in their home. A trolley trestle rammed the
house until at last it collapsed, and the waves poured in. Cline survived,
but some of his family did not. With a toll of 8,000 human lives, the
“Great Galveston Hurricane” would be the deadliest hurricane to hit the
United States. The storm date was September 8, 1900.

Seasons
Hurricanes occur frequently in the southern and east-
ern United States during summer and fall. During Seasons: Northern Hemisphere
these seasons, storm systems with strong winds form
The seasons are related to the earth’s tilt and
over warm ocean water. revolution. Some locations receive more direct sun
EARTH’S TILT Seasons have an enormous impact on us, rays because of the earth’s tilt.

affecting the conditions in the atmosphere and on the Vernal (Spring) Equinox
about March 21
earth that create our weather. As the earth revolves
N
around the sun, it is tilted at a 23.5° angle in relation to
the sun. Because of the earth’s revolution and its tilt, dif- Equator
ferent parts of the earth receive the direct rays of the Winter Solstice
sun for more hours of the day at certain times in the December
Tropic of 22 or 23
year. This causes the changing seasons on the earth. Cancer
Notice in the diagram to the right that the northern half N N

of the earth tilts toward the sun in summer and away S

from the sun in winter.
Two lines of latitude—the tropic of Cancer and the Sun
tropic of Capricorn—mark the points farthest north
and south that the sun’s rays shine directly overhead N
at noon. The day on which this occurs is called a S S
solstice. In the Northern Hemisphere, the summer sol- Summer Tropic of
Capricorn
stice, or the beginning of summer, is the longest day of Solstice
June 21 or 22
the year. Winter solstice, the beginning of winter, is
the shortest. Equator
Another signal of seasonal change are the equinox- S
es. Twice a year on the equinox, the days and nights all Autumnal Equinox
over the world are equal in length. The equinoxes about September 23
mark the beginning of spring and autumn.

Seasons and Weather 49

 Weather
Weather and climate are often confused. Weather is the condition of the
atmosphere at a particular location and time. Climate is the term for Making
weather conditions at a particular location over a long period of time. Comparisons
Northern Russia, for example, has a cold climate. Why might
geographers be
WHAT CAUSES THE WEATHER? Daily weather is the complex result of more interested
several conditions. For example, the amount of solar energy received by in the climate of
a location varies according to the earth’s position in relation to the sun. a place than its
weather?
Large masses of air absorb and distribute this solar energy, which in
turn affects the weather. Other factors include:
• water vapor This determines whether there will be precipitation—
falling water droplets in the form of rain, sleet, snow, or hail.
• cloud cover Clouds may hold water vapor.
• landforms and bodies of water Water heats slowly but also loses
heat slowly. Land heats rapidly but loses heat quickly as well.
• elevation As elevation above sea level increases, the air becomes
thinner and loses its ability to hold moisture.
• air movement Winds move the air and the solar energy and mois-
ture that it holds. As a result, weather can change very rapidly.
PRECIPITATION Precipitation depends on the amount of water vapor in
the air and the movement of that air. As warm air rises, it cools and loses
its ability to hold water vapor. The water vapor condenses, and the water
droplets form into clouds. When the amount of water in a cloud is too
heavy for the air to hold, rain or snow falls from the cloud. Geographers
classify precipitation as convectional, orographic, or frontal, as illustrat-
ed in the diagram below.

Rain Shadow

Le
ew
ard ard
indw
W

Convectional Typical of hot climates, Orographic Associated with mountain areas, Frontal Mid-latitude frontal storms
convection occurs after morning orographic storms drop more rain on the windward feature cold dense air masses that
sunshine heats warm moist air. Clouds side of a mountain and create a rain shadow on the push lighter warm air masses upward,
form in the afternoon and rain falls. leeward side. causing precipitation to form.

50
 Convectional precipitation occurs in hot, moist climates where the
sun quickly heats the air. The heated air rises, and by afternoon clouds
form and rain falls. Orographic precipitation falls on the windward side
of hills or mountains that block moist air and force it upward. The air
cools and rain or snow falls. The land on the leeward side is called a rain
shadow because it gets little rain from the descending dry air. Frontal
movement causes most precipitation in the middle latitudes. A front is
the boundary between two air masses of different temperatures or den-
sity. Rain or snow occurs when lighter, warm air is pushed upward by
the colder, denser air. The rising air cools, water vapor condenses, and
precipitation falls.

BASICS
Weather Extremes
As air masses warm and cool and move across the earth’s surface, they
create weather. Sometimes the clashes between air masses cause storms,
which can be severe. They disrupt the usual patterns of life and often
cause major property damage and loss of human life. Hurricanes, torna-
does, blizzards, droughts, and floods are examples of extreme weather. MOVEMENT A pair
of typhoons move
HURRICANES Storms that form over warm, tropical ocean waters are across the Pacific
called hurricanes—also known as typhoons in Asia. These storms are Ocean. Notice the
called different names around the globe: tropical cyclones, willy-willies “eye” in each storm.
(Australia), baguios (Philippines), and chubascos (Mexico). Hurricanes What is the weather
inside the “eye” like?
are one way heat from the tropics is moved out of the region. Air flowing
over an ocean with a water temperature of 80°F or higher picks up huge
amounts of moisture and heat energy. As Pacific
Ocean
these water-laden winds flow into a low-
pressure core, they tighten to form an
“eye.” The eye is usually 10 to 20 miles
across and has clear, calm skies. But the
winds moving around the eye may be as
strong as 200 miles per hour.
The clouds and winds stretch over a
vast area, sometimes as wide as 500 miles.
Upper air currents blowing from the east
steer the hurricanes in a westerly direc-
tion. As the hurricane hits land, it pounds
the area with howling winds and very
heavy rains. It may also cause a storm
surge along coastal regions. This wall of
seawater, pushed ashore by the winds,
may rise to 16 feet or more. The low-lying
coastal regions of Bangladesh in South
Using the Atlas Asia are especially vulnerable to storm
Use the map surges from tropical cyclones.
on page A20. On
which river delta TORNADOES Unlike hurricanes, which
is Bangladesh take days to develop, tornadoes form
located? quickly and sometimes without warning.
A tornado, or twister, is a powerful funnel-
shaped column of spiraling air.

