Space Syntax 2
Space Syntax 2
Introduction
Abstract The theory and methods of Space Syntax have
been developing for the last 40 years. It began in
Space Syntax is a theory and method that has been
the United Kingdom and is now known world-
developing for the last 40 years. Originally conceived as
a theory of “society and space,” it has expanded to other wide. Beginning with the idea that spatial layout
areas. An important aspect of this is technical; it allows the generates material preconditions for social life as
quantification of layouts, and unit spaces within a layout, so
understood by movement, encounter, avoidance,
that the environment itself can produce independent vari-
ables in quantitative research. Increasingly, it is being used etc. (Hillier & Hanson, 1984; Hillier, Leaman,
to study healthcare facilities. Space Syntax has thereby Stansall, & Bedford, 1978), Space Syntax has
become relevant to healthcare facilities researchers and
designers. This paper attempts to explain Space Syntax to a
proceeded in two ways. One was creating and
new audience of healthcare designers, administrators, and developing a theory, and the other was construct-
researchers; it provides a literature review on the use of ing a method to analyze layouts according to that
Space Syntax in healthcare facility research and suggests
some possibilities for future application. theory.
Key Words: Space Syntax, spatial measures, layout analy-
sis, nursing, behavioral outcomes
The second was more mathematical and techno-
logical, ultimately leading to the development of
Author Affiliations: Dr. Haq is Associate Professor in the College of various computerized software packages. These
Architecture at Texas Tech University in Lubbock, TX. Yang Luo is a PhD
student in the LPMD program in the College of Architecture at Texas allowed Space Syntax to expand into the study
Tech University.
Corresponding Author: Saif Haq, PhD, Associate Professor, College
of urban development, traffic flow, crime distri-
of Architecture, 1800 Flint Ave., Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX bution, environmental cognition, wayfinding,
79409-2091 ([email protected])
Preferred Citation: Haq, S., & Luo, Y. (2012). Space Syntax in health- productivity in office settings, movement in mu-
care facilities research: A review. Health Environments Research &
Design Journal, 5(4), 98–117.
seums and shops, and so on. Essentially the Syn-
tax method identifies unit spaces within layouts,
analyzes their relationships to other units, and on cal review should entail a discussion that includes
this basis alone calculates numerical values for these settings. To keep the focus of this paper on
each unit space. These can then be used as inde- healthcare design, the authors concentrate only
pendent variables in quantitative research. Since on research findings and architectural implica-
the late 1990s, Space Syntax has increasingly tions for this design sector. Thus, this paper is
been applied to the study of healthcare facilities. more of a meta-analysis than a critical review.
Because of this shift in focus and the many re-
lated publications since that time, Space Syntax It began with a literature search for relevant pub-
has become relevant to healthcare researchers. lications. In addition to electronic databases,
Web sites of Space Syntax biannual symposiums
This paper presents the use of Space Syntax in re- for proceedings were included. In total, 30 ar-
searching healthcare environments. It should be ticles were located. Short papers or those that
pointed out that the precedents of this research used long-term facilities or restrictive buildings
were in non-healthcare environments and a criti- as research settings were not included. In total,
RESEARCH
HERD VOLUME 5, NUMBER 4, PP 98-117 COPYRIGHT ©2012 VENDOME GROUP, LLC
One of the difficulties encountered was that the In architectural terms, these features are best seen
concepts and measures of Space Syntax were not in the layout of a building, and Space Syntax is
clearly explained in many of the articles, and that the theory that deals with layout. Fundamentally,
the terminology was homonymous with com- it considers a plan drawing as a set of “connect-
mon words. Because this paper is intended for ed” spaces (either directly to adjacent spaces or
designers, clients, researchers, and students who through a series of intermediate spaces), analyzes
focus on healthcare design and who may not these “connections”, and on that basis assigns
have a thorough understanding of Space Syntax, numerical measures to each space. These analy-
it begins with a quick introduction to its con- ses provide quantitative measures of individual
cepts, theories, methodology, and variables. It is spaces and of the entire layout.
3 9
23 8
1
5
24
6
x
10
11
12
15
16
14
21
13
22
17
20 18
19
a b
Figure 1. City Hospital (a) ground floor plan (b) public corridor system.
24 4 3 2 10 1 5 4 16 11 14
1 4 10
a b c
Figure 2. Relationships to adjacent corridors from (a) corridor #1, (b) corridor #4, and (c) corridor #10.
