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Environmental Aspects of Mining
Environmental Aspects of Mining
ENVIRONMENTAL
ASPECTS OF MINING
A N D E R S W I D E R L U N D A N D B J Ö R N Ö H L A N D E R , L U L E Å U N I V E R S I T Y O F T E C H N O L O G Y,
F R A U K E E C K E , S W E D I S H U N I V E R S I T Y O F A G R I C U LT U R A L S C I E N C E S
Published by
Luleå University of Technology, 2014.
Contents
Abstract...............................................................................4 3. Gaps in knowledge........................................................17
3.1 Characterization of emissions ......................................17
Preface.................................................................................5
3.1.1 Mine water effluents............................................17
1. Introduction.....................................................................6 3.1.2 Airborne emissions..............................................18
1.1 Objectives and Scope of work........................................6 3.2 Dispersion of emissions...............................................18
3.2.1 Surface and ground waters..................................18
2. General overview of previous and on-going activities
related to mining and environmental sustainability......7 3.2.2 Aquatic-terrestrial linkages
along longitudinal and lateral gradients.................19
2.1National and international environmental
objectives, directives and legislation................................7 3.2.3 Airborne emissions..............................................19
2.2 National and international initiatives................................8 3.3 Biogeochemical and ecological effects..........................19
2.3 Academic research......................................................10
4. Suggestions for future work.........................................20
2.3.1 Biogeochemical studies.......................................10
2.3.2 Ecological studies and biodiversity ......................16 5. Conclusions....................................................................21
6. References.....................................................................22
3
Abstract
This report forms an integrated part of a larger ings of mine sites. Thus, questions concerning for
feasibility study on Mining and Sustainable Develop- example mineral reserve management and issues of a
ment performed at Luleå University of Technology more global nature such as energy consumption and
during 2014. The report comprises a literature review climate effects are not included.
of previous and on-going activities related to mining The report identifies research gaps judged as criti-
and environmental sustainability, subdivided into the cal for improved environmental impact assessment
following three main topics: 1) national and inter- of mining. There is a need for more in-depth case
national environmental objectives, directives and studies to clarify the biogeochemical and ecological
legislation, 2) national and international initiatives footprint and environmental sustainability of mining.
and 3) academic research. A major aim of the report State-of-the Art analytical techniques and modelling
is to identify gaps in knowledge that indicate impor- software should be used to study emissions, transport
tant topics for a future research on mining and sus- distances, attenuation mechanisms, and ecological
tainable development. The report is limited to metal effects in the receiving waters downstream of the
mining (excluding uranium mining), and includes mine. Studies of the environmental sustainability
environmental issues related to acid mine drainage, should be integrated with parallel studies of
circumneutral mine waters, and aquatic–terrestrial economic and social sustainability of mining in
Preface
Minerals are essential for human welfare. However, their extraction is associated with both opportunities
and challenges. Historical concerns around work conditions and the competitiveness of the mining
sector have been complemented by a growing number of other issues. Today, an overarching goal is to
find ways by which the mining sector can promote sustainable development.
Sustainable development is often defined as “devel- Four other review reports have also been undertaken
opment that meets the needs of the present without as a part of this pre-study.
compromising the ability of future generations to • Making Mining Sustainable: Overview of Private and
meet their own needs.” Furthermore, it is commonly Public Responses, by Petter Hojem from Luleå Uni-
agreed that this must incorporate economic, environ- versity of Technology.
mental and social concerns.
• Environmental Regulation and Mining-Sector Com-
There is a growing literature that examines the rela- petitiveness, by Kristina Söderholm, Patrik Söder-
tionship between extractive industries and sustainable holm, Maria Pettersson, Nanna Svahn and Roine
5
development, yet much research is still conducted in Viklund from Luleå University of Technology and
a siloed fashion. For this reason, the Swedish state- Heidi Helenius from the University of Lapland.
owned iron ore mining company LKAB and Luleå
• Gender, Diversity and Work Conditions in Mining, by
University of Technology initiated a pre-study with
Lena Abrahamsson, Eugenia Segerstedt, Magnus
the aim to establish a new multidisciplinary research
Nygren, Jan Johansson, Bo Johansson, Ida Edman
programme on mining and sustainability.
and Amanda Åkerlund from Luleå University of
The pre-study was conducted from January to Technology.
