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Building Integrated Photovoltaics A Handbook PDF
Building Integrated Photovoltaics A Handbook PDF
a handbook
Building integrated photovoltaics/
a handbook
Simon Roberts & Nicolò Guariento
Birkhäuser
Basel · Boston · Berlin
Content
1. Introduction
―
1.1 Handbook coverage 9
1.2 Further reading 9
1.3 Photovoltaic installations 10
1.4 Building integrated PV 11
1.5 BIPV for designers 12
2. PV basics
―
2.1 PV system overview 15
2.2 PV materials and cells 16
2.3 PV modules 22
2.4 Module options 26
3. PV for designers
―
3.1 Location constraints 32
3.2 Effect of tilt and orientation 33
3.3 Overshadowing and BIPV options 35
3.4 Connection concepts 37
3.5 Partial shading 39
3.6 Temperature effect and ventilation 40
3.7 Location and performance 41
5. Shadingsystems
―
5.1 General 62
5.2 Principles of construction 62
5.3 Integration of PV modules 63
5.4 Maintenance & replacement 64
5.5 Case study: Galleria Naviglio 66
6. Rainscreen systems
―
6.1 General 70
6.2 Principles of construction 72
6.3 Integration of PV modules 73
6.4 Maintenance & replacement 74
6.5 Case study: The Co-operative Insurance Tower 76
6.6 Case study: Xicui Entertainment Complex 82
9. Double-skin façades
―
9.1 General 117
9.2 Principles of construction 118
9.3 Integration of PV modules 122
9.4 Maintenance and replacement 123
9.5 Case study: Pompeu Fabra Library 124
11. Residential
―
11.1 General 150
11.2 Apartment blocks 150
11.3 Low-rise traditional houses 150
11.4 Case study: K2 apartments 152
11.5 Case study: Upton ZED terrace 156
12. Refurbishment
―
12.1 Refurbishment situations 163
12.2 BIPV opportunities 163
12.3 Case study: Northumberland Building 164
Part 2 consisting of Chapters 5 to 10 forms the core of the handbook. These chap-
ters present in further detail the design integration of PV modules in the main
façade systems together with case-study projects in each chapter. The specific
façade systems and building elements covered are:
― Shading systems
― Rainscreen systems
― Stick system curtain walls
― Unitised curtain wall
― Double-skin façades
― Atria and canopies
Part 3 briefly covers specific issues of BIPV in the residential sector and refurbish-
ment applications.
Finally Part 4 draws some of the information together: Chapter 13 collates statis-
tics from all the case studies and Chapter 14 is a glossary of terms, both for PV
technology and façade engineering.
1. INTRODUCTION 9
Fig. 1.1 The Kesch hut (Albula Alps, CH) with a 2.7kWP PV array
on the roof and south façade, as an example of an off-grid
stand-alone PV installation.
Photo: Toni Spirig
1.3 Photovoltaic
Fig. 1.2 The 14MWP PV installation at Nellis Air Force Base (USA)
with tracking modules, as an example of a solar farm.
installations
Photo courtesy: U.S. Air Force Solar electricity using photovoltaic (PV) technology is the direct generation
of electricity from sunlight. PV modules work silently with no moving parts,
minimal maintenance and no pollutant emissions.
PV is one of the fastest growing sectors of the renewable energy industry.
The market is driven by concerns about environmental awareness of
climate-change mitigation and local air quality, as well as national energy
security issues and the rising cost of fossil fuels. The start of the 21st cen-
tury has seen an accelerating take-up of PV installation in many countries
(Fig. 1.3 for the member countries of the International Energy Agency or IEA).
10 1. INTRODUCTION
Fig. 1.3 Cumulative installed PV capacity in the reporting coun-
tries to the IEA PVPS Programme for the years 1992 to 2007. The
PV capacity is made up of grid-connected and off-grid (stand
alone) installations. The addition for 2007 was 2300MWP, a
growth of 40% from 2006.
Source: www.iea-pups.org
9000
1.4 Building integrated PV
Cumulative Installed PV Power [MWP]
8000
7000 grid-connected In a lay-on or additive solution, PV modules are secured to a roof or onto
6000
a façade using a metal structure. The PV system is an additional structural
5000
element with the sole function of generating energy.
4000
off-grid In contrast, building-integrated PV (BIPV), the subject of this handbook,
3000
refers to the application of PV in which the system, as well as having
2000
the function of producing electricity, also takes on the role of a building
1000
element.
0
BIPV has a low penetration in the overall PV market. For example, the pro-
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Year
portions by generation capacity for Germany in 2004 were 70% ground
mounted and 29% roof mounted with BIPV at only 1%. Nevertheless PV tech-
nology is mature and the cost/performance balance is steadily improving.
Integration into buildings should be encouraged beyond just demonstra-
tion or educational projects.
One aspect still to address is dissemination of PV design possibilities within
design teams. Through this handbook we aim to present PV, not as an alien
technology, but as an alternative to metal cladding or standard curtain
walling. Our goal is to help designers to consider PV modules as an attrac-
tive alternative to other cladding materials, with its particular image and
requirements.
More than just providing electrical energy, BIPV can enhance and satisfy a
building image. BIPV makes a statement about innovative architectural as
well as engineering design.
1. INTRODUCTION 11
Fig. 1.6 Integration of PV into the glazed roof of the
Mont-Cenis Academy in Herne (D).
Photo: Monika Nikolic/arturimages
The design team will need to judge exposure of the PV integration. There is
a scale of design approaches:
― PV can be out of sight, for instance high on a roof. This may be
appropriate for a conservation area or historic building, or where the
absolute maximum collection efficiency is needed.
― PV can be a small positive addition, such as on shading devices over
widows.
― PV can be integrated into a vertical façade in a discreet fashion with-
out changing the building’s image.
― PV can be a leading part of the design process determining the overall
building appearance and form.
12 1. INTRODUCTION
2. PV BASICS
Fig. 2.1 An array of polycrystalline silicon modules
integrated into a sloped wall.
Photo courtesy: Schüco International KG
14 2. PV BASICS
Fig. 2.2 Basic parts of a grid-connected BIPV sys-
tem showing the direction of flow of electrical
energy. The PV output can help power loads within
the building. When there is excess output, this
energy flows back onto the utility cable.
AC output
distribution board
PV array
DC output
inverter
import/export
utility meter
utility cable
In this handbook we refer only to PV systems connected to the local electricity dis-
tribution grid through a PV inverter (Fig. 2.2), and not to stand-alone systems that
charge batteries. PV inverters connected to the grid create an AC output that is in
phase with the grid-supplied AC. PV inverters are designed to shut down automati-
cally upon loss of grid supply, for safety reasons. All the parts separate from the PV
modules themselves are called the balance-of-system (BOS).
Grid-connected PV systems can supply electricity for use in the building where they
are mounted. When demand from building loads is high, all the PV output is used,
so reducing grid consumption and the utility bill. When building demand is low,
electricity is exported onto the grid. The switch between building use or export hap-
pens automatically without any human intervention. Utility companies in different
countries have various arrangements for paying the owner for electricity produced.
This ranges from a low price related to the commercial rate for conventional power
to what is known as a feed-in tariff which compensates over a number of years for
the original cost of the PV installation.
This chapter goes into the details of types of PV cells and PV modules relevant to
building integration:
― 2.2 PV materials and cells
― 2.3 PV modules
― 2.4 Module options
― 2.5 Module specification and STC
2. PV BASICS 15
2.2 PV materials and cells
2.2.1 The photoelectric process
The PV process works by the photovoltaic effect in semiconductor materials. When
light strikes the cell, a portion of it is absorbed within the semiconductor material
and “knocks” electrons loose, enabling an electrical charge to flow freely within
the material (Fig. 2.4. PV cells have an in-built electric field that acts to force elec-
trons, freed by light absorption, to flow in a certain direction. The field is created
by doping (controlled introduction of impurities) in silicon with elements such as
phosphorus or boron to create n-type or p-type zones.
By placing metal contacts on the top and bottom of the PV cell, the current gene-
rated can be put to work by passing through an external circuit. The current is gen-
erated silently with no moving parts, no emissions and the cells need no mainte-
nance, apart from keeping the top surface of the module clean for the passage of
light.
In a graph of the spectrum (Fig. 2.3), the visible part corresponds to the wave-
length range, 400–700nm. The overall curve in the figure shows the solar spectrum
stretching into the infra-red beyond 2000nm. Silicon PV cells absorb most of the
visible spectrum and the near infra-red up to 1100nm.
Since practical efficiencies are in the range of 5–20%, 80% or more of the incident
light energy is converted into heat (Fig. 2.5). The active PV materials of PV cells can
be classified as either of:
― crystalline where they are sliced from ingots or castings or grown as thin slices
from ribbons
― thin film where they are deposited as a thin layer on a low cost backing
UV visible infrared
1.6
solar spectrum
1.2
Power [W/(m2·nm)]
0.8
spectrum absorbed
by crystalline silicon
0.4
0.0
Fig. 2.3 Comparative spectra for solar input (includ- 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400
ing atmospheric losses) and the spectral parts Wavelength [nm]
absorbed by crystalline silicon PV cells.
(The solar spectrum is AM 1.5 at an irradiance of
1000W/m2.)
16 2. PV BASICS
anti-reflection coating
front contact
n-type semiconductor
electron
load
p-type semiconductor
back contact
sunlight
electricity
reflected
heat
2. PV BASICS 17
Fig. 2.6 The G8 “solar showcase” BIPV pavilion built
in 1998. This close-up shows the outline of monoc-
rystalline cells within the modules.
Photo: Christian Richters
Other methods for making monocrystalline silicon are edge-defined film-fed growth
(EFG) and string ribbon processes. These can be grown at the right thickness, so
avoiding the slicing process and losses. Also they can be cut square with right-angle
corners and no loss of material.
To increase the amount of light absorbed into the cell, which will result in higher
currents, a thin anti-reflection (AR) coating is applied as either silicon nitride or
titanium oxide. This makes the appearance dark blue. An option for effect, perhaps
in a BIPV façade, is to leave off the AR coating altogether leaving the cells a natural
dark grey, although reflection losses increase from 3% to 30%. Other AR coatings
can give a range of colours other than dark blue, but the efficiency is reduced by
a few percent. PV modules made with these cells would be special custom-made
products.
18 2. PV BASICS
Fig. 2.8 Schematic view onto the top of crystalline
silicon cell showing the patterning of the top metal-
lisation grid and the layers beneath.
busbar
fingers
anti-reflection coating
front surface doping
base
rear contact
The basic design of a crystalline silicon cell is shown in Fig. 2.8. The thickness of the
substrate is 200–400μm (0.2–0.4mm) while the depth of the front surface doping
layer is less than 1μm. On the front side, a metallisation grid consists of fingers to
conduct the generated current to central collectors or busbars. The selected metal-
lisation pattern is a compromise between shadow losses that block light and resis-
tance losses that reduce electrical output.
The back contact can be applied over more of the surface. A full-surface aluminium
coating is printed and processed to help the cell efficiency. When cells are fabri-
cated into glass-glass laminates, the shiny back face is visible inside the building.
2. PV BASICS 19
Fig. 2.9 Schematic cross section of a thin-film sili-
con module of four cells. The thickness of the active
layers has been exaggerated to show how the elec-
trical connection between adjacent cells is formed.
low-iron glass
transparent conductor
back conductor
sealing
20 2. PV BASICS
Fig. 2.10 CIS thin-film modules on the roof of a
detached house.
Photo courtesy: Würth Solar
2. PV BASICS 21
2.3 PV modules
2.3.1 Electrical connection
One PV cell produces only about 3W at 0.6V DC. For both a higher power unit and
a higher voltage, 30 or more identical PV cells are connected in series to form a
PV module, also known as a PV panel (Fig. 2.12). The PV module is the basic unit for
building integration.
Under full illumination, a 36-cell module has an output voltage of about 17V DC
across its two output contacts. This DC current can be used to charge a battery (for
off-grid applications) or converted to AC and at a higher voltage using a PV inverter.
The module also performs the essential role of encapsulation (Fig. 2.13). This pro-
tects cells again mechanical stress, weathering and humidity. Only by lamination
will they be able to operate for the required, and often guaranteed, 20–25 years or
more, even in harsh environments.
low-iron glass
crystalline PV cells
EVA back laminate
Tedlar backing
22 2. PV BASICS
2.3.3 Encapsulation media
and back face
The most common encapsulation is with cross-linkable ethylene vinyl acetate
(EVA). The cells are laminated between films of EVA in a vacuum, under compres-
sion and up to 150°C. The EVA melts during this process and surrounds the cells
on all sides. Note that EVA is not UV-resistant so depends on the front glass for UV
screening. With very large modules, the cells can move around during the lamina-
tion process which makes it difficult to maintain equal gaps.
The backing in standard modules with EVA encapsulation is generally a thin opaque
film, such as Tedlar (Dupont tradename for a film of polyvinyl fluoride, PVF), poly-
ethylene terephthalate (PET) or metal (Fig. 2.14, Fig. 2.15).
Alternatively the backing can be glass for transparency between the cells, and this
type of module is known as a glass-glass laminate.
PV modules can also be integrated into double-glazed units. The PV panel would
typically form the outer sheet of the double-glazed unit, to maximise the light
penetration onto the PV cells. Single or double-glazed, the PV cells achieve high
temperatures because of their dark appearance, so the glass laminate must be
heat-treated (either heat-strengthened or fully tempered).
Polyvinyl butyral (PVB) has long been used in the glass industry as a sandwich layer
in laminated safety glass (LSG), as required for instance in overhead glazing. PV
glass-glass laminates with thin-film (amorphous) silicon or CIS with PVB encapsula-
tion are available.
