Professional Documents
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Chapter Orofacial Pain
Chapter Orofacial Pain
▼
OROFACIAL PAIN
BRUCE BLASBERG, DMD, FRCD(C)
MARTIN S. GREENBERG, DDS
307
308 Orofacial Pain and Temporomandibular Disorders
“Note: Pain is always subjective. Each individual learns the personality on the experience of illness and on reactions to ill-
application of the word through experiences related to injury ness. The social system deals with cultural, environmental, and
in early life. Biologists recognize that those stimuli which familial influences on the expression and experience of illness.
cause pain are liable to damage tissue. Accordingly, pain is that Each system affects and is affected by all of the others.3
experience we associate with actual or potential tissue dam-
The words “pain” and “suffering” have often been used
age. It is unquestionably a sensation in a part or parts of the
synonymously, but the experience of suffering has been dif-
body, but it is also always unpleasant and therefore also an
emotional experience. Experiences which resemble pain but ferentiated from pain. Suffering has been defined as includ-
are not unpleasant, eg, pricking, should not be called pain. ing the experience of pain but as also including vulnerabil-
Unpleasant abnormal experiences (dysesthesias) may also be ity, dehumanization, a lost sense of self, blocked coping
pain but are not necessarily so because, subjectively, they may efforts, lack of control over time and space, and an inability
not have the usual sensory qualities of pain. to find meaning or purpose in the painful experience.2 The
Many people report pain in the absence of tissue dam- term “suffering” attempts to convey the experience of pain
age or any likely pathophysiological cause; usually this hap- beyond sensory attributes.
pens for psychological reasons. There is usually no way to
distinguish their experience from that due to tissue damage Anatomic Considerations
if we take the subjective report. If they regard their experi-
Cranial nerve V (CN V), the trigeminal nerve, is the dominant
ence as pain and if they report it in the same ways as pain
nerve that relays sensory impulses from the orofacial area to the
caused by tissue damage, it should be accepted as pain. This
definition avoids tying pain to the stimulus. Activity central nervous system. The facial (CN VII), glossopharyngeal
induced in the nociceptor and nociceptive pathways by a (CN IX), and vagus (CN X) nerves and the upper cervical
noxious stimulus is not pain, which is always a psychologi- nerves (C2 and C3) also relay sensory information from the face
cal state, even though we may well appreciate that pain most and surrounding area (Table 11-1). (For a more detailed study
often has a proximate physical cause.”1 of this topic, the reader is referred to the sources listed in the
“Suggested Readings” section at the end of this chapter.)
Pain, in the medical model, is considered a symptom of dis- Primary sensory neurons associated with pain (nocicep-
ease, to be diagnosed and treated. Unfortunately, a cause and tors) are characterized by small-diameter axons with slow con-
a diagnosis cannot always be established. Repeated attempts to duction velocities (ie, finely myelinated A delta fibers and
identify a physical cause may result in unnecessary and some- unmyelinated C fibers) (Figure 11-1). Nociceptors are acti-
times harmful investigations and treatments. Establishing a vated by intense or noxious stimuli. Some are unimodal and
precise diagnosis and providing effective treatment have respond only to thermal or mechanical stimuli; others are
become major challenges in medicine and dentistry. This has polymodal and respond to mechanical, thermal, and chemical
led to the development of a biobehavioral or biopsychosocial stimuli. Nociceptors encode the intensity, duration, and qual-
model to explain the phenomena observed in patients experi- ity of a noxious stimulus.
encing chronic pain. In this model, pain is not divided into Information associated with pain is carried in the three
physical versus psychological components. Instead, physical, divisions of the trigeminal nerve to the trigeminal sensory
psychological, and social factors are viewed as mutually influ- ganglion. The central processes of these neurons enter the
ential forces with the potential to create an infinite number of pons, where they descend in the brainstem as the spinal
unique pain experiences.2 The biologic system deals with the trigeminal tract. Fibers from the spinal trigeminal tract synapse
anatomic, structural, and molecular substrates of disease. The in the adjacent trigeminal nucleus that extends parallel to the
psychological system deals with the effects of motivation and tract in the brainstem. The spinal nucleus of CN V extends
TABLE 11-1 Cranial and Cervical Nerves That Provide Somatic and Visceral Sensation to the Orofacial Area
Nerve General Area Served
V: Trigeminal Skin of face, forehead and scalp as far as the top of the head; conjunctiva and bulb of the eye; oral and nasal mucosa; part of
the external aspect of the tympanic membrane; teeth; anterior two-thirds of tongue; masticatory muscles; TMJ; meninges of
anterior and middle cranial fossae
VII: Facial Skin of the hollow of the auricle of the external ear; small area of skin behind the ear
IX: Glossopharyngeal Mucosa of the pharynx; fauces; palatine tonsils; posterior one-third of the tongue; internal surface of the tympanic
membrane; skin of the external ear
X: Vagus Skin at the back of the ear; posterior wall and floor of external auditory meatus; tympanic membrane; meninges of posterior
cranial fossa; pharynx; larynx
Cervical nerve 2 Back of the head extending to the vertex; behind and above the ear; submandibular, anterior neck
from the chief sensory nucleus of CN V to the spinal cord, Measurement of Pain and Disability
where it merges with the dorsal gray matter. The spinal nucleus
There is no simple method of measuring pain. The intensity of
is divided into three nuclei; the most caudal, the nucleus cau- an individual’s pain is based on what is verbally or nonverbally
dalis, is continuous with and resembles the dorsal horn of the communicated about the experience. Patients often express dif-
cervical spinal cord.4 Morphologic, clinical, and electrophysi- ficulty describing pain, and two people may have very different
ologic observations indicate that the nucleus caudalis is the descriptions for pain that accompanies a similar injury. Within
principal site in the brainstem for nociceptive information.5–7 a specific diagnosis, great variability exists regarding the dis-
Axons from the spinal nucleus of CN V cross to the opposite abling effects of pain on an individual’s life. Adding to this
side and ascend to the ventral posteromedial nucleus of the complexity is the lack of a direct correlation between the sever-
thalamus and also project to the reticular formation and the ity of a chronic pain disorder and the magnitude of the
medial and intralaminar thalamic nuclei. From the thalamus, anatomic or pathologic change described by the clinical diag-
neurons course and end at the somatosensory cortex. nosis.8 In assessing OFP patients, pain intensity, emotional dis-
310 Orofacial Pain and Temporomandibular Disorders
a specific OFP diagnosis and assessing the psychosocial and to treatments based on specific remedies, or to the routine
behavioral issues is critical in the treatment and prognosis of methods of pain control such as non-narcotic analgesics.”1
chronic pain. As pain persists, psychosocial issues (including depression,
Dworkin, LeResche, and colleagues have developed a maladaptive beliefs about pain, medication abuse, strained inter-
method for assessing dysfunctional chronic pain as part of personal relationships, and ineffective coping strategies) become
a classification system, the Research Diagnostic Criteria.20 prominent aspects of the disorder.24,25 The term “chronic pain
They used the Graded Chronic Pain Severity scale,21 the syndrome” has been used to describe a condition that may have
depression and vegetative-symptom scales from the symp- started because of an organic cause but is now compounded by
tom checklist-90-revised (SCL-90-R),22 and a “jaw disabil- psychological and social problems. The term has been criticized
ity checklist.” All three of these scales are based on ques- since it may obscure more-accurate physical and psychiatric
tionnaires that are completed by the patient. The criteria diagnoses. It has sometimes been used pejoratively and has been
were developed to advance the research in temporo- interpreted by some to suggest a pain disorder that is psycho-
mandibular disorders. The criteria require validation, but logical.1 Originally, this label was used in an attempt to charac-
the design of the classification makes it applicable to clini- terize a disorder that (regardless of its original cause) had
cal practice. The Graded Chronic Pain Severity scale has evolved into a condition in which psychological and social prob-
four grades of disability and pain intensity based on seven lems were contributing to the persistence or exacerbation of the
questions, of which three are related to pain intensity and illness and in which significant disability was present.
four are related to disability. The SCL-90-R depression scales In situations in which no ongoing peripheral injury was
are used to identify patients who may be experiencing sig- present to explain the pain, it was assumed that the pain was
nificant depression, a problem commonly associated with psychological. Patients need to be educated about the psycho-
chronic pain. These issues are discussed further in the sec- logical distress and depression that can be a consequence of
tion on assessment in this chapter. chronic pain. This is an important issue for clinicians and
patients because of the demoralization and doubt patients
▼ CHRONIC PAIN develop about the condition and about their mental health.
plex regional pain syndrome (CRPS). The relationship may be A substantial group of chronic pain patients can be char-
a coupling mediated by the neurotransmitter noradrenaline, acterized as “dysfunctional” because of a consistent pattern of
which is released from sympathetic nerve endings acting on α- high levels of pain severity, affective distress, life interference,
adrenoreceptors in the membrane of afferent neurons, caus- and lower-than-average levels of life control and activity.36
ing depolarization. The mechanism is thought to be more The loss of customary roles at work, in the family, and in social
likely a sensitivity of the somatosensory system than a hyper- settings, accompanied by the realization that neither one’s own
activity of the sympathetic efferent system.29 best efforts nor the interventions of highly respected health
care professionals have been effective, is a major stressor.
Behavioral Issues Challenges to the legitimacy of the complaints also represent
The observation that some individuals with high levels of pain a major source of stress. Excess use of medical services, hospi-
continue to work while others are completely disabled led to talizations for surgery, and abuse of medications are part of the
the exploration of behavioral assessment and theories as a profile of patients with dysfunctional chronic pain.
possible explanation.30 Behavioral theories suggest that pain
behaviors influence and are influenced by the patient’s social Treatment
environment.30,31 The behavioral model views the pain behav- Treatment that is specific to a particular pain disorder is dis-
ior and associated disability as being as important as the cussed in a later section. The following is a discussion of gen-
underlying pathophysiology. A major goal in therapy is to eral principles of treatment.
modify pain behavior, thus improving function even when Even though it may occur in different locations, chronic
pain itself cannot be treated directly. Behavior therapy focuses pain tends to have certain characteristics regardless of the
on eliminating or reducing maladaptive behavior without the- anatomic diagnosis or site. This tendency has led to the
orizing about inner conflicts. It is based on principles of learn- development of treatments to address the effects of chronic
ing theory, particularly operant and classic conditioning.3 pain and to restore activity. These therapies are applied in
Pain itself can be viewed as a stress. The consequences of multidisciplinary pain clinics (MPCs) regardless of whether
chronic pain (eg, loss of income, marital difficulties) are also pain is arising from the jaw, neck, back, or other anatomic
significant stressors. Emotional distress is a component of pain, site. MPCs have been organized in response to the recogni-
but it is also a consequence of pain, a cause of pain, or a con- tion that pain is a complex physiologic, psychological, and
current problem with independent sources. These distinctions sociologic experience beyond the expertise of any individ-
have not always been made clear, and there has been debate and ual or discipline. Interdisciplinary therapy includes educa-
confusion concerning whether emotional processes should be tion, counseling, medication, pain management techniques
conceptualized as causes or consequences of pain.32 The belief (eg, electrical nerve stimulation techniques, nerve-blocking
that chronic pain is a psychological disorder arose from two procedures, and acupuncture), psychological therapy (eg,
unproven assumptions: (1) chronic pain patients are a homo- cognitive, behavioral), relaxation training (eg, biofeedback,
geneous group whose pain can be explained in terms of a more mental imagery, yoga, and meditation), hypnosis, occupa-
or less consistent constellation of personality characteristics, tional therapy, physical therapy modalities (eg, thermal and
and (2) psychosocial disturbances (such as anxiety, depression, ultrasonic therapies, postural training), and stretching,
and social isolation) in pain patients reflect life events before the strengthening, and conditioning programs. Treatment goals
pain and are thus significant in explaining its onset. usually focus on managing medication misuse or abuse,
The prevalence of depression is substantially higher in increasing function, reducing the use of medical resources,
chronic pain patients compared to individuals without pain, decreasing pain intensity, and managing associated depres-
but the majority of chronic pain patients are not depressed.33 sion and anxiety. Behavioral therapy has been shown to be
An association between chronic pain and depression exists, but effective at reducing pain and improving function at work
no one hypothesis has emerged or has been proven to explain and at home.37
the relationship. Theories proposed include the following: Pain reduction is a primary goal, but it is not always
achieved. Published studies of pain reduction after treatment
1. Depression causes hypersensitivity to pain.
in pain clinics report pain reduction ranges of from 1438 to
2. Pain is a “masked” form of depression.
60%,39 with an average pain reduction of between 20 and
3. Depression is caused by the stress of chronic pain.
30%.40 Other treatment outcome criteria include reductions
Depression, anxiety, and anger frequently coexist with in addictive medication, reductions in the use of health care
chronic illness, but these reactions are not necessarily “psy- services, increased activity (including return to work), and
chopathological.”34 The literature suggests that in general, pain closures of disability claims.41 Providing effective treatment of
is more likely to cause emotional disturbances than to be pre- chronic pain is challenging, and many of the treatments that
cipitated by them.35 The fourth edition of the Diagnostic and are effective for acute pain fail to relieve chronic pain.