October 20141. One part of the pre-study was to
• Mining, Regional Development and Benefit-Sharing, by
review existing research attempting to address mining
Patrik Söderholm and Nanna Svahn from Luleå
and sustainable development – the current state-of-
University of Technology.
the-art – with focus on the past, present, and future
situation in Sweden, but also to put the Swedish Together these reports provide a broad picture of the
case into a broader perspective by comparing several challenges and opportunities created by mining.
international examples. The pre-study has been made possible through a
One of the outcomes of the pre-study is this report. generous contribution from LKAB. All errors and
It reviews previous and on-going initiatives and opinions expressed in this report belong solely to the
research that address environmental aspects of min- authors.
ing. This includes critical issues related to acid mine
drainage, nutrient-rich mine waters, and water–land Luleå and Uppsala, October 2014
interactions in areas affected by dust. Anders Widerlund, Frauke Ecke and Björn Öhlander
The report highlights a number of future research
needs. Notably, there is a need for more detailed
information on the characteristics of emissions from
mining, their effect in different environments and
how they are transported. Also, further investigation is
needed on their effect on fauna and flora.
1
Project leader: Patrik Söderholm. Project group: Lena Abrahamsson, Frauke Ecke, Petter Hojem, Anders Widerlund, Roine Viklund, and Björn Öhlander.
1. Introduction
1.1 Objectives and Scope of work Regarding academic research on environmental
According to the Brundtland Report (United issues, a major aim of this report is to identify gaps in
Nations, 1987), sustainable development is defined as knowledge that indicate important topics for a future
a “development that meets the needs of the present research programme on Mining and Sustainable De-
without compromising the ability of future genera- velopment.
tions to meet their own needs”. This report com- The report is limited to environmentally sustainable
prises an overview of previous and on-going activi- development related to metal mining (excluding
ties related to mining and environmental sustainability, uranium mining), and includes environmental issues
subdivided into the following three main topics: related to acid mine drainage (AMD), circumneutral
1) national and international environmental object- mine waters, and aquatic–terrestrial linkages in areas
ives, directives and legislation, 2) national and inter- affected by mining and dust/airborne emissions. The
national initiatives and 3) academic research. report focuses on water, soil, and air quality issues in
the local–regional surroundings of mine sites. Thus,
questions concerning for example mineral reserve
management and issues of a more global nature such
2.2 National and international initiatives oratively to address the ARD issue. INAP members
In the late nineties the global mining industry real- presently are: Anglo American, Antofagasta Minerals,
ised that it must address to the concept of sustainable Barrick Gold, Freeport McMoRan, Kinross, New-
development rather than passively wait for new rules crest Mining Limited, Newmont Mining Corpora-
and expectations. Nine of the largest mining com- tion, Rio Tinto and Vale. All of these except Barrick
panies established a new initiative with the aim to and Kinross provide detailed information on their
change the way industry approached the concept of websites about how they relate to sustainable devel-
sustainable development, called the Global Mining opment. Barrick and Kinross instead give information
Initiative. Through the World Business Council for about their environmental standards.
Sustainable Development (WBCSD), they started INAP has developed the GARD Guide (GARD
the Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development Guide, 2014), which is intended as a state-of-the-
(MMSD) project and commissioned the International art summary of the best practices and technology to
Institute of Environment and Development (IIED) to assist mine operators and regulators to address issues
perform a scoping study. The final report of the study related to sulphide mineral oxidation. Regarding sus-
was published in 2002 (IIED, 2002), and a follow tainable development, the GARD Guide states:
up-report was published in 2012 (Buxton 2012). “The economic benefit derived from mining is an
A set of global rules for best practice on sustainable essential contributor to sustainable development but
development and minerals has been developed. The the environmental and social consequences can offset
number of standards and best practice guidance, this benefit unless managed appropriately”.
in 2013, claims that Sweden should maintain and On the university level there are several initiatives.