Another encapsulation medium is Teflon, the trade name for DuPont’s amorphous
fluoropolymer products, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). In contrast to EVA, Teflon is
UV resistant and has a lower reflectivity than glass. With these properties, Teflon
can also provide the front protection dispensing with front glass. Instead the module
can be laminated to a substrate, the back face, that can be a conventional tem-
pered glass. The Teflon covering is only 0.5mm thick and thus conducts heat better
than a thicker front glass would. This ensures good cooling where the back of the
module might have poor ventilation. Teflon encapsulation is mostly used for small-
scale modules, such as PV roof tiles.
In large glass-glass modules laminated with EVA, it is more difficult to reach the
necessary 150°C for the best possible cohesion throughout the complete laminate.
Resin encapsulation gets around this problem and can be applied to modules up
to 2.5× 3.8m. The PV cells need to be fixed between two glass sheets using adhesive
pads to ensure their precise location. The sheets are bonded around the perimeter
with a transparent spacer that completes the containment for the fluid resin. The
resin is injected into the space and cured by UV light or other means.
Resin encapsulation can be used with sheets of Makrolon (the trade name used for
the polycarbonate from Bayer MaterialScience) to form a glass-free module. Resin
is also used for sound-absorbing glazing.
2. PV BASICS 23
Fig. 2.15 Typical assembly, as seen from the
back, of a crystalline silicon PV module made
opaque by the Tedlar backing.
low-iron glass
crystalline PV cells
junction box
Tedlar backing
positive connection
negative
connection
→ 2.3.3
Thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) film has been developed for encapsulating
PV cells, the same material as used to encapsulate car windscreens. TPU could also
form the frame so there is the prospect of moulding a complete framed module in
one step.
PV modules are exposed to weather like almost no other high-tech product, and
still are expected to have extremely long life-spans. Manufacturers generally guar-
antee that their products will produce at least 80 percent of their nominal power
after 20 to 25 years of operation, with total life-spans being somewhere beyond
30 years. Such a long life expectancy is achieved with durable packing and for this
the encapsulation is crucial. Module producers are extremely conservative when
it comes to innovations. After all, they take a considerable risk by offering such long
guarantees so they tend to stay with technology proven as reliable in the past.
24 2. PV BASICS
2.3.4 Thin-film encapsulation
In a thin-film module, although the series connection of thin-film cells for
a module is a part the cell fabrication, this only produces a “raw module”
that still requires encapsulation. Lamination with EVA film is the standard
encapsulation method, as for crystalline modules. The back can be fin-
ished with Tedlar or a metal film.
Raw thin-film modules for amorphous silicon and CdTe are coated onto
a superstrate which forms the front glass where light enters. It is not
possible to use tempered glass for these superstrate sheets as the high
temperature used for the semiconductor coating would destroy the glass
strengthening. If the finished thin-film module is to fulfil demands for
toughness, for instance in a façade, it must be laminated with a sheet of
toughened safety glass. Amorphous silicon and CdTe are fabricated onto
a superstrate, so any kind of glass can be used for the back.
CIS and amorphous silicon coated onto a substrate need a front glass. This
needs to be low-iron “white” glass for high transparency. Fig. 2.16 A range of standard PV modules in mono-
crystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon and thin film
Photo courtesy: M.Art
2. PV BASICS 25
2.3.7 Test standard
Standard modules are usually certified to international standards. These give assur-
ance that the PV modules will perform under severe conditions.
For crystalline silicon modules, the relevant standard is IEC 61215 with the full title
“Crystalline silicon terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) module—design qualification and
type approval”. IEC 61646 is the corresponding standard for thin-film modules.
For module certification, eight modules are selected at random from the produc-
tion line. One module is used as a control, whilst the other seven modules are sub-
ject to various testing procedures to examine all parameters which are responsible
for the ageing of PV modules. These include temperature variation from –40°C to
85°C, hail impact, high temperatures and relative humidity, local shadowing, static
loading to 2400 Pa and wind loads up to 200km/h.
The tests are judged to be passed, if after the qualification tests no major visual
defects are detected and the output power has not or only slightly degraded from
its initial value.
These two standards have become generally accepted as one of the quality marks
for modules, particularly in Europe. It is demanded by most authorising authorities
for national and international support programmes. However it is unusual for spe-
cial and custom-made modules to be certified because of the high costs of the test
for a low number of modules.
26 2. PV BASICS
2.4.2 Cell arrangement and
transparency
Semi-transparent and translucent PV modules present the designer with a wide
range of possibilities to combine the production of electricity with natural lighting
and create interesting light effects.
In a glass-glass laminate, some light passes through and this is referred to as semi-
transparency or light-filtering (Fig. 2.17, Fig. 2.18). Given that crystalline cells are
opaque, the amount of light passing through is simply determined by the spacing
between cells. The space between individual cells can be adjusted from 1 to about
30mm (Fig. 2.14 and Fig. 2.17). Cells are individually connected to each other but the
electric wiring is not visible unless viewed close up. The area of modules needed
for the required power output when using semi-transparent modules will increase Fig. 2.17 Monocrystalline PV in a semitransparent
roughly in proportion to the proportion of the modules that is transparent. module (glass on the back).
A finer form of semi-transparency can be achieved with crystalline cells by covering Photo courtesy: M.Art
them with small perforations. One process machines grooves onto both sides of the
cells. The direction of the grooves in the front and back are rotated by 90° to each
other. At the points where the grooves cross, they break through creating smooth
holes. In another method, small perforations are cut by laser.
Thin-film modules have other options for semi-transparency. The cell spacing can
be increased for strip-like transparency. Alternatively the lines of material can be
removed perpendicular to the cell strips. Combined with spaced cells, this creates
a fine checked pattern that gives an even neutrally coloured average transparency
and transmission values of 10–15%.
There are some technological developments in which the thin-film is truly translu-
cent but these are not in commercial production. In most cases where translucent
is mentioned, this is just referring to semi-transparent, as described here.
positive connection
low-iron glass
negative connection
2. PV BASICS 27
2.4.3 Colour and texture
PV cells usually have a dark appearance because they are designed to reflect a
minimum of light, in order to produce maximum electricity output. Monocrystalline
silicon PV cells are typically black, grey or blue, while polycrystalline silicon cells
are usually medium or dark blue. The appearance of thin-film amorphous silicon
cells is uniform, with a dark mat surface; colours include grey, brown and black.
Cells based on CIS and CdTe are dark brown to black.
By varying the thickness of the anti-reflection coating, other colours can be obtained,
such as the multi-coloured polycrystalline cells shown here (Fig. 2.21). But by doing
this, the overall reflection will increase and the efficiency will decrease by 15–30%
depending on the colour. These modules are considered as custom-made prod-
ucts, and their price can be two or three times the price of normal cells.
The glass laminate that supports the PV cells can be modified to provide a different
appearance of the panel, by using the available glass techniques.
A ceramic silk-screen frit can be applied to the back pane of a glass laminate PV
module to achieve the required aesthetics. In the case study in section 6.6, one of the
glass laminates has been treated to provide a translucent diffusive appearance.
A large range of patterns and colours of ceramic fritting is available. Ceramic fritting
is often used to produce look-alike glass units, to be installed where PV modules
would be inappropriate, such as permanently shaded areas.
A printed or coloured interlayer can be built into a glass laminate PV module, below
the silicon cell. Interlayers may have printed photographic images applied.
28 2. PV BASICS
2.4.4 Flexible and curved modules
Flexible PV cells are a relatively new product that allows attractive building inte-
grated options.
Curved modules with a minimum radius of 0.9m can be fabricated from crystalline
PV cells by embedding the cells between curved sheets or curving finished mod-
ules. Thin-film modules are permanently flexible and rollable when deposited onto
malleable substrates.
Flexible and curved modules are not laminated in hard glass but on a versatile mate-
rial, e.g. metal and synthetic foils, synthetic resin and glass textile membranes. This
is also made possible by new thin layer technologies. The flexible PV modules can be
quite light and have been used for arched construction elements, as awnings, flex-
ible roofing with integrated PV cells.
When thin-film amorphous silicon is deposited onto a substrate, the reverse of that
in Fig. 2.9, then metal or plastic sheeting can be used which are flexible. Such a sys-
tem can be rolled onto a standing seam metal roof (Fig. 2.22).
Crystalline cells can be laminated with acrylic plastic or Makrolon. The minimal
cold-bending radius for cell arrays of 10× 10cm is 350 times the thickness of the
strongest acrylic plastic sheet.
Very few curved glass applications exist incorporating PV cells. Wafer-type cells
cannot be easily bent as they fracture in a brittle manner. Often acrylic/ polycarbo-
nate plexi-glass is used to avoid the issues associated with glass bending. Curved
glass laminates incorporating wafer-type cells would be a bespoke and very costly
solution.
Thin-film cells are created by a deposition process, which requires a substrate with
a flat surface. Therefore, thin-film cells cannot be applied to bent glass. Applying
the film first and then bending the glass is also not possible because the cells would
get damaged during the glass bending process.
Flexible and curved PV cells can however be created by laminating thin-film PV cells
in to flexible substrates such as synthetic foils, synthetic resins, textile, mem-
branes, sheet metals, etc. The flexible PV modules can be light-weight and used for
arched construction elements, flexible roofing, etc (Fig. 2.22).
It should be noted that curved modules will have a reduced performance due to the
non-uniformity of the sunlight intensity over the module surface.
2. PV BASICS 29
2.5 PV module specification
and standard test conditions
The most common way to compare modules is by their peak-power specification
given as watts peak or WP , sometimes known as the “boiler-plate” specification.
This rating is made at a well-defined set of conditions known as standard test con-
ditions (STC):
― the actual temperature of the PV cells (25°C or 77°F),
― the intensity of radiation (1kW/m2),
― the spectral distribution of the light (air mass 1.5 or AM 1.5, the spectrum
of sunlight that has been filtered by passing through 1.5 thicknesses of the
earth’s atmosphere).
These conditions correspond to noon on a clear sunny day with the sun about
60 degrees above the horizon, the PV module directly facing the sun, and an air
temperature of 0°C (32°F).
In reality these conditions occur very rarely. When the sun shines with the specified
intensity, the cell temperature would be higher than 25°C. For this reason, the nom-
inal operating cell temperature (NOCT) is often specified as well. This cell tempe-
rature is determined for an irradiance level of 800W/m2, an ambient temperature
of 20°C and a wind velocity of 1m/s.
Note:
― Peak power in WP is merely a convenient way to compare the performance of
modules. In no way can it be related to the output power of a conventional
generator or the peak electrical demand of a building, say. (See “specific yield”
in Chapter 3.)
― Cell temperatures in operation are usually well above 25°C, causing a drop in
peak power. (See “Effect of temperature” in Chapter 3.)
30 2. PV BASICS
3. PV FOR
DESIGNERS
3.1 Location constraints
Here are two examples that exemplify the extremes of challenges for BIPV place-
ment on a building. The Solar Office, Doxford International Business Park, a 73kWP
BIPV façade (Fig. 3.3), is highly optimised for solar collection: facing south, next
to a car park, so free from any shading, and with a façade tilted 30° back from ver-
tical for a better angle to the noon sun.
In contrast, 10 Whitfield Street (Fig. 3.1) is an infill development in a dense urban
context. The architect had to work within tight spatial constraints. Since the top of
the building already had solar water heating and a brown roof, opportunity for BIPV
was left as the southern face of a bay window. An array of six PV modules were be
fitted forming a 1.6kWP array, to generate power while at the same time reducing
solar gain to the internal space (Fig. 3.2). Though a small array in a less-than-opti-
mal position, it does contribute to wider appreciation of renewable energy and gen-
eral awareness simply by its street-level presence.
This chapter looks at the site and building type, both being key factors in assessing
the suitability of a building for PV and specifically BIPV. Where there is flexibility
in the design of a new building, PVs should be fully considered at the outset since
the PV array can influence the building’s orientation, footprint, layout and form.
However where form is dictated by other factors, opportunities for PV on a building
need to be examined systematically, as follows:
― 3.2 Tilt and orientation of building surfaces available
― 3.3 Assessing the degree of overshadowing
― 3.4 Grouping of modules for electrical connection
― 3.5 Minimising partial shading
― 3.6 Temperature effect and ventilation
― 3.7 Potential power output
Fig. 3.1 A typical central London location with Fig. 3.3 Looking north across the car park to the
buildings crowded together. This view is looking 73kWP BIPV façade of the Solar Office, Doxford Inter-
south onto the bay window of 10 Whitfield Street on national (UK).
the left. Photo courtesy: Schüco International KG
Photo: Simon Roberts
32 3. PV FOR DESIGNERS
3.2 Effect of tilt and
orientation
3.2.1 Solar principles
As part of the design process, the tilt and orientation of the façades that will incor-
porate PV elements is a starting point. In order to understand the significance of tilt
and orientation, we need to appreciate how light reaches building surfaces.
Irradiance is the amount of light incident on a surface at one point in time. Global
irradiance onto a site is a combination of direct and diffuse irradiance. Direct irradi-
ance is dependent on the sun’s position and the sun’s path tracing a range of angles
through the day and year (Fig. 3.4). Diffuse irradiance arrives at a surface from
clouds and haze, and also makes a contribution to PV output.
Insolation, a shortened form of incoming solar radiation, is the total amount of light
energy received at a particular angle over a period of time, such as a whole year.
For the northern hemisphere, a permanently open southerly aspect is the obvious
requirement. The maximum annual PV output corresponds to a south orientation
and a tilt from the horizontal equal to the latitude of the site minus about 20°. This
angle comes from the fact that peak insolation takes place in summer, when the
sun is higher than the latitude of the site. By orienting the panels preferably to the
summer irradiation, the annual output will then be higher.
Fig. 3.4 Range of sun paths over the year for the
summer solstice and winter solstice. The angle of
these paths would be for Europe or a similar north-
ern latitude.
