Geophysical Exploration For Gold
Geophysical Exploration For Gold
Geophysical Exploration For Gold
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Hugh A. Doyle*
*Department of Geology, University of Western Australia, Nedlands, Perth, W.A. 6009, Australia.
**Reprinted from Exploration Geophysics (December 1986), 17, 169-180.
134
Geophysical Exploration for Gold-A Review 135
there were two symposia on the subject; one in Val d'Or, tools, aeromagnetic and ground magnetic surveys being the
Quebec and one in Perth, WA (Doyle, 1984). most common, with gravity less so. Remote sensing from
Despite the high density (19.3 g/cm') and electrical con- satellites may precede these. Other methods are induced
ductivity (5 x 107 S/m) of gold, it is almost impossible to get polarization (IP), magnetic IP (MIP), magnetometric resis-
a direct response, apart from very shallow nuggets when tivity (MMR), or electromagnetic (EM) methods such as
using metal detectors. The small direct responses are a result ground transient EM (TEM) in Australia or airborne EM
of the low grades involved today (usually only a few grams (such as VLF) in Canada.
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per ton) because of the high value of gold. However, indirect Examples of marker beds which may be useful are mag-
geophysical indications may occur through some association netic dolerites, banded iron formations (magnetic quartz-
with particular host rocks, marker beds, or structures which ites), shales with magnetite, conductive and/or polarizable
are unusually magnetic, electrically polarizable, or conduc- pyrites, or other sulfides (detectable by IP or MIP), and, at
tive/resistive, etc. Association of deposits with faults and
shear zones is also common (see Groves et al., 1984), so that
mapping of faults and shear zones by magnetic and electrical s N
methods is valuable.
Thus, geophysical surveys are often used as mapping 50 0
nT
[
a
zoo 5 km - -
600
100
GU
[
o
800 800
m m
DEPTH
1000 1000
,WOF,,o
m
',0 1Z00-
m .
~
DLower Wits,with D
Ld Basal Reef
Granitic basement
DEPTH .. ;~ three magnetic markers
L~.!_~ __ J
FIG. 3. Ground magnetic and gravity profiles over the St.
Helena area in the Orange Free State showing a gravity low
FIG. 1. The smoothed magnetic susceptibility is plotted and associated magnetic anomalies. The gravity low is
against bore core lengths for two boreholes in an Archaean related to the gold-bearing Upper Witwatersrand rocks and
granitic pluton near Atikokan, Ontario. Four levels of alter- the magnetic anomalies to the Lower Witwatersrand. Grav-
ation in the cores are indicated (after Lapointe et al., 1986). ity units equal 0.1 mGal (after van Zijl, 1986).
136 Doyle
least in North America, silicified zones made more resistive Canada, Brazil, Zimbabwe, South Africa, the Baltic
than the surrounding rocks. Resistivity patterns may indi- Shield, and in India.
cate altered rocks which could contain mineralization; (2) Deposits in Archean-Proterozoic continental ba-
hence, the use of VLF methods in Canada, often from sins, such as the Witwatersrand basin of South Africa,
aircraft (Limion and Downing 1984). Measurements of mag- Blind River basin of Canada, and at Jacobina, Brazil.
netic susceptibility of core samples have also been used to (3) Proterozoic deposits of variable type such as
define levels of alteration (Figure 1) (Lapointe et al., 1986). those in Australia at Tennant Creek, Northern Terri-
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Where gold is directly associated with pyrrhotite, magne- tory; Olympic Dam, South Australia; and Telfer, WA.
tite skarns, or massive sulfides, magnetic or EM surveys are (4) Palaeozoic turbidite-hosted deposits; for exam-
specific (Jones, 1983). The association of gold mineralization ple, Ballarat and Bendigo, Victoria, Australia.
with iron sulfides, which is often the case (Seigel et al., (5) Paleozoic-Tertiary volcanic-subvolcanic grani-
1984), is important in making IP and EM methods useful. toid-related deposits; as at Kidston, Charters Towers
According to Dowsett and Krause (1984), airborne EM and and Mt Morgan, Queensland, Australia.
