Scholarly Journal of Science Research and Essay Vol. 5(1), pp.

1-5, March 2016

Available online http:// www.scholarly-journals.com/SJSRE
ISSN 2315-6147 © 2016 Scholarly-Journals

Review

The Psychological impact of Kidnapping

Francis A. Akwash
Department of Psychology Faculty of Social Sciences Nasarawa State University, Keffi.
Email: [email protected]
Accepted 10 March, 2016

Kidnapping is one of the most psychologically damaging crimes of all. Victims typically take many
years to heal from the psychological wounds inflicted upon them, and some never completely recover.
Kidnappings cause deep emotional and mental scars that leave victims to battle through issues of
trust, independence, love, sex, respect, and a litany of others. This research work looks into
psychological basis for kidnapping. First to understand the reason and motives of kidnappings and to
understand its effects on victims in order to provide effective help to them, their families and the
society at large. The psychology behind kidnapping often leads back to a need for power over an
individual. Ransom kidnappers may have some of the same motives, but are usually more concerned
with the financial gains of their crimes. Kidnapping places its victims under psychological pressure
similar to those that experience trauma. People who have survived kidnapping often go on to battle
issues of trust for the rest of their lives, as being deprived of freedom and being held against their will
can erode trust in humanity as a whole. It is necessary for victims to undergo cognitive behavioral
therapy. It involves allowing the victim to change their way of thinking, replacing negatives for
positives, until they have reached a point in which their worldviews are different.

Key words: Kidnapping, attachment, therapy, victims, trauma.

INTRODUCTION

Kidnapping is a growing global epidemic with no realistic Unlike sexual kidnappings, ransom kidnappings require
solution. According to Overseas Security Advisory the abductors keep their victims from harm. Sadly, even
Council (OSAC), Nigeria in the recent years is among the in ransom kidnappings, the abductor may have no real
top ten countries with high kidnapping incidence globally. intention of ever returning the victim.
By definition kidnapping is “the taking away or If a kidnapper is going to take a hostage for ransom, he
transportation of a person against the person’s will, will target the victim based upon an outward appearance
usually to hold the person in false imprisonment, a of wealth or information given to him from someone who
confinement without legal authority.” This may be done knows the victim intimately, such as a household
for ransom or in furtherance of another crime, or in employee, a bank teller, a waitress at the victim’s favorite
connection with a child custody dispute. Non-custodial restaurant or someone else that suspects that the victim
parent abductions of children were, by far, the number has a lot of cash. Hostage-for-ransom victims tend to
one type of kidnapping occurring across the globe in survive their ordeal.
2010 and often do not get included in the most common Zealots, extremists and terrorists tend to target their
statistical reporting of abductions. victims based upon such things as nationality, ethnicity,
When it comes to kidnapping, in terms of forensic religion, social status or organizational affiliation (i.e.
psychology, there are generally a few main motivations. employees of a specific company or political party might
First and foremost is sexual gratification. Often a person be targeted). Unfortunately, because the primary aim of
will kidnap in order to hold the victim prisoner as a sexual these types of abductions is to create sensationalism, be
slave. In extreme cases, kidnappers may torture and kill visible or to make a statement, the percentage of
their victims when they no longer have any use for them. hostages that are killed can be quite high. Strong emotion
These types of cases are incredibly disturbing and often and mental defect also play a large part in the overall
leave a lasting impact on the psyche of society. number of kidnappings. The kidnapping of a child by a
Kidnappers may also commit their crimes for ransom. non-custodial parent or other adult is usually based upon
 Scholarly J. Sci. Res. and Essay 2