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) uses the clas- Individuals suffering from chronic pain often seek care from
sification “mood disorder due to a general medical condition” many different practitioners and may be willing to submit to
to describe this. This classification is not considered to be a treatments that may complicate the problem or be harmful.
mental disorder. This can result in more suffering and disability.
314 Orofacial Pain and Temporomandibular Disorders
Chronic pain management is often seen as a low priority healthy and adaptive thoughts, emotions, and actions.44 The
among health care providers; it is perceived as complicated, cognitive-behavioral model suggests that patients develop
time-intensive, and often ineffective.2 Ineffective medica- negative and distorted convictions regarding their functional
tions are often overprescribed, repetitive examinations are capacities, diagnoses, prognoses, and futures. These convic-
conducted in an attempt to find a simple anatomic problem tions about illness affect behavior and are reinforced when
that is causing the pain, and comorbidities are ignored.36 activity or reconditioning proves to be painful. Cognitive ther-
The failure to understand that chronic pain is a relevant clin- apy interventions share four basic components: education,
ical entity with physiologic and psychological consequences skill acquisition, cognitive and behavioral rehearsal, and gen-
has been a barrier to improved care. This is complicated by eralization and maintenance.42 Treatment is intended to iden-
a reluctance of patients to learn pain management or coping tify and reframe negative cognitions while increasing the
techniques, because their energy and attention is usually patient’s range of activity.34
focused on finding a cure.
RELAXATION THERAPY
COGNITIVE THERAPY
Relaxation techniques are used for nondirected calming
Cognitive therapy is based on the theory that an individual’s rather than for achieving a specific therapeutic goal. They do
affect and behavior are largely determined by the manner in not always reduce pain intensity and are recommended as an
which she or he structures the world. A person’s structuring of adjunctive treatment. The results of relaxation therapy may be
the world is based on ideas and assumptions (developed from more significant in reducing the distress associated with pain.
previous experiences). For example, “I am stronger if I don’t Other benefits may include improved sleep, reduced skeletal-
need medicine” is a cognition that contributes to poor adher- muscle tension, and decreased fatigue. Guided imagery, some-
ence to prescribed medication.3 times considered a relaxation technique, involves the recall of
In chronic OFP practice, it is not unusual to encounter a pleasant or peaceful experience. Patients should be reas-
patients who express ideas that are based on faulty assump- sured that they are receiving this therapy not because “the
tions. Examples include the following: pain is imaginary and they just need to relax,” but because the
therapy addresses an important area of distress that arises
1. A firm belief that an allergy or an undiscovered or low-
from having chronic pain.
grade infection is the cause of pain. Diagnostic testing
Relaxation techniques share two basic components:42 (1)
that fails to find evidence of infection or allergy is not
a repetitive focus on a word, sound, prayer, phrase, body sen-
always sufficient to re-direct a patient’s energy and
sation, or muscular activity, and (2) the adoption of a passive
attention to the pursuit of other factors or treatment.
attitude toward intruding thoughts and a return to focus.
Infection and allergies are possible causes of pain, but
Relaxation training produces physiologic affects that are
when clinical findings are not supportive, the patient’s
opposite to those of anxiety (ie, slower heart rate, increased
persistent beliefs or attitudes may become a barrier to
peripheral blood flow, and decreased muscle tension or activ-
effective treatment.
ity). Relaxing muscle groups in a fixed order (progressive
2. Acceptance of the possibility that the pain is not a sig-
relaxation), imagining oneself in a place associated with pleas-
nal of ongoing or increasing tissue damage or life-
ant relaxed memories (guided imagery), and doing yoga are
threatening disease. This often prompts the patient to
examples. The reader is referred to the references listed in
seek several consultations and to submit to invasive
“Suggested Readings” at the end of this chapter for a more
tests or procedures in an attempt to find a cause and
detailed discussion and for specific exercises that can be
(ultimately) a cure.
applied in management.
3. Anxiety about the possibility of further injury when
pain increases with activity, resulting in deconditioning, DRUG THERAPY
inactivity, and increased emotional distress and limit-
Drug therapy continues to be a significant part of chronic pain
ing the potential for restored function and activity.
management. Analgesics are generally divided into three
4. A focus on an orofacial structure or on a deviation
groups: non-opioids, opioids, and adjuvants. (Adjuvants are
from the ideal in respect to teeth and jaws, even though
drugs that have been approved for use for conditions other
it is not responsible for the pain. This may complicate
than pain; anticonvulsants are an example.) The drugs in these
the situation and make it more difficult for the patient
groups have different pharmacologic actions although their
to accept a more multidisciplinary approach that
analgesic actions are often not well understood. With the
includes behavioral management.
exception of clonazepam, benzodiazepines are not thought to
These are examples of maladaptive thoughts that lead to be analgesic and are not recommended for long-term chronic
behaviors that contribute to the disability. Cognitive therapy pain management although they may be helpful for relief of
is an effective method of exploring these thoughts and muscle pain due to tension or spasm. Drug therapy for chronic
addressing them as part of the management. Cognitive- pain often involves the simultaneous use of more than one
behavioral therapy attempts to alter patterns of negative drug. This takes advantage of the different mechanisms of
thoughts and dysfunctional attitudes in order to foster more action of different drugs. It may also allow the use of smaller
Orofacial Pain 315
doses and may reduce adverse effects or risks. The most com- ufacturer. Titrating doses by starting at a lower dose and assess-
mon example of this in dentistry is the combination of an ing incremental effects every 5 to 7 days has been recommended
opioid (such as codeine) with aspirin or acetaminophen, in to achieve the greatest effect with the lowest dose.47
which each drug acts at different sites. Prostaglandins (PGs) perform other functions in the
Choosing the analgesic group (or groups) and the specific body, and this is responsible for many of the side effects. PGs
drugs is the first step in management. Drug therapy requires maintain the protective layer of gastric mucosa, and the loss
the individualizing of regimens for the greatest effect. In of this layer makes the mucosa more vulnerable to erosion.
chronic pain management, a drug should also be selected to The longer NSAIDs are administered, the greater the risk of
deal with “breakthrough” pain, an episode of increased pain GI bleeding. This effect is a systemic one and is not avoided
that the regular regimen is not able to control. This drug is usu- by administering the drug by other routes (eg, rectal sup-
ally a µ-receptor agonist (e.g. oxycodone) with a relatively pository). NSAIDs should be taken with food or at least with
rapid rate of onset for a brief period. The oral route is preferred a full glass of water. Coadministration of misoprostol (a PG
for compliance and convenience, and the drug dose requires analogue) has resulted in a reduced risk of GI bleeding.48
titration to establish the appropriate regimen. An analgesic is Risk factors that are indications for using misoprostol include
most likely to be effective when given before pain increases and age of more than 60 years, concurrent steroid therapy, high
is usually best prescribed with a fixed dose schedule that does doses of the NSAID, and a history of ulcer disease. While all
not require an increase in pain to signal the need for analge- NSAIDs pose a risk of GI bleeding, ibuprofen and diclofenac
sia. are considered to pose a lower risk, and ketoprofen and
piroxicam are considered to pose a higher risk. 49
Non-opioid Analgesics. This group consists primarily of aceta- Nabumatone is also considered to be less likely to cause GI
minophen and the large group of nonsteroidal anti-inflamma- effects.50 With any NSAID, the risk increases when high doses
tory drugs (NSAIDs). Acetaminophen is dispensed over the are prescribed.
counter and is also available in controlled formulations in com- NSAIDs are available that selectively inhibit only one of
bination with codeine and other opioids. Acetaminophen gen- the isoforms of COX, namely, COX-2. The inhibition of
erally has fewer adverse effects when compared to NSAIDs. It COX-2 seems to be related to the anti-inflammatory and
does not affect platelet function, rarely causes gastrointestinal analgesic effects whereas the inhibition of COX-1 is thought
(GI) disturbances, and can be given to patients who are allergic to be responsible for many of the side effects. The COX-2
to aspirin or other NSAIDs. Caffeine has been shown to enhance inhibitors celecoxib and rofecoxib pose less risk of GI bleed-
the effectiveness of non-opioid drugs and is often added to the ing and do not inhibit platelet aggregation.
analgesic.43 The mechanism of action of acetaminophen is dif-
ferent from that of the NSAIDs but remains unknown; there is Opioids. The largest group of opioids that are commonly
some evidence that suggests a central action.44 Acetaminophen used for analgesia consists of the morphine-like agonists.
is generally used for mild pain of all types and is also combined Their most important effects are on the central nervous sys-
with opioids for an additive analgesic effect or to reduce the tem and GI system. These drugs bind to µ opioid receptors,
amount of opioid required. Due to its potential to cause liver resulting in actions that lead to the analgesic effects. Opioids
damage, it may pose a danger to patients with liver disease, exert a number of effects after binding to receptor sites. Effects
patients who regularly consume moderate to large amounts of at the membrane level include opening potassium channels
alcohol, and patients who are fasting.45 Acetaminophen has an and inhibiting voltage-gated calcium channels, leading to a
analgesic “ceiling,” and the recommended maximum dose in a decrease in neuronal excitability. Opioids increase activity in
24-hour period is 4 grams.46 some neuronal pathways (such as the descending inhibitory
NSAIDs are thought to work primarily at the site of injury pathways) but may do so by suppressing the firing of
by inhibiting the enzyme cyclo-oxygenase (COX), which is inhibitory interneurons. At the spinal level, morphine inhibits
required for the synthesis of prostaglandins, substances that the transmission of nociceptive impulses through the dorsal
sensitize peripheral sensory nerves and contribute to the expe- horn.51 All µ agonists relieve pain by the same mechanism, but
rience of pain. Users of NSAIDs do not exhibit tolerance or patients may vary in their responsiveness to the analgesic and
physical dependence, but these drugs do have an analgesic ceil- to the adverse effects of specific agents. The use of opioid
ing. Patients may vary in their response to NSAIDs, and if therapy in moderate to severe acute pain and cancer pain is
appropriate dosage adjustment does not produce an analgesic well established. There has been an increased interest in the
effect after several days to 1 week, it is appropriate to switch to use of opioid analgesics for chronic nonmalignant pain. The
a different NSAID. It is inadvisable to prescribe two different practice remains controversial, and concern about addiction
NSAIDs at the same time; rather, one NSAID should be used and behavior is the argument presented against opioid use.