magnetic surveys initially led to the Casa Berardi Area, NW (6) Mesozoic-Quaternary epithermal deposits such
Quebec. Ground EM work was a great help in mapping as those of the western USA (e.g., Round Mountain,
lithology, and IP results helped indicate where gold may Nevada), eastern USSR, and the Pacific rim (e.g.,
occur within the prospective geologic units. A good example Mount Mum, Kalimanton, Indonesia, and Waiotapu,
of a purely geophysical discovery using similar methods is New Zealand).
that of the Detour Lakes gold deposit in NE Ontario (Jack- (7) Tertiary-Quaternary alluvial-deep leads; as in
son, A., 1984, Amoco Pet. Canada Report). Victoria and NSW, Australia, and California, Alaska,
Otherwise geophysical methods may provide structural New Zealand, and Indonesia.
and general mapping information or outline the limits of a
hydrothermal system. In South Africa, for example, mag- Most of the examples given in this paper are from the
netic and gravity surveys have played major roles in the Archean greenstones of Australia and Canada. A large
study of the structure of the Witwatersrand Basin (Roux, variety of lithologies host gold deposits in Australian
1970; Comer et al., 1986a, b; van Zijl, 1986) and in the Archean areas (Groves et al., 1984), but gold lodes occur
discovery of new gold fields and the extension of known mostly in mafic volcanics and intrusives (e.g., dolerite) and
fields (Figures 2 and 3). The ferruginous shales of the West BIF. Production from deposits hosted in sediments other
Rand group produce substantial magnetic anomalies. Seis- than ElF is generally low.
mic reflection and magnetotelluric surveys have also been Archean gold deposits provide potentially difficult targets
used in structural studies (Comer, 1985). In Russia, as for geophysical exploration (Groves et al., 1984), since they
elsewhere, areas which are promising for gold are located have a wide diversity in size and shape of oreshoots; extent
with the help of regional geophysical surveys (Fedynsky et and homogeneity of iron-sulfide alteration; concentrations of
al., 1970). In Kazakhstan electrical and gravity methods sulfides; sulfide mineralogy; extent of carbonate alteration;
were also used to help map small diorite intrusions and faults and extent of magnetite and ilmenite consumption in altera-
which control quartz bodies. tion reactions. Thus, generalizations that cover all deposit
However, the value of geophysical methods should not be types are invalid (Groves et al., 1984).
exaggerated. For example, Seigel et a1. (1984) state that the
magnetic and EM properties of the traditional Canadian GEOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES
lode-gold deposits are not significantly different from many Magnetic surveys
normal, unmineralized rock types. The small dimensions of
the structures also result in responses of low amplitude and The magnetic survey is the most commonly used geophys-
width, requiring more detail and care than in surveys for ical tool in gold exploration, as it is in exploration for other
base-metal deposits. Short station and electrode spacings are metals. Aeromagnetic surveys are particularly useful in the
required, encouraging the use of microprocessor-based early stages of exploration, providing information about the
semiautomatic instruments with memory to simplify and broad geology and structure of the area quickly and cheaply.
speed up surveys. Of course magnetic maps are essential where outcrops are
The general procedure in carrying out an exploration sparse.
program is first to determine a geologic model for the gold Commonly, there are many magnetic anomalies in an
and its environment and then to identify the likely geophys- igneous or metamorphic area, and the geologic controls of
ical properties of the host and nearby rocks. mineralization must be understood to make reasonably clear
which magnetic rocks may be related to the gold mineraliza-
Types of gold deposits tion (Boyd, 1984).
Magnetite is by no means always a marker for gold. In
fact, magnetite depletion is characteristic of some deposits in
Some main types of gold deposits are as follows (for a
Canada and Australia. Ferromagnetic minerals in mafic
summary of types of gold deposits, see Boyle, 1984):
volcanics (e.g., basalts) are destroyed by carbonatization
resulting in areas of low magnetic values (Middleton and
(1) Deposits in Archean greenstone belts, mainly in Campbell, 1979; Middleton et al., 1984). On the other hand,
mafic-ultramafic rocks or in banded iron formations magnetic halos may occur areound silicic intrusions.