strengthen its position as Europe´s leading mining For example the Australian Centre for Sustainable
country (Sveriges regeringskansli, 2013). Mineral Mining Practices (ACSMP) has been established at
resources should be utilized in a sustainable manner. School of Mining Engineering at University of New
Here as well, five action points are described, one of South Wales in Australia. They define themselves
which is research. However, environment and sustain- as an “active research organization focused on new
able development are not emphasised. mining practices, and development and application
Regarding the two major mining companies in Swe- of technologies and systems for sustainable mining
den, Boliden Mineral AB clearly addresses all three initiatives”. In other words, it has a purely technical
aspects of sustainable development (environmental, focus. Also the Sustainable Minerals Institute (SMI) at
social, and economic) on its website, while LKAB the University of Queensland, Australia, has a techni-
focuses on the environmental aspects. However, both cal focus. However, this university also has a Centre
companies clearly state that they have high ambitions for Social Responsibility in Mining (CSRM). At
to leave as little impact as possible on the environment. Lakehead University in Northern Ontario, Canada,
the Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Mining
The Vision 2050 in Finland´s mineral strategy is that
& Exploration (CESME) has been established with
Finland is a global leader in the sustainable utilization
the goal to encourage and support research, edu-
of mineral resources, and the minerals sector is one of
cation and outreach activities regarding the nature
the key foundations of the Finnish national economy
and impacts of mineral resource exploration and
(GTK, 2014).
9
extraction particularly in Northern Ontario. The
In both Sweden and Finland the national miner- large mining universities in Canada such as Univer-
al strategies are matched by mining research pro- sity of BC, McGill University, University of Western
grammes. In Finland the state together with the Ontario and University of Waterloo all have strong
industry finances the Green Mining Programme via research on mining and the environment, but have
TEKES. The main objective of the TEKES Green no programmes or centres for mining and sustain-
Mining Programme is to make Finland a global able development. The Center for Environmentally
leader of a sustainable mineral industry by 2020. In Sustainable Mining (CESM) at University of Arizona
Sweden,VINNOVA and the industry finances the in USA has a clear focus on methods to decrease the
Strategic Innovation Area Swedish Mining and Metal environmental impact of mining. Colorado School of
Producing Industry Research and Innovation Programme Mines has no particular emphasis on neither environ-
which will run during the period of 2013–2016. The ment nor sustainability. Camborne School of Mines
vision of the programme is that “The Mining indus- Research in the UK has a research theme involving
try is an important supplier of efficient and sustaina- environmental protection and corporate social re-
ble solutions to meet the needs of modern society for sponsibility. University of the Witwatersrand, Johan-
metals and minerals”. In both the Swedish and Finn- nesburg, South Africa, has a Centre for Sustainability
ish research programmes, projects aiming at reducing in Mining and Industry (CSMI).
the environmental impact of mining are included.
Thus, the importance of sustainability in mining is
However, they do not include research that takes an
clearly recognized by government agencies, univer-
overall control on the environmental footprint of
sities and the mining industry. In reality, research and
mining or mining and sustainable development.
development is in most cases focused on decreasing
Also Norway has a national mineral strategy stressing the environmental impact of mining. It appears that
the importance of the sector and pointing out that the industry, to a higher degree than government
the environmental impact must be acceptable and the agencies and universities, includes and assesses the im-
industry sustainable (Norges närings- och handelsde- portance mining has for economy and development
partement, 2014). of a sustainable society.