and its dose and timing adjusted for maximum analgesic effect. The concern relates to the risk of additional disability and
Combinations of NSAIDs increase the risk of side effects. antisocial behavior with long-term opioid use. The anecdotal
Several NSAIDs (aspirin, ibuprofen, ketoprofen, and naproxen) literature suggests that in certain circumstances, opioids are
are available in nonprescription formulations. The usual start- an effective part of management and do not cause the pre-
ing dose for these drugs is the dose recommended by the man- dicted problems of addiction and antisocial behavior.52 An
316 Orofacial Pain and Temporomandibular Disorders
agreement between the patient and doctor along with close tion, dizziness, ataxia, and mood changes) that can limit their
monitoring minimizes potential misuse. usefulness. Newer anticonvulsants (specifically felbamate,58
Agonist-antagonist drugs such as buprenorphine, butor- lamotrigine,59 and gabapentin60,61) are receiving attention as
phanol, and pentazocine are used to treat moderate to severe possible therapies for pain. Gabapentin has become com-
acute pain. As a group, they have a more limited role than the monly used in pain management partly because of its rela-
µ agonists. Agonist-antagonist drugs may cause withdrawal tively few side effects.62 Movement disorders have been
symptoms in patients who are taking µ agonists, and they are reported with gabapentin. The disorders resolve after admin-
more likely to cause psychotomimetic effects such as agita- istration of the drug is stopped.63
tion, dysphoria, and confusion. Butorphanol nasal spray A variety of other drugs are used in the treatment of
(Stadol [Bristol-Myers Squibb, New York, N.Y.]) is used for the chronic pain although there is little research involving chronic
treatment of migraine headache. OFP. These drugs include mexiletine,64 clonidine,65 clon-
azepam,66 and alprazolam.67
Adjuvant Drugs. This group of drugs has been approved for
use in conditions other than pain. Alone or in combination Topical Medications. Topical analgesic therapy on the skin or
with other analgesics and adjuvants, they have been found to oral mucosa has the advantage of reduced systemic absorption
be of value in pain management. Sequential trials are often and thus a reduced risk of side effects. Capsaicin used as a top-
necessary due to the variability of side effects and treatment ical cream has been the most researched drug in this field. It is
responses; this may mean trying different drugs in the same effective in treating postherpetic neuralgia. Capsaicin is a nat-
group and in different groups. In controlled clinical trials, car- ural product (extracted from the pungent red chili pepper)
bamazepine (an anticonvulsant) has proven to be effective for that has been used topically to treat a variety of pain condi-
the treatment of trigeminal neuralgia.53 tions.68 In a single application, neurogenic inflammation occurs
Amitriptyline (a tricyclic antidepressant), the antidepres- and causes a burning sensation, followed by hyperalgesia. After
sant that has been most frequently studied in clinical trials, multiple applications, the burning and hyperalgesia resolve.
has been proven to be effective in chronic OFP treatment.54,55 Topical application blocks C-fiber conduction, inactivates the
A patient with chronic pain who is receiving an antidepres- release of neuropeptides from peripheral nerve endings,69 and
sant is considered to be better off than 74% of chronic pain subsequently depletes the stores of substance P from sensory
patients who are receiving a placebo.56 The magnitude of the neurons.70 The therapeutic effect is thought to be due to the
analgesic effect was not different (1) for pain having an depletion of substance P in C fibers,68 decreasing their input to
organic or psychogenic basis, (2) in the presence or absence the central nervous system (CNS) neurons. Topical NSAIDs
of depression (masked or manifest), (3) in the presence or have been demonstrated to be effective for musculoskeletal
absence of an antidepressant effect, (4) in normal doses and pain.71 Doxepin, clonidine, ketamine, cyclobenzaprine, and
in doses smaller than those that are usually effective in depres- carbamazepine have been used topically in a variety of vehicles
sion, and (5) for sedating and nonsedating drugs. but have not been subjected to controlled trials.
Information relating to pain from the periphery crosses Drug therapy for chronic pain is complex and often
a common synaptic pathway in the dorsal horn of the spinal involves multiple drugs with different routes of administra-
cord and its homologue, the spinal trigeminal nucleus in tion. Patients often express anxiety about dependence on med-
the brainstem. The neurotransmitters serotonin and norep- ication and may sometimes feel that drug therapy is used or
inephrine are thought to play a role in the descending recommended in place of “getting to the real cause” of the
inhibitory transmissions from the brain to the dorsal horn, pain. When using drug therapy to treat the pain as the disor-
modulating nociceptive impulses. Tricyclic antidepressants der, patients need information and education about the poten-
(TCAs) block the reuptake of serotonin and norepineph- tial value of drug therapy as part of the comprehensive man-
rine (NE), and this is thought to enhance the central agement of chronic pain.
inhibitory system in pain processing. These effects occur at
doses that are lower than those required for an antidepres- ▼ CLASSIFICATION OF OROFACIAL
sant effect, but further evidence is still required to explain PAIN
the mechanism. TCAs are usually introduced at low doses
and are gradually increased in an attempt to reduce the Classification is more than an academic exercise as it provides
adverse effects, which can be intolerable even at low doses. researchers and practitioners with a way of communicating
Side effects such as dry mouth, increased appetite and weight and understanding groups of individuals who share a set of rel-
gain, cardiac effects, sedation, and dysphoria may prevent evant characteristics. An understanding of the mechanisms of
the use of these drugs. a disorder, the prescription of treatment, and the prognosis are
Anticonvulsant drugs are effective in the treatment of important clinical issues that can be addressed in an effective
trigeminal neuralgia and diabetic neuropathy and for classification system. Most of the present classifications are
migraine prophylaxis.57 There have been no clinical trials for based on a consensus of existing knowledge and on unstruc-
the treatment of other OFP disorders with anticonvulsants. tured examination findings or assumptions about the consis-
These drugs frequently produce side effects (including seda- tency of signs and symptoms. This weakness was illustrated in
Orofacial Pain 317
TABLE 11-5 Classification of Cranial Neuralgias, Nerve Trunk Pain, and De-afferentation Pain*
IHS Category Specific Disorders or Definition
12.1 Persistent (in contrast to ticlike) pain of cranial origin Compression or distortion of cranial nerves and 2nd or 3rd cervical roots
Demyelination of cranial nerves (optic neuritis)
Infarction of cranial nerves (diabetic neuritis)
Inflammation of cranial nerves (herpes zoster and postherpetic neuralgia)
Tolosa-Hunt syndrome
Neck-tongue syndrome
12.4 Nervus intermedius neuralgia Rare disorder characterized by brief paroxysms of pain felt deeply in the auditory canal
12.5 Superior laryngeal neuralgia Rare disorder characterized by severe pain in the lateral aspect of the throat, submandibular
region, and underneath the ear, precipitated by swallowing, shouting, or turning the head
12.6 Occipital neuralgia Paroxysmal jabbing pain in the distribution of the greater or lesser occipital nerves, accompanied
by diminished sensation or dysesthesia in the affected area; commonly associated with
tenderness over the nerve concerned
12.7 Central causes of head and facial pain other than Anesthesia dolorosa: painful anesthesia or dysesthesia, often related to surgical trauma of the
tic douloureux trigeminal ganglion, evoked most frequently after rhizotomy or thermocoagulation for treatment
of idiopathic TN
Thalamic pain: unilateral facial pain and dysesthesia, attributed to a lesion of the quintothalamic
pathway or thalamus
12.8 Facial pain not fulfilling criteria in groups 11 and 12 Persistent facial pain that does not have the characteristics of the cranial neuralgias classified
(previously used terms: atypical facial pain, atypical odontalgia) above and is not associated with physical signs or a demonstrable organic cause
examination.82 In the AAOP classification, AO is listed within mended replacing AFP with the term “not otherwise spec-
the category “facial pain not fulfilling other criteria” and is ified.” This is the terminology used in the DSM-IV for a
considered to be a de-afferentation pain.77 AO appears in the condition that does not conform to criteria in another cat-
IASP classification under “lesions of the ear, nose, and oral cav- egory.84 While the term “atypical facial pain” has a long
ity” and is defined as a severe throbbing pain in the teeth in the history and has been associated with a number of different
absence of a major pathology. etiologies, it still is used by clinicians to identify an OFP
In an attempt to identify chronic OFP due to neuro- disorder that does not meet other diagnostic criteria and
pathic injury, Lynch and Elgeneidy suggested additional that is characterized by its chronicity and lack of response
categories to the IASP taxonomy. 83 They also recom- to most treatments. The term may fade away as new knowl-
Primary headache disorders Migraine, migraine variants, cluster headache, paroxysmal hemicrania, cranial arteritis,
(neurovascular disorders) carotodynia, tension-type headache
Neurogenic pain disorders Paroxysmal neuralgias (trigeminal, glossopharyngeal, nervus intermedius, superior laryngeal)
Continuous pain disorders (de-afferentation, neuritis, postherpetic neuralgia, post-traumatic and postsurgical neuralgia)
Sympathetically maintained pain
Associated structures Ears, eyes, nose, paranasal sinuses, throat, lymph nodes, salivary glands, neck
therefore, will not always correspond to its source. A mecha- MUSCLE EXAMINATION
nism that has been proposed to explain referred pain is con-
Pain that is reproduced or increases as a result of muscle palpa-
vergence,94–96 in which primary afferent fibers from different
tion may point to the source of the pain and to a diagnosis. The
sites converge on the same second-order neuron in the brain-
degree of finger pressure will influence the result of the palpation
stem nucleus. Patients should mark the location and extent of
examination, and patients’ responses to palpation may vary with
pain on a diagram.
time. Pressure algometers have been used in research to help
PAST MEDICAL HISTORY AND REVIEW OF SYSTEMS standardize examination procedures97 but are not commonly
The past medical history and review of systems should help used in clinical practice. Muscle palpation has been shown to
provide an insight into the general health of the patient and yield reliable scores among examiners, but the diagnostic valid-
may provide clues regarding the present pain complaint. Pain ity and reliability of muscle palpation has not been established.
may be a presenting feature or an ongoing complaint in sys- The masseter and temporalis muscles can be palpated bilaterally
temic disease (eg, connective-tissue disease, demyelinating dis- to identify differences in size or firmness. The suprahyoid mus-
ease of the CNS, metastatic disease). cles, mylohyoid, and anterior belly of the digastric should be
The patient’s use of medication (including over-the- included in the palpation examination. Intraoral techniques have
counter preparations, naturopathic and homeopathic reme- been described for palpating the medial and lateral pterygoids.
dies, and prescription drugs) should be recorded. Prescription The ability to perform a meaningful palpation examination of
medication is often used incorrectly; therefore, the directions the lateral pterygoid has been questioned.98 Palpation techniques
as well as the actual usage should be determined. The med- have been described, but it may be difficult to distinguish ten-
ication list may uncover a medical condition that the patient derness associated with the procedure from an actual muscle
failed to mention in other questioning. Drug effects such as abnormality.99 The temporalis tendon, where it inserts onto the
coronoid process, can also be reached intraorally for palpation.
fatigue, dizziness, anxiety, insomnia, or depression may affect
Testing muscles against resistance in a static position and having
the patient’s pain complaints. The use of tobacco, alcohol,
the patient clench on separators to prevent the teeth from com-
caffeine, or illicit drugs should be explored.
ing together may help identify the source of pain.100
FAMILY, SOCIAL, AND OCCUPATIONAL HISTORY Palpation of cervical muscles and a general assessment of
the cervical range of motion may indicate an abnormality con-
Chronic pain can have disastrous effects on one’s ability to main-
tributing to the pain complaint. Pain localized to the orofacial
tain daily activities and fulfill responsibilities. Pain has profound
region can be referred from neck muscles.94 The cervical mus-
and often negative effects on family and social relationships,
cles to be palpated include the trapezii and the sternocleido-
and it is important to assess the level of dysfunction that may
mastoid and the muscles that lie deeper between them, includ-
have occurred. Traumatic events or emotional distress prior to
ing the capitus and scalene muscles and the levator scapulae.
the onset of pain, a history of other close family members with
chronic illness or pain, and changes in work and or marital sta- RANGE OF MOTION ASSESSMENT
tus should be explored because these can be significant stressors.