(ElF). Examples occur in Western Australia (WA), Grant (1984) has made a study of the occurrence of
Geophysical Exploration for Gold-A Review 137
magnetite in various rock types. He concluded that guides to Satellite imagery and airborne scanning
volcanic-associated gold environments could include the
identification of (a) greenstone belts on a regional scale, (b) Satellite imagery is a comparatively new technique assist-
major fault zones, (c) areas of alteration, (d) serpentinized ing the resurgence of the gold industry. The five Landsat
ultramafic rocks and BIF within or near alteration zones, and satellites have proven the most successful in providing
(e) highly altered mafic-ultramafic layers within volcanic detailed information for mapping (Longman, 1984), while
zones. NOAA satellites with lower resolution have provided data
for regional appraisal. More recently, radar mapping from
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Electrical methods
GEOLOGIC SETTINGS
Electromagnetic methods.-EM methods are used where
massive sulfides, conductive faults or fracture zones, or Archaean regions
more resistive silicified rocks may be associated with gold.
Virtually all of the mines of the Superior Province of
Some Archaean deposits in Australia are associated with
Canada lie within greenstone belts. Greenstone belts appear
semimassive to massive sulfides, and in these cases EM to be magnetite-rich in some cases, but deficient in others
surveys are an obvious choice (e.g., Lindeman, 1984). (Grant 1984). In Canada, greenstone belts and former green-
At Wiluna (WA), early EM surveys were carried out by stone belts can usually be recognized in large-scale aeromag-
the North Australia Survey (AGGSNA) in 1937. Frequencies netic survey data by their overall deficiency compared to
of 300 and 600 Hz were used with long grounded transmitter normal granitoid rocks (Grant, 1984).
cables (Blazey et al., 1940). This pioneering work helped to In the Abitibi greenstone belt, the relation of gold to
locate important fault zones offsetting volcanics related to magnetic anomalies has been described by Hood et al.
gold mineralization. The VLF method is quite commonly (1982). The principal gold deposits occur in limited areas of
used in North America as a rapid conductivity mapper but volcanic complexes, and most of these areas are close to the
has not been used much in Australia because of the conduc- edges of more magnetic portions of the greenstone belts. In
tive overburden and comparatively high frequency of VLF the Val d'Or gold field of Canada, many of the mines lie near
systems (20 kHz) and so small depth of penetration. a marked change in magnetic intensity, possibly representing
In Australia, in the areas of low surface resistivity, the a contact between mafic and felsic rocks. According to
magnetometric resistivity method (MMR) is better than VLF Koulomzine and Brossard (1957), the East Sullivan orebody
and is also rapid. In such areas there is no airborne EM was discovered by a magnetometer survey in an area totally
technique which is generally effective. In ground EM, tran- devoid of outcrop. Even more important was the contribu-
sient EM methods (TEM) have largely replaced other EM tion of geophysics to the understanding of the geologic
methods (Doyle and Lindeman, 1985). structure masked almost entirely by glacial overburden
140 Doyle
I
N
B
W
~
....
.....
Mafic flows, unit 2
Microgabbro
employed. A cautionary note is that only 9% of discoveries
in the Abitibi belt can be credited to geophysics (Boniwell,
1983).
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Magnetic zones in unit 1 Very old faults which may have important economic
significance are sometimes easier to recognize from aero-
1/ Faults
magnetic maps than on the ground. An example is the
!! Main shaft Porcupine-Quetiev fault system in Ontario and Quebec,
(J Open cuts
which extends over at least 400 km and appears to control a
mineralized belt with gold and base-metal mines (Grant,
o SOOm
, ! I ! , r
--,
(
1984). Faults oblique to strike can be recognized where they
displace magnetic layers, perhaps as narrow zones less
i magnetic than surrounding rocks (Boyd, 1984). Graded
i
\\ intensity maps or color displays show up such features well.
