ABSTRACT:

The intention of this project is to build a straight forward human powered

generator from a used bicycle and to use it to power light bulbs, cell phones,
laptops, and other small appliances. This project will help to develop engineering
skills while learning about a clean way of generating electricity and satisfying our
basic requirement. We are going to use the hard drive magnet and inductive coil to
generate electricity due to which our mobile phone will be charge and followed by
ac to dc converter. This is totally clean way of generating energy. As fuel is not a
renewable energy source and the prices are increasing day by day. It will not be
affordable by a common man after some period. Here no fuel is required to
generate electricity, so everybody can afford this method for power generation also
it eliminates the emission of CO2 which will reduces the pollution. Conventional
methods for generating electricity make use of dynamo and wind turbine, but they
have disadvantage that they produce friction and reduces speed which require more
efforts. For the project to work we need strong electromagnets so we have used
Neodymium magnets and also used coil. The basic idea of this project comes from
the functioning of motor, that is how it rotates in the magnetic field and cut’s the
magnetic line and how flux is introduced into the coil. The motivation behind the
project is to generate electricity without having any friction and without using
natural resources.

Keywords: Bicycle,renewable power,frictionless generator coils,magnets

1. INTRODUCTION As the prices of cured oil are increasing day by day and
the consumption are also increasing with time. The amounts of natural
resources are decreasing. If the rate of consumption remains same, we will
have to face power shortage, all means of power generation will be
exhausted. Talking about current position everybody is using electrical
appliances just like cell phones and user are increasing day by day. They
require electrical power for their operation. What else if power is cut? To
save the power and natural resources and to fulfill our daily requirement we
are going for friction less generation of power using bicycle. As previous
methods for generation of power using bicycle was created by using dynamo
, wind turbine have various disadvantages just like dynamo provide friction
which reduces speed and require more efforts to piddle the bicycle, and wind
turbine which cannot generate more power it require more wind energy for
generation and the appearance was not so good. All the disadvantages of
above methods are over come in this technology which is based on the
principle of electromagnetic induction. The energy will be generated by
piddling which will rotate the wheel and the assembly place in between the
spokes. This energy is stored inside the battery and it can be used to charge
mobile phones during driving the bicycle. This technology does not require
any external power supply for charging the equipment’s it is a man power
generator. It requires only human efforts. This method is very useful during
large power cuts. It is a clean way of generating energy; it does not contain
any combustion of any kind of fuel. This can fulfill our daily needs for
charging our smart phones. 2. MOTIVATION As the requirements for larger
scale power generation increased, a new limitation arises in front of us that
are limited supply ofpower requirement of large resources for generating
electricity which will definitely increases the price of power.
2. MOTIVATION As the requirements for larger scale power generation
increased, a new limitation arises in front of us that are limited supply
ofpower requirement of large resources for generating electricity which will
definitely increases the price of power.

As in our day to day life we require much power for operating our
equipment’s. So why to use paid electricity if we have enough renewable
resources, technological development? It motivates us to build a power
generator for charging our mobile equipment’s without breaking your
schedule for charging. But there was a problem that we were implementing
this project on bicycle which requires muscle power to drive so we can’t use
simply a motor because it require much effort to drive a bicycle because of
friction. So we had design the assembly of motor which will not produce
friction and we can get required output.
The basic motivation behind the project was to build a clean energy without
combusting fuel, electricity or any other nonrenewable fuel. The idea of this
project comes from the fact that motor can generate electricity but with
friction but if we open the motor and observe it then we will find that there
are coils which are called as stator and a rotating magnets which is called as
rotor and in between there is an air gap. So why don’t we implement a motor
on rotating bicycle wheels and stationary sets of coils on bicycle rims. This
mechanism can generate electricity and with no friction.
Literature survey:

From paper published in 2017

Article- AISSMS’s IOIT, Instrumentation Dept.(SPPU), India.