Space Syntax also has different computerized soft- the connection pattern anywhere (a door added
ware to analyze plan drawings according to its the- or removed, a corridor closed off, etc.) will change
oretical foundations. It is very important to under- the value of that space. In most instances, the nu-
stand that because Syntax measures of a space are meric measures of spaces are statistically compared
based on how the space is connected to all other to a performance variable, and depending on the
spaces, any change in the number of spaces in the strength of this comparison, conclusions are made.
plan (called the spatial system), or any change in It must be mentioned that Space Syntax also pro-
HERD Vol. 5, No. 4 SUMMER 2012 • HEALTH ENVIRONMENTS RESEARCH & DESIGN JOURNAL 101
RESEARCH
HERD VOLUME 5, NUMBER 4, PP 98-117 COPYRIGHT ©2012 VENDOME GROUP, LLC
Step Depth
4, respectively. After
19 7 considering immedi-
20 18 22 6 ate connections, it can
17 21 5 19
be seen that each cor-
9 13 15
ridor is progressively
7 12 4 23 9 7 20 18 22
3 Tertiary
connected to faraway
6 8 16 14 11 24 2 3 8 6 17 21
Secondary
corridors through a set
5 10 23 2 1 5 15 12 13
of secondary, tertiary,
1 Primary
24 4 2
and sequentially deeper
3 4 16 11 14
1
a
10
b
corridors. For example,
Figure 3. Relationships to all other corridors from (a) corridor #1 and (b) corridor corridor # 1 is con-
#10. These are also called justified graphs. nected to corridor # 10
through corridor # 4.
vides measures for entire layouts. This is discussed Each level of connection is called step depth. Thus,
in a later section of this paper. corridor # 10 is directly connected (i.e., one step
depth) to corridor numbers 4, 16, 11, and 14; it
Let us consider the example of “City Hospital.” has secondary connections (i.e., two step depths)
Figure 1a shows the plan, and Figure 1b shows the to corridor numbers 1, 5, 15, 12, and 13; it has
public corridor system. Assume that each corridor tertiary connections (i.e., three step depths) to cor-
is an individual space and is identified by numbers ridor numbers 24, 2, 3, 8, 6, 17, and 21, and so on,
1 through 24. The entrance is at X, which leads until all of the other 23 corridors are connected.
to corridor # 1. This corridor (i.e., # 1) connects
directly to corridor numbers 24, 4, 3, and 2. Each All the connections encountered from corridor
of these corridors is, in turn, connected to other numbers 1 and 10 are indicated in Figures 3a
corridors. For example, corridor # 4 is connected and 3b as a graph. This also shows that each cor-
to corridor numbers 10, 1, and 5; corridor # 10 ridor has a different relationship to all the other
is connected to corridor numbers 4, 16, 11, and corridors in the spatial system. If one considers
14; and so on. This relationship of connections can any corridor, it will be directly connected to cer-
be graphically illustrated as a system of nodes and tain corridors, and at varying step depths to all
links, as shown in Figure 2a, 2b, and 2c for cor- others. For example, corridor # 19 is seven step
ridor numbers 1, 4, and 10, respectively. depths from corridor # 1 (Figure 3a), but five step
depths from corridor # 10 (Figure 3b).
In Space Syntax terms, the number of direct con-
nections to other spaces is called connectivity. Thus Figure 3a shows that corridor # 1 needs seven step
the connectivity values of corridor numbers 1, 4, depths to connect to all 23 other corridors, whereas
1.204 1.613
shallowest relationship of all be- Figure 4. Space Syntax analysis of the public corridors of
comes evident. This is expressed “City Hospital.” (a) Integration-n analysis (b) Integration-3 analysis.
by a numerical value termed inte-
gration. Space syntax theory has a
mathematical equation to determine the integration lar to the previous example, a new integration
value, which considers both the number of corri- value can be calculated based on connections
dors one is connected to as well as the step depth at two step depths only. This value is called
of all those connections.1 A corridor with high inte- integration-3 or local integration. Because the
gration is, on average, closely connected to all other previous example used all the spaces in the
corridors in a given layout. Conversely, a corridor system, it is also known as integration-n or
that is distant from all other corridors, on average, global integration.
is called segregated.