21 June
E 21 December
3. PV FOR DESIGNERS 33
3.2.2 Non-optimal tilt and orientation
Unlike a ground- or roof-mounted PV system, a BIPV installation may have to con-
sider non-optimal orientations. To compare options for a given project, we can use
design tools such as global insolation charts for the area of our site. Fig. 3.5 shows
one of those charts which is for Freiburg, Germany. For all possible tilts and ori-
entations that a PV module can be mounted, these charts combine the direct and
diffuse irradiance for typical annual weather at a given location. They map the
decrease in insolation compared to the direction for the maximum.
For easier interpretation, we can pick values from the global insolation chart of
Fig. 3.5 to put on the facets of a building as in Fig. 3.6. In this example, the total
annual output is over 90% of maximum for the three 45° roof facets facing south-
ward. The roof sides and top are above 75% of maximum while the sides of the
building are above 55% of maximum. This shows that the vertical angle has an
important effect on performance whereas less critical is the orientation anywhere
between southeast and southwest.
level of insolation
compared to the maximum N
Fig. 3.5 Chart of comparative total insolation over
tilt angle from horizontal one year for all angles of tilt from horizontal and ori-
entation, at Freiburg, Germany (latitude +50.9°, lon-
90˚
gitude +13.3°). The actual value of maximum inso-
35%
80˚ lation is 1,278kWh/m2 at the 100% point that is
positioned with a tilt of 35° and oriented 2° east
70˚ 40% of due south. (The position slightly to east follows
from mornings being a little less cloudy than
60˚ 45% afternoons.)
50˚
50% Fig. 3.6 Selected values from Fig. 3.5 for 45° facets
40˚ of a building. Colour shading of the facets relates to
55% the bands of insolation in Fig. 3.5.
30˚
60%
20˚
65%
10˚
70%
W E
75%
80%
85%
90%
95%
79
100%
87
34 3. PV FOR DESIGNERS
Fig. 3.7 Sun-path analysis for a building on a Febru-
ary day at 10am. Four zones of equal area have been
added to illustrate issues relating to orientation, tilt
and overshadowing.
3.3 Overshadowing
Fig. 3.8 Sun-path analysis for a building at 12pm
with the same zones as in Fig. 3.7.
and BIPV options
Fig. 3.9 Sun-path analysis for a building at 2pm
3.3.1 Examining
with the same zones as in Fig. 3.7.
overshadowing
The efficiency of PV systems is influenced by many factors,
but the most important of all is the overshadowing.
It is recommended that the process of examining a particular
building for its BIPV potential starts with a 3D model and a
sun-path analysis.
Let us suppose that there are four zones of equal area being
considered for possible BIPV installation. These are shown
by the numbered rectangles in the figures.
Zones 1, 2 and 3 are all free from overshadowing so would
make good locations for PV. Note that area 2 is at a different
tilt to zones 1 and 3. The previous section shows that it will
generate a different amount of power. Furthermore the
difference in instantaneous irradiance will have an influence
on how the parts of the PV installation are connected electri-
cally. This aspect is discussed in the next section.
E
Area 4 is affected by overshadowing so is not ideal for PV.
Zone 1
However it is totally free of overshadowing in the afternoon.
Zone 2
Also the sun is higher in the sky later in the year so overshad-
owing in the morning will be less than as shown in Fig. 3.7.
Zone 4
Zone 3
To estimate the reduction in electrical output, proprietary
software, such as PV-SYST, should be used. Since there is
occasional overshadowing of area 4, this has an influence
on electrical connections, as covered in the next section.
3. PV FOR DESIGNERS 35
3.3.2 Principles for minimising
overshadowing
Within a development of many building, there will be a tendency for them to over-
shadow each other. Where possible, PV installations should be located at the
northern side of a space that is likely to remain permanently open. If planning on
the scale of a city block, taller buildings should be placed on the northern side and
stepped down progressively to lower buildings on the southern side.
With a new building development, additional factors to consider include whether
there will be later planting and other new buildings in the immediate vicinity. In
addition, the extent of tree growth should also be taken into account.
California even has a Solar Shade Control Act of 1979. It relates to trees or shrubs
on one property shading a solar collector on a neighbouring property. Specifically,
the shadow cast should be no greater than 10% of the collector absorption area
of the solar collector surface at any one time between the hours of 10am and 2pm.
To sum up, a building orientated to the south (in the northern hemisphere) for day-
lighting, passive solar gain and free of overshading is eminently suitable for PVs.
Similarly, a footprint with the long axis running east-west thus giving a large south-
facing wall area and potentially a large south-facing roof is advantageous for PVs.
Self-shading by the structure’s own architectural form should be avoided or
minimised. The main strategies to prevent self-shading at the design stage are as
follows:
― For roof arrays, put potential obstacles to north, such as lift rooms, water
tanks, chimneys and ventilation stacks (Fig. 3.10).
― For façade arrays, put staircases to the north (Fig. 3.11).
― Separate trees from PV façades and if possible use deciduous trees which
are free of leaves in winter when shadows are long.
36 3. PV FOR DESIGNERS
3.4 Connection concepts
3.4.1 Inverters
With no or low shading and PV modules all at the same angle, the possible yields
will be independent of the PV array configuration. The designer can leave the
details of configuration wiring to the electrical specialist.
However where parts of the PV installation receive different levels of irradiance, it is
very helpful to have a basic understanding of some connection principles since this
can have an impact on design.
The PV module is the basic unit as far as the installation is concerned. A module’s
output is DC at around 30V (depending on the number of PV cells connected in
series). The electrical interface from this DC to the higher voltage AC of the network
is an inverter. In most installations, several modules are connected to share the
same inverter.
Inverters are available as central inverters for an entire system, as string inverters
for a string of modules and as module inverters for an individual module. Each of
the three concepts has advantages and disadvantages. Which concept is chosen
depends upon the type of application. The approach of two or more string inverters
should be considered for systems consisting of sub-array zones with different orien-
tations and tilts, or for systems that are partially shaded, as described here.
Exactly the same electric current passes through each module in the series. Since
the current doesn’t increase, the wiring size (cross-section of copper conductor)
can remain constant. With the alternative arrangement of connecting modules in
parallel, they all share the same low voltage but their final output at the inverter
has a high current necessitating thick conductors (Fig. 3.13).
Given production tolerances, modules are best sorted by current to reduce mis-
match losses in a series string. Solar array inverters perform another important
role. They adjust to the particular output characteristic of PV modules using a
“maximum power point tracker” (MPPT). As the irradiance varies from moment to
moment, the MPPT part adjusts the precise DC operating voltage the PV array is
working at. The voltage is automatically adjusted in order that the product of cur- MPPT
rent and voltage (value of current multiplied by the value of voltage) is as high as
=
DC
possible, this being the maximum power. AC
~
=
DC all modules so the connection wiring does not need
MPPT
3. PV FOR DESIGNERS 37
→ 3.4.2
Zone 1 Fig. 3.14 is a close-up of Fig. 3.7 showing the four zones. Zones 1 and 2 are at different
tilts. Therefore they will always be subject to different irradiance conditions. If
Zone 2
modules in the two zones were connected in one series string, the resulting current
would be determined by the minimum, this being from the modules receiving least
Zone 4 irradiance. Such an arrangement would hold back the full generating potential of
the modules that are receiving a higher irradiance.
Zone 3
The four zones could be connected as separate series strings, as in Fig. 3.15. Each
zone is effectively separate on the DC side and each string MPPT can optimise volt-
age and current according to the irradiance and if partially shaded. The outputs of
the strings only come together at the common AC voltage, whether they are gener-
ating a high or low current.
Zoning a PV array into equal areas adds a constraint. Some zones may underfill the
facet available. To maintain a uniform appearance, non-functioning dummy PV-
modules or look-alike panels may be needed. Both solutions have been used in
case study 6.5 of The Co-operative Insurance Tower.
MPPT MPPT MPPT MPPT
=
DC
AC =
DC
AC =
DC
AC =
DC
AC
~ ~ ~ ~
~
38 3. PV FOR DESIGNERS
Fig. 3.16 Example of PV modules clear of any shad-
ing by details of the façade.
Photo courtesy: Schüco International KG
3. PV FOR DESIGNERS 39
3.6 Temperature effect
and ventilation
3.6.1 Effect of heat
In a solar water heater for instance, the higher the temperature, the better the per-
formance. PV technologies are quite different because their efficiency decreases
when module temperature increases.
PV modules convert 10–15% of the solar energy into electricity. Therefore the vast
majority of the incident energy is converted into heat. For crystalline silicon cells,
the efficiency changes almost linearly by –0.4% for every degree rise in tempera-
ture. For amorphous silicon cells, the effect is roughly half this depending on the
specific production process. The temperature difference between PV and ambient
depends on irradiation intensity and can climb by more than 40°C. In the summer,
with high ambient temperatures, the PV temperature can therefore reach about 70°
to 75°C.
Module manufacturers sometimes specify the nominal operating cell temperature
(NOCT). This cell temperature is determined for an irradiance of 800W/m2, an
ambient temperature of 20°C and a wind velocity of 1m/s.
A vertical façade is less well cooled than a roof installation. Here are indicative
values of power reduction for a vertical façade, again compared to a free-standing
array:
― with good ventilation –3.9% (35°C warmer)
― with poor ventilation –4 .8% (39°C warmer)
― with no ventilation –8.9% (55°C warmer)
40 3. PV FOR DESIGNERS
3.7 Location and
performance
Once a building has been assessed for PV feasibility, the potential performance of
electrical output can be estimated.
the sun. Fig. 3.19 shows the daily insolation as monthly average values for a northern 3.57kWh/(m²·day)
latitude site. Insolation also takes into account the weather and cloud pattern of 6
[kWh/(m².day)]
the area. In this example the weather accounts for the lower level in October com-
pared to the equivalent time in March which has the same day lengths. 4
annual average value. These figures are mapped as a set of curves for all parts of
the world, as in Fig. 3.20. This data is taken from many years of climatic data so 0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
represents a “typical” year.
The insolation over a whole year span will be maximum when the surface has a tilt
Fig. 3.19 Example of monthly averages of daily inso-
about 20° less than the latitude angle, and where north of the Tropic of Cancer (in lation at a northern latitude site. The highest monthly
the northern hemisphere) is oriented south. Note that the map of values in Fig. 3.20 value (in July) is almost 6kWh/(m2·day) and lowest
is for a horizontal surface, called the average daily global horizontal solar radiation. (in December) is 1.3kWh/(m2·day). The annual aver-
age is 3.57kWh/(m2·day).
Other types of maps show values for a flat surface tilted south (for the northern
latitudes) at an angle equal to the latitude. The tilt increases the values for higher Fig. 3.20 Annual average of daily insolation on a
latitude sites compared to those shown in the map. horizontal plane (tilt=0°) across the world. The con-
version from values on the map of kWh/(m2·day) to
some equivalent units is below:
--------------------------------------------------
kWh/(m2·day) kWh/(m2·y) MJ/(m2·y)
--------------------------------------------------
1 365 1.3
2 730 2.6
3 1095 3.9
4 1460 5.3
5 1825 6.6
6 2190 7.9
7 2555 9.2
--------------------------------------------------------
1 1
2 2
3 6 3
+23.5°
4
7 4
5
5
–23.5°
4
4
3 3
2 2
1 1
3. PV FOR DESIGNERS 41
3.7.2 Electrical output
We can now bring together the main factors that determine the total electrical out-
put from a PV installation over a year:
― Annual average daily insolation (section 3.7.1)
― Tilt and orientation of PV array (see Fig. 3.6).
― Whether there will be any overshadowing or partial shading (see Fig. 3.17).
― Extent of solar heating (or ineffectiveness of ventilation cooling, Fig. 3.18).
― Efficiency of the balance-of-system components (section 2.1).
― Efficiency of PV module, as dependent on the type of PV material (section 2.5).
There are many PV software packages available to carry out this calculation.
Just to give an idea of what the calculation might look like, here are some example
values:
― Data available for the site for average daily insolation might be 3.5kWh/(m2·day)
for a horizontal surface and 4.0kWh/(m2·day) at the optimum tilt that maxi-
mises output.
― A vertical surface facing south might have a relative efficiency of 72% compa-
red to the optimum tilt.
― The south face might be free of shading.
― Heating of the PV system may reduce the output by 4%.
― Balance of system losses might be 15%.
The estimate of annual output per kWP of the PV system would be:
annual output = 365 days/y·4 .0kWh/(m2·day)·72%·96%·85%
= 860kWh (electrical)/y
If the PV array is monocrystalline silicon with 8m2/kWP (section 2.5), then an area of
8m2 is estimated to generate 860kWh/y of electricity, or 1m2 would generate about
175kWh/y.
42 3. PV FOR DESIGNERS
4. DESIGN OF
THE BUILDING
ENVELOPE
4.1 Building envelope
integration
Lay-on PV modules are designed for one purpose only: the generation of electricity
using solar power. This handbook concerns building integration where the PV
elements also have to play the same role as the traditional wall-, window- or roof-
ing-cladding elements they replace.
The building envelope represents the interface between the controlled internal
environment and the variable external climate. It needs to achieve a certain level
of airtightness to avoid unnecessary space heating and cooling due to infiltration
(uncontrolled ventilation) and to enable effective performance of ventilation sys-
tems. It needs to be weathertight and for this aim the cladding design should incor-
porate multiple lines of defence against water ingress. Finally a façade needs to
mediate the transfer of heat between the internal and external environment in
order to create a comfortable indoor environment while using the minimum amount
of energy.
Beyond the thermally protective function, building-envelopes are designed to with-
stand wind loads and imposed loads such as barrier loading, impact loading and
loading due to cleaning and maintenance. Bomb blast loading and seismic affects
may also need to be considered.
The façade presents also a regulation and control function for daylight, ventilation,
solar heat gains and privacy and a safety and containment function.
Rainscreens described in this section are used with the first, while the second,
known as curtain walling, is described later.
Traditionally in Europe and countries with similar climatic conditions, external walls
were built of load-bearing masonry, first using stone and, later, brick (Fig. 4.3).
