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Birds: Prof. AN. Subramanian and Dr. A. Sethuraman
Birds: Prof. AN. Subramanian and Dr. A. Sethuraman
Prof. AN. Subramanian* and Dr. A. Sethuraman
*Centre for Marine Environmental Studies, Ehime University, Japan
Bharathidasan University, Thiruchirappalli
angrove ecosystems provide an excellent habitat for birds. The
M most common birds at the mangrove forests are the members of
the family Ardeidae, Charadriidae, Laridae, Ciconidae, Accipitridae
and Alcedinidae. Migratory birds visiting the mangroves may fly long
distances to find food and nesting places there. This may be particularly
true in the neotropics (Parrish and Sherry, 1994; Confer and Holmes,
1995; Lefebvre and Poulin, 1996; Panitz, 1997). Some of the resident bird
species are highly dependent on mangroves for their survival. Because
of this dependence, disturbances to the mangal may reverberate through
the bird populations. This may be particularly true where the bird
species show stray site fidelity (Warkentin and Hernandez, 1996). The
habitat disturbances may be natural, such as the frequent cyclonic
storms that strongly affect myna populations in the Pichavaram
mangroves of South India (Nagarajan and Thiyagesan, 1995). More
frequently, however, they are caused by human activities. Protection of
the mangrove inhabiting birds will require effective management of the
entire mangrove habitat. Many of the nest sites are in dead trees
suggesting that a comprehensive eagle management plan is required for
preservation of both living and dead mangroves (Curnutt and
Robertson, 1994). The mangroves are highly important for the survival
of many species of birds, but information on birds associated with
mangroves in India is scanty (Mukherjee, 1969; Samant, 1985; Rashid
and Scott, 1988; Sampath, 1989; Sethuraman and Subramanian, 1997;
Subramanian and Sethuraman, 1998; Sethuraman, 2000; Kathiresan,
2000).
Methods of Field Surveys and Censuses
In Asia, the first study of shorebird was undertaken in the 1960ʹs in
Malaysia and Singapore. The first country to organise nationwide
shorebird counts was Japan in 1973. A regional network was also set‐up
to monitor shorebirds at many sites on a regular basis, and from the
resulting counts, some new information on migration routes and
shorebird populations could be interpreted.
456 Birds
Ground Surveys
Ground surveys are the most used method and a cheap way to
supplement information from a boat or aerial survey on a regular basis.
However, they do have their limitations and in most wetland areas a
combination of boat and ground survey is most effective.
Boat Surveys
Using boats is a very useful way to survey wetlands and their birds.
Large wetland areas are often inaccessible by foot, and aerial surveys are
too costly. Boats can either be used as a means of transport to
inaccessible or remotely situated areas. Identification and counting of
birds from a boat is usually difficult.
Aerial Surveys
Aerial surveys have been used worldwide to identify key sites for
shorebirds, to evaluate bird numbers, to map vegetation, and to identify
threats to the habitats.
Censuses of Birds
Systematic and regular counts of wetland birds are very essential to get
an idea on population fluctuations, conservations needs, and to define
the community structure of a particular site. The bird numbers can
either be counted accurately or estimated.
Methods for Accurate Counting
To count wetland birds precisely, the researcher can either write down
counts directly in a notebook, dictate numbers and species in to a hand‐
held record or to another person to write down.
A Species by Species Count
This can be done by counting all of one species then another, starting
with the most abundant and finishing with the least abundance. While
censusing the most abundant species the observer can, to some extent,
get an idea of the population structure of other species found in the
flock. This ensures that even if the less abundant flock files away during
counting an estimate of that species can be made using the completed
counts of the most abundant species. For instance, there are 725 ʹXʹ
species and there are roughly half, as may ʹYʹ species. Therefore the ʹYʹ
count can be recorded as 350. This method is fairly slow but is best used
when seen settled and unlikely to fly.
AN. Subramanian and A. Sethuraman 457
An all Species Count
This can be done by observing a flock and counting all the bird species
simultaneously until all birds have been counted. This method can be
used for widely spaced flocks or in areas where birds are often moving.