INTRODUCTION:

In order to do work energy is very important aspect. There are basically two types of energy
available such as renewable and non-renewable. The renewable energy is those which are unlimited
and never runs out. For example, solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy. These sources never run
out and we can use them without any adverse effects on environment. Unlike renewable energy
sources the non-renewable sources are limited and which cannot be used continuously. Examples
are fossil fuels, natural gas etc.in order to produce energy from these sources, huge amount of time
required so renewable energy sources must be utilised. Our paper aims to use wind energy to
generate electricity using maglev technique.in order to generate electricity

various traditional methods are used such as thermal power plant, hydro-electric power plant,
nuclear power plant. But they also have adverse effect on environment such as thermal power plant
produces air pollution, hydro-electric has wastage of water and nuclear power plant may have
hazard of radioactive elements like uranium and thorium on envoirnment.so we are using wind
energy because it does not have any hazard on environment and have large benefits. Many studies
have been done on maglev windmill to generate electricity[1]- [4].aluminium sheet metal with
angular shapes cut out blades are used, but the voltage only up to 45 volt DC was generated[2].the
turbine gave maximum voltage of 7.6V at 2150 RPM[4].aluminium is a very light metal and it
naturally generates a protective coating of oxide and also is highly resistant to corrosion, so blade
made up of aluminium can work effectively[5].Solar panel along with the maglev vertical axis wind
turbine are used in which solar panels generated average 12V in bright sunlight[6].first, the types of
wind turbine are presented. Next, the analysis is carried out for blade structure, voltage generation
from each coil. Then, the analysis is carried to determine the distance between stator and rotor due
to levitation. After implementing whole setup voltage at different wind speeds is monitored and
utilised for working of load.
 Now days due to limited resources of oil, gas and fossil fuels the need of use of renewable energy
source is extensively increasing. So we can generate electricity using wind energy.

III. SYSTEM COMPONENTS Types of windmill:- There are two types of wind turbines available for
uses which are horizontal wind turbine and vertical wind turbine. The horizontal wind turbine
consists of two to three propeller shaped blades connected to a horizontally and are mounted to the
support tower with the help of bearings. Horizontal axial wind turbine works only on wind from one
direction but in vertical axial wind turbine, the wind power from any direction is utilized for
electricity generation

Rotor:

Rotor is actuating part or may say rotating part which rotates according to wind speed. The rotor
has circular disk placed upward and downward and in between that blades are placed. These blades
are placed at 45⁰ angle apart from each other. This mounting makes the blades to rotate even at
small wind speed.

The rotor assembly is made up of acrylic sheet. The reason behind using this material is that, making
rotor as light as possible. The rotor is supported by the wooden rod at the centre of assembly. At the
bottom of rotor disk several neo-magnets are attached. At the centre of rotor one permanent magnet is
attached. The neo-magnet is type of permanent magnet that has better magnetism property as well as
the very strong magnetic field. One of the neo-magnet is attached to both stator and rotor to help this
permanent magnet to retain property.

Stator :
The Stator is stationary part of system. At the centre of the stator the permanent magnet is placed and
around this permanent magnet several coils are placed. The 12 gauge wire is used for coil.

The magnetic field is induced according to faraday’s law of induction.

IV. WORKING OF SYSTEM The rotor assembly placed with help of wooden rod over stator due to two
permanent magnets placed at centre of stator and rotor, it provides repulsive force, so the rotor and
stator is magnetically levitated because of strong repulsive force. Hence, no desired contact between
stator and rotor as well as the whole assembly become frictionless. As soon as rotor rotates due to wind
the magnetic field of small neo-magnets placed at bottom of assembly gets induced in coils, so due to
change in magnetic field the AC voltage obtained at output of coils. The output voltage is function of
wind speed, the voltage gets varied according to movement of rotor due to wind speed. The more is the
rotation of rotor, more is the output voltage and vice versa. In addition, the RPM of rotor is measured
using Arduino UNO controller. The IR sensor counts the rotation of blades and RPM is measured. This
RPM is displayed on the LCD display as well as send to the mobile through Bluetooth module.
3. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PROJECT