Mortar is used to hold together and seal the blocks. To protect the mortar joints
against rain, render is often applied. Windows are installed or integrated within the
load-bearing exterior walls, either as single “punched” windows or combined to
form continuous bands of windows. Besides traditional masonry, these days load-
bearing walls are also manufactured from concrete.
The same effect of a moisture barrier can be achieved with different types of clad-
ding as the external leaf or rainscreen. Slate, tiles and timber cladding were used
originally. Later, stone or plastic panels, fibre boards, metal sheeting or coloured
glass sheets are used (Fig. 4.4 and Fig. 4.5). The rainscreen reduces the wall depth
compared with solid external leaves. In addition, weathered or outdated cladding
can be easily replaced. In structural terms this is a single-leaf solid wall with a ven-
tilated cladding. The external appearance of rainscreens can resemble that of a non
load-bearing façade, although they have a totally different construction.
Since rainscreen systems overclad the building envelope with opaque units, they
can offer a very good opportunity for the integration of PV modules without needing
major modification to the existing technology. Rainscreen façades are hung from
load-bearing exterior walls and consist of a substructure and its anchoring. The ven-
tilated cavity contained within the system helps to keep down the operating tempe-
ratures of the PV cells, thus enhancing performance. It also provides space for
cable routes.
A curtain wall is any exterior wall that is attached to the building structure (Fig. 4.6)
and which does not carry the floor or roof loads of the building. The load of the
curtain wall itself is transferred to the main building structure through connections
at floors or columns of the building. A curtain wall is designed to resist air and
water infiltration, wind forces acting on the building and its own dead load forces.
In seismically active areas, a curtain wall must also resist seismic forces imposed
by the inertia of the curtain wall itself.
Curtain walls are also referred to as warm façades because the thermal-insulation
layer is applied directly to the surface of the building.
Curtain walls are typically designed with extruded aluminium or steel members.
The aluminium frame is usually infilled with glass, which provides an architecturally
pleasing building, as well as benefits such as daylighting. However, parameters
related to solar gain control, such as thermal comfort and visual comfort, are more
difficult to control when using highly glazed curtain walls. Other common infills
include: stone veneer, metal panels, louvres and operable windows or vents.
Curtain walls can be designed to span multiple floors. In vertical or sloped walls,
curtain walling is a well-known, standard and economical solution.
PV modules can cover the entire surface. From the point of view of performance, the
lack of rear ventilation of the PV modules, compared to a rainscreen, can cause
a reduction in output. A double-skin façade, described later, is a solution to this,
though more expensive and complex.
There are two ways of building a curtain wall:
― the stick system, erected on site
― the unitised system, prefabricated in the factory
The infill elements located in a rebate float to some extent, the rebate depth taking
into account the tolerances, movements and deformations to be expected.
This form of construction relies heavily on a skilled site workforce since it is assem-
bled on site. Site-based controls would deal with issues such as installation pro-
cedures, tolerance, movement joints and sealing of the system. The erection work
requires scaffolding, is time-consuming, and delayed in bad weather conditions.
Stick system curtain walls are widely used for low-rise building where a middle- to
high-quality cladding system is required. Compared to other curtain walling
systems, it presents a lower cost per square metre and a less complex replacement
strategy. Since there is a need for scaffold, it is not recommended for high-rise con-
struction. Fig. 4.7 An example of site installation of stick
PV modules can be integrated into stick system curtain walling system, either in the system curtain walling.
vision area or in the opaque area of the façade. They can be mounted and water- Photo courtesy: Arup
proofed into the façade in the same way as ordinary glass. However the dimension
of modules used have to fit the façade exactly so bespoke modules are likely to be
required.
The standard stages for a conventional curtain wall are as follows where indicative
timescales are given for straightforward designs:
― definition of the final design: at least two weeks
― material supply: three weeks
― finishing off and delivering to site: three weeks
The design stage is the most complex and time consuming. The duration can extend
well beyond two weeks depending on the complexity of the proposed design.
Design of the framing members does not play a significant role in terms of timing.
Usually they are taken from the catalogue or, even if a bespoke system, their design
develops from existing products. The design of the panels can lengthen the time.
In case of simple panels of the same size and shape, the design is quite straightfor-
ward and can be fully developed in two weeks. If the building presents a particu-
larly sophisticated geometry with panels of different shapes and sizes, their design
can be quite a lengthy process. This is because not only do the geometrical features
of the panels need to be defined but also the position and the installation sequence
has to be carefully evaluated and planned.
The material supplying stage can involve about three weeks for profiles of the fram-
ing members: one week for the order and extrusion process, two weeks for the
powder-coating process. For panels with simple geometry, their production can be
parallel to manufacturing the framing members and completed in three weeks.
For buildings with a complex geometry, production of the panels can still be quite
simple if the geometric variations are limited, but the time will increase in propor-
tion to increase in geometric variations.
Finally all the components reach the contractor’s factory where they are cut, fin-
ished off and sent to site in case of a stick system, or assembled and sent to site
in case of a unitised system.
exterior finish
finish support
air barrier
thermal insulation
vapour barrier
interior finish
structure
A droop caused by
B weight of façade
9 9
structure
façade panels
floor level
spandrel panel
vision panel
façade movement
4
4.3.4 Air-tightness
The building envelope needs to achieve a certain level of air-tightness to avoid
unnecessary space heating and cooling due to infiltration (uncontrolled ventilation)
and to enable the effective performance of ventilation systems.
The façade design should incorporate continuous air barriers to minimise air infil-
tration though the fabric. The air-tightness of a building envelope is expressed by
the air permeability which is the volume of air (m3) that penetrates through a unit
of area (m2) over a unit of time (h) at a given pressure difference (Pa) between the
internal and external environment.
4.3.5 Weather-tightness
A building façade needs to be weather-tight. Cladding design should incorporate
multiple lines of defence against water ingress. Seals are usually made using pre-
formed (extruded) gaskets (EPDM, silicone) and silicone adhesive.
Most cladding systems with drained and ventilated cavities make use of the prin-
ciple of pressure equalisation to create a weather-tight barrier. A final air-tight seal
at the back is essential for the pressure in the chamber to equalise and further
assures the weather-tightness of the system, possibly assisted by an additional
water seal as second line of defence. It is, however, of utmost importance that all
cavities inside a cladding system are drained and ventilated to allow potential
water ingress to be guided to the outside.
Testing the weather-tightness of a cladding system is usually done off-site on a per-
formance mock-up under controlled (static or dynamic) pressure conditions. In
addition, on-site hose tests can be carried out to establish the quality of workman-
ship, which can have a critical impact on the weather-tightness of cladding systems
in most instances.
In winter, the aim is to limit the heat loss through the façade to the outside. The
heat loss through a façade is characterised by its thermal transmittance or U-value
(W/(m2·K)). The U-value quantifies the amount of heat which passes through a
unit of area (m2) per unit of time (W=J/s) per unit of temperature difference (K)
between the environments on the two sides of a façade. The lower the U-value of
the façade elements, the less heat is lost through the building skin.
For simple layered constructions, the overall U-value of a façade can be obtained
by easy hand calculations. More complex constructions involving the use of highly
conductive metal components (such as curtain walls) however, require more
advanced computer calculation methods. Software based on numerical analysis is
used to analyse the 2D or 3D (Fig. 4.14, Fig. 4.15) interaction of different façade com-
ponents and to evaluate the overall thermal performance of cladding systems.
In summer, the aim is to control solar gains entering the building through the
façade. Depending on the building type and use, solar gains may be welcome or
unwanted. For example, office buildings already have such high internal heat gains
due to occupancy levels and office equipment that additional heat gains due to
solar radiation should be reduced as much as possible. Residential buildings in
contrast may benefit from solar heat gains to reduce space heating in wintertime.
However, summer time overheating should be avoided in any building type.
Solar gains mainly occur through the glazed areas of building façades. Solar gains
through glazing units are quantified by the total solar energy transmission (solar
factor) or g-value. The g-value of a glass build-up is the ratio of the total solar
energy flux entering the building through the glazing (W/m2) to the incident solar
energy flux (W/m2). The total energy is the sum of the incoming solar energy by
direct transmission and the energy re-radiated, conducted and convected by the
glass to the inside environment after being absorbed by the glazing system.
Fig. 4.14 2D image from numerical analysis of the Fig. 4.15 3D image from numerical analysis of ther-
thermal performance in a curtain wall system. This mal performance in a curtainwall system. This detail
is a corner detail which is always critical from a ther- shows that the thermal conductance is well broken
mal point of view.
The main parameters to control the acoustic performance of a glazed wall are:
― glass thickness
― air infiltration
― type of glass (annealed, laminated, etc.)
― type of spacer
― insulating glass films
― air space between glass lites (individual raw sheets of glass)
― type of gas fill
― edge effects
― glass size
45
40
proper
air-tightness
35
30
Sound Transmission Loss [dB]
25
insufficient
air-tightness
Fig. 4.16 Acoustic performance of a window under 20
conditions of either proper or insufficient airtight-
ness. The example is a single hung window with
15
insulating glass (6mm annealed, 9mm air, 5mm
annealed). The insufficient condition is as-received
with OITC of 24 and STC of 26. The completely sealed 10
case has OITC 27 and STC 31.
OITC is Outdoor-Indoor Transmission Class, a stand- 5
ard used for indicating the rate of transmission of
sound between outdoor and indoor spaces. STC is
0
Sound Transmission Class, an integer rating of how 100 1000 10,000
well a building partition attenuates airborne sound. Frequency [Hz]
4.3.10 Safety
The integration of PVs with the building should be considered in terms of construc-
tion and access for maintenance, in the normal way. For instance in compliance
with the CDM (Construction Design and Management) Regulations.
Safety is a standard consideration with all electrical installations. Contact with the
front surfaces of PV modules poses no danger but there are particular issues that
apply to PV installations:
― Current is produced during a wide variety of light conditions. (PV modules can
only be “switched off” by covering with something opaque.)
― There is less familiarity within the building industry with DC compared with AC.
― Voltages can be higher than the familiar 230V single-phase AC.
Safety issues should be well documented for both installers and maintenance
personnel.
When designing vertical or horizontal (overhead) glazing, the following issues need
to be considered:
― falling people or objects impacting on the glazing
― usage of the space and likelihood of accidental impact
― consequences of glass failure in terms of containment of people and objects
and retention of broken glass
― safety issues relating to maintenance and cleaning
― replacement of glazing elements
A current safety concern associated with toughened glass is the risk of spontaneous
breakage due to nickel sulphide (NiS) inclusions. Nickel sulphide inclusions occur
during the manufacturing process for float glass. During the toughening process,
these inclusions change in size from what is known as a low-temperature structure
to a high-temperature, crystalline structure. When cooled quickly, the NiS particle
is unable to change back to its original form. Over a certain period of time NiS will
slowly convert to the original form phase with an increase in volume of about 2–4%.
Such increase of NiS may cause glass breakage. The breakage process can continue
over a number of years and can raise major safety concerns because of its unpre-
dictability.
To reduce the possibility of breakage from nickel sulphide inclusions in the field,
accelerated exposures at high temperatures are conducted in a “heat soak test”.
The inclusions transform at a rapid rate during the test thereby causing failure
before installation of the pane on site. The accelerated exposure or heat soak test
reduces but cannot eliminate the likelihood of breakage on site.
column
floor slab
blast load
blast load
reaction
of façade support
Fig. 4.17 Schematic showing the force transmission Fig. 4.18 Schematic showing the force transmission
of a blast through a laminated glass window. of a blast through the cladding into the main struc-
ture.
A PV array has several electrical parts, all of which must function together efficiently.
In the very first BIPV systems, inverters were the main source of electrical problems
but their design has matured to high levels of reliability. Furthermore they have use-
ful features, such as recording electrical parameters and logging errors.
Electrical problems can range from open circuit in a module or corrosion in a con-
nection to an inverter failing to generate an AC output. These might show as reduced
monthly output from a value typical for the time of year.
floor slab
floor bracket
louvre
glazed unit
aluminium mullion
aluminium transom
62 5. SHADINGSYSTEMS
5.3 Integration of PV modules
There are good opportunities to combine PV modules into shading devices in con-
temporary buildings (Fig. 5.3). The use of PV modules as shading features gives tan-
gible expression of conserving energy through both reduced cooling loads and uti-
lising solar energy.
PV modules could be readily substituted for the external blinds in metal, timber
or plastic materials now used, but would probably be too fragile to retract unless
mounted in a protective frame.
It is important to avoid overshadowing between louvres at times when there is good
solar generating potential (when the sun is more square-on rather than oblique).
Careful shadowing analysis should be carried out with 3D software. Alternatively
use single large louvres for each window row rather than several shallow louvres.
A promising option for PV louvres is to mount them some distance from the window
and incorporate them in to a walkway system, which would provide access for
cleaning and maintenance (Fig. 5.2).
Some louvres systems are intended to be turned automatically to provide maximum
shade, matching the angle of the sun. Where PV is integrated, the power for this
operation would only be necessary when the sun is shining, and thus, in principle,
could be derived from the PV modules themselves.
Large sun-shades offer another opportunity to use PV modules in a positive manner.
They would be used to shade an entire storey of a building, or even two or three
storeys. They too could incorporate walkways for maintenance and cleaning, and
could incorporate PV modules into the shade itself.
The bracketry and supporting framework for the shading elements can be suitable
to guide the wiring, both to connect modules and to channel the wiring from an
array to the inside of the building. The design should enable all wiring in the wet
zone to follow drained and ventilated channels. Wiring should be brought together
in a number of central locations to minimise the penetrations of the cladding line
when entering the building. See also canopies in Chapter 10.
5. SHADINGSYSTEMS 63
5.4 Maintenance &
replacement
PV modules are mainly suitable for integration into larger, more robust louvres and
shading systems. These shading systems often incorporate external walkways or
grilles specifically designed for cleaning and maintenance. As such, the design of
the integrated PV system should encompass direct access to the modules, fixings,
junction boxes and associated wiring.