Space Syntax software usually produces a table
Returning to Figures 3a and 3b, one can make with Syntax values and a color-coded diagram
additional observations. For example, it is matching the plan drawing to indicate the dis-
possible to stop counting at two step depths, tribution of those values. Figure 4 presents an
or after level 2 (see dotted line in Figure 3). In analysis of City Hospital using the software
this case, corridor # 10 is connected to nine “Spatialist” (Peponis, Wineman, Rashid, Bafna,
other spaces and corridor # 1 is connected to & Kim, 1998). In the image, corridors are shad-
only seven (and step depth also varies). Simi- ed such that higher integration-n (Figure 4a) or
1
See Hillier & Hanson (1984) for this mathematical equation. Also
integration-3 (Figure 4b) values are shown by
keep in mind that this equation includes a comparison to an “ideal” the darker shade and vice versa. The numerical
diamond-shaped system, which allows the integration values of values of select corridors are also shown.
different spatial systems to be mutually compared.
HERD Vol. 5, No. 4 SUMMER 2012 • HEALTH ENVIRONMENTS RESEARCH & DESIGN JOURNAL 103
RESEARCH
HERD VOLUME 5, NUMBER 4, PP 98-117 COPYRIGHT ©2012 VENDOME GROUP, LLC
HERD Vol. 5, No. 4 SUMMER 2012 • HEALTH ENVIRONMENTS RESEARCH & DESIGN JOURNAL 105
RESEARCH
HERD VOLUME 5, NUMBER 4, PP 98-117 COPYRIGHT ©2012 VENDOME GROUP, LLC
100-bed hospital to determine corridor integra- 3. The distribution pattern of staff and visitors
tion values. The intersections of those corridors, in a hospital building is similar to that of pe-
called nodes, were given the average integration destrians in an urban setting, i.e., on average,
values of the corridors that led to them. more integrated spaces have more people.
Fifteen volunteers carried out a variety of explora- Using the previous study as a starting point, Haq
tion and wayfinding tasks in the public corridors (1999) analyzed the public corridor system in the
of this hospital. Behavior data were the frequency ground floor of a 21-story hospital complex. He
of line and node use. Analysis revealed that dur- had 31 volunteers carry out exploration and way-
ing exploration of the hospital, integration-n val- finding tasks similar to the previous study, but
ues accounted for 57% of the variation in cor- the subjects began from three different entrances.
ridor use and 60.5% of intersection (node) use. The collective results closely matched those of Pe-
Additionally, in the wayfinding part of the study, ponis et al. (1990), i.e., the use of corridors and
there was a marked tendency for lost volunteers intersections in exploration and wayfinding situ-
to return to more integrated intersections (r = ations correlated quite highly with their integra-
.754). This suggested that, when in doubt, visi- tion values (r = 0.620 in exploration and r = .662
tors preferred to go to more integrated areas. in wayfinding ).
Previous results from studies in urban settings had The author also separated the data into three
shown that the “natural” distribution of pedestri- groups corresponding to the three entrances.
ans in streets was in proportion to the integration Regression analysis with public connectivity and
values of those streets (Hillier, Burdett, Peponis, & mean depth as predictors suggested that people
Penn, 1987; Peponis, Hadjinikolaou, Livieratos, & who had entered from entrances with a lower
Fatouros, 1989). To compare that with the situation mean depth had a better opportunity to explore
inside a hospital building, the authors also studied the entire hospital. In other words, the Syntax
the distribution of staff and visitors throughout the value of the entry space had an effect on way-
day and reported that the density of moving people finding. This study confirmed the importance of
correlated well to integration values (r = .520 for all corridor and node integration-n values as predic-
people, and r = .523 for staff only). From this, the tors of exploration and wayfinding, and it con-
following lessons were learned: tributed the importance of the mean depth of the
1. Visitors engaged in exploration tend to use entry point as a factor for successful wayfinding.
corridors in proportion to their integration-n
values. Later Lu and Bozovic-Stamenovic (2009) used
2. When in doubt about where to go, more visi- the same experimental methods with 31 partici-
tors tend to gravitate to areas with higher in- pants in three Chinese hospitals. One of them
tegration values. exhibited traditional design principles, one did
HERD Vol. 5, No. 4 SUMMER 2012 • HEALTH ENVIRONMENTS RESEARCH & DESIGN JOURNAL 107
RESEARCH
HERD VOLUME 5, NUMBER 4, PP 98-117 COPYRIGHT ©2012 VENDOME GROUP, LLC
HERD Vol. 5, No. 4 SUMMER 2012 • HEALTH ENVIRONMENTS RESEARCH & DESIGN JOURNAL 109
RESEARCH
HERD VOLUME 5, NUMBER 4, PP 98-117 COPYRIGHT ©2012 VENDOME GROUP, LLC
increasing or decreasing the number of trips to trips to patient rooms, nurses’ stations, and sup-
patient rooms and nurses stations” (Hendrich et port spaces. Results indicated that although syn-
al., 2009, p. 16). tactic variables could project entries into patient
rooms, this was not the case with visits to nursing
A different result from the same study suggested stations or support areas.