Mandibular and cervical ranges of motion should be assessed.
Physical Examination Movements with and without pain should be noted.
Mandibular movements with comfort, with pain, and with
The physical examination may identify an abnormality that
examiner assistance should be measured and recorded.
explains the cause of pain. It can also help eliminate from
Cervical motion can be examined during active, passive, and
diagnosis the presence of serious disease related to the pain.
resisted motions. When restrictions in movement are thought
The examination should include the following:
to be caused by muscle guarding, the application of a vapo-
1. Inspection of the head and neck, skin, topographic coolant spray such as Fluori-Methane Spray (Gebauer Co.,
anatomy, and swelling or other orofacial asymmetry Cleveland, Ohio) followed by stretching may significantly
2. Palpation of masticatory muscles, tests for strength and increase range, confirming a muscle cause. Alternatively, injec-
provocation tion of a local anesthetic into muscle may block pain and thus
3. Assessment and measurement of the range of identify the source of the pain and the restricted movement.
mandibular movement
4. Palpation of soft tissue (including lymph nodes) INTRAORAL EXAMINATION
5. Palpation of the temporomandibular joint A systematic intraoral inspection looking for changes in form,
6. Palpation of cervical muscles and assessment of cervi- symmetry, color, and surface texture should be carried out.
cal range of motion The examination should include manipulation of the tongue
7. Cranial nerve examination (Table 11-9) and mandible to clearly visualize all areas. Pooling of saliva on
8. General inspection of the ears, nose, and oropharyngeal the floor of the mouth should be observed. The palate and
areas tongue should be examined at rest and during function to
9. Examination and palpation of intraoral soft tissue detect underlying masses that might displace or alter the nor-
10. Examination of the teeth and periodontium (including mal structures. The examiner’s finger should palpate the alve-
occlusion) olar processes, lateral and posterior parts of the tongue, floor
Orofacial Pain 321
I (Olfactory) Smell None or loss of “taste” if Sense of smell with each nostril No response to olfactory stimuli
bilateral
II (Optic) Vision Loss of vision Visual acuity Decreased visual acuity or loss of visual field
Visual fields of each eye
III (Oculomotor) Eye movement Double vision Pupil and eye movement Failure to move eye in field of motion
Pupillary constriction of muscle
Pupillary abnormalities
IV (Trochlear) Eye movement Double vision, especially on Ability to move eye down and in May be difficult to detect anything if 3rd
down and medial gaze nerve intact
V (Trigeminal) Facial, nasal, and oral Numbness Light touch and pinprick Decreased pin and absent corneal reflex
sensation Paresthesia sensation on face Weakness of masticatory muscles
Jaw movement Corneal reflex
Masseter contraction
VI (Abducens) Eye movement Double vision on lateral gaze Move eyes laterally Failure of eye to abduct
VII (Facial) Facial movement Lack of facial movement, Facial contraction Asymmetry of facial contraction
eye closure Smiling
Dysarthria
VII (Auditory and Hearing Hearing loss Hearing test Decreased hearing
vestibular) Balance Tinnitus Nystagmus Nystagmus
Vertigo Balance Ataxia
IX (Glossopharyngeal) Palatal movement Trouble with swallowing Elevation of palate Asymmetric palate
XI (Spinal accessory) Turns neck None Contraction of sternocleidomastoid Paralysis of sternocleidomastoid muscle
and trapezius
XII (Hypoglossal) Moves tongue Dysarthria Protrusion of tongue Wasting and fasciculation or deviation
of tongue
of the mouth, buccal mucosa, and hard and soft palate to ences in association with tooth mobility or tooth sensitivity
identify abnormalities that may not be readily observed. The may indicate conditions contributing to occlusal trauma.
finger should not meet significant resistance as it moves across
a normally lubricated mucosa. The openings of the sub- Pain-Related Disability and Behavioral
mandibular and parotid salivary gland ducts should be iso- Assessment
lated and dried with cotton; the glands should then be An interview most often serves as the basis for a behavioral
“milked” to verify a clear flow of saliva. assessment. Self-report questionnaires and instruments that
The dentition should be examined for wear, damaged teeth, include methods of scoring are also in use to assess disability
and evidence of caries. This inspection should be followed by and psychological factors. The assessment should explore the
probing, palpation for tooth mobility, and percussion of teeth. following:101
If a pulpal problem is suspected, thermal and vitality tests 1. Events that precede and follow exacerbation of pain
should be included. Applying differential pressure on the teeth 2. The patient’s daily activities
by having the patient bite down on cotton rolls, wooden bite — How time is spent during the day and in the evening
sticks, or one of the commercially available instruments — Activities that have been performed more often or
designed to apply concentrated pressure on cusps may iden- less often since the onset of pain
tify pain associated with a vertical crown or root fracture. — Activities that have been modified or eliminated
Periodontal structures should be examined for color changes since the onset of pain
suggestive of inflammation, altered gingival architecture that 3. Relatives or friends that suffer chronic pain or disabil-
occurs with chronic disease, swelling, or other surface changes. ities of a similar nature
Periodontal probing should be performed to identify bleeding 4. The degree of affective disturbance
points and pocket depths. Tooth contacts in the maximum — Change in mood or outlook on life
intercuspal position, in centric relation, and during excursive — Satisfaction level with friends and family rela-
movements should be identified. Heavy contacts or interfer- tionships
322 Orofacial Pain and Temporomandibular Disorders
— Vegetative signs of depression (sleep disturbance, because the subjects who were used to standardize the inven-
change in food intake, decreased sexual desire) tories were not chronic pain patients.111–113 In chronic pain
patients, elevations on the hypochondriasis, depression, and
While psychosocial factors are of great importance in pain
hysteria scales have been associated with severe pain, affective
disorders, studies indicate that physicians and dentists do not
disturbance, and disability.114,115 MMPI profiles have been
always adequately recognize psychological problems.102–104
unable to predict treatment outcomes.101 Other shorter and
One of the problems dentists face is the lack of formal train-
simpler instruments such as the Beck Depression Inventory are
ing in psychological assessment. A great deal of study has
used in place of the MMPI.116 The shorter inventories are
been focused on the use of questionnaires to assess psy-
likely to get better patient compliance as well. Questionnaires
chosocial status. Inventories that are completed by the patient,
such as the SCL-90-R,22 the Millon Behavioral Health
such as the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
Inventory,118 and the Illness Behavior Questionnaire117 are
(MMPI), the Beck Depression Inventory,105 the Zung Self-
examples of shorter inventories that take less time to com-
Rating Depression Scale, the Personality Diagnostic
plete. A universally accepted assessment instrument for
Questionnaire,106 and the General Health Questionnaire,107
chronic pain patients does not exist.
are examples of self-report questionnaires used for psycho-
Dworkin and colleagues20 have published (as part of the
logical assessment. The TMJ Scale,73 IMPATH,74 and (more
RDC) a classification for assessing pain-related disability, iden-
recently) the RDC20 are instruments designed for evaluating
tifying depression, and characterizing limitations related to
OFP, and they include behavioral assessments. No one
mandibular functioning. The RDC were produced to increase
method has gained widespread acceptance for evaluating OFP
the standardization of assessment and classification applied to
patients. One strategy for addressing the lack of psychologi-
clinical research on TMD. While this assessment/classification
cal assessment skills among physicians and dentists is to pro-
requires further validation, it may be of value to clinicians. The
vide a method of screening that identifies OFP patients who
might benefit from a more thorough behavioral assessment. pain-related disability assessment is based on the “Graded
Gale and Dixon108 found that the following two questions Chronic Pain Status,” a seven-item questionnaire, and specific
correlated with lengthier questionnaires: scoring.21 An explanation of the scoring and the scale can be
found in Von Korff ’s article.21 The assessment method, scor-
1. How depressed are you? ing, and discussion of the pain-related disability status have
2. Do you consider yourself more tense than calm or more been published by Dworkin, LeResche, and colleagues.20
calm than tense? From the discussion above, it should be apparent that there
Oakley et al used a five-item questionnaire that allows is no universal standard that can be relied on to provide a
patients to rate levels of depression, anxiety, and recent life screening assessment of behavioral and pain-related disability.
stresses showed moderate to strong association with results from Table 11-10 lists questions discussed in this section that may be
extensive psychological testing.109 Two of the questions were valuable as part of this assessment. These questions may be
similar to those used by Gale and Dixon. posed during the interview to explore possible behavioral, psy-
Being asked open-ended questions about common areas of chological, or other systemic problems that may have an impact
life experience provides the patient with an opportunity to on the diagnosis and management of an OFP disorder. This is
express concerns or problems that may not otherwise be com- not a scale or instrument with scoring but questions that may
municated, such as what the patient feels may be the cause of provide an opportunity for the patient to communicate issues
pain; activities or problems in the common areas of life (work,
love, and play); and complaints of current or previously diag-
nosed or undiagnosed pain elsewhere in the body. Responses TABLE 11-10 Questions to Consider for Screening Assessment
to these questions may be helpful in identifying abnormal What events precede and follow increased episodes of pain?
thought patterns, external stressors, or other symptoms that How is time spent during the day and the evening?
are suggestive of a more generalized pain disorder. Recent What activities are performed more often or less often since the onset of pain?
research indicates that the prevalence of a history of physical What activities have been modified or eliminated since the onset of pain?
and sexual abuse in patients with chronic pain is higher than Do relatives or friends suffer chronic pain or disabilities of a similar nature?
expected, but how to identify patients who should be referred
Do you characterize yourself as depressed?
to experienced therapists remains a challenge.101
Do you have changes in sleep pattern, food habits, sexual desire (vegetative signs
Self-report instruments are used for clinical and research of depression)?
purposes to assess psychological variables associated with pain. Have there been changes in your relationships with friends, family, co-workers?
They provide standardized assessments and are sensitive to
Do you characterize yourself as being anxious or tense?
treatment-related changes. Instruments such as the Minnesota
Do you think you have experienced a lot of stressful situations over the past year?
Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and the revised
What do you think is causing the pain?
MMPI (MMPI-2) have been used to evaluate psychological
Do you presently have any diagnosed or undiagnosed pain complaints elsewhere in
distress in chronic pain patients. The use of the MMPI or
the body?