'\ In Ghana, West Africa, gold quartz veins at the Ashante
~
mine occur in greenstones, the one prominent magnetic rock
( group within the Upper Birrimmian (Cudjoe, 1970). The
\ mineralization occurs where the magnetic character of the
greenstone belt changes and where it is cut by other struc-
\ tures.
In Western Australia, many of the Archaean gold deposits
are associated with banded iron formations (BIF) or with
basic or ultrabasic rocks which are magnetic. Of the ten
largest deposits in WA listed by Woodall (1979), only one is
not clearly associated in some way with a magnetic anomaly
on BMR 1:250 000 aeromagnetic maps (Boyd, 1984).
At Wiluna (WA), the pioneering surveys of the North
Australia survey (Richardson et aI., 1942) and the more
recent work described by Coggon (1984) show that the
FIG. 5. Rocks in the vicinity of the Wiluna Gold mine consist orebody occurs in contact with mafic flows and in a cross-
of a series of basic lava flows (units 1, 2 and 3), intruded by cutting fault (Figure 5). At the Sons of Gwalia Mine (WA)
a microgabbro sill. The three major ore bodies that were gold occurs in a schist zone with an adjacent magnetic
mined occur along shear zones of three north-south trending horizon of the same strike. At Mt. Magnet (WA) gold in BIF
faults. Parts of flow unit 1 are magnetic and they indicated and chert is also at fault intersections (Groves et aI., 1984).
continuation to the southeast with faulting. Targets for gold
mineralization lie on these faults (after Coggon, 1984). The exploration by the Western Mining Corporation
(WMC) in the Mt. Magnet greenstone belt of the Murchison
gold field led to the discovery of several new gold deposits
WATER TANK HILL W.A.
50:~~R:::1l0L
TS 76,400 N PROFILE
including Water Tank Hill and Brittania Well (Lindeman,
4m sec
, 200 metres
1984). The Water Tank Hill body is associated with sulfides
ell)
25 ~ 6m.sec at depth. The host bed is a 20 m thick iron formation.
TRANSIENT
_
JI\~ 8m ••• c ELECTRO MAGNETICS
Aeromagnetic data, followed at a later stage by detailed
NOISE~ (100m loops-50m overlaps) ground and aeromagnetic work, were used to predict strike
o MM068 MM092 MMD55
extensions, thicknesses and dip of the BIF. Transient EM
GEOLOGY (TEM) ground surveys indicated the presence of the sulfides
II > 10% SULPHIDE (Figure 6).
1< 49/t Au Ore at the Hill 50 mine contains both massive pyrrhotite
and narrow layers of sulfide within an iron formation. TEM
INDUCED POLARISATION surveys were used to locate sulfides under conductive sur-
{'>(Om)
face rocks, and IP was used in the detailed stage. The IP
showed anomalies plus an apparent resistivity high, perhaps
related to the banded iron formation. The third TEM anom-
F.E.% aly drilled was the discovery (Lindeman, 1984).
Daytime reflected imagery and night-time thermal imagery
FIG. 6. Transient EM and IP data from Water Tank Hill, Mt can highlight sharp lineaments in the Eastern gold fields of
Magnet area, Western Australia. The apparent resistivity the Yilgarn Block of WA which have strong affiliations with
high appears to relate to banded iron formations (BIF). The
discovery hole MMD 55 was drilled to test the TEM and IP the main gold producing areas. For example, many of the
anomalies. The intersection was 35.6 m at 7.0 g/t of gold dominant dikes in the Yilgarn Block can be traced by their
associated with iron sulfides in BIF (after Lindeman, 1984). airborne magnetic and remote-sensing thermal responses.
Geophysical Exploration for Gold-A Review 141
MAX MIN EM
1777 Hz
IP,'--'
.--' __ \
/'-+20%
~
op·- .-- '\ ' - 0
RESISTIVITY
(ohm-metres)
CHARGEABILITY '01
~:l~~<---->~t:::
.Ii~ Q.. , ..,,---- -
f~
s:
<il 1000 [
'" E,
Q)
;;,
(ms l 2°1 .r ..•• _...•....•.