Methods of Estimating Numbers
An easy and accurate method for estimating numbers of birds is the
ʺBlock Methodʺ. This can be used large flocks, densely packed flocks or
distant flocks, either in flight or on the ground. This method involves
counting or estimating a ʺblockʺ of birds within a flock. Depending on
the overall flock size a ʺblockʺ can be 10,100 or 1,000 birds. The ʹblockʹ is
then used as a model to measure the remainder of the flock. The total
number of birds in a flock can be estimated by adding the figures in all
the blocks.
During counts of wetland birds for a regular monitoring
programme the method of counting should always be the same‐either
accurately counting the numbers or estimating the numbers. This
ensures that monthly data will be reliable for comparative analysis.
Counting Foraging Birds
Counts of this nature can be carried out in an intertidal area, freshwater
bodies, lakes, shore, saltpans and salt lagoons. If the foraging area is
small enough to count accurately, an absolute count can be done.
Otherwise the foraging area is vast, it can be for the sack of making
census easy and accurate divided into transects of uniform size. For the
easy identification of the transect, in a regular survey area, some pole
may be erected. If the area is to be taken for an occasional census, the
area can be divided several uniform transects with the help of available
physical features. Censusing of birds, either accurate counting or
estimating the numbers, can be done using a binocular. The total
population figure can be obtained by adding the numbers in all
transects.
Counting High Tide Roost
High tide roosts are usually formed in areas adjacent to intertidal areas.
Birds in non‐tidal areas may also gather at roosts during midday.
Counting birds at a roost is a very effective method of identification of
species composition and overall abundance and fluctuation of species.
Using binoculars, the bird species in the area can be either counted
accurately or number estimated.
458 Birds
Counting Birds Flying into a Roost
Once a roost site is found out, a simple method of counting the birds is
to count the birds as they fly into roost. Some flying flocks, which are
closely packed together, may be difficult to count accurately, so
estimated need to be made and the most abundant species identified. In
some cases, flocks can be counted and species identified relatively easy
if flock is thin and small. The flying birds can be counted by beginning
at front of the flock and moving towards the back in this way birds can
be counted as they fly ʺthroughʺ the field of view of the binoculars, or
counting can be done starting at the back and move towards the front, in
this way, it is possible to regulate the speed of the birds passing through
the field view.
Identification Technique
The bird species can be identified based on the following characteristic
features. Size and Shape of body (It is important to judge the relative
size of the new bird species with the size of a common and familiar bird
species). The size of the wetland birds varies from the smallest bird the
Little Stint (15cm) to the tallest bird the Sarus Crane (156cm). Most
species have a characteristic shape. The notable feature are Bill shape
and relative size (long, medium, short, straight, down curved, curved
upward, tapering, pointing, a flat spoon‐shaped, thin and hooked); Tail
shape (square, rounded, forked wedge‐shaped, pointed, notched, long
and pointed); Leg length (in relation to the body height and tail in
flight); Wing shape (especially in flight the wings may have a
characteristic shape); Plumage patterns (bars, bands, spots, streaks or
patches on the various body parts of bird such as head, breast, belly, tail,
rump, wings, face and head); Head shape (presence of distinctive crests
or plumes on the head of birds); Feeding behaviour (grazing, dabbling,
diving, walking, probing, deep probing, filtering); Taking off (some
bird species take off directly and some other species run on the water for
some distance and take off latter); Flying (while flying birds hold their
wings and legs in a different position. Some birds like Cranes keep the
neck straight and extend the legs backward. Birds like egrets and herons
position their neck like ʹSʹ shape in flight. In the case of members of
Rallidae they dangle their legs when flying); Swimming (Birds like
Moorhen while swimming sits high in the water, whereas the
Cormorant swims with the body submerged in the water); Colour (All
the species are brilliantly coloured, which helps in identification. White
throated kingfisher has white colour on the throat region. Common
AN. Subramanian and A. Sethuraman 459
redshank is named so as the colour of the shank is red); Habitat
preference (some species of ducks prefer deep water and some swallow;
whereas some species chooses open‐water areas. Likewise, many species
of waders and shorebirds prefer intertidal sand and mudflats, sand
beaches, exposed coral reefs, freshwater marshes, grasslands, and arid
lands and offshore coastal waters); and Calls (Many wetland birds have
distinctive calls, which can easily be heard in their habitats).