MMPI-2110 with chronic pain patients has been questioned
Orofacial Pain 323
that may be important to the complaint. The threshold for pathways suspected of being involved. Conversely, the absence
deciding when the information obtained indicates a more thor- of pain after a successful block suggests the possibility of a
ough investigation is a clinical judgment. There are no well- central process.120 False-positive results may occur due to sys-
defined rules to govern this decision. temic effects of local anesthetics, blockade of afferent pathways
When psychosocial issues are thought to be significant and other than those intended, and placebo effects. Conversely,
to require assessment and possible management by a psychol- lack of pain relief may be due to technical or anatomic fac-
ogist or psychiatrist, the patient should be so advised. This tors.121 Diagnostic nerve blocks are a valuable part of an assess-
should be done in a conversation that allows the patient to ment, but the results can be equivocal and do not always con-
respond and that asks for feedback since the patient may have tribute to an accurate diagnosis. There is a high frequency of
some insight into the issue. The interviewer’s opinion may help placebo response to local anesthetic blocking, even among
to validate the patient’s own assessment, and the possibility of patients diagnosed with neuropathic pain.90
successfully addressing these issues may be increased. Nerve blocks to diagnose sympathetically maintained pain
Communicating with the patient’s general physician or refer- include local anesthetic block of the sympathetic chain (eg,
ring the patient to his or her general physician to explore this stellate ganglion), regional guanethedine block (intravenous
further may be an effective method of managing the situation. injection into an arm or leg), and intravenous phentolamine
When a psychiatric disorder is suspected, a direct referral to block the α-adrenoreceptor, preventing the excitation of
to a psychiatrist or psychologist may be indicated.119 The afferent nociceptors by noradrenaline. The interpretation of
patient may resist this referral for the following reasons: these tests has been challenged because of the lack of placebo-
controlled procedures and because of a high placebo
1. Perception of the referral as a judgment that the prob-
response,122,123 but the weight of evidence supports the
lem is only psychological or as a personal rejection
hypothesis that the sympathetic nervous system contributes to
2. Beliefs about the legitimacy of psychiatric therapy and
chronic pain in some circumstances.
about the kind of people who consult psychologists or
Local anesthetic blocking should be considered in the con-
psychiatrists
text of all of the clinical findings. Topical, intraligament, infil-
3. Beliefs about the condition that do not include the pos-
tration, and regional block anesthesia may identify a periph-
sibility of a psychological or emotional component
eral site that is responsible for pain. A complete resolution of
A patient is most likely to accept a recommendation if a pain after local anesthetic application or injection should
trusting relationship is present. The following are suggestions prompt an investigation for a local cause. The injection of
that may facilitate the referral: local anesthesia may produce ambivalent results when patients
report a change in symptoms but not necessarily resolution of
1. Make the referral a part of the evaluation. Inform the
pain. In these circumstances, one should consider a more cen-
patient that the consultation is part of your complete
tral cause of pain.
evaluation and that it will be part of the other clinical
findings for determining the diagnosis and manage- Laboratory Tests
ment.
2. Arrange the appointment at the same time that the Laboratory tests have limited value except in special circum-
patient is in the office if the patient agrees. This will stances. Most OFP disorders do not cause abnormalities that
facilitate the process. can be identified in laboratory specimens. Exceptions include
3. Provide the patient with information about what the temporal arteritis, in which the erythrocyte sedimentation rate
consultation will involve. is elevated and temporal artery biopsy is abnormal and colla-
4. Schedule a follow-up appointment to review the find- gen vascular diseases that cause detectable immunologic
ings and discuss treatment. abnormalities.
Pain at the angle of the mandible, brought on by exertion, relieved by rest Cardiac ischemia
New onset; localized progressive headache; superficial temporal artery swelling, tenderness, and lack of pulse; Temporal arteritis
severe throbbing temporal pain; transient visual abnormalities; systemic symptoms of fever, weight loss, anorexia,
malaise, myalgia, chills, sweating
New onset of headache in adult life; increasing severe headache, nausea, and vomiting not explained by systemic Intracranial tumor
illness or migraine; nocturnal occurrence; precipitated or increased by changes in posture; confusion, seizures, or
weakness; any abnormal neurologic sign
Earache, trismus, altered sensation in the mandibular branch distribution Carcinoma of the infratemporal fossa
Pain associated with altered sensation confirmed by physical examination Neurogenic disorder; tumor invasion of nerve
Orofacial Pain 325
view. Patients may reveal the inability to provide clear and judged to have an important role in its onset, severity, exacer-
consistent statements about symptoms or events that can be bation, or maintenance”.
checked with reasonable certainty. Confusion between symp- The majority of patients for whom emotional factors obvi-
toms and an emotionally charged event or personal relation- ously complicate their oral symptoms do not have diagnosable
ship; the use of bizarre, mechanical, or animalistic explana- mental disease although they may often be referred to as
tions for oral symptoms; and the patient’s inability to separate “crazy.” Periods of increased emotional stress, whether brought
him- or herself from real or imaginary objects or people indi- about by interpersonal conflicts, external pressure from work
cate a need for further psychological evaluation. The dentist or family, or an individual’s own physical and personal drives,
also will recognize those who express marked paranoia (eg, are normal for everyone, but such episodes also frequently
the pain that is due to an object purposely left behind by the reduce pain tolerance and the ability to handle chronic low-
surgeon, who is acting as the agent of God or any enemy of grade sensory abnormality. To the observer, the influence of
the patient). the patient’s emotions on the oral symptoms may at times be
None of these phenomena alone substantiates a diagnosis quite evident; for the patient, the interaction of emotional dis-
of mental disease. Specific diagnoses (such as schizophrenia, tress and physical disease may be impossible to manage, and
paranoia, and depression) made by the dentist on this basis are he or she may be unable to control either aspect without assis-
unjustified, but the dentist who becomes aware of compro- tance from the clinician. The following factors are clues that
mised mental ability in his or her patient should consider the may provide insight into complicating emotional factors:
likelihood that abnormal psychological factors may be com-
plicating the diagnostic situation. Such mental confusion may 1. The setting of the story. The time of onset of the symp-
involve organic or functional mental disease that will require toms may have occurred in a period of increased per-
further consultation and assessment. sonal, family, or work stress.
Mental disease, mental retardation, and the inability to 2. A history of extensive medical/dental treatment.
conform to society do not produce oral symptoms, but they Unusually extensive and (perhaps) multiple surgical
may affect the individual’s ability to handle sensory abnor- procedures and the use of many medications despite
mality. Conversely, pain and other abnormal oral sensations minimal signs of “disease” that others tolerate as part of
also are experienced by mentally ill persons in response to life indicate “increased help-seeking behavior” that may
physical causes, and the clinician must always be on guard be maladaptive.141
against discounting oral symptoms in mentally ill individuals 3. The “naive” or medically inexperienced patient. Patients
in favor of a psychological explanation without thorough who have been free of oral disease until adulthood and
examination of the patient. Table 11-14 lists the IASP classifi- who then need dental procedures may respond with
cation categories of “pain of psychological origin in the head, excessive anxiety.142 Paradoxically, those who have suf-
face, and neck.”1 fered painful traumatic and surgical episodes in child-
The DSM-IV84 includes the classification entitled “pain hood and have learned excessively apprehensive or
disorder” within a larger category of “somatoform disorders.” other maladaptive responses within their families143
Somatoform disorders are characterized by the presence of may also become intolerant of the discomfort associ-
physical symptoms that suggest a general medical condition ated with dental procedures.
but that are not fully explained by the medical condition, the 4. The presence of a psychiatric illness or personality disor-
direct effects of a substance, or another mental disorder. A der. An association exists between chronic pain and
pain disorder is characterized by “pain as the predominant psychiatric illness.144,145 However, this does not con-
focus of clinical attention where psychological factors are firm an etiologic relationship; rather, it is important to
Muscle Tension Virtually continuous pain in any part of the body due to sustained muscle contraction and provoked by
persistent overuse of particular muscles
Delusional or hallucinatory Pain of psychological origin and attributed by the patient to a specific delusional cause
Hysterical, conversion, or hypochondriacal Pain specifically attributable to the thought process, emotional state, or personality of the patient in the
absence of an organic or delusional cause or tension mechanism
Associated with depression Pain occurring in the course of a depressive illness usually not preceding the depression and not attributable
to any other cause. (Note: not to be confused with depression that commonly occurs with chronic pain
arising from physical reasons)
appreciate that psychiatric illness requires concomitant 2. The diagnostic procedures used should be as exhaustive
treatment to effectively treat the OFP. as possible, even in the presence of major psychologi-
5. Normal oral structures mistakenly identified as physical cal dysfunction.
disease. Under the stress of the death of a friend or fam- 3. Psychological and psychogenic pains cannot be clearly
ily member or the discovery of life-threatening disease distinguished from pain that has an obvious organic
in a close relative or friend, normal structures or sen- cause; psychological factors are a component of all
sations may be thought of as potential signs of disease. painful experiences.
6. Disrupted oral functions. The mouth serves as a means 4. Pain associated with overwhelming psychological dys-
to obtain food, a modulator for producing speech, and function (psychogenic pain) is as real to the patient as is
a part of facial expression in interpersonal communi- pain from an obvious organic cause and cannot be dis-
cation; it also features prominently in sexual encoun- missed as something that is “just in the patient’s head.”
ters. It is not surprising that a limitation of oral func- 5. A diagnosis of psychological pain should be confirmed
tion due to oral sensory abnormality can lead to a by psychiatric evaluation of the patient.
strong emotional reaction.
Importance of Follow-up and Repeated Examination and
7. Imagined or symbolic functions traditionally assigned to
Testing: Of prime importance in the management of patients
the mouth that may be threatened. Unsupported by facts
with unexplained oral symptoms is the recognition that an
of physiology and anatomy, these functions of the
identification of the cause of the symptoms may come only
mouth feature prominently in our language and
with time. Several studies of chronic oral sensory complaints
thoughts and may be perceived by the patient as being
have shown that with time, as many as one-half of patients
threatened.