The design should also consider the cleaning strategy of the PV modules, either
by direct access from the walkways or by a rotating mechanism which allows the
exposed surfaces of the shading elements to be cleaned from the walkways.
The walkways may also be designed to withstand the imposed loads from shading
element- or glazing-unit replacement. Particular attention should be paid to the
glass-replacement strategy as the shading system can obstruct direct access to
and replacement of the glazing units from outside.
Since electric wiring is likely to be incorporated into the walkways, the design of the
system should provide sufficient protection and allow easy inspection and mainte-
nance operations.
64 5. SHADINGSYSTEMS
5. SHADINGSYSTEMS 65
5.5 Case study:
Galleria Naviglio
Location
―
Town, country: Faenza, Italy
Latitude, longitude, elevation: 44.313°, 11.898°, 23m
Average horizontal irradiation: 3.82 kWh/(m²·day)
PV
―
Area: 285m²
Peak power specification: 23 kWP
Power output: 33,345 kWh/y estimate
Individual module dimensions:
1937 & 2200×299 mm
Technology: monocrystalline silicon
Manufacturer: Schüco
Building
―
Type: office, shops & apartments
Height, storeys: 11m, 4
Floor area: 4000m²
Architects: Studio Technico
Completed: 2003
5.5.1 Background
The Galleria Naviglio complex consists of two buildings totalling 4000m2 for
offices, shops and apartments. The complex is in an area of Italy where green build-
ing design is encouraged through such measures as grants and permission for a
larger building size than normal.
Within the area designated for the green design strategy, there is a central cogene-
ration plant for simultaneous generation of heat and electrical energy. A district
heating net has been installed which the new complex connects to for heating and
cooling for each flat, the retail area and the offices.
Additional green design features on the complex are green roofing for much of the
horizontal roof surface, and BIPV in the shading (Fig. 5.6).
5.5.2 Construction
The two buildings use a reinforced-concrete structure to meet anti-seismic require-
ments. The infill panels on the north façades are precast-concrete panels with an
external visible brick wall. The south, east and west elevations use a curtain walling
system, preferred for the wider glazed surfaces. External glass louvres are used on
the lightweight elevations on the southeast, northeast and southwest faces to pro-
vide some level of protection from the solar radiation. These louvres are fitted with
monocrystalline silicon PV cells (Fig. 5.5). The PV louvres are tilted 70° from horizon-
tal and cover a surface of 285m2. The array specification is 23kWP.
66 5. SHADINGSYSTEMS
Fig. 5.5 Detail of the external PV louvres on the
Galleria Naviglio. Transmission of light between the
cells is evident in the reflection in the façade of the
bottom row.
Photo courtesy: Schüco International KG
5. SHADINGSYSTEMS 67
6. RAINSCREEN
SYSTEMS
6.1 General
Rainscreen over-cladding adopts a two-stage approach to weather resistance
whereby the rain and wind barriers are separated by an air-space cavity. The outer
leaf acting as rainscreen provides the major barrier to rain penetration, while the
inner leaf of the wall, which forms the air barrier, is kept relatively dry.
The inner structural leaf or backing wall can be built of any material, for example
concrete or brickwork, a cast-concrete wall or a metal-stud wall. A layer of insula-
tion is provided on the outside of the backing wall, finished off with a vapour barrier
on the warm side (on the inside in a typical central-Europe climate) and possibly
a breather-type waterproofing membrane on the cold side of the insulation (on the
outside in a typical central-Europe climate).
Vertical cladding rails or fixing brackets are bolted on to the backing wall ready
to receive the outer rainscreen panels (Fig. 6.1). The outer screen, together with a
thought-through drainage and ventilation system, protects the inner leaf from the
deleterious effects of heavy wetting and solar radiation, so the effects of thermal
expansion and contraction are minimised. The outer sleeve also serves as a cosmetic
element to the building envelope.
In addition to new buildings, rainscreens are widely used as replacement or reme-
diation for old, low-performing envelopes. The complete refurbishment process
can be carried out without empting the building.
structural wall
insulation
air-space cavity
rainscreen panel
70 6. RAINSCREEN SYSTEMS
Fig. 6.2 Vertical section through a typical horizon-
tal joint detail in a drained and back-ventilated
metal rainscreen.
insulation
face of building
structural wall
ventilation cavity
rainscreen
moisture barrier
flashing
water
air
insulation
rainscreen
vertical drainage
channel
ventilation cavity
moisture barrier
penetration flashing
water
air
6. RAINSCREEN SYSTEMS 71
6.2 Principles of construction
There are two variations of the rainscreen system: the “drained and back-venti-
lated” rainscreen and the “pressure-equalised” rainscreen. The difference between
the two systems is the amount of water that is permitted into the cavity.
In the drained and back-ventilated rainscreen (Fig. 6.2), no deliberate attempt is
made to prevent water ingress through the joints, and relatively large quantities of
rain penetrate the joints and run down the reverse side of the cladding panel. This
water is allowed to drain and evaporate from the cavity.
In the pressure-equalised system (Fig. 6.3), water penetration is controlled by the
use of baffles, compartmentation, drips, upstands, barriers and opening sizes in
the assembly, in order to equalise the pressure in the cavity with the external pres-
sure. This results in reducing the force of rain, dispersion of moisture behind the
outer leaf and only minor leakage into the cavity. Positive drainage and ventilation
are still provided however to remove this water. Moreover the barriers act as fire
protection hampering the chimney effect within the cavity.
Both are constructed using a lightweight metal rainscreen panel, usually coated
aluminium. Other options are stone, terracotta and concrete panels. This is fixed to
the primary structure using bolts, studs or purpose-designed cladding rails. If a
hook-on system is used, additional mechanical fixings are required to lock panels
in place to prevent panels from coming loose due to uplift.
structural wall
plasterboard
insulation
fixing bracket
PV module
PV connection box
72 6. RAINSCREEN SYSTEMS
6.3 Integration of PV modules
Rainscreen over-cladding systems offer a very good opportunity for the integration
of PV modules (Fig. 6.4). In the case of existing cladding technology, no major modi-
fication would be needed to incorporate solar modules. Furthermore the ventilated
cavity contained within the system would help to keep the operating temperatures
of the PV cells down to some degree.
To limit the presence of water behind the rainscreen panel, it is suggested that a
pressure-equalised rainscreen system represents the best opportunity for PV inte-
gration.
A rainscreen is normally dimensioned against the floor heights of the building and
window spacing. The resulting grid dictates the dimensions of the lightweight metal
panels. Bespoke PV modules can be used but these specially made laminates will
add expense.
Using standard off-the-shelf PV modules keeps the cost down but has implications
for the dimensions of the rainscreen grid. In some types of rainscreen, the grid
dimensions can be adjusted to suit the modules, as in the plain wall without win-
dows shown in Fig. 8.2. Another example is The Co-operative Insurance Tower, shown
later in this chapter, which is free from the constraints of windows, for instance.
Off-the-shelf modules can also be used in a rainscreen where the module dimen-
sions can be accommodated to a degree. An example of this is the Northumberland
Building case study (see Chapter 12 on Refurbishment). The module height fits well
with the height of the overhang while the repeat width of the modules does not
need to align with the windows.
6. RAINSCREEN SYSTEMS 73
6.4 Maintenance &
replacement
A PV façade can be left without cleaning since rain water running down provides
washing of the modules to a degree (Fig. 6.5). In some local conditions, rain carries
enough dirt to leave a residue which will reduce power output. Therefore the clean-
ing regime for the PV façade should be the same as would be used for any glass or
metal façade on the building.
Where a standard cleaning cradle running on a track along the perimeter of the roof
is available, the PV modules can be cleaned. Such a dedicated cleaning system can
sometimes provide access to the modules for maintenance and replacement, as
long as the size and weight of the module are limited. Usually a cradle can only sup-
port up to 250kg, so for large and heavy modules, a dedicated replacement strat-
egy, as for typical curtain walling, needs to be applied.
Maintenance and replacement of solar modules would be fairly easy since all PV
components can be accessed from outside. Individual modules could be dismantled
quickly by unlocking the fixing brackets. De-mounting of an individual or series of
modules gains access to the wiring.
74 6. RAINSCREEN SYSTEMS
Fig. 6.5 PV integration in a rainscreen on
Manchester College of Art & Technology.
Photo: Daniel Hopkinson
Courtesy: Arup
6. RAINSCREEN SYSTEMS 75
6.5 Case study:
The Co-operative Insurance
Tower
Location
―
Town, country: Manchester, UK
Latitude, longitude, elevation: 53.487°, –2 .238°, 54m
Average horizontal irradiation: 2.53 kWh/(m²·day)
PV
―
Area: 3972m²
Peak power specification: 391 kWP
Power output: 183,000 kWh/y
Individual module dimensions:
1200×530mm
Technology: polycrystalline silicon
Manufacturer: Sharp
Completed: 2006
Building
―
Type: office, conference, cinema
Height, storeys: 118m, 25
Floor area: 54,000m²
Architects: Heritage Architecture Ltd.
6.5.1 Background
The Co-operative Insurance Tower is a 28-storey, office building in central Manches-
ter, UK (Fig. 6.6). Built in 1962 to provide new premises for The Co-operative Insur-
ance, the Tower has been dominating the city’s skyline for over 40 years. The build-
ing comprises three distinct elements: a podium at the base, office accommodation
with glazed aluminium curtain walling and a windowless concrete service tower on
the south-west side.
The architects for the original 1960s design were GS Hay of the CWS and Gordon
Tait of Sir John Burnet, Tait and Partners. They decided to clad the concrete service
tower with 14 million mosaic tesserae or tiles each 20× 20mm, to create a “shim-
mering and sparkling column” (Fig. 6.10). The Tower is located on the northern
boundary to the city of Manchester and represents a striking symbol and a gateway
upon entering the city from the north. The building is categorised as Grade II listed
(“a building of special architectural or historic interest” within England and Wales).
The mosaic tiles were stuck directly onto the concrete structure, but lacking a
movement or expansion joint, tension stresses appeared in the grout between the
concrete structure and the mosaic cladding. For most of the building’s life, num-
bers of tiles have been regularly separating from the building envelope (Fig. 6.11). An
innovative approach to this façade problem was needed and the eventual solution
was to clad the failing mosaic with PV modules forming a rainscreen. The resulting
PV array could also contribute to reducing the building’s reliance on grid electricity
through generation of about 180MWh/y.
76 6. RAINSCREEN SYSTEMS
Fig. 6.6 View from the south onto the service tower
of The Co-operative Insurance Tower showing the
completed PV cladding.
Photo: David Millington Photography Limited
Courtesy: Arup
6. RAINSCREEN SYSTEMS 77
6.5.2 Why a PV array?
In 2003, increasing concerns about the safety issue of falling tiles prompted search
for a solution. Three possible options were identified:
1. Replace with new mosaics throughout, installing these with stress/expansion
joints. The replacement material would be similar to the original so the appear-
ance would have been impacted only by the introduction of the new joints.
However removing all the old tiles would be lengthy, noisy and costly.
2. Remove all the mosaics and paint or render the bare surface. Although the low-
est cost option, this would have met serious problems with the Grade II listing
of the exterior, since it would have fundamentally and negatively impacted the
appearance of the building.
3. Overclad to retain the mosaics while awaiting developments in technology for
fixing mosaics to concrete. This approach offered a high degree of certainty
as a solution since the existing mosaic finish could remain conserved beneath
the cladding. The appearance would be different but there was an opportunity
to achieve a high quality and lasting aesthetic result. Also there would be the
opportunity to design in provision for future maintenance.
If option 3 of overcladding was to be pursued, there was concern over the nature
and appearance of the cladding material given the listed status. The option to
use PV was going to be challenging but could provide the opportunity to make a Fig. 6.7 Close-up of some polycrystalline silicon
difference in using new materials and generating renewable energy with reduced modules that are assembled into a cassette. This
emissions. appearance contrasts noticeably with the coated-
steel dummy panels at the bottom.
The Co-operative Insurance are a company with an ethos for corporate social Photo: David Millington Photography Limited
responsibility, encouraging its managers to include environmental issues as a pri- Courtesy: Arup
ority in their thinking and plans. Therefore the concept of generating some of the
building’s energy using renewables technology was seen by them as a priority.
Concerning the appearance, the planning authority of the City Council accepted
that the PV modules could make a very special effect but insisted that the massive
monolithic appearance of the service tower needed to be maintained. English
Heritage were consulted and they gave listed-building consent for the change.
78 6. RAINSCREEN SYSTEMS
Fig. 6.8 View onto the north west corner showing
6.5.3 Choice of PV technology three types of cladding. There are cassettes of seven
PV modules which are electrically active. The nar-
rower PV modules along the corners have identical
In the first assessment, thin-film technology appeared to represent an aesthetically appearance but are electrically inactive. Inexpen-
suitable cladding material. The modules are a lower cost than crystalline silicon sive coated steel dummy panels are used around the
modules. Moreover, standard thin-film modules are available in a variety of sizes. vent because this location on the façade is virtually
out of sight from the ground.
However the planning authority raised concerns about the appearance of the thin- Photo: Tom Swailes
film modules on the building. The overall effect would have been too uniform, los-
ing existing identification of the floor-to-floor separation of 3.74m, a key feature in
the original mosaic design.
Polycrystalline modules have a more desirable appearance. Furthermore the size of
standard modules available from Sharp overcame the planners aesthetic concerns
(Fig. 6.8). The particular module was the Sharp NE-8E2E, 1200mm wide by 530mm
high with a frame thickness of 35mm. A “cassette” formed of seven modules could
be created in which the cassette height of 3.71m corresponded to the floor-to-floor
separation required by the planning authority.
The cassette width of 1.20m means that the wide south façade and narrow east
and west façades are incompletely covered, yet an absolutely even appearance
was essential. Electrically inactive PV modules with a bespoke width of 230mm
were used for the visible areas (Fig. 6.7). For less prominent parts, plain blue
powder-coated steel panels sufficed.