Fig. 3.1 Block diagram of project In this project we are using a contactless
generator assembly which consist of two ring , on one ring we are mounting
magnets specifically 12 NEODYMIUM MAGNET and on other ring we are
placing 12 coils each with 1500 -2000 turns connected in series with next
coil. The output of the assembly is given to AC to DC converter, which
convert the generated AC into DC for further use. The DC signal is given to
the battery of 8 volt 500mA which store the power. 4. BASIC PRINCIPLE
OF OPERATION 4.1 Faraday's Law ofElectromagnetic Induction Faraday's
law of electromagnetic induction explains the relationship between electric
circuit and magnetic field. This law is the basic working principle of the
most of the electrical motors, generators, transformers, inductors etc
From the paper published in jun 2016

Paper no. :- eISSN: 2319-1163 | pISSN: 2321-7308

INTRODUCTION An important factor in development of human resource is the Energy. As conventional

energy sources are exhausting rigorously, the development of inexhaustible and renewable energy
resources, like wind, solar is essential for human life. The wind power been utilized by human being for a
greater time period and the technology linked with it is more modified compared to other non-polluting
energies. Today wind power is attracting the benefits of power sector and their application is entering
into quicker development. The merits for vertical-axis wind turbine (VAWT) can be noted such as
requirement of minimum cost, easy installation, easy maintenance, and the capability to accept wind
from all directions. Compared with the traditional horizontal axis wind turbine, this type is levitated or
suspended with the help of magnetic levitation directing vertical on a rotor shaft. This technology is
utilized as an efficient replacement for ball bearings having its application on the traditional wind
turbine. This technology is usually implemented with permanent magnets and is used in between the
rotating shaft of turbine blades and base of wind turbine system. The entire rotor weight of wind
turbine is balanced by magnetic bearings. The friction of the bearings is eliminated and hence need for
bearing lubrication is also eliminated with decrease in the maintenance cost.

Further, this magnetic suspension eliminates mechanical vibration reducing noise. As low friction
reduces starting torque of turbine, the magnetic bearings facilitates by producing power at lower wind
speed as compared with use of conventional bearings. Normal VAWT requires very different adjusting
mechanism for blades making its structure complicated, costly in fabrication and wastage of power. But
comparing with traditional VAWT the blades of magnetic VAWT are constructed for automatic pitch
adjustment and hence requirement of any equipment is eliminated. The adjustment of blade pitch is
performed naturally during rotation for the necessary angle of attack. This results in production of
maximum thrust of wind force improving the efficiency.

For windturbine- The power rises as cube of the wind velocity and can be calculated with respect to area
in which the wind and wind velocity is available. When wind is in motion the energy produced is kinetic
energy. Hence the power from turbine is related to the kinetic energy produced.

Kinetic Energy = 1/ 2 MV^ 2

The volume V’ flowing in unit time through an area A, with wind speed V is denoted by AV and mass M
is the product of Volume V’ and density ρ so:

M = ρAV

Putting the M in equation of kinetic energy we get:

Kinetic Energy = 1/ 2 (ρAV)V^ 2 = 1 /2 (ρAV ^3 )

But Power is nothing but the kinetic energy generated by the turbine.
Hence, Power = 1/ 2 (ρAV)V ^2 = 1 /2 (ρAV^ 3 )

Where:

Air Density (𝜌) = 1.225 kg/m3

Area (A) = Swept Area of turbine blades

Velocity (V) = wind speed in m/s

Generator The generator converts mechanical energy of the shaft into electrical energy output. While
designing the axial flux generator observation can be noted that the operating capacity of generator
depends on permanent magnet alternators. For these generators air gap is arranged in perpendicular
direction to rotating axis and hence produces magnetic fluxes in parallel direction to rotating axis.