with unexplained OFP were found to have specific pathologic
The extent to which these traditional images exist in the diagnoses that explained their symptoms (provided that
thoughts of patients with oral disease is largely undocu- repeated examinations and diagnostic tests were continued
mented and could probably be revealed only by psychoanaly- beyond the initial period of consultation).136,137
sis. However, comments patients make in regard to their oral The success of referral clinics in managing problems of
symptoms during regular diagnostic interviews suggest that this type derives partly from a program of continued surveil-
such symbolism is a common accompaniment of oral dis- lance of the patient by a coordinated group of consul-
ease. It is important that the clinician recognize these psy- tants137,147 and partly from the availability of sophisticated
chological interactions because it may allow him or her to dis- diagnostic equipment. With time, small lesions such as tumors
tinguish complaints that are essentially psychological in in the nasopharynx, parotid gland, infratemporal fossa, and
nature from those that are more directly related to altered cranium that can impinge on oral sensory and motor nerves
physiologic states; the treatment of one is quite different from increase in size and become apparent through the develop-
the treatment of the other, and simultaneous treatment of ment of other abnormalities. Systemic neurologic diseases such
both problems may be needed. It is an error to consider the as multiple sclerosis148 develop from a prodromal stage, in
patient who uses symbolic images in relating oral problems to which only unusual oral symptoms are present, to a stage in
be necessarily psychologically abnormal even when the images which a variety of tests will reveal the presence of disease and
appear to be somewhat bizarre and overly graphic.146 It is explain the patient’s oral symptoms. The literature contains
likely that oral symbolism is normally well developed in most numerous references to patients whose oral symptoms
minds, and concern about oral pain and discomfort simply remained unexplained for varied periods of time until further
allows patients to be somewhat less reserved about expressing growth of a tumor revealed the focus of the patient’s symp-
their thoughts than they might usually be. The following toms.125,149–159 Included among these reports are many
metaphors are examples: the “mouthpiece of the mind” (a descriptions of tumors of the parotid gland, infratemporal
source of pleasant, virtuous, complimentary, and encourag- space, and cranial cavity that initially mimicked the symptoms
of a TMD. Such reports emphasize the need for continuous
ing statements as well as smiles, laughs, and blessings, versus
awareness of such possibilities.158 Newer imaging techniques
an invective tight-lipped mouth); an “organ of perception”
may reveal such lesions and are important tools in the man-
(the ability to distinguish pleasurable from noxious foods and
agement of undiagnosed chronic OFP.152,160–162
by extension, pleasurable from unhappy aspects of life); and
a “source of pleasure” (the mouth can provide kisses or
caresses or can mark an aggressive hostile personality). ▼ DIAGNOSIS AND MANAGEMENT
If the clinician suspects a psychological cause for OFP, it is OF SPECIFIC OROFACIAL PAIN
important to keep the following in mind:
DISORDERS
1. However sophisticated the diagnostic procedures used,
no diagnosis is final, and time may often reveal a pre- Facial Neuralgias
viously unrecognized organic problem underlying the The classic neuralgias that affect the craniofacial region are a
patient’s symptoms. unique group of neurologic disorders involving the cranial
328 Orofacial Pain and Temporomandibular Disorders
nerves and are characterized by (a) brief episodes of shooting, patients were pain free 10 years after the surgery.164 Additional
often electric shock–like pain along the course of the affected evidence for this theory was obtained from a study using
nerve branch; (b) trigger zones on the skin or mucosa that pre- tomographic magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which
cipitate painful attacks when touched; and (c) pain-free peri- showed that contact between a blood vessel and the trigemi-
ods between attacks and refractory periods immediately after nal nerve root was much greater on the affected side.165
an attack, during which a new episode cannot be triggered. Evidence against this theory includes the finding by neu-
These clinical characteristics differ from neuropathic pain, rosurgeons that manipulation of the area of the nerve root may
which tends to be constant and has a burning quality without eliminate the painful episodes even when an atherosclerotic
the presence of trigger zones. Neuropathic pain most often vessel is not pressing on the nerve root. Other investigators
results from disorders that involve the spinal nerves whereas believe that a major factor in the etiology of TN is a degener-
involvement of the cranial nerves may result in either chronic ation of the ganglion rather than the nerve root.166
neuropathic pain or the classic brief episodes of shooting pain.
Whether a lesion involving a cranial nerve causes constant Clinical Features. The majority of patients with TN present
neuropathic pain or brief episodes of shooting pain depends
with characteristic clinical features, which include episodes of
on both the nature of the underlying disorder and the position
intense shooting stabbing pain that lasts for a few seconds and
of the lesion along the course of the nerve. For example,
then completely disappears. The pain characteristically has an
tumors involving the trigeminal nerve between the pontine
electric shock–like quality and is unilateral except in a small
angle in the posterior cranial fossa and the ganglion in the
middle cranial fossa will usually result in the lacinating pain of percentage of cases. The maxillary branch is the branch that is
trigeminal neuralgia whereas more peripheral lesions will usu- most commonly affected, followed by the mandibular branch
ally result in neuropathic pain. The major craniofacial neural- and (rarely) the ophthalmic branch. Involvement of more than
gias include trigeminal neuralgia, glossopharyngeal neuralgia, one branch occurs in some cases.
and occipital neuralgia. Geniculate neuralgia involving the Pain in TN is precipitated by light touch on a “trigger zone”
sensory portion of CN VII is a similar but rare disorder. present on the skin or mucosa within the distribution of the
Postherpetic neuralgia and post-traumatic neuralgia are com- involved nerve branch. Common sites for trigger zones include
mon causes of neuropathic pain. the nasolabial fold and the corner of the lip. Shaving, shower-
ing, eating, speaking, or even exposure to wind can trigger a
TRIGEMINAL NEURALGIA painful episode, and patients often protect the trigger zone with
Trigeminal neuralgia (TN), also called tic douloureux, is the their hand or an article of clothing. Intraoral trigger zones can
most common of the cranial neuralgias and chiefly affects confuse the diagnosis by suggesting a dental disorder, and TN
individuals older than 50 years of age. When younger indi- patients often first consult a dentist for evaluation. The stabbing
viduals are involved, suspicion of a detectable underlying pain can mimic the pain of a cracked tooth, but the two disor-
lesion such as a tumor, an aneurysm, or multiple sclerosis ders can be distinguished by determining whether placing food
must be increased. in the mouth without chewing or whether gently touching the
soft tissue around the trigger zone will precipitate pain. TN pain
Etiology and Pathogenesis. The cause of the majority of cases will be triggered by touching the soft tissue whereas pressure on
of TN remains controversial, but approximately 10% of cases the tooth is required to cause pain from a cracked tooth. Just
have detectable underlying pathology such as a tumor of the after an attack, there is a refractory period when touching the
cerebellar pontine angle, a demyelinating plaque of multiple trigger zone will not precipitate pain. The number of attacks
sclerosis, or a vascular malformation. The most frequent
may vary from one or two per day to several per minute. Patients
tumor is a meningioma of the posterior cranial fossa. The
with severe TN may be severely disabled by attacks that are trig-
remainder of cases of TN are classified as idiopathic. Several
gered by speaking or other mouth movements.
theories exist regarding the etiology of TN.
The most widely accepted theory is that a majority of cases
Diagnosis. The diagnosis of TN is usually based on the his-
of TN are caused by an atherosclerotic blood vessel (usually
the superior cerebellar artery) pressing on and grooving the tory of shooting pain along a branch of the trigeminal nerve,
root of the trigeminal nerve. This pressure results in focal precipitated by touching a trigger zone, and possibly exami-
demyelinization and hyperexcitability of nerve fibers, which nation that demonstrates the shooting pain. A routine cranial
will then fire in response to light touch, resulting in brief nerve examination will be normal in patients with idiopathic
episodes of intense pain.163 TN, but sensory and/or motor changes may be evident in
Evidence for this theory includes the observation that neu- patients with underlying tumors or other CNS pathology.
rosurgery that removes the pressure of the vessel from the Local anesthetic blocks, which temporarily eliminate the trig-
nerve root by use of a microvascular decompression procedure ger zone, may also be helpful in diagnosis. Since approxi-
eliminates the pain in a majority of cases. In a recent study of mately 10% of TN cases are caused by detectable underlying
1,185 patients who had microvascular decompression surgery pathology, enhanced MRI of the brain is indicated to rule out
for TN that did not respond to drug therapy, 70% of the tumors, multiple sclerosis, and vascular malformations.
Orofacial Pain 329
Management. Initial therapy for TN should consist of tri- cedure or alternative therapy. Complications were rare but
als of drugs that are effective in eliminating the painful included stroke, facial numbness, and facial weakness.
attacks. Anticonvulsant drugs are most frequently used and In summary, therapy for TN presently includes a variety of
are most effective. Carbamazepine is the most commonly used both medical and surgical approaches, each of which is effec-
drug and is an effective therapy for greater than 85% of newly tive for some patients. Drug therapy including trials of several
diagnosed cases of TN. The drug is administered in slowly drugs or combinations of drugs should be attempted before
increasing doses until pain relief has been achieved. Skin reac- surgery is recommended. When surgery is necessary, the
tions, including generalized erythema multiforme, are serious patient should be carefully counseled regarding the advan-
side effects. Patients receiving carbamazepine must have peri- tages and disadvantages of the available surgical procedures.
odic hematologic laboratory evaluations because serious life- Clinicians should also remember that since spontaneous
threatening blood dyscrasias occur in rare cases. Monitoring remissions are a feature of TN, procedures resulting in tem-
of hepatic and renal function is also recommended. Patients porary relief might be all that is necessary for some patients.
who do not respond to carbamazepine alone may obtain relief
from baclofen or by combining carbamazepine with GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL NEURALGIA
baclofen.167 Gabapentin, a newer anticonvulsant that has Glossopharyngeal neuralgia is a rare condition that is associ-
fewer serious side effects than carbamazepine, is effective in ated with paroxysmal pain that is similar to, though less intense
some patients but does not appear to be as reliable as carba- than, the pain of TN. The location of the trigger zone and
mazepine. Other drugs that are effective for some patients pain sensation follows the distribution of the glossopharyngeal
include phenytoin, lamotrigine, and pimozide.168 Since TN nerve, namely, the pharynx, posterior tongue, ear, and infra-
may have temporary or permanent spontaneous remissions, auricular retromandibular area. Pain is triggered by stimulat-
drug therapy should be slowly withdrawn if a patient remains ing the pharyngeal mucosa during chewing, talking, and swal-
pain free for 3 months. lowing. The pain can be easily confused with that of geniculate
Clinicians treating TN must be aware that drug therapy neuralgia (because of the common ear symptoms) or with
often becomes less effective over time and that progressively that of TMDs (because of pain following jaw movement).
higher doses may be required for pain control. In cases in Glossopharyngeal neuralgia may occur with TN, and when
which drug therapy is ineffective or in which the patient is this occurs, a search for a common central lesion is essential.
unable to tolerate the side effects of drugs after trials of several Glossopharyngeal neuralgia also may be associated with vagal
agents, surgical therapy is indicated. A number of surgical pro- symptoms, such as syncope and arrhythmia, owing to the close
cedures that result in temporary or permanent remission of anatomic proximity of the two nerves. The application of a
the painful attacks have been described. These include proce- topical anesthetic to the pharyngeal mucosa eliminates glos-
dures performed on the peripheral portion of the nerve, where sopharyngeal nerve pain and can aid in distinguishing it from
it exits the jaw; at the gasserian ganglion; and on the brainstem, the pain of other neuralgias. The most common causes of glos-
at the posterior cranial fossa. Peripheral surgery includes sopharyngeal neuralgia are intracranial or extracranial tumors
cryosurgery on the trigeminal nerve branch that triggers the and vascular abnormalities that compress CN IX. Treatment is
painful attacks. This procedure is most frequently performed similar to that for TN, with a good response to carbamazepine
at the mental nerve for cases involving the third division and and baclofen. Refractory cases are treated surgically by
at the infraorbital nerve for cases involving the second division. intracranial or extracranial section of CN IX, microvascular
The potential effectiveness of this procedure can be evaluated decompression in the posterior cranial fossa, or (more
prior to surgery by determining whether a long-acting local recently) by percutaneous radiofrequency thermocoagulation
anesthetic eliminates the pain during the duration of anes- of the nerve at the jugular foramen.173
thesia. This procedure is usually effective for 12 to 18 months,
at which time it must be repeated or another form of therapy NERVOUS INTERMEDIUS (GENICULATE) NEURALGIA
must be instituted. Nervous intermedius (geniculate) neuralgia is an uncommon
The most commonly performed procedure at the level of paroxysmal neuralgia of CN VII, characterized by pain in the
the gasserian ganglion is percutaneous radiofrequency ther- ear and (less frequently) the anterior tongue or soft palate.
mocoagulation 169 although some clinicians continue to The location of pain matches the sensory distribution of this
advocate glycerol block at the ganglion170 or compression of nerve (ie, the external auditory canal and a small area on the
the ganglion by balloon microcompression.171 An infrequent soft palate and the posterior auricular region). Pain may be
but severe surgical complication is anesthesia dolorosa, provoked by the stimulation of trigger zones within the ipsi-
which is numbness combined with severe intractable pain. lateral distribution of the nerve. The pain is not as sharp or
The most extensively studied surgical procedure is microvas- intense as in TN, and there is often some degree of facial paral-
cular decompression of the nerve root at the brainstem. In a ysis, indicating the simultaneous involvement of the motor
report of 1,185 patients who were observed for 1 to 6 years, root. Geniculate neuralgia commonly results from herpes
70% of the patients experienced long-term relief of symp- zoster of the geniculate ganglion and nervus intermedius of
toms.172 It should be noted that 30% of the patients experi- CN VII,174 a condition referred to as Ramsay Hunt syn-
enced a recurrence of symptoms and required a second pro- drome.175 Viral vesicles may be observed in the ear canal or on
330 Orofacial Pain and Temporomandibular Disorders
the tympanic membrane. The symptoms result from inflam- accompanied by a sensory deficit, and there is a correlation
matory neural degeneration, and a short course (2 to 3 weeks) between the degree of sensory deficit and the severity of pain.182
of high-dose steroid therapy is beneficial.174 Acyclovir signif-
icantly reduces the duration of the pain. Patients with genic- Management. Many treatment options are available for the
ulate neuralgia are also treated with carbamazepine and anti- management of PHN, and the method chosen should depend
depressants. Patients who do not respond to these medications on the severity of the symptoms as well as the general medical
may undergo surgery to section the nervus intermedius. status of the patient. Treatment includes topical and systemic,
drug therapy and surgery.