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<1> E
10~ ~~ ... , ...... a:'c
TOTAL .... OJ. J:.I·~
......:-..:....·
•• -e..
.~ ..
'--_----.::..::. ~ a
FIEL 0 51500 • '-'-,
I •
MAGNETICS ~".501
(Gammas)
B
f~<il 1000[ \ LII1e
:.
'" E,
;;,
<1> E
a:,C
Q)
\L
:
Line E
......--.........
~ a
50
I
a
1
100
I
200 300 metres
! !
They have a spatial association with some of the known gold FIG. 8. VLF electromagnetic resistivity profiles at the Haile
gold mine, South Carolina. The resistivity highs were suffi-
and base-metal sulfide deposits and can be traced for 100- ciently distinctive to map extensions of the mineralized
500 km or more (Tucker and Wilson, 1986), a greater zones along strike (after Wynn and Luce, 1984).
distance than geologically mapped.
The WMC has used the gravity method to help trace the
Golden Mile dolerite under sediment in the Kalgooriie area, schist belt of mafic schists metamorphosed to amphibolite
and also to trace felsic intrusives near Norseman that were facies (Menon and Bose, 1981).
expected to be less dense than the enclosing basalts (Cog- RRMIP has been used extensively in the Western Austra-
gon, 1984). One company found the gravity method to be lian gold fields to map beneath laterites, salt lakes, sand, etc.
useful, during gold exploration in the Yilgarn, for recogniz- (Howland-Rose, 1984). Where interesting contrasts in IP
ing cross-fold structures. response are located, detailed arrays are used.
In 1948, Urquhart (1956) of the BMR began gravity and In Canada geophysics and geochemistry have been used to
seismic refraction surveys near Kalgoorlie in an attempt to delineate stratigraphy, structures, and carbonate alteration
map buried channels on behalf of the WMC; however, the known to have gold associations. Time-domain IP and
gravity data were not very useful. Two possible buried magnetic surveys were used by Middleton et al. (1984) in the
channels were revealed at depths down to over 100 m, but Timmins area of Ontario to map zones of high chargeability
they may have been only deeply weathered sections. and carbonate alteration (Figure 7). Scott (1984) has even
An example of the use of resistivity is the location of a carried out waterborne IP surveys over Canadian lakes.
quartz reef under recent sediments by the WMC (1979) near Gold-bearing carbonate alteration zones were outlined by
Norseman (WA), using a gradient array. This revealed a the mise-a-la-masse borehole method in the Timmins area
linear high-resistivity feature. IP has been used by the WMC (Mwenifumbo, 1984). The gold was in quartz veins within
(1979, Gold; a review of the technology of exploration and structurally controlled alteration zones in basalt with dis-
mining) to map a marker horizon of graphite sediments at seminated pyrite.
Reedy's Prospect (WA), and also to map sulfides in the Beria Occasionally small sulfide concentrations or even graph-
area and at Water Tank Hill, Mt. Magnet (Lindeman, 1984) ites correspond to valuable gold or uranium orebodies (Gau-
(Figure 6). IP and magnetic surveys were used for the cher, 1979). Isolated anomalies may be targets for drilling
Gladiator lode northwest of Laverton (WA). This is a quartz whereas the extended conductors are often graphite layers,
reef in a 25 m wide structure in banded iron formation and especially in the Precambrian shield of Canada.
quartz porphyry. EM methods have been popular in Canada in the search
In India the Geological Survey has used IP to delineate for massive sulfides and now are being used for gold,
sulfide-bearing lodes in the Kolar gold field which is within a although of course this is a more subtle problem. An
142 Doyle
example is the Detour Lake deposit in Ontario, on the edge mapped by the gravity and magnetic fields along the entire
of the Abitibi belt, which was a purely geophysical discovery perimeter (Corner et aI., 1986a, b).
