Int'l Conference on Chemical, Biological, and Environmental Sciences (ICCBES’14) May 12-13, 2014 Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia)

Culture Potentials of Sea Cucumbers

(Echinodermata: Holothuroidea) and their
Biomedical Applications
M. Aminur Rahman


Abstract—Sea cucumbers (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea) either I. INTRODUCTION
fresh or in the form of their dried body-wall (bêche-de-mer), have
long been considered as a priced delicacy and medicinal cure for the
peoples of Asia over many decades. In the nutritional points of view,
I N the recent decades, invertebrate fisheries have expanded
in catch and value worldwide [1]. One increasingly
harvested marine invertebrates group is sea cucumbers,
sea cucumbers are enriched with valuable nutrients such as Vitamin
A, Vitamin B1 (thiamine), Vitamin B2 (riboflavin), Vitamin B3 belonging to the class Holothuroidea under the phylum
(niacin), and minerals, especially calcium, magnesium, iron and zinc. Echinodermata, which usually occur in the shallow benthic
A comprehensive number of unique biological and pharmacological areas and deep seas across the world [2]. Sea cucumbers are
activities including anti-angiogenic, anticoagulant, anticancer, anti- elongated tubular or flattened soft-bodied marine benthic
hypertension, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, invertebrates, typically with leathery skin, ranging in length
antithrombotic, antitumor and wound healing have been attributed to from a few millimetres to a metre [3, 4]. The major product in
various species of sea cucumbers. They have also long been well the sea cucumber is the boiled and dried body-wall, familiarly
recognized as a tonic and traditional remedy in Chinese and
known as ‘bêche-de-mer’ or ‘gamat’, for which there is an
Malaysian literature for their effectiveness against, asthma,
rheumatism, tuberculosis, stomach and duodenum ulceration, increasing demand for food delicacy and folk medicine in the
diabetes, aplastic anaemia. cuts and burns, impotence and communities of Asia and Middle East [2, 5, 6]. There is also a
constipation. In order to meet up the increasing market demands, the trade in sea cucumbers for home aquaria and biomedical
collection of sea cucumbers from the wild has seen a depletion of this products [7]. Sea cucumber fisheries had rapidly grown and
resource in the traditional fishing grounds close to Asia and more expanded due to the growing bêche-de-mer-related
recently the expansion of this activity to new and more distant international market, supported by continuing demand of these
fishing grounds. Presently, there has been documented that sea organisms for aquaculture and biomedical research programs
cucumbers fisheries are harvesting around most of the resource range [2, 8]. They have high commercial value coupled with
areas, including the remote parts of the Pacific, the Galapagos
increasing global production and trade and therefore,
Islands, Chile and the Russian Federation. This review shows that sea
cucumber stocks are under intense fishing pressure in many parts of
commercially fished and heavily overexploited in some areas
the world and need effective conservation measures. It also shows [2, 8]. The widespread and growing interest in this commodity
that sea cucumbers provide an important contribution to economies is indicative of strong market-based drivers to increase
and livelihoods of coastal communities, being the most commercially production of sea cucumber [9]. It also shows that sea
important fishery and non-finfish export in many countries. cucumbers provide an important contribution to economies
Reconciling the need for conservation with the socio-economic and livelihoods of coastal communities, being the most
importance of sea cucumber fisheries is shown to be a challenging economically important fishery and non-finfish export in
endeavour, particularly for the countries with limited management many countries [10]. Reconciling the need for conservation
capacity. Current research directions are looking at diversifying
with the socio-economic importance of sea cucumber fisheries
technology to increase success in a range of coastal conditions, better
understanding the social and biophysical conditions required for
is shown to be a challenging endeavour, particularly for the
success, and finding ways of effectively scaling-out developed countries with limited management capacity. Moreover, no
systems and technology. Moreover, no single management measure single management measure will work optimally due to the
will work optimally due to the many eccentricities of these important many idiosyncrasies of these fisheries. Many sea cucumber
fisheries, which are outlined in this document through a brief review fisheries still have no management system or restrictions in
of their biological, ecological, aquacultural, biomedicinal, place, and for those that do, the scenario for catches to
conservational, economical and social dimensions. continue even at a reduced level is poor [8]. Cultivation of
these species increasingly becomes a necessity, both for stock
Keywords—Sea cucumber, Bêche-de-mer, Life cycle, Breeding, enhancement programs and as a means to meet up market
Larval rearing, Aquaculture, Nutraceuticals, Biomedicine demand.