OCCIPITAL NEURALGIA Topical therapy includes the use of topical anesthetic
Occipital neuralgia is a rare neuralgia in the distribution of agents, such as lidocaine, or analgesics, particularly capsaicin.
the sensory branches of the cervical plexus (most commonly Lidocaine used either topically or injected gives short-term
unilateral in the neck and occipital region). The most com- relief from severe pain.183 Combinations of topical anesthet-
mon causes (in descending order of frequency) are trauma, ics such as EMLA Cream (AstraZeneca) have also been
neoplasms, infections, and aneurysms involving the affected reported as helpful.184 Capsaicin, an extract of hot chili pep-
nerve(s). Palpation below the superior nuchal line may reveal pers that depletes the neurotransmitter substance P when used
an exquisitely tender spot. Treatment has included corticos- topically, has been shown to be helpful in reducing the pain of
teroids, neurolysis, avulsion, and blocking the nerve with a PHN, but the side effect of a burning sensation at the site of
local anesthetic.176 application limits its usefulness for many patients.
The use of tricyclic antidepressants such as amitriptyline,
POSTHERPETIC NEURALGIA nortriptyline, doxepin, and desiprimine is a well-established
method of reducing the chronic burning pain that is charac-
Etiology and Pathogenesis. Herpes zoster (shingles), teristic of PHN.185–188 Because a significant number of elderly
described in detail in Chapter 2 is caused by the reactivation patients cannot tolerate the sedative or cardiovascular side
of latent varicella-zoster virus infection that results in both effects associated with tricyclic antidepressants, the use of
pain and vesicular lesions along the course of the affected other drugs, particularly gabapentin, has been advocated. In
nerve. Approximately 15 to 20% of cases of herpes zoster one controlled clinical trial, the use of gabapentin reduced
involve the trigeminal nerve although the majority of these pain by more than 30% and also improved sleep and overall
cases affect the ophthalmic division of the fifth nerve, result- quality of life.189 Patients who undergo episodes of shooting
ing in pain and lesions in the region of the eyes and forehead. pain may experience relief through the use of anticonvulsant
Herpes zoster of the maxillary and mandibular divisions is a drugs, such as carbamazepine or phenytoin.188
cause of facial and oral pain as well as of lesions. In a major- When medical therapy has been ineffective in managing
ity of cases, the pain of herpes zoster resolves within a month intractable pain, nerve blocks or surgery at the level of the
after the lesions heal. Pain that persists longer than a month peripheral nerve or dorsal root have been effective for some
is classified as postherpetic neuralgia (PHN) although some patients. The best therapy for PHN is prevention. There is evi-
authors do not make the diagnosis of PHN until the pain has dence that the use of antiviral drugs, particularly famciclovir,
persisted for longer than 3 or even 6 months.177 PHN may along with a short course of systemic corticosteroids during
occur at any age, but the major risk factor is increasing age. the acute phase of the disease may decrease the incidence and
Few individuals younger than 30 years of age experience PHN severity of PHN.190 Although investigators agree that the use
whereas more than 25% of individuals older than 55 years of of antivirals and corticosteroids decreases acute pain and accel-
age and two-thirds of patients older than over 70 years of age erates the healing of lesions, further controlled trials are nec-
will suffer from PHN after an episode of herpes zoster.178 essary before the long-term benefits of using antivirals and
Elderly patients also have an increased risk of experiencing corticosteroids are known.191 The use of tricyclic antidepres-
severe pain for an extended period of time.179 The pain and sants during the acute phase of herpes zoster has been advo-
numbness of PHN results from a combination of both cen- cated as an effective method of decreasing PHN.192
tral and peripheral mechanisms. The varicella-zoster virus POST-TRAUMATIC NEUROPATHIC PAIN
injures the peripheral nerve by demyelination, wallerian
degeneration, and sclerosis,180 but changes in the CNS, Etiology and Pathogenesis. Trigeminal nerve injuries may
including atrophy of dorsal horn cells in the spinal cord, have result from facial trauma or from surgical procedures, such as
also been associated with PHN. 181 This combination of the removal of impacted third molars, the placement of dental
peripheral and central injury results in the spontaneous dis- implants, the removal of cysts or tumors of the jaws, genio-
charge of neurons and an exaggerated painful response to plasties, or osteotomies. In some individuals, nerve injury
nonpainful stimuli.180 results only in numbness whereas others experience pain that
may be either spontaneous or triggered by a stimulus. The pain
Clinical Manifestations. Patients with PHN experience per- associated with nerve injury often has a burning quality due to
sistent pain, paresthesia, hyperesthesia, and allodynia months spontaneous activity in nociceptor C fibers.193 Minor nerve
to years after the zoster lesions have healed. The pain is often injuries (classified as neurapraxia) do not result in axonal
Orofacial Pain 331
degeneration but may cause temporary symptoms of paras- ETIOLOGY AND PATHOGENESIS
thesia for a few hours or days. More serious nerve damage (clas-
The constellation of signs and symptoms associated with CRPS
sified as axonotmesis) results in the degeneration of neural
is believed to result from changes after trauma that couples
fibers although the nerve trunk remains intact. These injuries
sensory nerve fibers to sympathetic stimuli. Evidence for the
cause symptoms for several months but have a good prognosis
existence of CRPS includes studies that show that surgical or
for recovery after axonal regeneration is complete. Total nerve
drug-induced blockades of the sympathetic nervous system
section (neurotmesis) frequently causes permanent nerve dam-
relieve the symptoms. In a new taxonomy included in the clas-
age, resulting in anesthesia and/or dysesthesia.194 Central sen-
sification of chronic pain, CRPS-1 is used in place of RSD, and
sitization probably plays a role in the symptoms of neuropathy.
CRPS-2 replaces causalgia, which is a pain syndrome resulting
Clinical Manifestations. The pain associated with periph- from a major nerve injury. RSD has rarely been described as
eral nerve injury may be persistent or may occur only in involving the trigeminal nerve distribution, and the role of
response to a stimulus such as light touch. Patients with nerve the sympathetic nervous system in chronic facial pain is
damage may experience anesthesia (loss in sensation), pares- unknown. One study of chronic facial pain patients who also
thesia (a feeling of “pins and needles”), allodynia (pain caused had evidence of autonomic dysfunction described a subset of
by a stimulus that is normally not painful), or hyperalgesia (an patients who improved after a stellate ganglion block, sug-
exaggerated response to a mildly painful stimulus). gesting a possible role for the sympathetic nervous system.198
There are also case reports of facial pain resolving after sym-
Management. Treatment of neuropathic pain may be surgi- pathectomy.199
cal, nonsurgical, or a combination of both, depending on the
nature of the injury and the severity of the pain. Systemic cor- CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS
ticosteroids are considered helpful in decreasing the incidence The most constant symptom of CRPS is spontaneous chronic
and severity of traumatic neuropathies when administered burning pain and tenderness, frequently accompanied by
within the first week after a nerve injury. Steroids used after motor dysfunction, sweating, and cutaneous atrophy. The
this initial period are of little value. The most frequently used involved skin may also be edematous and erythematous as a
medications for the management of neuropathic pain include result of changes in blood flow, and the underlying bone is
tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) and gabapentin. commonly demineralized. Allodynia and hyperesthesia are
TCAs such as amitriptyline, doxepin, and nortriptyline common symptoms, and movement exacerbates the pain. This
have been extensively studied and widely used to treat neuro- syndrome most commonly involves the extremities distal to an
pathic pain, including traumatic neuropathies of the trigemi- injury. The existence of this disorder in the head and facial
nal nerve.195 The TCAs can be used alone; in severe intractable region is controversial.
cases, they potentiate the effect of narcotic analgesics. The clin-
ician prescribing TCAs must be aware of potential serious side TREATMENT
effects in patients with cardiac arrhythmias or glaucoma and The recommended therapy for CRPS involves a multidiscipli-
must be able to help the patient manage common side effects nary approach that includes physical therapy, nerve blocks,
that include drowsiness, weight gain from increased appetite, and drug therapy. Blockades of regional sympathetic ganglia
and dry mouth. or regional intravenous blockades with guanethidine, reser-
Gabapentin, an anticonvulsant drug approved for the treat- pine, or phenoxybenzamine combined with a local anesthetic
ment of epilepsy, has been used with increasing frequency to have been reported as successful200 and are used in anesthesia
treat a variety of neuropathic pain syndromes, including dia- pain clinics. Bisphosphonates such as alendronate or
betic neuropathy and PHN. The low incidence of serious side pamidronate have decreased pain in some RSD patients when
effects has encouraged widespread use of this drug. A con- used intravenously. It is unclear whether these drugs are help-
trolled clinical trial that compared the effectiveness of ful because of their effect on bone or because of anti-inflam-
gabapentin with that of the TCA amitriptyline demonstrated matory properties.201
that both were equally effective in controlling neuropathic
pain associated with diabetic neuropathy.196,197 Atypical Odontalgia (Atypical Facial Pain)
Topical capsaicin may also be effective in controlling pain A classification that includes the diagnoses of atypical odon-
and is especially useful for patients who are unable to tolerate talgia (AO) and atypical facial pain (AFP) is controversial, and
the side effects of systemic therapy. many workers in the field of facial pain believe that these terms
should be discarded because they are often used either as
Complex Regional Pain Syndrome 1 (Reflex catchalls to denote patients who have not been adequately
Sympathetic Dystrophy) evaluated or because they imply that the pain is purely psy-
The terms “complex regional pain syndrome type 1” (CRPS-1) chological in origin. Some classification systems, including the
and “reflex sympathetic dystrophy” (RSD) are used to describe IHS system, use the term “facial pain not fulfilling other crite-
a poorly understood syndrome that consists of localized pain, ria” to describe patients in this category. The disputed terms are
motor and sweat abnormalities, and trophic changes in the soft still commonly used in clinical practice, however, since there
tissues of the muscles and skin. exists a group of individuals who (1) have a chronic facial pain
332 Orofacial Pain and Temporomandibular Disorders
syndrome with characteristic clinical features, (2) have been A thorough history and examination including evaluation
thoroughly investigated, and (3) do not fall into any other of the cranial nerves, oropharynx, and teeth must be per-
diagnostic categories. The term “atypical odontalgia” is used in formed to rule out dental, neurologic, or nasopharyngeal dis-
this context when the pain is confined to the teeth or gingivae ease. Examination of the masticatory muscles should also be
whereas the term “atypical facial pain” is used when other parts performed to eliminate pain secondary to undetected muscle
of the face are involved. dysfunction. Laboratory tests should be carried out when indi-
cated by the history and examination. Patients with AO or
ETIOLOGY AND PATHOGENESIS AFP have completely normal radiographic and clinical labo-
There are several theories regarding the etiology of AO and AFP. ratory studies.