in an area mapped by geologists as granitoid (Jackson, 1984 A famous example of the use of magnetic surveys is that of
Amoco Pet. Canada report). INPUT and aeromagnetic sur- the young German, Rudolph Krahmann (1936), who went to
veys were used in this area, first in a search for massive South Africa in 1930. He had worked for Elbof Geophysical
sulfides. The gold is associated with sulfides which give a Prospecting in several countries, including Australia, and
response to INPUT (airborne TEM), ground EM, magnetic, had introduced the method to that company. Krahmann
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and IP surveys. The gold occurred with pyrrhotite in arkosic noticed highly magnetic shales occurring several hundred
and graphitic sediments with occasional interbedded ultra- meters below reef conglomerates of the Witwatersrand dur-
mafic flows and tuffs. The main zone of mineralization is ing an outing and suggested to the New Consolidated Gold
centered in the cherty tuff. Fields Co. that the new Askania magnetometer should be
VLF surveys are rapid and economical for reconnaissance tried in the search for extensions of the gold reef (Cart-
and can be carried out in conjunction with an aeromagnetic wright, 1967; Roux, 1970; van Zijl, 1986). He was given
survey. In North America the VLF-EM method is flown as several months trial, and found the bed of Lower Witwa-
a conductivity mapping tool and used to locate sulfide bodies tersrand magnetic shales and some other beds to be excellent
or, by contrast, higher resistivity zones which may be markers that could be detected at depths of 1000 m.
signatures of near-surface zones of silicification associated The ferruginous shales were traced for more than 50 km
with gold (Limion and Downing, 1984). Another example is along the strike direction in the Far West Rand and so
the Haile mine of South Carolina (Figure 8). VLF data indicated likely extension of the auriferous conglomerate
showed high-resistivity zones correlating with siliceous host beneath hundreds of meters of overburden, mainly dolomite.
rocks which were metasediments. Magnetic data also clearly
The horizontal separation of three prominent anomalies
identified mafic and ultramafic dikes which cut the metased-
allowed calculation of the dip of the beds (Figure 2). Drilling
iments. IP was also useful to identify the pyrite content
proved the discovery (van Zijl, 1986). Magnetic surveys
(Wynn and Luce, 1984).
were also carried out in the East Rand and into the Orange
Some examples from Palaeozoic fold belts Free State. Aeromagnetic surveys have been efficient in the
Evander gold field area in reducing the magnetic 'noise' from
In the Lachlan fold belt of eastern Australia, gravity and the surface dolerites of the Karoo system and again in
magnetic data have been useful in mapping regional struc- identifying the Lower Witwatersrand rocks (Roux, 1970;van
ture, thanks to the high physical contrasts between shallow Zijl, 1986).
volcanic units and deeper basement sediments and granites The gravity data have been used to determine the thick-
(Tenison-Woods and Webster, 1985). They claim that copper ness of Ventersdorp lavas above the deposits and locate the
and gold mineralizing systems can be detected, because of less dense Upper Witwatersrand rocks where the lavas are
magnetite depletion. thin (Figure 3). Density contrasts between the light granites
In central-western NSW, gold-copper porphyry deposits under the basin, the heavy Lower Witwatersrand, the less
occur in association with andesitic volcanics. Regional aer- dense Upper Witwatersrand, and the dense lavas on top, all
omagnetic interpretation suggests the presence of a further of great thickness, cause substantial gravity anomalies
belt of prospective andesites (Jones, 1983). On the other (Roux, 1970; Corner et al., 1986a; Durrheim et al., 1986).
hand, ground magnetic lows indicate the presence of altered, The reefs of the Witwatersrand basin are typically found at
mineralized porphyries. depths of 500-4000m, where the deepest mines now operate.
In the Drake mineral field in northeastern NSW, covered Today's search targets comprise deeply buried basins and
by the Drake volcanics, the mapping of subtle IP effects structurally complex basin-edge areas, requiring more de-
showed that the gold-silver mineralization can be outlined by tailed information than the traditional magnetic and gravity
its association with hydrothermal alteration. The IP and data can provide (Campbell and Peace, 1984); a situation
resistivity study effectively resulted in alteration mapping,
akin to the search for hydrocarbons.