How Power is Generated Wind turbines serve as a means to transform the kinetic energy of wind into
power. This process begins when wind contacts the turbine blades and transfers some of its kinetic
energy to them, forcing them to rotate. Since the blades are connected to the main shaft through the
rotor, the shaft rotates as well, creating mechanical energy. The main shaft is usually connected to a
gear box which rotates a parallel shaft at about 30 times the rate of the main shaft. At high enough wind
speeds, this amplification creates sufficient rotational speeds for the generator electrical output.
Generators generally used in turbines are off-the-shelf and use electromagnetic induction to produce an
electrical current. In these generators permanent magnets are arranged surrounding a coil. The shaft
connects to the magnet assembly, spinning it around the stationary coil of wire and creating a voltage in
the wire. The voltage is what drives the electrical current out of the wire and into power lines to be
distributed

MAGNETIC SUSPENSION:

Principle Magnetic levitation can be explained as technology which suspends or levitates an object with
the help of magnetic forces for getting support without any contact and low friction during motion. Due
to absence of mechanical contact in the magnetic bearing, advantages of no wear and tear, suitability
for long-term use in any environment, absence of mechanical friction, low noise, less amount of power
loss and absence of lubrication or sealing can be achieved. Therefore, this technology is beneficial for
highspeed applications to satisfy the objective of eliminating mechanical problems power loss

4.2 Use of Magnetic Levitation in Wind Turbine:

In recent years, due to rapid growth in the use of material for designing permanent magnet, the
magnetic suspension using permanent magnets are approaching towards wind turbine application
leading to reduction in the cost as well as stringency of wind power. Due to use of magnetic levitation
concept the advantages marked below has obtained: 1. Reduction in starting wind speed Due to
elimination of friction the power output is increased for the same value of wind speed. Hence reduction
in starting speed is obtained. 2. Due to utilization of magnetic levitation, design of the conventional wind
turbine rotor has largely been affected.

The use of conventional bearings is based upon careful lubrication for greater service life and higher
reliability. With the reduction in operational cost as well as maintenance cost of the bearings reduction
in the downtime of turbine is achieved improving the overhaul efficiency.

4. CONSTRUCTION OF PROTOTYPE
5. 5.1 Magnet Selection The four configurations in commercial list of magnets are based on
formation of their material each configuration of magnet consisting with them its own magnetic
properties. Neodymium Iron Boron (Nd-Fe-B) is the new invention in commercialized magnets
 which constitute highest magnetic properties compared to other magnets at room temperature
From Figure-5 B-H curve depicts attractive magnetic characteristic of Nd-Fe-B offering high flux
density with the ability of resisting the property of demagnetization.

This configuration becomes most important because of levitation of heavy load and rotation at high
speeds exhibiting a high force directing downward on the axis. If shape of magnets considered
where ring or circular, they can be placed on shaft with same poles facing each other enabling
repelling force to provide support to weight of turbine which minimizes use of magnets required to
fulfill the idea. The permanent magnets selected were the N42 grade Nd-FeB having ring shape
which consist of nickel plating for strengthening and protecting the magnet..

Magnet Placement :

Two ring shaped neodymium (NdFeB) magnets are arranged at middle of shaft by which necessary
suspension between stator and rotor is obtained. Similarly disc magnets having parameters 10 mm
in diameter and 4 mm height are placed as one North Pole and one South Pole one after the other,
along the rotor circumference of 40 cm diameter. These magnets supply the useful flux which is
utilized for the power generation.

5.3 Coil Design and Arrangement To design the definite number of turns per coil is difficult. If
the more turns are wound it increase the emf generated from each coil but increase the size
of every coil. For minimizing the size, wire having higher gauge can be used. If the diameter
of wire is small low amount of current flows leading to heating of wire because of the
increased resistance of wire which another difficult task.

While designing generator for given application, fact must be known that the problem attached with
large coil size is the problem field density. The increase in coil height increases gap between two
magnets leading to reduction in magnetic flux. Hence necessary voltage and current must be balanced.
The Coil placement is organised on the stator circumference exactly under the disc magnets placed on
rotor. Each coil is kept in series to get maximum output voltage. The wire used to design the turns of
one coil is of 24 gauge having 100 turns. 15 sets of coils are arranged in series connection in the
prototype. The coil arrangement is shown in figure.