M. Aminur Rahman, Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, Institute of

Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor,
Malaysia. E-mail: [email protected]

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 Int'l Conference on Chemical, Biological, and Environmental Sciences (ICCBES’14) May 12-13, 2014 Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia)

II. SEA CUCUMBER AQUACULTURE scabra has a bi-annual peak in gonadosomatic index,
The species of sea cucumber targeted for culture, belong to indicating two spawning periods a year, but closer to the
two families, the deposit-feeding Aspidochirotida, which equator a proportion of the population spawns year-round [8,
includes the Holothuriidae and the Stichopodidae, and the 12]. Fertilization occurs spontaneously once the gametes are
suspension feeding Dendrochirotida, which includes the genus allowed to mix in seawater; the fertilized eggs are held in
Cucumaria. The cultivatable species of sea cucumbers are suspension by aeration and egg development is rapid. Larval
dioecious, broadcast spawners, the fertilized eggs developing life cycle of H. scabra is almost around 14 days at 28°C,
into planktonic larvae before settling and undergoing including the feeding or auricularia stage, the doliolaria or
metamorphosis to the juvenile sea cucumber. The average life non-feeding stage and settling pentacula stage (Fig. 2). As
span of a sea cucumber is thought to be 5–10 years and most with many other larval Echinoderms, sea cucumber larvae are
species first reproduce at 2–6 years. A number of species are fed a mixture of microalgal species, with the number of algal
reported to reproduce asexually by fission, and this has been cells provided gradually being increased over the larval life to
examined as a technique to propagate commercially important be completed. Holothuria scabra larvae can feed and grow
species [11]. They also have the capability to eviscerate part well on a diet of the red microalgae Rhodomonas salina and
or all of their internal organs as a defence against predation, the brown diatom Chaetoceros calcitrans [8, 12].
the shed organs being rapidly regenerated.
Cultivation of sea cucumbers originated in Japan in the
1930s and juveniles of the temperate species Stichopus
japonicus (Fig. 1A) were first produced in 1950 [12]. During
the last 15 years, commercial production in Japan has
accelerated, where annually an estimated 2.5 million juveniles
are released. In China, cultured rather than fished S. japonicus
now account for around 50% of the country’s estimated
annual production of dry sea cucumber [8]. Procedures for
mass culture of the tropical Holothuria scabra (Fig. 1B) are
now well established and practiced in Australia, India,
Indonesia, the Maldives and the Solomon Islands [12]. Other
tropical species in culture include Actinopyga mauritania (Fig.
1C) and H. fuscogilva (Fig. 1 D), with the focus of the
research effort centered on the production of juveniles in
hatcheries for the restoration and enhancement of wild stocks
[13, 14]

Fig. 2. Spawning, fertilization and a 14-day larval life-cycle of a

cultured sea cucumber (Holothuria scabra) at a water temperature of
28oC [8, 12].

Metamorphosis and settlement are critical stages in the

development and culture of sea cucumber larvae. High
survival is dependent on the larvae being competent to
metamorphose and then responding to settlement cues.
Competent pentacula larvae are provided with a substrate of
Fig.1. Major commercially important species of sea cucumbers in bacteria and diatoms, which provide the appropriate
aquaculture: A) Stichopus japonicas, B) Holothuria scabra, C) settlement cues, and to which they adhere with their buccal
Actinopyga mauritania and D) Holothuria fuscogilva. podia. Typically, S. japonicus is settled on PVC plates coated
with small periphytic diatoms such as Navicula, Amphora,
Brood stock of Stichopus japonicus is usually collected Achnanthes and Nitzchia sp. The plates are coated in outdoor
from the wild in spring, when they attain appropriate sexual tanks in direct sunlight, although the light intensity, nutrient
maturity [8]. The broodstock is most commonly induced to enrichment and copepod levels must be controlled to produce
spawn through thermal stimulation, by increasing the seawater suitable plates [8]. Leaves of the sea grass (Thallassia
temperature in holding tanks by 3–5°C for 1 h. Generally, H. hemprichii) are the preferred settlement substrate of H. scabra