that there is a positive correlation between the
number of entries into patient rooms and the to- Even later, using the same data, Heo, Choudhary,
tal time spent there. So nurses who have more Bafna, Hendrich, and Chow (2009) carried out a
integrated assignments will enter patients’ rooms slightly different analysis. They described nurse
and the nurses’ station more frequently, spend assignments with more Syntax variables: axial in-
more time in patient rooms, and have a better tegration, visual connectivity, path distance, visual
opportunity to interact with other nurses in the step-depth, and number of turns. They also divid-
unit. All of these are factors in providing more op- ed nurse movements into 10 categories and in-
portunities for surveillance, more social support vestigated the influence of syntactic variables on
for one another, more time in patient rooms, and each. Essentially, their conclusions were that “the
ultimately better care. This study demonstrated total number of entries to assigned rooms has
that considering layout properties through Space positive correlations to (assignment) integration
Syntax techniques when creating nurse assign- and total number of assigned rooms, negative
ments could be beneficial to patient care. increases to connectivity and visual step depth”
(Heo et al., 2009, p. 41:10). In this study too the
Although Hendrich et al. (2009) did not publish authors found that axial integration was the most
the floor plans of the hospital MSUs studied, nor significant predictor. One important note is that
show the Syntax analysis, two subsequent articles here the researchers published color versions of
did so and reported additional research consid- the axial and visibility analyses, making the syn-
ering more spatial variables. Choudhary, Bafna, tactic analysis easy to understand.
Heo, Hendrich, and Chow (2009) took the same
data and undertook slightly modified research. Spatial Positioning of Nurses and a
These authors did both axial and visibility analy- New Space Syntax Measure
ses of the five MSUs and considered three syn- Nurse movement and spatial positioning, being
tactic variables for nurse assignments: average function driven, may not be adequately captured
axial integration of assigned rooms, average visual by traditional Syntax analysis, which does not
connectivity of the corridors outside the rooms, consider task or motivational requirements. For
and average visual step depth of the rooms from example, the observation of patients is vital for
the nearest nurses’ station. The number of rooms nurses. Therefore, they might more likely be posi-
assigned and the units were additional variables. tioned in areas that provide better surveillance of
Generalized linear modeling was used to predict patient rooms. With this inspiring idea, Lu, Pe-
HERD Vol. 5, No. 4 SUMMER 2012 • HEALTH ENVIRONMENTS RESEARCH & DESIGN JOURNAL 111
RESEARCH
HERD VOLUME 5, NUMBER 4, PP 98-117 COPYRIGHT ©2012 VENDOME GROUP, LLC
more choices along the public corridors. These nurses’ stations, and this was taken as an indicator
changes are in keeping with social acceptance of of higher nurse productivity.
the innovative normalization principle of that
time, which stated that the living conditions of Accessibility to Gardens
mentally ill patients should be kept as normal The accessibility of hospital gardens as a factor
as possible for everyday activities. The change in of their usability was a concern for Pasha (2010),
building layout reflected this shift in healthcare who studied four gardens in two children’s hos-
philosophy and was identified by using Space pitals in Texas. She began by interviewing de-
Syntax. signer representatives and analyzing the gardens
using the “children’s hospital garden evaluation
Analysis of MSU Types system.” One variable in this evaluation system,
Kim and Lee (2010) used convex space and vis- called location and boundaries, is similar to the
ibility analysis to compare “user costs” among Space Syntax notion of accessibility. Two gar-
three different types of hospital wards (deep, shal- dens scored equally in this category. The author
low, and courtyard), described earlier by Weight then used visibility analysis and isovist studies of
(2005). User costs are related to healthcare out- the Space Syntax method to further investigate
comes, such as clinical outcomes, infection rates, all four gardens. She concluded that the Syntax
staff morale, and so on, and over the lifetime of evaluation and location and boundaries category
a hospital, user costs can be up to eight times of the children’s hospital garden evaluation sys-
higher than the sum of operational, maintenance, tem triangulated and thus supported one anoth-
construction, and design costs. er. She also noted that the number of volunteers
available, physical accessibility with IV poles and
This research included two types of Syntax analysis such, supervision, etc., are important factors that
in three ward types. It was assumed that higher in- should be considered in hospital garden design in
tegration values in select areas would reduce some addition to accessibility and visibility.