Savonius type blade design is used because they are rugged and simplistic reducing cost. The
manufacture is easier, less maintenance, and durable in harsher environments. This design was obtained
from aluminum sheet and due to the flexible nature of the metal sheet, desired shape was obtained.
The blade was designed for height of 400mm.

CONCLUSION The concept of vertical axis wind turbine using magnetic levitation successfully worked.
Comparing with traditional horizontal wind turbines, single Maglev turbine having large capacity gives
more output. The turbine efficiency is improved by utilization of magnets helping to spin with fast speed
with negligible friction as it cancels out the stress on the shaft of the turbine. This modern design of
turbine gives more power output with higher efficiency compared to conventional wind turbine. For
avoiding the vibration of the rotor, shaft was used.. The standard windmills having set of 1000 windmills
powers 5 lakhs homes while single maglev wind turbine is capable supplying power to 7.5 lakhs homes.
The required area for single maglev windmill is less than 100 acres while field of 1000 windmills require
more than 64,000 acres. From this observation we can say that a single maglev wind turbine is
economical compared to Conventional wind turbine .
 Theoritcal calculations:
The voltage induced is given by

V=N . dB/dt . A ……..(1)

Where d∅/dt is change in magnetic field

N=Number of turns

A=Coil area Area=width*length

6cm*1.5cm= 9cm^2= 0.09m^2

The numbers of turns of coils are = 500

Assume, The change in magnetic field of neo-magnet is 0.11tesla.

Therefore, dB/dt=0.11

Now substitute the value in equation (1),

We get , V=4.95V.

So, the each coil produces 4.95V. We used 8 coils in series so theoretically it should produce 19.8V.
4.2 Faraday's Second Law: Faraday's second law of electromagnetic
induction states that, the magnitude of induced emf is equal to the rate of
change of flux linkages with the coil. The flux linkage is the product of
number of turns and the flux associated with the coil.
4.3 Formula of Faraday's Law: Consider the conductor is moving in
magnetic field, then flux linkage with the coil at initial position of the
conductor = NΦ1 (Wb) (N is speed of the motor and Φ is flux)
flux linkage with the coil at final position of the conductor = NΦ2 (Wb)
change in the flux linkage from initial to final = N(Φ1 - Φ2) let Φ1 - Φ2 = Φ
therefore, change in the flux linkage = NΦ
and, rate of change in the flux linkage = NΦ/t
taking the derivative of RHS rate of change of flux linkages = N (dΦ/dt)

According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, rate of change of

flux linkages is equal to the induced emf So, E = N (dΦ/dt) (volts)
4.4 Phenomenon Of Mutual Induction Alternating current flowing in a coil
produces alternating magnetic field around it. When two or more coils are
magnetically linked to each other, then an alternating current flowing
through one coil causes an induced emf across the other linked coils. This
phenomenon is called as mutual induction.
5. ASSEMBLY AND WORKING Coils and magnets are used to create
Motors and Generators / Alternators. We will be looking at how wires and
magnets interact to create power, both mechanical and electrical. It is the
interaction between these two forces that needs an over hall to counter the
effects of global warming and pollution. With the higher cost of energy, the
efficiency of these devices needs to be tuned. We need to get closer to 100
% efficiency so as not to waist so manynatural resources to create the power
we need to run the things that give us pleasure.
Now the magnets are placed with alternating north and south poles facing up
which will create alternating current in the output of the alternator. But I
intuitively felt there was a problem. And this is where I had to do some
learning about magnets and coils. And what I found out was that when the
magnet passes over the coil, as it first approaches the coil the current in the
coil begins to flow in one particular direction. As the magnet begins to pass
over the coil, half of the coil's current is trying to move in one direction and
in the other half of the coil; current is trying to move in the other direction.
Nothing’s going any ware. Now as the magnet exist the coil, Current begins
to move in the opposite direction of when the magnet approached the coil.