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 Int'l Conference on Chemical, Biological, and Environmental Sciences (ICCBES’14) May 12-13, 2014 Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia)

and soluble extracts of the leaves have been shown to induce Currently pond culture has become the most suitable method
settlement onto clean plastic surfaces [8]. Post-settlement of sea cucumber farming (Fig. 4). In the Asia Pacific region,
juvenile sea cucumbers are grown either on diatom-coated aquaculture is still in the early development stages, with one
plates, held in fine mesh bags in tanks or on the bottom of species of sea cucumber (Holothuria scabra) in trials to
tanks, where juveniles of 10–20 mm are transferred to a fine ascertain the commercial viability of culture and farming
sand substrate and fed a diet supplemented by algal extracts or options. Many additional threats have been identified for sea
powdered algae. Newly settled juveniles attach firmly to cucumber populations worldwide, including global warming,
settlement surfaces and can be difficult to detach. Throughout habitat destruction, unsustainable fishing, the development of
the juvenile stage it is necessary to periodically detach the fisheries with little or no information on the species, and lack
juveniles from the substrate for grading, transfer between of natural recovery after overexploitation. Illegal, Unregulated
tanks or to supply fresh substrates. KCl (0.5–1%) in seawater and Unreported (IUU) fisheries are widespread in all regions,
is an effective agent for detaching H. scabra from settlement representing an indirect threat as it fuels unsustainable
surfaces [8]. The use of KCl does not harm juvenile sea practices and socio-economic demand. The critical status of
cucumbers but does effectively kill some tropical copepods sea cucumber fisheries worldwide is compounded by different
[12]. factors including i) the lack of financial and technical capacity
After a nursery phase of 6-month, when the juvenile S. to gather basic scientific information to support management
japonicus grows to a length of 4–8 cm, are released to plans, ii) weak surveillance and enforcement capacity, and iii)
managed areas of the seafloor. They are recovered after 1 year lack of political will and socio-economic pressure exerted by
when they measure approximately 20 cm [8]. There is a lack the communities that rely on this fishery as an important
of information on growth rates and survivorship in tropical source of income. The fast pace of development of sea
species, and, as with all Holothuria, measurements of growth cucumber fisheries to supply the growing international
are complicated by their ability to change shape, eviscerate demand for bêche-de-mer is placing most fisheries and many
and retain water and sediment in the gut and coelomic cavity sea cucumber species at risk. The pervasive trend of
[8]. However, Battaglene et al. [12] suggest there should be no overfishing, and mounting examples of local economic
impediment to the large-scale production of juvenile H. extinctions, urges immediate action for conserving stocks
scabra for stock enhancement programs provided they can be biodiversity and ecosystem functioning and resilience from
released at a size of 6 cm and with a weight of 20 g. The three other stressors than overfishing (e.g. global warming and
months it takes to produce juvenile H. scabra of this size (Fig. ocean acidification), and therefore sustaining the ecological,
3) and the ease of rearing them under active consideration for social and economic benefits of these natural resources [10].
grow-out culture and stock enhancement [12].

Fig. 3. Current successful aquaculture practices of sea cucumbers in

earthen ponds at Shan Dong province and Dalian in China

III. THERAPEUTIC AND BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS FROM SEA

CUCUMBERS
Majority of the recently available functional foods and
therapeutic agents are derived either directly or indirectly
Fig. 3. Three-month old juveniles of H. scabra for grow-out culture from a wide variety of terrestrial plants and marine organisms.
and stock enhancement Owing to the richest oceanic biodiversity, marine organisms
are valuable sources of nutritious foods as well as represent
Aquaculture, sea ranching and re stocking have been novel reservoirs of biologically active compounds with
evaluated as possible solutions to wild sea cucumber biomedical applications. Sea cucumbers are one of the benthic
overexploitation, and some countries have started such marine invertebrates which are important as human food
ventures (e.g. Australia, China, Kiribati, Philippines, Viet source, particularly in some parts of Asia. Sea cucumbers have
Nam and Madagascar). Restocking has been considered an been well recognized as a tonic and traditional remedy in
expensive remedy to overfishing. Currently, China is Chinese and Malaysian literature for their effectiveness
successfully producing an estimated 10,000 tons, dry weight, against hypertension, asthma, rheumatism, cuts and burns,
of Stichopus japonicus from aquaculture, mainly to supply impotence and constipation [5, 15–19]. Nutritionally, sea
local demand. Due to the prawn diseases happened in 1990s, a cucumbers have an impressive profile of valuable nutrients
lots of prawn ponds are unused, so the farmers started pond such as Vitamin A, Vitamin B1 (thiamine), Vitamin B2
culture of sea cucumber in Shan Dong province and Dalian. (riboflavin), Vitamin B3 (niacin), and minerals, especially

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 Int'l Conference on Chemical, Biological, and Environmental Sciences (ICCBES’14) May 12-13, 2014 Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia)

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