6. RAINSCREEN SYSTEMS 79
6.5.4 Façade engineering
The rainscreen used for the cladding is a pressure-equalised type. The wall is con-
crete so installation of the rainscreen was mostly concerned with mounting the
PV modules.
Before installing the photovoltaic modules, a metal mesh was fixed over the mosaic
for retention (Fig. 6.13). Aluminium mullions run the full height of the tower and
were fixed to the concrete structure by brackets (Fig. 6.9). Seven photovoltaic mod-
ules were joined vertically together by aluminium framing members to form each
cassette. The cassettes then slot onto the full height mullions, which also incorpo-
rate restraint for the maintenance cradle when in operation.
Installation was designed to be carried out by a series of “mast climbers” around
the service tower. These are continuous platforms used to fix the restraining mesh,
supporting brackets and mullions. PV cassettes where placed onto the platforms,
taken to the required level and lifted into position. The cassettes used a bolted con-
nection that was slotted in.
The floor-to-floor feature seen from afar required a vertical joint between cassettes
of 75 mm. This coincided conveniently with the height of the hanging slot connec-
tion allowing any cassette to be removed at a later date.
The design incorporated a roof-mounted maintenance cradle. Stability for the cra-
dle is achieved using shuttles fixed to the cradle that run down the mullions. In the
event of a damaged module needing to be replaced, the maintenance cradle can
take a replacement cassette to the required point, remove the cassette with the
damaged module and fit the replacement cassette. The damaged cassette can then
be taken to the ground where it can be easily dismantled and the damaged module
removed and sent for repair or replaced.
structural wall
mesh
mosaic
aluminium support
bracket
aluminium mullion
aluminium frame
of the cassette
PV module
local maintenance
cradle restraint
80 6. RAINSCREEN SYSTEMS
6.5.5 Electrical
Each cassette of seven modules was connected in series, and three cassettes were
joined to make a string operating at about 360V DC. Each string was connected
back to a DC insolator by a pair of double-insulated, single-core cables. These were
inserted in a cable tray, attached to the cladding support structure and mounted
within the 25mm zone defined by the angles retaining the mesh.
The DC insolators are sized to enable the DC supply into the inverter to be safely
disconnected, even under full-load conditions.
Inverters take the DC power generation from the series-connected strings of PV
modules and convert it to useful AC power for use within the building. The three
sides of the service tower receive very different irradiance in direct sun conditions.
A range of different-sized PV inverters was used to match the layout of PV modules
and to ensure that the array is producing the maximum amount of AC power possi-
ble at any time of the day.
The output from each inverter was routed into an AC distributor sub-panel and then
above the main lift lobbys false ceiling and into the pilot busbar riser cupboard at
each floor level. There are six main points of PV system AC output connection into
the building’s existing AC distributor system.
Fig. 6.10 The Co-operative Insurance Tower in its 6.5.6 Performance display
original form before PV integration. This view is from
the south east showing two sides of the mosaic-clad As part of the communication aspect, a large-format display unit was installed in
service tower to the left of the office accommoda-
tion. the main foyer of the building (Fig. 6.12). This provided live information to staff and
Photo courtesy: Arup visitors on: power output (kW), total amount of energy generated to date (kWh)
and amount of CO2 emissions offset by the PV generation.
6. RAINSCREEN SYSTEMS 81
6.6 Case study:
Xicui Entertainment Complex
Location
―
Town, country: Beijing, P.R. China
Latitude, longitude, elevation: 39.905°, 116.277°, 62m
Average horizontal irradiation: 4.32 kWh/(m²·day)
PV
―
Area: 534m²
Peak power specification: 79 kWP
Power output: 38,929 kWh/y
Individual module dimensions:
890×890mm
Technology: polycrystalline silicon
Manufacturer: Sunways, Schüco & Suntech
Completed: 2008
Building
―
Type: mixed development
Height, storeys: 12m, 9
Floor area: 2200m²
Architects: Simone Giostra & Partners Inc.
6.6.1 Background
The Xicui Entertainment Complex is a nine-storey building located in the western
part of Beijing, close to some of the 2008 Olympic Games sport facilities. The build-
ing was completed in 2005 to house a movie theatre and high-quality restaurant. In
2006 the metal cladding on the east façade was replaced with a 60× 33m curtain
wall designed by Simone Giostra Architects with support from Arup (Fig. 6.16).
The client desired an interesting, innovative and exciting façade design to enliven his
building. Simone Giostra Architects and Arup responded with an “organic solution”
made of translucent PV modules and light emitting diodes (LEDs).
82 6. RAINSCREEN SYSTEMS
Fig. 6.14 An example lighting pattern at night of the
LED array on the Xicui Entertainment Complex.
Photo: Frank P. Palmer
Courtesy: Simone Giostra & Partners/Arup
6. RAINSCREEN SYSTEMS 83
Fig. 6.15 Three different types of glass laminate PV
modules containing zero, twelve or twenty-four PV
cells.
Photo: Frank P. Palmer
Courtesy: Simone Giostra & Partners/Arup
6.6.3 PV-modules
The key elements of the façade are open-joint laminated glass modules 890×
890mm (Fig. 6.19) with embedded polycrystalline PV cells and bolt-fixed to the
cladding structure. To increase the variety of sunlight reflections on the façade dur-
ing daytime, half of the glass modules have a 5° tilt outward to left or right.
The PV cells are laminated between two glass panels using an adhesive interlayer
which has been treated in order to provide a translucent diffusive appearance.
During the day, sufficient daylight passes through openings on the backing wall so
that a high level of comfort can be achieved inside the building in terms of quality of
the light. From the outside, the diffusive effect of the interlayer is intended to min-
imse visibility of the cladding structure beyond the glass line. The diffusion effect
also creates contrast with the dark PV cells so that they to stand out during the day.
The modules present three different layouts (Fig. 6.15), namely “low”, “medium”
and “high” transparency according to the density and number of PV cells. The
three module types are positioned on the façade in a pre-determined pattern to
represent a “seascape”.
During the night, the LEDs project onto the panels from the rear side and the diffu-
sive interlayer helps spread the light.
84 6. RAINSCREEN SYSTEMS
Fig. 6.17 Plan detail for mounting LEDs and PV mod-
ules on the Xicui Entertainment Complex façade.
shims to accom-
modate tolerances
fabricated stainless-
steel bracket
PV module
6. RAINSCREEN SYSTEMS 85
7. STICK-SYSTEM
CURTAIN WALLS
7.1 General
Curtain walls can be divided in two main types according to the system of fabrica-
tion and installation: stick systems and unitised panels. The traditional curtain-wall
construction is the stick system, where mullions and transoms are assembled on
site, which is the subject of this chapter. Unitised curtain walls are delivered to site
as pre-assembled large panels, fully glazed, for speedy installation. This system is
covered in Chapter 8.
The stick system, also known as mullion/transom system, is a fairly common form
of curtain-walling construction. The system is delivered to site as individual com-
ponents, finished, cut and machined. Such components include mullions (vertical
members), transoms (horizontal members), vision glazing (for vision window
areas), opaque glazed units or insulated pressed metal panels (for non-vision span-
drel areas), gaskets and bracketry for securing the cladding system to the building
structure.
Stick-system curtain walls are widely used for low-rise buildings where a low-medi-
um size system is required. They are not recommended for high-rise construction
because of the need for scaffolding to the outside of the building to allow instal-
lation and the limited capability to accommodate live loads.
This form of construction relies heavily on a skilled site workforce since it is assem-
bled on site rather than in a factory. As a result, quality-control procedures need to
focus on site operations.
floor slab
floor bracket
opaque panel
aluminium mullion
aluminium transom
glazed unit
vertical rope
structural column
glazed panel
If PV modules are integrated into the spandrel area of the curtain wall, an opaque
or semi-transparent solar laminate could be used. The semi-transparent type
would be used in a shadow box to create an impression of depth and light penetra-
tion, though there is no actual vision through the glass to the building interior.
The PV modules could be integrated into single or double-glazed units. If a double
glazed unit is chosen, coatings or ceramic fritting can be applied to one of the
panes, but care must be taken that the efficiency is not reduced by shading the
actual PV modules.
For a spandrel or shadow-box construction, the cavity behind the PV module needs
to be drained and pressure-equalised. The inner part is formed by an insulated
panel. The heat build-up in the spandrel cavity or shadow box would require heat-
treated glass to be used for the outer pane.
aluminium mullion
spacer bar
cabling
aluminium transom
gasket
A key question is whether to have all wiring externally with only one penetration
to the inside or lots of penetrations and the bulk of the wiring internally. Both
approaches need careful consideration relating to space requirements, access,
weathering performance, etc.
aluminium mullion
gasket
aluminium transom
spacer bar
glazed PV module
Location
―
Town, country: Rellingen, Germany
Latitude, longitude, elevation: 53.631°, 9.885°, 16m
Average horizontal irradiation: 2.73 kWh/(m²·day)
PV
―
Area: 179m²
Peak power specification: 18 kWP
Power output: 10,800 kWh/y
Individual module dimensions: 1970×1430mm
Technology: polycrystalline silicon
Manufacturer: Schüco
Building
―
Type: office
Height, storeys: 10m, 2
Floor area: 4160m²
Architects: BRT Architects
Completed: 2001
7.7.1 Background
The lighting company, Tobias Grau GmbH, required functional spaces in an attrac-
tive shape with innovative technologies for their new offices in Rellingen near
Hamburg. The design of the architect, Bothe Richter Teherani, responded with an
elongated, oval unit (Fig. 7.7) repeated for the two buildings. The two pipe-shaped
buildings are parallel to each other and connected by a perpendicular extension,
giving an H-shape to the complex.
The main structure is created by laminated-timber arches spanning 20m and
installed 5m one to each other. Aluminium sandwich panels are attached to the
timber structures and create the tube shape of the buildings. This is closed towards
the North with a fully glazed, unshaded, inward-sloped façade and towards the
South with a PV façade. The east and west elevations present curved glazed façades
which are protected from the solar radiation by external, movable louvres, span-
ning 2.5m each.
Because of the limited height of the façades (about 8m) and because of the desired
flush appearance, the modules have been installed on a stick-curtain walling system
with structural silicone glazing.
7.7.2 PV integration
The vertical south façades of the two buildings together present an overall area
of 179m2 for PV integration. The west building (Fig. 7.8) has an area of 128m2 for
45 modules.
The modules are clear laminates with blue polycrystalline cells. The cells have a
10mm spacing so that the modules let some natural daylight through the façade
with the cells acting as solar shading device. This aspect together with the high
transparency of the other façades makes the daylight one of the key aspects of this
project. Module dimensions are 1.97× 1.43m.
The two PV systems were funded by the government of Schleswig-Holstein and have
a specification of 18kWP. They generate about 11MWh per year.
floor slab
unitised panels
glazed module
aluminium transom
possible PV module
aluminium mullion
floor bracket
insulation
aluminium
unitised frame
thermal break
cabling
aluminium mullion
aluminium transom
structural silicone
spacer bar
PV module
Fig. 8.4 Detail of a unitised curtain wall system
with PV modules in double-glazed panels. Note
routing of cables through the mullion.
Location
―
Town, country: Melbourne, Australia
Latitude, longitude, elevation: –37.800°, 144.959°, 52m
Average horizontal irradiation: 4.12 kWh/(m²·day)
PV
―
Area: 426m²
Peak power specification: 46 kWP
Power output: 40,000 kWh/y
Individual module dimensions:
1220×939mm to 2664×1895mm
Technology: polycrystalline silicon
Manufacturer: BP Solar
Building
―
Type: Faculty of Economics and Commerce
Height, storeys: 24m estimate, 8
Floor area: 4550m² estimate
Architects: Metier3
Completed: 2001
8.6.1 Background
The Alan Gilbert Building represents the first large-scale building-integrated PV
project new-build in Australia (Fig. 8.5). Completed in December 2001, the eight-
storey building is part of Melbourne’s new University Square Campus.
The top-level of the building hosts the building services and covers an overall area
of 426m2. It presents an inclined façade. The façade is unitised because it is high-
rise (above 3 stories) and inclined inwards, so assembly from within is easier.
Fig. 8.7 View onto the east end of the Alan Gilbert
Building showing the 70º to 74º tilt from horizontal of
the top two levels of the north façade.
Photo: John Gollings
Courtesy: Arup
Location
―
Town, country: McKinney, USA
Latitude, longitude, elevation: 33.221°, –96.630°, 197m
Average horizontal irradiation: 4.54 kWh/(m²·day)
PV
―
Area: polycrystalline silicon 287m², thin-film silicon 27m²
Peak power specification: polycrystalline silicon 32 kWP,
thin-film silicon 3 kWP
Power output: polycrystalline silicon 23,500 kWh/y estimate,
thin-film silicon 2400 kWh/y estimate
Individual module dimensions: 1500×1500mm
Technology: polycrystalline silicon & thin-film silicon
Manufacturer: Schott Solar
Building
―
Type: retail
Height, storeys: 11m estimate, 1
Floor area: 20,000m²
Architects: LPA Inc.
Completed: 2005
8.7.1 Background
In 2005 Wal-Mart, the largest retailer in the world, opened two experimental
stores, one in McKinney, Texas (Fig. 8.10), the other in Aurora, Colorado. The experi-
mental stores were built to evaluate the use of recycled materials, energy-saving
technologies and renewable energy.
Between 2005 and 2008, independent laboratories monitored the performance of
the installed technologies to measure the potential benefits of implementing sus-
tainable practices into Wal-Mart stores across the USA. Renewable-energy tech-
nologies under evaluation included numerous PV arrays, two small wind turbines
and a bio-fuel boiler to recycle and burn recovered oil from store operations. Since
this was a benchmarking project, Wal-Mart wanted to experiment with as many
types of PV materials as possible to see which one was performing best. For this
reason the complex uses polycrystalline cells and thin-film amorphous silicon PV,
installed on a vertical façade and on the inclined roof.