Field Key for Identification
Family: Ardeidae (Herons, Egrets)
Long – legged, lanky wading birds, with long slender flexible necks,
which are retracted into a flat ‘s’ during flight. Bill long, sharp‐pointed
and dagger – like. Tarsi very long. Toes long and slender, the middle
and outer toes united by a small web at their base, claw of middle toe
pectinate. Most species have curious power‐down patches on each side
of rump and breast providing a sort of dry shampoo for degreasing
soiled feathers. Plumage soft and loose‐featured, usually white, grey,
purple (or) brown. In many species filamentous ornamental plumes
acquired during the breeding season.
Family : Charadriidae (Lapwings, Plover)
Body compact, stocky, thick‐necked shore birds. Bill short, thick, eyes
large. Lapwings wings broad, rounded, tail black with a sub‐terminal
(or) terminal band‐crests, facial wattles and wings. Spurs present.
Plovers smaller than lapwings, legs shorter, wings longer narrower,
more pointed, fly faster. Crests, facial wattles (or) wing spurs absent.
Feeding habits typical; using a “Stop‐Run‐Peck” method. Its common in
intertidal habitats and all types of water bodies.
Family: Laridae (Gulls, Terns)
Gulls: Gregarious, heavy bodied aquatic birds. Plumage a
combination of grey white and black. Bill slender to heavy sharply
pointed (or) blunt and slightly hooked. Legs short feet webbed, hallux
small or vestigial. Wings long and pointed, tail square or forked. Sexes
alike. Flight strong. Feed on by catching fish and crustaceans,
scavenging on various animal and vegetable matter.
Terns: More lightly built than gulls, with longer, narrower.
Wings and a different style of flight. They rest and roost on rocks (or)
mud banks and in spite of their webbed feet rarely settle on water. They
capture living prey such as fish crabs by scooping it up from the surface
460 Birds
in flight (or) diving vertically from the air and going under water
momentarily.
Family: Ciconidae (Stroks)
Large than herons, long‐legged, diurnal birds chiefly terrestrial and
marsh haunting. Colour pattern mainly white and black with a metallic
shining. Bill long, massive, pointed, straight (or) nearly so and
ungrooved. Wings long and broad. Tail short under tail coverts lax and
greatly developed in some species. Stroks are strong filers, flying with
neck and legs fully outstretched.
Family: Accipitridae (Hawks, kites, Eagles)
Bill short with upper mandible longer than lower curved and strongly
hooked at the tip. Basal portion covered with a cere, which is usually
bright coloured. Wings rounded. Many species have confusingly
different adult and juvenile plumages. Feed on the flesh of animals, self‐
killed or carrion.
Family: Alcedinidae (Kingfishers)
Usually of blue, green, purple, brown (or) black and white plumage.
Body compact neck. Short, bill massive, long, straight and pointed.
Wings short and rounded. Sexes generally alike. Flight direct and swift.
The aquatic farms feed on fish obtained by diving head long into the
water the others live also on large insects and small vertebrates.
Value and Conservation
There are ethical, social and economic relation between man and birds
besides other relations. Birds are friends as well as foes to mankind.
Some are beneficial being agent for pollution, germination and dispersal
of seeds of plants, for controlling pests like insects, rodents etc. On the
other hand, destroying crop in field as well as in ponds by devouring
seeds and fishes likewise, and helping in spreading diseases, birds also
become out enemy. The ecological balance in nature is also shared by
the avian member’s participation; hence their absence will disturb the
balance of nature. As mentioned earlier, hunting, trapping and trade in
birds as well as their habitat destruction are the major threats. At
present, hunting, trapping and trade have been controlled but habitat
destruction persists. Maximum destruction has been done in the forest
zone; wetland and wasteland by curbing habitats for total bird, hunting
and trapping for trade of the so‐called game birds and birds with
AN. Subramanian and A. Sethuraman 461
ornamental features have destroyed many. More and more endangered
species is brought under the umbrella of captive breeding programme to
increase their survival value.
Egretta gularis Ardeola grayii
Haliastur indus Merops orientalis
Hirundo simithii Corvus splendens
Pycnonotus cafer Passer domesticus
Egretta alba
462 Birds
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