One theory considers AO and AFP to be a form of de-afferenta-
MANAGEMENT
tion or phantom tooth pain. This theory is supported by the
high percentage of patients with these disorders who report that Once the diagnosis has been made and other pathologies have
the symptoms began after a dental procedure such as endodon- been eliminated, it is important that the symptoms are taken
tic therapy or an extraction. Others have theorized that AO is a seriously and are not dismissed as imaginary. Patients should
form of vascular, neuropathic, or sympathetically maintained be counseled regarding the nature of AO and reassured that
pain. Other studies support the concept that at least some of the they do not have an undetected life-threatening disease and
patients in this category have a strong psychogenic component that they can be helped without invasive procedures. When
to their symptoms and that depressive, somatization, and con- indicated, consultation with other specialists such as oto-
version disorders have been described as major factors in some laryngologists, neurologists, or psychiatrists may be helpful.
patients. It is frequently difficult to accurately study the psy- TCAs such as amitriptyline, nortriptyline, and doxepin, given
chological aspects of a chronic pain syndrome since anxiety and in low to moderate doses, are often effective in reducing or (in
depression are part of the clinical picture of all patients with some cases) eliminating the pain. Other recommended drugs
chronic pain. include gabapentin and clonazepam. Some clinicians report
benefit from topical desensitization with capsaicin, topical
There is often strong disagreement between facial pain
anesthetics, or topical doxepin.
experts who stress the biologic basis of AO and AFP and others
who stress the emotional basis, but the etiology remains Burning Mouth Syndrome (Glossodynia)
unknown at this time. It is likely that there are subgroups of
Burning sensations accompany many inflammatory or ulcera-
patients who fall into the category of AO and AFP, some of
tive diseases of the oral mucosa, but the term “burning mouth
whom have a strong component of de-afferentation pain while
syndrome” (BMS) is reserved for describing oral burning that
others have a psychological basis for similar symptoms. It is also
has no detectable cause. The burning symptoms in patients with
possible that a combination of both neuropathic and psycho-
BMS do not follow anatomic pathways, there are no mucosal
logical mechanisms are important in the etiology of this
lesions or known neurologic disorders to explain the symp-
presently poorly understood facial pain syndrome. toms, and there are no characteristic laboratory abnormalities.
CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS
ETIOLOGY AND PATHOGENESIS
The major manifestation of AO and AFP is a constant dull The cause of BMS remains unknown, but a number of factors
aching pain without an apparent cause that can be detected by have been suspected, including hormonal and allergic disor-
examination or laboratory studies. AO occurs most frequently ders, salivary gland hypofunction, chronic low-grade trauma,
in women in the fourth and fifth decades of life, and most and psychiatric abnormalities. The increased incidence of BMS
studies report that women make up more than 80% of the in women after menopause has led investigators to suspect an
patients. The pain is described as a constant dull ache, instead association with hormonal changes, but there is little evidence
of the brief and severe attacks of pain that are characteristic of that women with BMS have more hormonal abnormalities
TN. There are no trigger zones, and lancinating pains are rare. than matched controls who do not have BMS. Studies of estro-
The patient frequently reports that the onset of pain coin- gen replacement therapy used to treat BMS have yielded mixed
cided with a dental procedure such as oral surgery or an results, and few investigators recommend hormone replace-
endodontic or restorative procedure. Patients also report seek- ment as a primary therapy for BMS in patients who do not
ing multiple dental procedures to treat the pain; these proce- require it for other reasons.
dures may result in temporary relief, but the pain characteris- Allergic reactions have also been suspected, but there is no
tically returns in days or weeks. Other patients will give a evidence to support the hypothesis that BMS is the result of
history of sinus procedures or of receiving trials of multiple allergic reactions to food, oral hygiene products, or dental
medications, including antibiotics, corticosteroids, deconges- materials. A contact allergy can affect the oral mucosa and
tants, or anticonvulsant drugs. The pain may remain in one result in burning sensations, but inflammatory, lichenoid, or
area or may migrate, either spontaneously or after a surgical ulcerative lesions are present in cases of contact allergy and
procedure. Symptoms may remain unilateral, cross the midline absent in BMS patients. It was theorized that BMS is related to
in some cases, or involve both the maxilla and mandible. decreased salivary gland function, but most studies have
Orofacial Pain 333
shown no clear-cut association between BMS and decreased of BMS is helpful in management, particularly because many
salivary flow rates.202 Changes in taste have been reported in patients will have had multiple clinical evaluations without
over 60% of patients with BMS, and BMS patients have been an explanation for the symptoms. Counseling and reassur-
shown to have different thresholds of taste perception than ance may be adequate management for individuals with mild
matched controls.203 Dysgeusia (particularly an abnormally burning sensations, but patients with symptoms that are more
bitter taste) has been reported by 60% of BMS patients.204 severe often require drug therapy. The drug therapies that have
This association has led to a concept that BMS may be a defect been found to be the most helpful are low doses of TCAs, such
in sensory peripheral neural mechanisms.202 as amitriptyline and doxepin, or clonazepam (a benzodi-
BMS has been associated with psychological disorders in azepine derivative). It should be stressed to the patient that
many studies. Depression is frequently associated with BMS, these drugs are being used not to manage psychiatric illness,
and in some studies, close to one-third of BMS patients have but for their well-documented analgesic effect. Clinicians pre-
significant depression scores although, as with any chronic scribing these drugs should be familiar with potential serious
pain disorder, it is unclear if depression is the cause or the and annoying side effects.
effect of the symptoms.205–207 It is likely that some cases of Burning of the tongue that results from parafunctional
BMS have a strong psychological component, but other fac- oral habits may be relieved with the use of a splint covering
tors, such as chronic low-grade trauma resulting from para- the teeth and/or the palate.
functional oral habits (eg, rubbing the tongue across the teeth
or pressing it on the palate), are also likely to play a role. Vascular Pain
Pain originating from vascular structures may cause facial pain
CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS that can be misdiagnosed and mistaken for other oral disor-
Women experience symptoms of BMS seven times more fre- ders, including toothache or TMD. This section discusses the
quently than men.208 When questioned, 10 to 15% of post- major pain disorders of vascular etiology that have prominent
menopausal women are found to have a history of oral burn- orofacial signs and symptoms.
ing sensations, and these symptoms are most prevalent 3 to 12
years after menopause.209 The tongue is the most common site CRANIAL ARTERITIS
of involvement, but the lips and palate are also frequently Cranial arteritis (temporal arteritis, giant cell arteritis) is an
involved. The burning can be either intermittent or constant, inflammatory disorder involving the medium-sized branches
but eating, drinking, or placing candy or chewing gum in the of the carotid arteries. The temporal artery is the most com-
mouth characteristically relieves the symptoms. This contrasts monly involved branch. The blood vessel abnormality may be
with the increased oral burning noted during eating that occurs localized to the head and face or may be part of the general-
in patients with lesions or neuralgias affecting the oral mucosa. ized disease, polymyalgia rheumatica.
Patients presenting with BMS are often apprehensive and admit
to being generally anxious or “high-strung.” They may also Etiology and Pathogenesis. Both cranial arteritis and
have symptoms that suggest depression, such as decreased polymyalgia rheumatica are caused by immune abnormalities
appetite, insomnia, and a loss of interest in daily activities. that affect cytokines and T lymphocytes, resulting in inflam-
Other causes of burning symptoms of the oral mucosa matory infiltrates in the walls of arteries. This infiltrate is char-
must be eliminated by examination and laboratory studies acterized by the formation of multinucleated giant cells. The
before the diagnosis of BMS can be made. Patients with uni- underlying trigger of the inflammatory response is unknown.
lateral symptoms should have a thorough evaluation of the
trigeminal and other cranial nerves to eliminate a neurologic Clinical Manifestations. Cranial arteritis most frequently
source of pain. A careful clinical examination for oral lesions affects adults above the age of 50 years. Patients have a throb-
resulting from candidiasis, lichen planus, or other mucosal bing headache accompanied by generalized symptoms includ-
diseases should be performed. Patients complaining of a com- ing fever, malaise, and loss of appetite. Patients with polymyal-
bination of xerostomia and burning should be evaluated for gia rheumatica will have accompanying joint and muscle pain.
the possibility of a salivary gland disorder, particularly if the Examination of the involved temporal artery reveals a thick-
mucosa appears to be dry and the patient has difficulty swal- ened pulsating vessel. Since the mandibular and lingual arter-
lowing dry foods without sipping liquids. When indicated, ies may be involved, a throbbing pain in the jaw or tongue may
laboratory tests should be carried out to detect undiagnosed be an early sign or even a presenting sign. A serious complica-
diabetic neuropathy, anemia, or deficiencies of iron, folate, or tion in untreated patients is ischemia of the eye, which may
vitamin B12. lead to progressive loss of vision or sudden blindness. These
visual manifestations may be prevented by early diagnosis and
TREATMENT prompt therapy.
Once the diagnosis of BMS has been made by eliminating the Laboratory abnormalities include an elevated erythrocyte
possibility of detectable lesions or underlying medical disor- sedimentation rate (ESR) and anemia. Abnormal C-reactive
ders, the patient should be reassured of the benign nature of protein may also be an important early finding. The most
the symptoms. Counseling the patient in regard to the nature definitive diagnostic test is a biopsy specimen (from the
334 Orofacial Pain and Temporomandibular Disorders
involved temporal artery) that demonstrates the characteris- associated with autonomic symptoms, particularly nasal con-
tic inflammatory infiltrate. Since the entire vessel is not gestion and tearing. Sweating of the face, ptosis, increased
involved, an adequate specimen must be taken to detect the salivation, and edema of the eyelid are also common signs.
changes. A negative biopsy result does not rule out temporal During a cluster period, ingestion of alcohol or use of nitro-
arteritis, and the diagnosis should continue to be considered glycerin will provoke an attack.
in patients over 50 years of age who have chronic pounding
head or orofacial pain and an elevated ESR.210 Treatment. An acute attack of CH can be aborted by breath-
ing 100% oxygen, and CH patients may keep an oxygen can-
Treatment. Individuals with cranial arteritis should be ister at bedside to use at the first sign of an attack. Injection of
treated with systemic corticosteroids as soon as the diagnosis sumatriptan or sublingual or inhaled ergotamine may also be
is made. The initial dose ranges between 40 to 60 mg of pred- effective therapy. Several drug protocols are recommended for
nisone per day, and the steroid is tapered once the signs of the preventing CH during active periods. Lithium is effective ther-
disease are controlled. The ESR may be used to help monitor apy for those who can tolerate the side effects, and patients
disease status. Patients are maintained on systemic steroids for who are using long-term lithium must be monitored for renal
1 to 2 years after symptoms resolve. Steroids may be supple- toxicity. Other drugs that are useful for preventing attacks
mented by adjuvant therapy with immunosuppressive drugs, include ergotamine, prophylactic prednisone, and calcium
such as cyclophosphamide, to reduce the complications of channel blockers. Methysergide is also effective therapy, but
long-term corticosteroid therapy. Immediate steroid therapy pulmonary or cardiac fibrosis are potential side effects, par-
should be initiated if visual symptoms are present. ticularly during prolonged use.
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