Most often, a shading device (fixed opaque louvres, fixed or retractable blinds, roller
blinds, etc.) is placed within the cavity in order to protect the building from exces-
sive solar radiation or glare. When the cavity is ventilated, the heat resulting from
the radiation absorbed at the shading device can be extracted though ventilation
means, reducing the secondary solar transmission that enters the building (Fig. 9.2).
The effectiveness of shading devices also depends on the properties of their surface
(colour, finish).
This system can provide an adequate control of the internal environmental condi-
tions both from the solar point of view (in the case of movable blinds) by operating
on the angle and position of the shading device, and from the thermal point of view
by controlling the ventilation within the cavity.
From an aesthetic point of view, a double-skin façade allows the concept of a clean,
highly glazed façade, since the internal skin can be used as effective thermal enve-
lope. Thanks to a second glass skin, building users can also leave windows open
during various climatic conditions such as wind, rain, etc. The first or exterior part
of the skin shields the entire building, and by doing so, permits natural ventilation
through air corridors between the skins. Windows can be left open 24 hours a day
and not compromise interior comfort.
damper
closed
damper shutter
opened
shutter
damper
opened damper
closed
Fig. 9.2 Summer operation of a naturally ventilated Fig. 9.3 Winter operation of a naturally ventilated façade
façade showing airflow through the façade space: (left) with damper for external air closed. It shows the façade
during the day when the shutter is down to reflect direct space: (left) during the day when the shutter is pulled up
radiation; (right) during the night when the shutter is allowing direct radiation in; (right) during the night when
pulled up. the shutter is down to minimise radiative losses from
inside.
AHU AHU
AHU AHU
ventilationo pening
to shaft
horizontal division
Another case in which the double-skin façade is generally naturally ventilated is the
so-called multi-storey double-skin façade (Fig. 9.7). This type of façade presents
a big cavity which is not subdivided either horizontally or vertically. Only a horizon-
tal grid divides the floor levels in order to access the cavity from the inside of the
building.
Similar to the multi-storey double-skin façade above described is the multi-storey
louvres façade. In this case the outer skin is composed of pivoting louvres which are
not airtight even in the closed position.
Since PV modules are usually integrated into the vision area of the curtain wall, the
module would form the outer lite of a clear double glazed unit, equipped with low
emissivity, solar control or high-performance coatings. To avoid glass breakage due
to thermal shock, the glass laminate would likely comprise heat-treated glazing.
The build-up of the double-glazed unit would also need to withstand structural
actions such as wind loading and meet safety requirements with regard to impact
from building occupants.
For PV modules integrated into the outer skin of a double-skin façade, maintenance
and replacement of the outer skin would often occur from the outside in the same
way as a unitised panel (see Chapter 7). Replacement of damaged infill units would
normally comprise demounting of gaskets, screws, pressure plates and/or mechan-
ical or toggle fixings. These release the infill panels from the unitised framework
and allow installation of the replacement panels. Note that replacement of such
units entails a temporary and partial removal of the weathering protection of the
building envelope.
Hook-on or bolt-on PV modules allow easy replacement without the need to break
the existing weathering protection system.
If the system is equipped with sub-frames which hold the infill panels, all primary
weather seals of the replacement carrier frames can be made in a controlled
environment. This is a distinct advantage of the cassette in a stick and cassette
system.
Multi-storey buildings with double-skin façades are often equipped with a cleaning
cradle running on a track along the perimeter of the roof. This can be lowered along
guides providing access to every elevation.
When deciding on a replacement strategy, the designer needs also to consider the
size and weight of the glazing units and PV modules. Access strategy and equipment
should allow easy handling of larger components.
For PV modules integrated into the inner skin of a double-skin façade, maintenance
and replacement of the inner skin occurs from inside. Access to the buffer zone
facilitates the demounting of gasket, screws and/or mechanical or toggle fixings to
release the infill panels from the framework.
Location
―
Town, country: Mataró, Spain
Latitude, longitude, elevation: 41.538°, 2.434°, 37m
Average horizontal irradiation: 4.31 kWh/(m²·day)
PV
―
Area: 255m²
Peak power specification: 20 kWP
Power output: 20,000 kWh/y
Individual module dimensions: 1100×2150mm
Technology: polycrystalline silicon
Manufacturer: ASE, TFM
(Teulades i Façanes Multifunctionals)
Building
―
Type: public library
Height, storeys: 11m, 3
Floor area: 1600m²
Architects: Miquel Brullet i Tenas,
Teulades i Façanes Multifuncionals
Completed: 1996
9.5.1 Background
In the mid-nineties the city of Mataró, 20km north of Barcelona in Spain, developed
a policy instrument for sustainability in order to join the Aalborg Charter (Charter
of European cities for sustainability). Within this programme, a strategic line was
dedicated to energy end environmental action plans, in which the Pompeu Fabra
Library was included.
The Pompeu Fabra Library in Mataró represented one of the first cases of com-
pletely integrated PV systems into building, energetic and architectural design. In
addition to the energetic and environmental issues, the design of a public library
focused the attention on the quality of the light and the external appearance. The
challenge of the project was to find the optimum balance between energy strategy,
comfort, quality of the interior lighting, aesthetics and economic aspects.
Another aim of the project was to demonstrate the capabilities and skills offered
by the European photovoltaic industry. For this reason, various European manufac-
turers cooperated on this project using different technologies: opaque and semi-
transparent monocrystalline, polycrystalline and thin-film amorphous silicon cells.
The Pompeu Fabra Library is a simple rectangular building in form. PV arrays were
integrated in two parts: the large south side is a double-skin façade and uses semi-
transparent PV modules; the roof skylights have monocrystalline and amorphous
silicon modules.
The project was subsidised by the Joule II programme of the European Commission’s
Directorate-General for Science, Research and Development (DG XII).
air filter
9.5.3 Façade performance
A 150mm cavity divides the two glazed skins in the double-skin façade to allow
mechanical/natural (hybrid) ventilation within the façade (Fig. 9.9). In summer the
façade is naturally ventilated with the incoming air from outside used to cool the
PV cells before it is released in the external environment. In winter the air heated
by the PV modules in the cavity is mechanically moved to a heat-recovery sys-
tem where it is used to warm the fresh-air intake. In this way the ventilation of the
insulating panel
curtain wall generates heat and improves the performance of the PV cells at the
same time.
ventilated
chamber A seven-month post-monitoring strategy developed by the University of Barcelona
and the Zentrum für Sonnennenergie- und Wasserstoff-Forschung of Stuttgart
showed that the overall PV/thermal system performance had an efficiency of 62%.
insulating
double glazing
exterior pane of
normal glass or
semi-transparent
PV
venetian blind
chimney effect
or forced
ventilation
exterior opaque
PV module
air filter
air inlet
10.3 Integration
of PV modules
PV modules can be integrated into stick-system skylights either in the vision panels
or in the spandrel area of the skylight, if it exists. The double-glazed units can be
replaced by clear or opaque PV modules, preferably double-glazed. PV modules
can be mounted and weatherproofed into the skylight in the same way as ordinary
glass panels.
If PV modules are integrated into the vision area of the skylight, the module would
form the outer lite of a clear double-glazed unit, equipped with low emissivity, solar
control or high-performance coatings (Fig. 10.2). To avoid glass breakage due to
thermal shock, the glass laminate would likely comprise heat-treated glazing. The
build-up of the double glazed unit would also need to withstand structural actions
such as wind loading, maintenance-imposed loads and meet safety requirements
with regard to impact from building occupants. The inner pane of glass should be
laminated to act as a safety line against free fall.
If PV modules are integrated into the spandrel area of the skylight, an opaque or
semitransparent solar laminate could be used. The PV module could be integrated
as a single- or double-glazed unit. The PV module would form the outer face of
an insulated sandwich panel. If a double-glazed unit is chosen, coatings or ceramic
fritting can be applied to one of the panes. The cavity behind the PV module would
be drained, pressure equalised and fitted with an insulated panel finished off with
an air and vapour seal. The heat build-up in the spandrel cavity or shadow box
construction would require heat-treated glass to be used. A spandrel construction
should be vapour-sealed and vented to the outside via the glazing rebate.
glazed PV module
glazed panel
spacer bar
aluminium rafter
aluminium counter batten
cabling
Items that would require particular attention during design and detailing are:
― the location and integration of the junction box on the PV module
― the routing of electrical wiring along/through mullions and transoms
― the weather-tightness of perforations in the mullion and transom extrusions
― the junction box and the wiring exiting at edges of double-glazed units and
the durability of the edge seals
― the ability of the PV module to take wind and maintenance loads
Location
―
Town, country: Nottingham, UK
Latitude, longitude, elevation: 52.954°, –1.189°, 34m
Average horizontal irradiation: 2.65 kWh/(m²·day)
PV
―
Area: 450m²
Peak power specification: 53 kWP
Power output: 51,240 kWh/y
Individual module dimensions:
1497×1170mm
Technology: monocrystalline silicon
Manufacturer: BP Solar
Building
―
Type: business school
Height, storeys: 10m, 3
Floor area: 1600m²
Architects: Michael Hopkins & Partners
Completed: 1999
10.5.1 Background
The University of Nottingham located on University Park, the main campus, has
always cultivated a reputation for promoting environmentally sustainable design. In
the early 1990s with student numbers growing steadily, the University did not have
space to expand. So in 1996 it held an architectural competition for a major devel-
opment in a new location and with the aim of being a model of sustainable develop-
ment for the region. The outcome of the competition was the creation of Jubilee
Campus built on a site that previously had industrial use (Fig. 10.3).
One of the challenging aspects for design and construction of the first buildings on
Jubilee Campus was the requirement to achieve an outstanding, innovative project
in a short time period and within a tight budget. An application was made to the
European Commission resulting in an EU Thermie (Technologies Européennes pour
la Maîtrise de l’Energie) grant of £750,000. This supported development of the low-
energy ventilation system which includes wind cowls in the form of 5m high, alu-
minium-clad cones sitting on top of the air-handling units (Fig. 10.4). It also helped
finance a PV system integrated into the sloping glass roofs of the full-height of the
atria (Fig. 10.6).
10.5.2 PV system
The atrium roof is supported by laminated timber beams (Fig. 10.5). The PV system
uses pseudo square monocrystalline cells with 88 cells laminated into each glass-
to-glass module. Clear spaces between the cells provide some transparency. The
module dimensions are 1497× 117mm with 256 modules covering an area of 450m2.
The total PV installation is rated at 53kWP with an annual output of 51MWh. The
PV system is sized to meet the energy demands of the ventilation systems within
the buildings when there is insufficient wind speed for the wind cowls.
As well as providing power for the ventilation fans, the PV modules provide shading
for the atria. When the shading effect of the PV modules is significant and ambi-
ent light reduces, light sensors control artificial lighting for the atria to supplement
natural light when necessary. There are no manually controlled light switches.
Location
―
Town, country: San Francisco, USA
Latitude, longitude, elevation: 37.770°, –122.466°, 77m
Average horizontal irradiation: 4.57 kWh/(m²·day)
PV
―
Area: 920m²
Peak power specification: 172 kWP
Power output: 213,000 kWh/y
Individual module dimensions:
1046×1559mm
Technology: monocrystalline silicon
Manufacturer: Sun Power Corp.
Building
―
Type: museum
Height, storeys: 19m, 5
Floor area: 38,000m²
Architects: Renzo Piano
Completed: 2008
10.6.1 Background
In collaboration with architects Renzo Piano and Gordon H. Chong and Partners,
Arup designed the California Academy of Sciences's new museum in San Francisco’s
Golden Gate Park (Fig. 10.7). The new Academy of Sciences building, which opened
its doors to the public in 2008, includes an aquarium, planetarium, and natural his-
tory exhibits among other public spaces.
In keeping with the Academy’s goals, the museum was designed to achieve high
performance while minimizing environmental impacts and operational maintenance
costs. Striving to achieve a Platinum LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental
Design) rating, the building’s sustainable features include a “green roof”, natural
ventilation, extensive use of natural daylight, reduced water run-off, alternative
transportation, and integration into the park and community. BIPV is also a key part.
Performance characteristics indicate that the new building will achieve significant
benefits in terms of energy efficiency, reduction of stormwater runoff, minimization
of heat-island effects and reduced biodiversity impacts.
Location
―
Town, country: London, UK
Latitude, longitude, elevation: 51.486°, –0.124°, 10m
Average horizontal irradiation: 2.73 kWh/(m²·day)
PV
―
Area: 237m²
Peak power specification: 30 kWP
Power output: 23,760 kWh/y
Individual module dimensions: 1320×895mm
Technology: hybrid monocrystalline & thin-film
amorphous silicon
Manufacturer: Sanyo
Building
―
Type: bus station
Height, storeys: 7m, 1
Floor area: 2847m²
Architects: Arup Associates
Completed: 2005
10.7.1 Background
Vauxhall Transport Interchange at Vauxhall Cross in south London is a busy transport
hub but was in a run-down area previously notorious for its domination by traffic.
Transport for London (TfL) wanted to create a coherent and efficient interchange for
bus, rail and Underground users and indirectly to promote the use of public trans-
port. Moreover TfL wanted a landmark structure to enhance the local environment
and amenity. TfL commissioned a number of designs and the Office of the Mayor of
London imposed two key objectives on the design:
― As a strategic transport centre, to promote use and accessibility of public
transport with emphasis on walking and cycling and reduction in traffic con-
gestion.
― In accordance with their Energy Strategy introduced in 2004, to reduce
London’s contribution to climate change, eradicate fuel poverty and promote
and deliver sustainable energy for public transport.
PV module
aluminium frame
horizontal structure
cables
vertical structure
→ 10.7.1
The outcome includes a striking bus station as a symbol of regeneration, designed
by architects Arup Associates. The bus station consists of a 200m long, 12m wide,
undulating stainless-steel ribbon (Fig. 10.13). The undulations along the length of
the canopy reflect the frequency of bus stands. Each dip provides a seating refuge,
which enhances and provides amenity for the local environment. The canopy rises
over the height of a double-decker bus.