Most funding agencies for mining related research, Acid Mine Drainage (AMD)
including national programmes, act like research Overall the main focus of previous geochemical re-
councils. It is open to anyone to apply for funding. search on mine waste has been on acid mine drainage
The result in most cases is a number of projects of (AMD), with particular emphasis on prevention and
good quality, but without mutual coordination. remediation measures. This research has been de-
To tackle such a big issue as sustainable mining scribed in textbooks (e.g. Lottermoser, 2003) as well
including the environmental, social and economic as various reports from major research programmes
footprint of mining, there is an obvious need for a such as Passive In-Situ Remediation of Acid Mine/
coherent research initiatives focusing on mining and Industrial Drainage (PIRAMID), Mitigation of the
sustainable development. Environmental Impact from Mining Waste (MiMi),
and Mine Environment Neutral Drainage (MEND)
2.3 Academic research (PIRAMID, 2003; Höglund and Herbert, 2004;
During the last decades a considerable amount of MEND, 2014). The International Network for Acid
academic research has been performed on mining- Prevention (INAP) with the support of the Global
related environmental issues. This research has been Alliance sponsored the development of the Global
carried out both within the framework of large, co- Acid Rock Drainage (GARD) Guide (GARD Guide,
ordinated research programmes such as the Canadian 2014). This guide deals with the prediction, preven-
MEND programme (Mine Environment Neutral tion and management of drainage produced from
Drainage) (MEND, 2014) as well as a large number of sulphide mineral oxidation, and also addresses metal
Relatively few studies have attempted to integrate Rakkurijoki system receiving water from the Kiruna
studies of biogeochemical effects (e.g. metal concen- iron mine (Widerlund et al., 2014). In addition, stud-
trations in waters and sediments) with studies of any ies of bioindicators such as diatom frustules in dated
corresponding biological/ecological effects. Niyogi et sediment cores can reveal pre-industrial conditions in
al. (2002) proposed a hypothesis that related biodi- lakes as well as mining-related environmental effects
versity, community biomass, and ecosystem function (e.g. Peinerud et al., 2001).
to a gradient of stress related to AMD. Interactions Wolkersdorfer and Bowell (2005) presented a review
between trace metals and aquatic organisms were also of mine water studies in 21 European countries. The
compiled in a literature and review report published case studies described addressed environmental issues
within the MEND programme (MEND, 2009). This both at mine sites and consequences of mining on
report describes the development and application of receiving waters, and included abandoned as well as
tools to predict the effects of transition metals in sedi- active mines. At Swedish mine sites, limited ground-
ment, water and aquatic food. These tools can be used water quality data were considered as a major gap
to assess the potential for metal toxicity in sediments in Swedish water quality monitoring and manage-
and to derive site-specific water quality guidelines. ment. The review also pointed out that no Swedish
In Sweden, biogeochemical effects in aquatic systems institution has the responsibility for coordinated
receiving AMD have been studied by e.g. Sjöblom monitoring, supervision, and management of diffuse
(2003). Sjöblom (2003) discussed various aspects water pollution sources over the wide scale of spatial–
of environmental sustainability in wetland systems temporal scales associated with mine water pollution
receiving metal-rich AMD from the Kristineberg
mine site, and concluded that correctly constructed
wetlands can treat certain kinds of drainage to com-
(Wolkersdorfer and Bowell, 2005).
Pit lakes
11
pliance with discharge requirements. Sjöblom (2003) Production of acid mine drainage (AMD) with pH
also studied metal immobilization in natural wetlands values below 3 and high dissolved concentrations of
as a complement to other treatment methods. The sulphate and metals is a common problem in sulphide
overall conclusion was that the investigated natural mine pit lakes. Thus, pit lake water quality is one of
system had a limited influence on the attenuation of the most significant environmental issues facing the
trace metals such as cadmium, copper, lead, and zinc. global mining industry today. Decreasing ore grades
Consequently, these metals to a large extent were and more efficient, open pit mining methods will
transported further downstream in the system. result in an increasing number of large pit lakes, and
In addition to environmental monitoring based on hydrological, chemical and ecological conditions
present-day lake and stream water data, several studies downstream of the lakes will be affected by overflow
have focused on historical changes of the environ- and groundwater seepage from the lakes. Globally,
mental situation in aquatic systems downstream of open pit mines and pit lakes are located in all major
mine sites. Dated lake sediment cores have success- mining districts, with the highest numbers in North
fully been used to monitor historical variations in America, Australia and South America (Castendyk
biogeochemical processes such as metal pollution and and Eary, 2009). In the Skellefte Field alone, about 20
eutrophication such systems. Although annually lami- small- to medium-sized pit lakes exist today. In other
nated sediments are best suited for this type of inves- Swedish mining districts, several large pit lakes will
tigations (O’Sullivan, 1983; Renberg, 1986), studies start to form when existing and future open pit mines
can be performed in any undisturbed sediment that are closing within the next two to three decades.
can be dated, e.g. by the 210Pb method (Turner and In Sweden, the Udden and Rävlidmyran pit lakes in
Delorme, 1996). In Sweden, monitoring of environ- the Skellefte Field have been studied, and datasets exist
mental effects of mining based on dated sediment for these two lakes (Ramstedt et al., 2003; Lu, 2004).
cores have been performed e.g. at the abandoned However, no hydrological, physical limnological or
Laisvall lead mine (Widerlund et al., 2002) and in the ecological modelling of the lakes has been performed.