aspects of user costs. For example, convex space
analysis showed that nurses’ stations were located Theoretical Models
in more integrated corridors in the deep plan type. Some authors used Space Syntax concepts and
Integrated locations were regarded as providing research results from other settings to comment
more surveillance opportunities and being more on related aspects of healthcare facilities and to
accessible to physicians. Also, the deep plan had propose theoretical models. Unlau, Ulken, and
higher mean integration values and was more in- Edgau (2005) suggested a hypothetical model of
telligible. Thus, this type was taken to reduce costs evacuation in complex buildings via the concept of
associated with controlling users’ behaviors. A sec- “emergency vulnerability.” This was described as a
ond analysis, that of visibility, indicated that in the function of five environmental factors, and two of
deep plan type more integrated areas are near the them were taken from Space Syntax (the integra-
HERD Vol. 5, No. 4 SUMMER 2012 • HEALTH ENVIRONMENTS RESEARCH & DESIGN JOURNAL 113
RESEARCH
HERD VOLUME 5, NUMBER 4, PP 98-117 COPYRIGHT ©2012 VENDOME GROUP, LLC
tion value of a space and the isovist area from its Second, they studied the change of intelligibility
geometric center). The authors analyzed one wing across time as the hospital expanded and noticed
of a general surgery building in Istanbul to illus- that with increased physical growth, campus
trate this proposal. However, no empirical work intelligibility decreased. This suggested that al-
was done to evaluate this. Rashid (2009) used though additions made logical sense in their own
information gained from investigating work envi- terms, their overall relationship with the campus
ronments and Space Syntax notions to propose a became weak. Lack of intelligibility meant that
model for effective face-to-face interactions among local positions provided few cues about the over-
clinicians in MSUs, and Trzpuc and Martin (2010) all logic of the plan. Third, they observed the
described the importance of accessibility and vis- densities of use in major corridors and found
ibility for studying nurses’ communication. poor correlations between movement densities
and integration values.
Application of Space Syntax in
Architecture From these studies they formulated three criteria
As far as applications in design, unfortunately, for evaluating the master plan. (1) Does the integra-
there are few examples in healthcare settings.3 Pe- tion core spread to include all the departments? (2)
ponis, Zimring, and Scanlon (1996) used Space Would the integration core be better matched with
Syntax to test two alternate master plans proposed different categories of movement? And (3) will over-
for extending a large urban hospital. They began all intelligibility be improved? Subsequent analysis
with both traditional and Space Syntax analysis. of the master plans not only identified the more ap-
The traditional approach included the pattern of propriate one; it also allowed the authors to suggest
expansion, communication, and connection be- some evidence-based improvement schemes.
tween departments and buildings; path analysis
between destinations; and identification of the Another example considered not a new develop-
front door. Space Syntax analysis included the ment scheme, but an academic post-occupancy
identification of the integration core, which is the evaluation (POE) of the renovation and expansion
top 10% of the integrated lines. Because previous of a major urban hospital (Haq, 2001). This com-
Space Syntax studies in urban environments have plex had undergone major changes that included a
suggested that these would be locations that more new “front door” on the opposite side of the old
people would traverse, hospitals should consider one, rearrangements of the sequence of services and
more investments here. Interestingly, the authors destinations, and the addition of a new clinic build-
found that the integration core included some ing. The Space Syntax integration core suggested
back-of-house activities. that the spatial structure still favored the old door
and that pedestrian walkways outside the building
were more integrated than the major paths that
3
Obviously there are more in the industry; most of them are in
nonmedical settings. were designed inside. Based on such analyses, some
simple connections were envisioned and tested with tionship of Syntax variables to more traditional
Space Syntax. This allowed the authors to find a ones used in research and considered in design.