The principal intermodal circulation and the operational accommodation are at the
canopy’s northern end. The accommodation structure has been used as springing
point to launch the ribbon’s dramatic elevating twin cantilevers. These oversail the
circulation area and underground access area. The upper surface of the cantilevers
are clad with a PV array to generate supplementary power for the building.
10.7.2 PV system
Hybrid HIT technology was chosen for the PV modules for its high efficiency (see
Chapter 2 for details). The technology combines ultra-thin amorphous silicon with
monocrystalline silicon in one cell (Fig. 10.14). In addition to high performance, the
amorphous component makes effective use of diffused light from overcast skies.
The cantilevers are tilted at 20° from horizontal and just 5° west of south-facing.
Because of the inclination, the PV cells are visible from the surrounding area, an
important public demonstration of renewable energy use (Fig. 10.16).
The modules are mounted over stainless-steel metal roof cladding fixed to the can-
tilever. The mounting method was designed by Arup to allow for flexing of the canti-
levered canopy. The modules are held in a black anodized aluminium frame and
mounted off the cladded roof using a slotted bolting system to the vertical rails
(Fig. 10.15).
Each of the canopy’s forks carries four sub-arrays of 21 modules. These are conne-
cted in series strings to eight PV inverters mounted in the electrical plant room which
provide a single phase output at 230V, 50Hz.
The 168 modules cover 237m2 of the upper surface of the long cantilevers. The
measured annual output is almost 24MWh per year, covering about 30% of the
energy required to power the bus station.
Location
―
Town, country: Beijing, P.R. China
Latitude, longitude, elevation: 39.999°, 116.390°, 43m
Average horizontal irradiation: 4.32 kWh/(m²·day)
PV
―
Area: 341m²
Power specification: 18 kWP
Annual power output: 17,800 kWh/y
Individual module dimensions:
1000×415 to 857mm
Technology: copper indium diselenide (CIS)
Manufacturer: Odersun
Building
―
Type: multi-storey car park
Height, storeys: 8m, 6
Floor area: 19,792m²
Architects: Odersun
Completed: 2008
10.8.1 Background
This PV roof project was selected by the Beijing Olympic Organizing Committee
(BOCOG) as a demonstration project of new solar energy technology. The PV appli-
cation consists of four circular roofs as part of the underground parking of the
visitors’ centre of the Olympic Park in Beijing (Fig. 10.17). The roofs cover access
ramps which spiral several storeys down into the parking levels.
The design of each roof consists of rings of trapezoidal panels in four concentric
circles (Fig. 10.18). Each installation consists of 496 panels which are subdivided
into four sectors of 124 panels each. The requirement was to cover the circular roof
entirely with a PV array.
PV systems for roofs are well developed. Standard modules are easy to lay on.
Proprietary tiles are being introduced enabling simple integration to an increasing
range of roof types (Fig. 11.1).
Location
―
Town, country: Melbourne, Australia
Latitude, longitude, elevation: –37.852°, 144.983°, 19m
Average horizontal irradiation: 4.1 kWh/(m²·day)
PV
―
Area: 268m²
Peak power specification: 22 kWP
Power output: 25,000 kWh/y
Individual module dimensions:
1000×2000mm
Technology: monocrystalline silicon
Manufacturer: BP Solar
Building
―
Type: residential block
Height, storeys: 14, 17 & 25m, 3, 4 & 7
Floor area: 4800m²
Architects: DesignInc
Completed: 2007
11.4.1 Background
The K2 apartments are a medium-density, public housing development of 96 apart-
ments, located in Windsor, a suburb of Melbourne, Australia (Fig. 11.2). K2 is the
landmark ecologically sustainable development putting into practice the State Gov-
ernment of Victoria’s approaches toward issues such as climate change and water
scarcity.
The primary ecological objectives of the complex were to minimise greenhouse gas
emissions and water consumption, to design for longevity and to use reusable and
recycled materials.
The project embodies the integration of sustainable architecture at the conceptual
stage of the design. Among the various environmentally sustainable design aspects
there is a system for the grey-water treatment, and a careful choice of the building
materials based on embodied energy, biodiversity, waste, end of life, reuse/recycla-
bility, robustness and toxicity to human occupants, manufacturers and to the envi-
ronment. The structural aspects follow passive solar design which guarantees high
level of comfort both in summer and in winter. PV and solar collector systems are
the active solar components.
The results are a comfortable indoor environment all year round and lower running
costs than for traditionally designed units. It has won numerous awards.
11.4.2 PV technology
PV technology chosen was monocrystalline silicon for its high efficiency compared
to polycrystalline and amorphous silicon technologies. The PV modules are located
on some of the north-facing roofs and pod façades. The pod locations are tilted
about 40° from the horizontal to optimise the power generation (Fig. 11.3).
Collectively the PV modules cover an area of 268m2, generating approximately
25,000kWh per year.
The inverter equipment is positioned on the roof and integrated with the panel sup-
port structure.
S N
Location
―
Town, country: Northampton, UK
Latitude, longitude, elevation: 52.232°, –0.942°, 70m
Average horizontal irradiation: 2.7 kWh/(m²·day)
PV
―
Area: 157m²
Peak power specification: 22 kWP
Power output: 16,230 kWh/y estimated
Individual module dimensions:
1318×994mm
Technology: monocrystalline silicon
Manufacturer: Sharp
Building
―
Type: residential housing
Height, storeys: 8m, 2
Floor area: 602m² (6 houses)
Architects: ZEDfactory
Completed: 2009
11.5.1 Background
Upton is an urban extension for Northampton with the client, Metropolitan Housing
Partnership, acting both as developer and social-housing provider. First dwellings
became available in 2007. The development is in association with English Partner-
ships who stipulated high quality sustainable specifications. The overall project
is a national example of best practice in sustainable urban growth and a model for
the design of other urban extensions across the country. The buildings achieve
low-energy thermal performance utilising high levels of thermal insulation, high
levels of air-tightness with heat-recovery ventilation and various types of renewable
energy technologies.
Partway through construction in 2007, the UK Government introduced the Code for
Sustainable Homes. The highest level in the code’s rating system, level 6, signifi-
cantly raises the standard of the environmental performance of residential buildings.
A level-6 house design must be net-zero carbon, including the energy required for
space and water heating and all the electrical power demands of the home. It rep-
resents a new international industry standard for low environmental impact zero
carbon living. The UK Government intention is that by 2016, all new homes in the UK
will be built to these standards.
→ 11.5.1
Within the Upton development, a terrace of six houses by the architects ZEDfactory
had been conceived to very high thermal performance (Fig. 11.5 and Fig. 11.8). They
are referred to as solar “ZED” (standing for zero [fossil] energy development)
because they maximise solar gain on the south side and use thermal mass within
that operates as a heat sink to store solar heat gains. The ZED terrace was selected
for further development to meet the full level 6 carbon-neutral specification to
achieve a “true zero-carbon” dwelling.
PV modules
softwood trusses
standing seam
aluminium roof 0.9 mm
softwood joists
breather membrane
The micro-wind turbine technology is a Swift upwind horizontal axis rated at 1.5kW
at a rated wind speed of 12.5m/s. The rotor is 5-blade of diameter 2.12m. Peak
output is between 13m/s and 20m/s wind speed and it is estimated that one wind
turbine will generate about 500kWh/y.
11.5.3 PV technology
The dwellings are three-bedroom houses of 100m2, using low-energy appliances
and low-energy lighting. The electrical requirement is calculated as 3208kWh/y
from lighting, appliances and cooking. This is equivalent to emissions of 1354kgCO2/y
using the grid-supplied factor for the UK of 0.422kgCO2/kWh.
To maximise south-facing roof area for PV, the design was slightly modified to move
the pitch beyond the terrace centre line (Fig. 11.9). Monocrystalline silicon was
selected with 180WP modules. Twenty modules gives a 3.6kWp array per dwelling.
Insolation values were available from the BRE SAP calculator of 933kWh/(m2·y) at
tilt angle 0° and 1042kWh/(m2·y ) at tilt angle 30°. The array is at 19° so a weighted
average of 1002kWh/(m2·y) was used. This gives a predicted electrical output of
2705kWh/y. Since this generation is embedded, the conversion factor to CO2 emis-
sions is called “grid displaced” and takes into account avoidance of long-distance
transmissions losses. The factor is 0.568kgCO2/kWh, so the emissions reduction
is 1536kgCO2/y. This is higher than the 1354kgCO2/y for grid-supplied electricity so
the house will be carbon-neutral as required.
The modules use a simple frame connection to the standing seam aluminium roof
(Fig. 11.6 and 11.7). A 50mm air space enables ventilation to ameliorate peak tem-
perature, while giving a uniform appearance.
Location
―
Town, country: Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
Latitude, longitude, elevation: 54.978°, –1.608°, 51 m
Average horizontal irradiation: 2.6 kWh/(m²·day)
PV
―
Area: 430m²
Peak power specification: 40 kWP
Power output: 25,000 kWh/y
Individual module dimensions:
1180×520 mm
Technology: monocrystalline silicon
Manufacturer: BP Solar
Completed: 1994
Building
―
Type: services, psychology & sport sciences
Height, storeys: 18m, 4
Floor area: 4700m²
Architects: Ove Arup & Partners
12.3.1 Background
In 1991 a report funded by the UK Government Department of Trade and Industry
into the potential of BIPV for a commercial building showed that PV could be made
into a cladding component. Furthermore its power match was ideal for commer-
cial building applications. A building was needed on which to demonstrate these
findings.
One of the report’s authors was the Newcastle Photovoltaic Applications Centre at
the University of Northumbria. The University had a concrete framed building with
precast concrete cladding units which needed refurbishing (Fig. 12.1). The build-
ing is typical of 1960s construction for which the cladding has provided protection
for over twenty years before refurbishment is required. It is rectangular in plane,
four storeys and with the main elevations facing approximately north and south.
The concrete cladding incorporating a mosaic finish was suffering from carbonation,
reinforcement corrosion and mosaic detachment. The entire cladding and window
frames had to be removed.
This provided an ideal base on which to demonstrate photovoltaic building integra-
tion. However while the University had the money for the cladding replacement, it
could not fund the additional cost of the photovoltaic integration. Eventually the
necessary finance was provided by private and public sources: 40% from a European
Community Thermie Grant, 9% from ETSU in the UK and 51% from private-sector
sponsors.
existing reinforced
concrete structure
The DC switch panel incorporates line and load circuit breakers for each string,
blocking diodes for protection of shaded strings, current and voltage monitoring
devices and terminals for measurement of string I-V characteristics. The line circuit
breaker provides compliance with Health and Safety regulations, which demand
that a circuit breaker is located as close as possible to the power source (in this
case the PV string). The load circuit breaker allows investigation of any single string
without closing down the entire system. The five PV modules in each cladding unit
were fully wired in the factory in order to speed up erection on site.
12.3.4 Installation
Work on the building commenced in June 1994 with the removal of the old cladding
and replacement of the windows. Additional insulation was fixed to the concrete
upstand walls with the PV electrical installation commencing in September 1994
comprising the fixing of junction boxes and wiring to the inverter room.
The photovoltaic cladding units were hung in October and wired into the junction
boxes. The installation was completed on a level-by-level basis commencing at the
top followed by stripping down the scaffold.
As the photovoltaic modules produce electricity as soon as they are exposed to the
light, the modules were covered with a black plastic film when being assembled.
This film remained in place until the cladding units were installed and fully wired up.
12.3.5 Performance
The performance matched original predictions with the highest DC output of 40kW.
The output from the 465 PV modules provides around 30% of the average electrical
building load. At weekends some power has been exported for use by other build-
ings on the University Campus.
The average performance ratio over 1995/96 was 0.609. An unshaded array may
expect a performance ratio of 0.75–0.85 but, because of shading, highest value
achieved was 0.659.
Because this was a demonstration project and the first large-scale integration of
PV modules into the façade of a commercial building, all involved with the design
and installation were on a learning curve.
Specific yield is an important parameter that is calculated and listed here. Annual
specific yield is “the amount of energy [kWh] produced over one year by a specific
quantity of installed PV modules [1kWP]”. Note that the measure is independent
of the type of solar technology used. The values from the case studies range from
under 500kWh/(kWP·y) to over 1000kWh/(kWP·y).
Factors that affect the specific yield:
― Latitude
This determines the sun path for the location and gives a rough indication of
overall solar power available. For a low latitude (near the Equator), the sun
passes high over at midday so a low tilt angle is best and insolation values are
generally high.
― Insolation
This is a meteorological measurement. It is affected by both the latitude and
local weather conditions.
― Tilt
This is a feature of the type of integration, whether on a vertical 90° façade, a
horizontal 0° roof or at some angle in between on a sloped facet. For the maxi-
mum annual output, the tilt is generally set about equal 20° less than the lati-
tude angle.
― Orientation
This is a feature of the type of integration where the PV array is tilted from
horizontal. For the maximum annual output, the orientation is generally set
between southwest and southeast for the northern hemisphere, and between
northwest and northeast for the southern hemisphere.
Specific yield is also affected by other factors, such as whether there is any shading,
quality of wiring and performance of the inverter.
UK, 53 kWP,
10.5 53° 2.65 0° (hor.) 967 mcs 114 51,240 Jubilee Campus
Nottingham 450m²
UK, 22 kWP,
11.5 52° 2.74 19° S 751* mcs 103* 16,230* Upton ZED terrace
Upton 157m²
32 kWP,
734* mcs 82* 23,500*
287m²
USA, Wal-Mart Experi-
8.7 33° 4.54 90° S
McKinney mental Supercenter
3 kWP,
800* tfas 89* 2400*
27m²
vandalism 53, 59
vapour barrier 70
Vauxhall Transport Interchange 142
vegetation 35
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