Figure 1. Large biomass of macrophytes (in the background stand of horsetail Equisetum fluviatile) in the Rakkurijoki system downstream of the Kiruna mine site.
0 0
5 5
10 10
1950
1950
Depth (cm)
Depth (cm)
15 15
20 20
25 25
Soil
Terrestrial vegetation
30 30
Littoral vegetation
a b Phytoplankton
35 35
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
% Contribution % Contribution
Figure 2. Calculated relative contributions of the four organic matter source end-members soil, terrestrial vegetation, littoral vegetation, and phytoplankton in
sediments of a) Lake Mettä-Rakkurijärvi, and b) Lake Rakkurijärvi at Kiruna. The relative contribution of each component is expressed as wt-% of the total OM
content in the sediment. Nutrient-rich mine waters began to reach the lakes around 1950 (Widerlund et al., 2014).
13
Pristine, natural surface waters draining Precambrian natural attenuation processes in wetlands and lakes.
rocks in Scandinavia are typically low-ionic strength Expected future changes in climate will present chal-
waters with specific conductivities below 100 µS/cm. lenges to environmental management and mitigation
In contrast, specific conductivities of effluents from with, for example, heavier rainfall increasing the risk
major Swedish mine sites may exceed 2000 µS/cm. In of tailings dam failures and discharge of contaminated
addition to this salinity increase by a factor of approx- waters into aquatic systems (Nelson and Schuchard,
imately 20, the water composition generally changes 2014). A report by the David Suzuki Foundation
from typical Ca–HCO3-dominated freshwaters to Ca– (2009) described the vulnerability of the Canadian
SO4–Cl–NO3-dominated mine waters. Basic studies mining industry to climate change, and opportunities
of ecological effects of salinity have shown that the for adaptation.
relative proportions of major cations and the ratios of
monovalent/divalent cations can influence the metab- Airborne emissions
olism of algae and submersed macrophytes as much as Airborne emissions are generated during all stages of
the absolute concentrations do (Wetzel, 2001). mining operations, i.e. during exploration, develop-
ment, construction, mining, and mineral processing.
Cold climate and climate change Emissions occur in two principally different forms:
The Canadian MEND programme presented a report gas emissions of mainly CO, CO2, SO2, and NOX,
on issues, strategies, and research requirements for and particulate matter (dust and aerosols) (Fig. 3).
disposing of potentially acid-generating mine waste Three main types of sources of airborne emissions
in permafrost environments (MEND, 1996). Similar can be identified: 1) mobile sources including all
aspects, although in non-permafrost cold conditions, types of vehicles used in mining operations, 2)
were addressed in the Swedish research programme stationary sources including combustion of fuels in
Mitigation of the Environmental Impact from Mining power generation plants and mineral processing oper-
Waste (MiMi) (Höglund and Herbert, 2004). Sjöblom ations (drying, roasting and smelting), and 3) fugitive
(2003) and Chlot (2013) studied various aspects of emissions defined as emissions that could not rea-
natural attenuation of metals and nutrients in receiving sonably pass through a stack, chimney, vent or other
waters downstream of cold-climate mine sites. Both equivalent opening (EIA, 2014). Fugitive emissions
studies indicated that high spring-flow water discharge include for example gases from ore blasting and dust
Figure 3. Dust development caused by trucks at the LKAB site in Kiruna on 28 June 2014.