an emotion upheaval created when the kidnapper feels complete power over their victims. A kidnapper's
that the child’s welfare and best interests are at risk or mentality is that once they have another human being in
that the child will be gone completely from their lives. their possession, that person has to rely on them for
Non-custodial parent kidnappings also occur out of spite everything, including food and water, and it is this power
or revenge. People take hostages during periods of rage that drives many kidnappers to commit these gruesome
and profound loss, too. Gender-based kidnappings occur acts. Ransom kidnappers may have some of the same
as well; the mentally disturbed who have sexual motives, but are usually more concerned with the
deviancies often target people just because they are financial gains of their crimes. Regardless of the motive,
male or female. The kidnapping itself involves a sudden a person who commits the offense of kidnapping often
and unpredictable life threatening experience. has disordered thinking, either as a result of a mental
Subsequently, the victim is placed under the complete disorder, a personality disorder, or a combination of both.
control of the abuser who determines when the victim can The most unfortunate aspect of kidnappings, however, is
eat, go to the bathroom, and sleep. The lack of privacy the psychological effects it has on victims. People who
(the victim must eat and relieve him-, or herself in front of have survived kidnapping often go on to battle issues of
the abuser) coupled with absolute vulnerability (there is trust for the rest of their lives, as being deprived of
usually sleep deprivation, nakedness, and social freedom and being held against their will can erode trust
isolation) results in an almost infantile state of in humanity as a whole. Some victims may even become
dependency upon the abuser. In this way, the distrustful of family members, believing their families
abuser/tormentor also becomes an attachment figure, the didn't do enough to get them back or to protect them from
person who relieves the victim's pain, isolation, hunger, being abducted in the first place. This can begin a vicious
and all other physical and social-emotional needs. If this cycle of disordered thinking within victims' lives, leading
dependency is combined with threats that escape will be to difficulty in relationships both personal and
futile and/or lead to more pain and suffering and/or pain professional.
and suffering to the victim's family, then once given Furthermore, kidnapping victims may have
apparent liberty of movement and lack of supervision, the psychological disturbances in other aspects of their
victim will not try to escape. The victim becomes everyday lives. Trouble sleeping is one of the most
psychologically bound to the abuser. common reported psychological impacts of kidnapping,
as the victims are afraid to fall asleep and let their guard
Statement of Problem down, lest they be taken again. Sexual effects are also
likely in cases of kidnappings that involved sexual abuse.
Although the history of kidnapping and hostage-taking is Survivors may find it hard to trust their partners or to
a very long one, it is only relatively recently that there has allow themselves to be vulnerable. Victims of abduction
been a systematic attempt to understand the effects, both may need many years of therapy to overcome the sexual
long-term and short-term, on individuals and their damage of kidnapping, and to form healthy sexual
families. This is an important issue for clinical and relationships.
academic reasons. The advice of mental health
professionals is sought with increasing frequency with Psychological effects
regard to the strategic management of hostage incidents
and the clinical management of those who have been In general terms, the psychological impact of being taken
abducted. There is evidence to suggest that how best to hostage is similar to that of being exposed to other
help those who have been taken hostage is a sensitive trauma, including terrorist incidents and disasters for
and complex matter, and those who deal with such adults and children.
individuals should be as well informed as possible since
such events can have long-term adverse consequences, Typical adult reactions include:
particularly on young children. Kidnapping is one of the
most psychologically damaging crimes of all. Victims 1. Cognitive: impaired memory and concentration;
typically take many years to heal from the psychological confusion and disorientation; intrusive thoughts
wounds inflicted upon them, and some never completely (‘flashbacks’) and memories; denial (i.e. that the event
recover. Kidnappings cause deep emotional and mental has happened); hyper vigilance and hyper arousal (a
scars that leave victims to battle through issues of trust, state of feeling too aroused, with a profound fear of
independence, love, sex, respect, and a litany of others. another incident).
The psychology behind kidnapping often leads back to 2. Emotional: shock and numbness; fear and anxiety (but
a need for power over an individual. As sexual panic is not common); helplessness and hopelessness;
kidnappings also include rape, battery, and homicide, the dissociation (feeling numb and ‘switched off’ emotionally);
abductor is typically not simply perpetrating the act for anger (at anybody – perpetrators, themselves and the
physical gratification. Sexual kidnappers are thrilled by authorities); anhedonia (loss of pleasure in doing that
the psychological aspect of the act, as they hold which was previously pleasurable); depression (a
Akwash 3