Fig. 5.1 Magnet passing over a flat coil

This means you only have current flow, and only a little at that, when the
magnet is entering or exiting the coil. As it passes directly over the coil,
when max output would be expected, close to zero output would be realized.
Many of the more popular alternative energy sites on the net are using this
particular design. The reason I suppose is that the magnets are rotating rather
than the coils. If the coils were rotating then you would need some kind of a
commutator. This for the home brewer would be difficult to manufacture.
But don't take my word for it; let’s look at how magnets and coil relate to
each other,
Let’s start from the beginning. Check out the image as shown,

Fig. 5.2 Wire with a current flowing through it

The photo above describes a wire with a current flowing through it. The
wire develops a rotating non polar magnetic field that has direction. Doesn't
seem too important now but later you'll find out that this magnetic field is
what keeps us all in chains.

Now let’s look at the magnet. Check out the image as shown

Now to create electrical power we need that wire or coil to cut those lines of
flux. But we also need to understand what happens when it does. The first
thing we need to understand is that depending on how the magnetic flux is
cut will depend on how much power is developed and in what direction
current will flow. The way the coils above were cutting the magnetic flux
you had current attempting to flow in both directions at once. Not a good
design because you don't get much net power. Above is an example of what
I'm talking about. Here the magnet is inside the coil with the north pole
effecting one half of the coil and the south pole effecting the other half of the
coil. Here, in the photos below, is an example of coils rotating inside a
magnetic field. This is a great design because the magnetic flux is drown
from the North Pole threw the coil to the South Pole. Normally the coil
would have a core of some kind which would further draw the magnetic flux
threw the coil, which would cause magnetic cogging between the magnets
and the core, which would require greater torque to turn the alternator. Now
let’s look at the interaction between the wire and the magnetic flux a little
closer. Below is a photo that shows what's going on in a motor. This is
called the left hand rule. This is for a motor where a voltage is applied to the
wire. For a generator, the current flow created would flow in the opposite
direction. So if you were attempting to create current flow you would move
the wire in an upward fashion (for this example) which would cause current
to flow counter to the direction of your middle finger.
6. NEODYMIUM MAGNET A neodymiummagnet (also known as NIB or
Neo magnet), the most widely usedtype of rare-earth magnet, is a permanent
magnet made from an alloy of neodymium, iron and boron to form the
Nd2Fe14B tetragonal crystalline structure. Developed in 1982 by General
and Sumitomo Special Metals, neodymium magnets are the strongest type of
permanent magnet commercially available. They have replaced other types
of magnets in the many applications in modern products that require strong
permanent magnets, such as motors in cordless tools, hard disk drives and
magnetic fasteners.

The tetragonal Nd2Fe14B crystal structure has exceptionally high uniaxial

magneto crystalline anisotropy (HA-7 teslas - magnetic field strength H in
A/m versus magnetic moment in A.m2 ). This gives the compound the
potential to have high coercively (i.e., resistance to being demagnetized).
This property is considerably higher in NdFeB alloys than in samarium
cobalt (SmCo) magnets, which were the first type of rare-earth magnet to be
commercialized. In practice, the magnetic properties of neodymium magnets
depend on the alloy composition, microstructure, and manufacturing
technique employed.
6.1 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
Some important properties used to compare permanent magnets are:

REMANENCE (BR)
This measures the strength of the magnetic field
COERCIVITY (HCI)
The material's resistance to becoming demagnetized
ENERGY PRODUCT (BHMAX)
The density of magnetic energy
CURIE TEMPERATURE (TC)
The temperature at which the material loses its magnetism
7. INDUCTION COIL An induction coil or "spark coil" is a type of
electrical transformer used to produce high-voltage pulses from a low-
voltage direct current (DC) supply. To create the fluxchanges necessary to
induce voltage in the secondary coil, the direct current in the primary coil is
repeatedly interrupted by a vibrating mechanical contact called an
interrupter. Today their only common use is as the ignition coils in internal
combustion engines and in physics education to demonstrate induction. The
term 'induction coil' is also used for a coil carrying highfrequency alternating
current (AC), producing eddy currents to heat objects placed in the interior
of the coil, in induction heating or zone melting equipment.