from storage and handling of materials, construction It is often assumed that air pollution in remote areas
activities, roadways, tailings ponds and waste rock is a recent problem related to modern industrial
piles. EIA (2014) concluded that airborne emissions activities. However, a study of Swedish lake sediments
tive relevant to lake formation and biogeochemical trations of Cu, Cd and Zn in riparian and wetland
development ranges from years to decades. This vegetation along Vormbäcken, the recipient of mine
implies that global climate change must be taken into effluents from the Kristineberg mining area, North-
account in predictive modelling of the development ern Sweden. The concentrations of the trace elements
of future as well as existing pit lakes. varied along the spatial gradient from the mine site
Predictive modelling is an important tool in the as well as among plant species, with willow species
development of site closure plans and post-mining (Salix spp.) having the highest concentrations (Hus-
rehabilitation of pit lakes. Today modern software son et al., 2014a). The concentrations of Cd in Salix
engineering techniques are employed to couple spp. were so high that they could potentially consti-
different models together so that various hydrological tute a health risk for humans if they eat moose that
–biogeochemical aspects of pit lake processes can be has predominately browsed on willows from that area
addressed (Hydrocomputing, 2014). (Göran Ericsson, personal communication).
Small mammals are keystone species in many eco-
2.3.2 Ecological studies and biodiversity systems due to their role as herbivores, dispersers of
Ecological effects of mining can derive from mainly fungi and viruses and prey for many predators. There-
mine water effluents and airborne emissions exposing fore, their study enables inferences of the whole-eco-
organisms to the environmental conditions at mine system effects of mining. In addition, small mammals
sites. The effects can be detected in both aquatic and (voles, lemmings and shrews) have generally a small
terrestrial systems and at small and large spatial scales, home range, which makes them highly suitable study
3. Gaps in knowledge
A major aim of this report is to identify gaps in knowledge that will indicate important topics for a future
research on mining and sustainable development. This overview of gaps in knowledge is organized into
three sections dealing with 1) characterization of different types of emissions from mining activities, 2)
the dispersion of these emissions into terrestrial and aquatic systems and the atmosphere, and
3) biogeochemical and ecological effects of these emissions.
• In Sweden, the assessment of water quality in relation to the 3.2.3 Airborne emissions
WFD is mainly focussed on eutrophication in general and phos-
The review by Csavina et al. (2012) suggested the
phorous in particular (Naturvårdsverket 2007). The assessment
following research priority regarding dispersion of
of ecological status at mine sites affected by trace elements
using these quality criteria is therefore not meaningful. In
airborne emissions from mining operations:
addition, the existing criteria in relation to eutrophication are • Computer modelling should be used to study atmospheric par-
not developed for water bodies with such skewed N/P ratios as ticulate emissions from mine sites. Emissions from mine tailings
can be found in recipients affected by mining effluents. There piles have been modelled (Kon et al., 2007), but this type of
is a need for new quality criteria that are developed to assess modelling should also be applied at Swedish mine sites and be
ecological status at mine sites. integrated with field studies.
• There is a strong need to assess ecosystem functioning and
ecosystem services in mining-affected recipients since diversity 3.3 Biogeochemical and ecological effects
per se has been shown to be a misleading indicator of ecologi- The term biogeochemical effects is used here to
cal integrity. describe the effects and fate of mining-related
chemicals during and after transport from a mine
3.2.2 Aquatic-terrestrial linkages site (e.g. Nordstrom, 2011). Biogeochemical effects
along longitudinal and lateral gradients thus involve speciation, bioavailability, sedimentation,
• The environmental fate of nutrients and trace metals transport- permanent/non-permanent removal, and remobiliza-
ed laterally, i.e. from water bodies via wetlands and riparian tion of chemical compounds in receiving waters. The
zones into terrestrial systems including their respective biota resulting concentrations of these compounds in water,
19
is largely unknown. This concerns especially the spatial and sediments and biota are also included. The following
temporal scale of the processes. Such knowledge is crucial for
major gaps in knowledge have been identified regard-
the whole ecosystem impact assessment of mining.
ing the biogeochemical effects of mining operations
• Lateral processes not only occur from water bodies to terrestrial in aquatic systems located downstream of mine sites.
systems but also vice versa (e.g. via transport of dust deposition
• Screening analyses should be performed of waters and lake
and leaching), which also needs to be investigated.
sediments in aquatic systems downstream of mine sites, with
• The spatio-temporal extent of aquatic-terrestrial linkages needs the aim of detecting less well-known, potentially hazardous
to be assessed. Over which spatial scales are these linkages of elements that may be present downstream of mine sites.
ecological relevance (e.g. with respect to ecosystem functioning
• Water and sediment concentrations of mining-related com-
and ecosystem integrity) and for how long do they last?