Seasons and Weather 51

 Canada

Tornado Alley
When cold, dry air collides with
warm, moist air, a tornado can
brew. In the United States, these
violent funnel clouds occur
frequently between May and
October in a region known as
“Tornado Alley.”
The flat plains stretching from Doppler radar image shows United
Texas through Nebraska present possible tornado-causing States Atlantic
Ocean
an ideal staging ground for weather for Texas or Oklahoma.
tornadoes. Cold, dry air from
Canada rushes south and collides Average number of
tornadoes per 10,000
with warm, moist air moving sq. mi. per year
north from the Gulf of Mexico.
More than 9 Gulf of Mexico
Between 200 and 300 major
7 to 9
storms erupt there each year, 5 to 7
spawning hundreds of tornadoes. 1 to 5
Less than 1

Azimuthal Equal-Area Projection

Born from strong thunderstorms, tornadoes are capable of immense

damage. In a tornado, winds swirl counter-clockwise around a low-pres-
sure center. These winds may reach speeds of 300 miles per hour, blast-
ing apart buildings and lifting objects as large as cars and mobile
homes. Generally, tornadoes have small diameters (about 300 feet), trav-
el about a mile, and last only a few minutes. However, the largest and
most forceful can reach a mile across and stay on the ground for hours,
hopscotching from one location to another. The largest outbreak of tor-
nadoes in the United States occurred during a 16-hour period, April 3
and 4, 1974. A total of 148 tornadoes ripped through the Ohio and
Tennessee valleys, killing 330 people. The largest share of tornadoes,
Making
about 3 of every 4, hit in the United States. On average, the U.S. Comparisons
National Weather Service counts 700 tornadoes each year. How are
tornadoes different
BLIZZARDS A blizzard is a heavy snowstorm with winds of more than from hurricanes?
35 miles per hour and reduced visibility. These weather conditions snarl
traffic, endanger livestock, and trap travelers. The greatest snowfall for a
24-hour period was 76 inches (6 feet 4 inches) in Silver Lake, Colorado,
in 1921. A snowstorm that lasted from February 13 to 19, 1959, dumped
189 inches (almost 16 feet) of snow on Mt. Shasta, California.
Because of their location, some areas of the country are frequently
hit with snowstorms that produce huge amounts of snow. For exam-
ple, the eastern and southern shores of the Great Lakes are snowbelts
that experience days and days of heavy snow resulting in enormous
snow depths. Around the Lake Erie and Lake Ontario areas, the
annual snowfall can be as much as 450 inches (37.5 feet).

52 CHAPTER 3
 DROUGHTS A drought is a long
period of time without rain or with
very minimal rainfall. This lack of
rain results in crop failures and
drastically reduced levels in water
storage facilities. In the early 1930s,
a drought hit the Great Plains in
the United States. Dust storms
damaged farms across a 150,000-
square-mile region that became
known as the “Dust Bowl.” Suf-
fering the effects of a harsh climate,
thousands of families were forced
to leave their land to find work elsewhere. (See the Dust Bowl Disaster fea-
ture on pages 150-151.) In 2000, a large portion of the southern United REGION Before the
States was struck with a long drought. Northern Texas was particularly drought in Texas, this
Background hard hit, with 84 straight days of no rain and extremely high temperatures. boat floated on the
A series of waters of a lake now
droughts in Texas FLOODS When water spreads over land not normally covered with barely visible in the
between 1996 and water, it is called a flood. Melting snow or rainwater fills streams or background.
2000 caused $5.3 rivers until they reach flood stage, the point at which the banks can no How is life affected
billion in damages. by drought?
longer contain the water. The water then flows into the surrounding
area, called a floodplain.
Floods take lives every year, especially in low, flat places like
Bangladesh, where millions of people live on the flood plains and the
delta. In 1993, flooding along the Mississippi and Missouri rivers
claimed 50 lives and caused about $15 billion in damage. Nearly 150
rivers and their tributaries were involved. It was the largest flood ever to
hit the United States.
In the next section, you will learn about how climate affects people’s
lives and how humans adapt to changes in climate.

Places & Terms Taking Notes Main Ideas Geographic Thinking

Explain the meaning of MOVEMENT Review the notes a. How do the earth’s Determining Cause and
each of the following you took for this section. revolution and tilt affect Effect What must be present
terms. the seasons? for any type of precipitation
Seasons & to occur? Think about:
• solstice b. What is the difference
Weather
• equinox between weather and • the cause of precipitation
climate? • the types of precipitation
• weather • Which latitude lines mark the c. What are some examples
• climate summer and winter solstices? of extreme weather?
See Skillbuilder
• precipitation Handbook, page R9.
• How do moving air masses
create weather?

EXPLORING LOCAL GEOGRAPHY Using your local newspaper, television, or an Internet weather
forecast, make a chart showing predicted temperature highs and lows and precipitation for
several days. Then record the actual weather on those days. Write a summary of your observations
of the accuracy of the weather forecast.

Seasons and Weather 53