whereas geologic mapping mainly outlined lithologic and
Experimental seismic surveys for mapping the Witwa-
textural boundaries (Staltari, 1985). At Gidginbung (NSW)
tersrand basin had been conducted by the Union Corpora-
mineralization associated with sulfides is capped by a highly
tion in the 1950s, but proved of limited use because of poor
silicified zone of alteration making IP difficult to measure
resolution (Campbell and Peace, 1984). Since then, of
(Webster, 1985). At Cripple Creek, Colorado, negative grav-
course, advances in equipment and digital processing have
ity and magnetic anomalies occurred over a Tertiary vol-
greatly improved seismic records.
canic subsidence basin within Precambrian granite and
In 1982 and 1983, several wells in the West Rand and
gneiss (Kleinkopf et al., 1970).
Orange Free State were geophysically logged, producing
Archaean-Proterozoic sedimentary basins plots of sonic velocity and density. Reflection coefficients
were calculated and synthetic seismograms produced. In
The distribution of gold fields in the Witwatersrand basin 1983, seismic reflection tests were made, using a 96-channel
of South Africa is related to the pattern of structural depres- Vibroseis system. Vertical seismic profiles were also mea-
sions and highs in the form of domes of basement granite. sured in selected boreholes (Campbell and Peace, 1984).
The gold fields are located in the depressions between domes Despite relatively unpromising reflection coefficients found
and have the forms of fluvial fans or fan deltas (Campbell and in the original logging, good reflections were recorded and
Peace, 1984). The main features of the basin are clearly major geologic features identified. The vertical seismic pro-
Geophysical Exploration for Gold-A Review 143
WEST with some success (S. Tobin, Pers. comm.). The aims are to
/'
,.-.-........
'<, RESIDUAL GRAVITY PROFILE,.,- . ........-
- EAST
delineate faults and old river channels.
ro
DOl 'y ./
0'
E
04
08
,
"'._./',.,- /'
1
Placer deposits
'"
0' GRAVITY PROFILE \ \ -:
E ods in the Gulgong area. Some broad depressions were
16 indicated, thanks to a density contrast of 0.5 with bedrock.
.
12 " -. "" "" " _._.-.~
The Imperial Geophysical Experimental Survey (IGES) had
also attempted to follow the deep leads (channels) at Gul-
E
08
14SOl
BROWN SHAFT
FOREST SERVIC
E ROAD
'" gong, using a torsion balance, seismic refraction, and fan
shooting (Broughton Edge and Laby, 1931).
In California, Chapman et al. (1980) used gravity and
.- seismic refraction work to map partially buried channels of
c 1850-2000mp CLAY & ._
0 BASEMENT GRAV~l. J '-;~SEMENT SURFACE early Tertiary age (Figure 9). Here, also, there was a density
1400 . -.. ' " FR~~AFT
+-
ro
>
QJ I
-
.-....... ".... ..",
•_ FROM SEISMIC DATA
contrast of 0.5 between basement rocks and, in this case,
BASEMENT ROCKS auriferous gravels in channels. The gravity and refraction
W
1350 l 2800-5500mpl
100
and also showed as high resistivity (Middleton and Camp- Corner, B., 1985, Geophysics in South Africa: Geophysics, 50,
bell, 1979). Most of the main deposit had low resistivity (less 880-881.
Corner, B., Durrheim, R. J., and Nicolaysen, L. 0., 1986a, The
than 100 n·m). VLF-EM surveys were also used to map structural framework of the Witwatersrand Basin as revealed by
fractures and alteration zones. Tropical weathering appeared gravity and aeromagnetic data (abstract): Geocongress '86, Inter-
to enhance the conductivity of the fracture. nat. Earth Sciences Congr., Johannesburg, 27-30.
Corner, B., Durrheim, R. J., Rodney, B. C., Wilsher, W. A., and
According to Reid and Hedenquist (1984), patterns of low Steenkamp, W. B., 1986b, Aeromagnetic coverage of the Witwa-
magnetic signature were the guide to initial drilling and tersrand Basin and techniques used in its interpretation (abstract):
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discovery of the epithermal Hishikari deposit in Japan, Geocongress '86, Internat. Earth Sciences Congr., Johannesburg,
211-214.
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