strategic connection which, if implemented, would
have produced an integration core that mediated The next extension might be experiments in VR,
both the new development and the existing spatial where researchers could add more factors for con-
structure, leading to a more user-friendly layout. sideration while controlling others and exploring
interactions. Furthermore, it should be remem-
Concluding Comments bered that Space Syntax was originally proposed to
Environment behavior researchers have constantly understand the sociology of space. Therefore, nu-
been challenged to consider the environment in very merical calculations should be applied to the social
precise and measurable ways. After a thorough lit- needs of the space, i.e., Who are the users? What
erature review, Chaudhury, Mahmood, and Valente are their needs? How do they interact? And what
(2009) identified noise, lighting, furniture design, are their behavioral patterns? Researchers have the
and architectural design/layout as “… key physical responsibility to contemplate these questions—not
environmental variables that have the most real or only in the contexts described in this paper, but also
potential effect on workplace errors…” (Chaudhury to develop new applications for Space Syntax.
et al., 2009, p. 765). In their discussion of layouts,
they had to rely on general descriptive terms such as Finally it should be emphasized that the authors’
views, privacy, room, and MSU types. Most layout intention was not to compare Space Syntax with
evaluation methods are qualitative and descriptive, other theories and methods. Rather, it is another
as indicated earlier. In contrast, Space Syntax pro- theory that has been tested in different environ-
vides a robust quantitative tool. It does this by the mental settings and could be useful when applied
precise identification and measurement of spaces appropriately to healthcare settings, especially
that can in turn be investigated quantitatively with when paired with a suitable research agenda.
regard to human behavior and cognition.
HERD Vol. 5, No. 4 SUMMER 2012 • HEALTH ENVIRONMENTS RESEARCH & DESIGN JOURNAL 115
RESEARCH
HERD VOLUME 5, NUMBER 4, PP 98-117 COPYRIGHT ©2012 VENDOME GROUP, LLC
on nurses movement in hospital units. Journal of Building Per- Lu, Y., & Bozovic-Stamenovic, R. (2009). Cultural perspective of
formance and Simulation, 3(3), 171–184. wayfinding behavior: Exploring the socio-spatial variable in
three Chinese hospital case studies. International Journal of Ar-
Graham, I. (2006). Re-examining the costs and value ratios of own-
chitectural Research, 3(2), 22–34.
ing and occupying buildings. Building Research and Informa-
tion, 34(3), 230–245. Lu, Y., Peponis, J., & Zimring, C. (2009). Targeted visibility analysis
in buildings: Correlating targeted visibility analysis with distribu-
Hanson, J., & Zako, R. (2005). Configuration and design in caring
tion of people and their interactions within an intensive care unit.
environments: Syntax and quality of life in a sample of residen-
Seventh International Space Syntax Symposium, June 8–11,
tial care homes for older people. Fifth Space Syntax Interna-
2009, Stockholm, Sweden.
tional Conference, June 13–17, 2005, Delft, the Netherlands.
Lu, Y., & Zimring, C. (2010). Developing a visibility index for nursing
Haq, S. (1999). Can Space Syntax predict environmental cogni-
units. EDRA 41: Policy and The Environment, June 2–6, 2010,
tion? Space Syntax Second International Symposium. Paper
Washington DC.
presented at the Space Syntax Second International Sympo-
sium, March 29–April 2, 1999, Brasilia, Brazil. Pasha, S. (2010). Accessibility assessment in four hospital gar-
dens in Texas. EDRA 41: Policy and The Environment, June 2–6,
Haq, S. (2001). Complex architectural settings: An investigation of
2010, Washington, DC.
spatial and cognitive variables through wayfinding behavior. PhD
Dissertation, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta. Peponis, J., Hadjinikolaou, E., Livieratos, C., & Fatouros, D. A.
(1989). The spatial core of urban culture. Ekistics, 334, 335 (Jan–
Haq, S. (2003). Investigating the syntax line: Configurational prop-
Feb, Mar–Apr), 43–55.
erties and cognitive correlates. Environment and Planning B:
Planning and Design, 30(6), 841–863. Peponis, J., Wineman, J., Rashid, M., Bafna, S., & Kim, S. (1998).
Spatialist. Atlanta, GeorgiaTech Research Corporation.
Haq, S., Hill, G., & Praminik, A. (2005). Comparison of configura-
tional, wayfinding and cognitive correlates in real and virtual set- Peponis, J., Zimring, C., & Choi, Y. K. (1990). Finding the building in
tings. Fifth International Space Syntax Symposium, June 13–17, wayfinding. Environment and Behavior, 22(5), 555–590.