reaction to loss); guilt (e.g. at having survived if others the provision of food. When a victim is held captive the
died, and for being taken hostage). victim would rely on their captor for basic needs. These
3. Social: withdrawal; irritability; avoidance (of reminders needs are usually withheld to inflict pain and then it is
of the event). Denial (i.e. a complete or partial failure to given as reward for compliance. Over a period of time the
acknowledge what has really happened) has often been victim would learn to associate the feeder with the
maligned as a response to extreme stress, but it has comfort of being fed and through the process of classical
survival value (at least in the short term) by allowing the conditioning, come to find contact with the captor
individual a delayed period during which he/she has time comforting. They also find that certain behaviors (e.g.
to adjust to a painful reality. compliance) bring desirable responses from others (e.g.
comfort), and through the process of operant conditioning
Two extreme reactions have also been noted, namely, learn to repeat these behaviors in order to get the things
‘frozen fright’ and ‘psychological infantilism’. The former they want.
refers to a paralysis of the normal emotional reactivity of
the individual, and the latter reaction is characterized by
regressed behaviour such as clinging and excessive DISCUSSION
dependence on the captors.
Extended periods of captivity may also lead to ‘learned There are generally a few main motivations for
helplessness’ in which individuals come to believe that no kidnapping; sexual gratification, Kidnappers may also
matter what they do to improve their circumstances, commit their crimes for ransom. Motives can be divided
nothing is effective. The International Classification of into ‘expressive’ (i.e. an effort to voice and/or publicize a
Mental and Behavioural Disorders (ICD-10) also grievance or express a frustrated emotion) and
recognizes the ‘Enduring personality change after a ‘instrumental’ (i.e. to obtain a particular outcome such as
catastrophic experience’ as a possible chronic outcome ransom). In reality it is usually difficult to identify any
after a hostage incident. This condition is characterized single motive, particularly when the event is terrorist-
by: inspired. Material motives (e.g. ransom) may be
conveniently masked by alleged religious, political and
1. A hostile or mistrustful attitude; moral ones. Moreover, ransoms may be used to fund
2. Social withdrawal and estrangement; political and religious activities. Also, some insurgency
3. Feelings of emptiness or hopelessness; groups sell hostages on to other groups for their own
purposes. The taking of foreign hostages has become a
A chronic feeling of being ‘on edge’ as if constantly particularly popular modus operandi for terrorists (who
threatened. tend to be well-organized and selective in their ‘target’
hostages), particularly due to their cynical but generally
Denial, ‘frozen fright’, ‘psychological infantilism’ and effective use of extensive media coverage.
‘learned helplessness’ are not age-specific. Children may Also, the frequency of kidnapping of overseas
also display: school refusal, loss of interest in studies, personnel has markedly increased in Nigeria since the
dependent and regressed behaviour, preoccupation with last 5 years. Most incidents in Nigeria are carried out by
the event, playing at being the ‘rescuer’, stubborn and criminal gangs for ransom with motives there appear to
oppositional behaviour, and risk-taking. The impact can be largely criminal, for financial gain, rather than political.
be particularly serious if the children have been detained Sometimes such events can be described as ‘Economic
over an extended period and if the incident entailed a Extortive Kidnapping’. However, kidnapping for ransom is
breach of trust. a part of a larger story. The current wave of kidnapping
began with the abduction of expatriate oil workers by the
Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger-Delta
Attachment (MEND, a youth group) in late 2005 as a means of
alerting the world of the many years of injustice,
According to research, hostage survivors often develop exploitation, marginalization and underdevelopment of
an unconscious bond to their captors and experience Niger-Delta region. Like an inferno, other states outside
grief if their captors are harmed. Attachment does not the Niger-Delta region are drawn to this evil practice,
have to be reciprocal. One person may have an mostly for monetary purposes. The shift in focus has
attachment to an individual which is not shared. been tremendous, from kidnapping of expatriate oil
Attachment is characterized by specific behaviors in workers to relatives of politicians to relatives of those in
children, such as seeking proximity with the attachment the Diaspora and now anybody on sight. Kidnapping
figure when upset or threatened (Bowlby, 1969). Learning takes place anytime and anywhere, in the churches, on
/ behaviorist theory of attachment (e.g. Dollard & Miller, the streets, in the hospitals and even at home. This
1950) suggest that attachment is a set of learned random abduction makes kidnap anxiety inducing to the
behaviors. The basis for the learning of attachments is general populace because any person could be a victim.
 Scholarly J. Sci. Res. and Essay 4