pounds should be determined and compared to normal
• Determination of the ecological impact of dust and other background (pre-mining) concentrations of these compounds.
emissions from mine sites in relation to food chain respons- In cases where quantitative data on pre-mining conditions is
es and trophic cascades in aquatic and terrestrial systems, limited or lacking, the use of natural analogues and modelling
i.e. from primary producers (vegetation) via detritivores (e.g. should be considered (Alpers and Nordstrom, 2000). The
invertebrates), herbivores (voles, lemmings, hares), consumers geographical extent of elevated concentrations from mine sites
(fish) to predators (e.g. shrews). The severity of the ecological should also be determined.
impact needs to be assessed. Are the effects limited to elevated
• The bioavailability of mining-related compounds dissolved in
concentrations of environmentally relevant compounds in biota,
water as well as the extent of remobilization of compounds
are they expressed in physiological or behavioural changes or
from lake sediments should be determined. For metals, future
even toxic reactions? Do potential adverse effects in biota put a
research should aim towards an improved assessment of
public health problem?
the metal speciation in the exposure media, and a better
understanding of the physiological effects in biota and biotas’
adaptation to trace metals.
• The question of limiting nutrient has important implications
for mitigation of eutrophication in aquatic systems receiving
nutrient-rich mine waters, and should be investigated further.
20
Based on these criteria, the Kiruna mine site and its simulations (Fig. 5).
surroundings is an example of an appropriate as a case
study for an environmental impact assessment of min-
ing (EIA, 2014). Mining operations began in 1890,
when the Kiruna area can be considered to have been
entirely pristine, with practically no local anthropo-
FIELD DATA
genic influence. In addition, environmental moni-
toring data collected by the LKAB mining company
is available during the last three to four decades. A
number of environmental studies have also been
performed in the Kiruna area during the last decades LAB and
(e.g. Chlot, 2013; Husson et al., 2014b). FIELD COMPUTER
Future research should focus on the identified EXPERIMENTS SIMULATIONS
research gaps judged as critical for a biogeochemical
and ecological impact assessment of mining oper-
ations. State-of-the Art analytical techniques and
modelling software should be used to characterize
emissions from the Kiruna mine and to model trans- Figure 5. Three principally different approaches to be used in a study of the
port distances and attenuation mechanisms of these biogeochemical and ecological footprint of mining.
5. Conclusions
National and international environmental objectives, Academic research
directives and legislation During the last decades a considerable amount of
There are several international legal documents academic research has been performed on mining-
on environmental issues that are directly related to related environmental issues. This research has been
mining operations. Two important Directives are the carried out both within the framework of large, co-
Water Framework Directive (WFD) (European Un- ordinated research programmes such as the Canadian
ion, 2000) and the Habitat Directive (HD) (European MEND programme (Mine Environment Neutral
Union, 1992). The WFD states that natural waters Drainage) (MEND, 2014) as well as a large number of
receiving mine effluents should reach at least good separate studies. In addition, mining-related environ-
ecological status, while the HD deals with the con- mental research is performed by organizations such as
servation of natural habitats and wild flora and fauna. the US Geological Survey (USGS, 2014a). Regarding
academic research on environmental issues, a number
National and international initiatives of gaps in knowledge have been indicated (summa-
The importance of sustainability in mining is clear- rized in Section 3).
ly recognized by government agencies, the mining
Future work
21
industry and universities. Several countries have
developed national mineral strategies. Sweden´s min- Future research should focus on research gaps judged
eral strategy, published in 2013, describes five action as critical for an environmental impact assessment
points, one of which is research. In both Sweden and (EIA, 2014). The Kiruna mine site and its surround-
Finland the national mineral strategies are matched ings is an example of an appropriate study site to
by mining research programmes. assess the biogeochemical and ecological footprint
To tackle such a big issue as sustainable mining and environmental sustainability of mining. State-of-
including the environmental, social and economic the Art analytical techniques and modelling software
footprint of mining, there is an obvious need for a should be used to study emissions, transport distances,
coherent research programme focusing on mining attenuation mechanisms, and ecological effects in the
and sustainable development. receiving waters and their riparian zones downstream
of the mine.
6. References
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