2005, Delft University of Technology, Techne Press.
Peponis, J., Zimring, C., & Scanlon, M. (1996). New design tech-
Haq, S., & Zimring, C. (2003). Just down the road a piece: The nologies using computer technology to improve design quality.”
development of topological knowledge of building layouts. En- Journal of Healthcare Design, VIII, 109–119.
vironment and Behavior, 35(1), 132–160.
Rashid, M. (2009). Hospital design and face-to-face interaction
Hendrich, A., Chow, M., Bafna, S., Choudhary, R., Heo, Y., & Ski- among clinicians: A theoretical model. Health Environments Re-
erczynski, B. A. (2009). Unit-related factors that affect nursing search & Design Journal, 2(4), 62–84.
time with patients: Spatial analysis of the time and motion study.
Seo, H.-B., Choi, Y.-S., & Zimring, C. (2010). Impact of hospital unit
Health Environments Research & Design Journal 2(2), 5–20.
design for patient-centered care on nurses’ behavior. Environ-
Heo, Y., Choudhary, R., Bafna, S., Hendrich, A., & Chow, M. P. ment and Behavior, 43(4), 443–468.
(2009). A modeling approach for estimating the impact of spa-
Trites, D. K., Galbraith, F. D., Leckwart, J., & Sturdavant, M. (1969).
tial configuration on nurses’ movement. Seventh International
Radial nursing units prove best in controlled study. Modern Hos-
Space Syntax Symposium, June 8–11, Stockholm, Sweden.
pital, 112(4), 94–99.
Hillier, B., Burdett, R., Peponis, J., & Penn, A. (1987). Creating life:
Trites, D. K., Galbraith, F. D., Sturdavant, M., & Leckwart, J. (1970).
Or, does architecture determine anything? Architecture and Be-
Influence of nursing-unit design on the activities and subjective
havior/Architecture et Comportment, 3(3), 233–250.
feelings of nursing personnel. Environment and Behavior, 2(3),
Hillier, B., & Hanson, J. (1984). The social logic of space. Cam- 303–334.
bridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
Trzpuc, S. J., & Martin, C. S. (2010). Application of space syntax
Hillier, B., Leaman, A., Stansall, P., & Bedford, M. (1978). Space theory in the study of medical-surgical nursing units in urban
Syntax. Social organization and settlement: Contributions from hospitals. Health Environments Research & Design Journal, 4(1),
anthropology, archeology and geography. In D. Green, C. Hasel- 34–55.
grove, & M. Spriggs (Eds.) Social organization and settlement:
Turner, A. (1998). Depthmap. London, United Kingdom: University
contributions from anthropology, archeology and geography
College London.
(Vol. 47, pp. 343–381). Oxford, United Kingdom: British Archeo-
logical Reports. Tzeng, S.-Y., & Huang, J.-S. (2009). Spatial forms and signage
in wayfinding decision points for hospital outpatient services.
Kim, Y., & Lee, H. W. (2010). Analyzing user costs in a hospital:
Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, Nov.,
Methodological implication of space syntax to support whole-
453–460.
life target value design. Lean Construction Journal, 11, 55–63.
Unlau, A. Ä., Ulken, G. Ä., & Edgau, E. (2005). A Space Syntax
Lemlij, M. (2005). Broadmoor Hospital: Prison-like hospital or
based model in evacuation of hospitals. Fifth International
hospital-like prison? A study of a high security mental hospitals
Space Syntax Symposium, June 13–17, 2005, Delft, the Neth-
within the context of generic function. Fifth International Space
erlands.
Syntax Conference, June 13–17, 2005, Delft, the Netherlands.
Weight, D. (2010). Whole-life costs: Hospital design. Building. Re-
Lu, Y. (2010). Measuring the structure of visual fields in nursing units.
trieved from http://www.building.co.uk/data/whole-life-costs-
Health Environments Research & Design Journal, 3(2), 48–59.
hospital-design/3056536.article
HERD Vol. 5, No. 4 SUMMER 2012 • HEALTH ENVIRONMENTS RESEARCH & DESIGN JOURNAL 117
Copyright of Health Environments Research & Design Journal (HERD) is the property of Vendome Group LLC
and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright
holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.