The motive for kidnap to a great deal determine how the decreased concentration, being overcautious and aware,
victim is treated, and it accounts for the chances of confusion or fear of the event happening again.
survival or death. When the kidnap is done with terrorist Emotions: Shock, numbness, anxiety, guilt, depression,
intention or for political reasons, there may be physical anger and a sense of helplessness.
torture, terrible treatment and frequent treat of being Interactions: Withdrawal and avoidance of family,
killed. Generally, kidnap places its victims under friends, activities and being on edge.
psychological pressure similar to those that experience
trauma. The shock of an unprecedented event, the Such reactions to an extremely stressful event are
sudden realization of being held captive loads their mind understandable and normal. These are typical responses
with trauma inducing thoughts. As their captors begin to and generally decrease after a period of time. It is
unfold the mystery behind their abduction, either common for people's reactions to vary from one individual
demanding for some money (ransom) from family to another.
members or for some conditions to be met before their In terms of healing from the psychological strain of
release; all these process affects the victims being a kidnap victim, it is necessary for victims to
psychologically. undergo cognitive behavioral therapy. It involves allowing
Kidnapers threaten their victims in order to compel the victim to change their way of thinking, replacing
them to release certain information about family members negatives for positives, until they have reached a point in
or related issues, depending on the purpose of their which their worldviews are different. An event such as a
abduction. Often time victims are threatened with death kidnapping can cause very deep negative connections to
or the threat of cutting of some part of the body, some be made within the mind of a victim, and these
victims experience physical battery; some are often connections need to be rewired in order to reach a point
beaten or tortured till they slump off. These threats of normalcy once again. Cognitive-behavioral treatments
psychologically affect the victims even after the event. involve attempting to change the individual’s thoughts,
Symptoms including disturbing recurring flashbacks, beliefs, emotions, and physiological arousal as well as
avoidance or numbing of memories of the event, and their behavior, such as their coping behaviors and social
hyper arousal, continue after the occurrence of the skills. It is usually based in the social learning theory.
kidnap. Also, Kidnap victims frequently experience Another type of treatment mentioned by Brooks-Gordon
"survivor's guilt" for remaining alive while others died in et al. (2006) that is often used is behavioral intervention,
cases were others were killed. In other cases they feel also known as behavior modification or behavior therapy.
this guilt for releasing personal information about their These interventions include aversion therapy (exposure
family members to their captors and depending on their to deviant material followed by aversive stimulus), covert
captors for basic daily needs. It makes them feel like they sensitization (imagining deviant sexual experience until
permitted the evil or that they were part of the process. In arousal and then imagining powerful negative
general terms, the psychological impact of being taken experience), and olfactory conditioning (an unpleasant
hostage is similar to that of being exposed to other odour is paired with a high-risk sexual situation) (Brooks-
trauma, including terrorist incidents and disasters for Gordon et al., 2006).
adults and children. One last type of therapy that may be used is
psychodynamic therapy which involves insight-oriented or
Therapy supportive approaches in an individual session.

Freedom almost always brings a sense of elation and

relief. However, adjusting back to the real world after CONCLUSION
being held hostage can be just as difficult as abruptly
leaving it. Upon release, many hostage survivors are It is imperative for parents and society as a whole to be
faced with transitioning from conditions of isolation and more actively involved in assisting kidnap victims. In
helplessness to sensory overload and freedom. This order to help reduce the psychological effect of kidnap,
transition often results in significant adjustment Psychological debriefing is the most simple and often
difficulties. They may also feel guilty for developing a used preventive measure, partly because of the relative
bond. This is typically referred to as the Stockholm ease with which this treatment can be given to individuals
syndrome. Hostage survivors may also have feelings of directly following an event. It consists of interviews that
guilt for surviving while others did not. It is important for are meant to allow individuals to directly confront the
survivors to recognize that these are usual human event and share their feelings with the counselor and to
reactions to being held captive. help structure their memories of the event. Involving
Hostage and kidnap survivors can experience stress social supports, interpersonal psychotherapy, and
reactions. Typical reactions occur in: relaxation therapy may also be important. Physical
activity can have an impact on people's psychological
Thinking: Intrusive thoughts, denial, impaired memory, wellbeing and physical health. The U.S. National Center
Akwash 5

for PTSD recommends moderate exercise as a way to Navia, C.E and Ossa, M. (2003). Family functioning, coping and
psychological adjustment in victims and their families following
distract from disturbing emotions, build self-esteem and
kidnapping. J Trauma Stress. 16:107–12.
increase feelings of being in control again. Needham, J. (1977). Neutralization of Prison Hostage Situations.
They recommend a discussion with a doctor before Huntsville, TX: Sam Houston State University.
starting an exercise program. Play is thought to help Prior, V. and Glaser, D. (2006). Understanding attachment and
attachment disorders: Theory, evidence and practice. Jessica
children link their inner thoughts with their outer world,
Kingsley Publishers.
connecting real experiences with abstract thought. Speckhard, A., Tabrina, N., Krasnov, V. and Mufel, N. (2005).
Repetitive play can also be one of the ways a child "Stockholm Effects and Psychological Responses to Captivity in
relives traumatic events, and that can be a symptom of Hostages Held by Suicidal Terrorists." Psychological Responses to
the new Terrorism: A NATO Russia Dialogue, IOS Press. p. 29.
traumatization in a child or young person. To defeat
Transparency International (2014). Corruption Perception Index,
kidnappers and abduction attempts, it is imperative for retrieved 22nd April 2015.
parents and society as a whole to be more vigilant, as Uzochukwu, M. (2015). Kidnapping: Overview, Causes, Effects, and
well as continue to be educated about avoiding Solutions, retrieved 25th April 2015.
dangerous situations. In the age of the Internet, this is
even more important, as predators use this technology to
gain access to people every day. Only when we all
recognize the dangers that exist in our communities can
we begin to eradicate these dangers.

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