A 36 AWG copper wire is used to make the induction coil which is wounded
on a dielectric material with 1000 turns and connected in series with other
coils.
8. RECHARGABLE BATTERY (8V, 500mAH) A rechargeable battery,
storage battery, secondary cell, or accumulator is a type of electrical battery
which can be charged, discharged into a load, and recharged many times,
while a non-rechargeable or primary battery is supplied fully charged, and
discarded once discharged. It is composed of one or more electrochemical
cells. The term "accumulator" is used as it accumulates and stores energy
through a reversible electrochemical reaction. Rechargeable batteries are
produced in many different shapes and sizes, ranging from button cells to
megawatt systems connected to stabilize an electrical distributionnetwork.
Several different combinations of electrode materials and electrolytes are
used, including lead–acid, nickel cadmium (NiCd), nickel metal hydride
(NiMH), lithium ion (Li-ion), and lithium ion polymer (Li-ion
polymer).Rechargeable batteries initially cost more than disposable batteries,
but have a much lower total cost of ownership and environmental impact, as
they can be recharged inexpensively many times before they need replacing.
Some rechargeable battery types are available in the same sizes and voltages
as disposable types, and can be used interchangeably with them. In this
project we are using two 4v battery which are serially connected to each
other and form a 8V battery which also provide 500 mAh current.
9. FUTURE SCOPE We are primarily developing the project for charging
the cell phone on bicycle while travelling in remote place and it can be
expanded by increasing the magnets and coils in quantity and reducing the
space in between the disks on which magnets and coils are placed, by this
maximum line of force is cut by the coil and flux fill generate more and
induced voltage will be maximum. Using this project on motor cycle we can
generate
maximum voltage which can be used to charge laptops, camera through
battery. It can be also use to implement USB operated music player on bike
with small speaker. And it is all frictionless which will not reduce the speed
of motorcycle machines which are operated on the electricity like wheat
mills can also be used to generate power by using the frictionless power
generator, as it rotates continuously at uniform speed maximum power can
be generated which will use to glow the lights and fan in that area.
10. Result and Discussion

From the various test on bicycle considering the speed of it we have got
different output voltage, current, power. To measure the RPM we used
tachometer and by using tachometer following results are listed below.

1) At RPM of 25 V0=4.5V, I=315mA and power output=1.410W

2) At RPM of 35 V0=6.8V, I=400mA and power output=2.720W.
3) At RPM of 55 V0=9.2V, I=495mA and power output=4.554W.
4) At RPM of 75 V0=11.3V, I=750mA and power output=8.475W

As the voltage obtained from the assembly is varying in nature with

respect to speed so for requirement of constant power supply we are
using the battery which is first charge to maximum value and then it is
utilized to charge the accessories. So for charging the battery
continuously we require minimum constant revolution of 30 – 40 RPM
and if rpm increases the output will be more.
11. CONCLUSTION

We have successfully designed the project and implemented on the

bicycle, the generated power is utilized to charge the mobile phones and
mobile devices; we also understand the concept of electromagnetism and
how to generate power by just placing the magnet and coil of equal
quantity on different disks without making any contact. The voltage
output taken from the assembly is totally dependent on the rpm of the
wheels so voltage is fluctuating so a battery is used to provide a constant
power supply to our cell phone. A battery connected to the generator
assembly is continuously charged when bicycle moves at 10-40 rpm
which is normal speed of bicycle. By this assembly battery is
continuously charging and it gets fully charged in half an hour and the
cell phone is
charged which takes 1 to 1:30 hour to get full charge. By using this
project we are going remove the disadvantage of conventional power
generator which make use of dynamo as a power generator which
produces friction and decrease the speed of bicycle. In this project we
have overcome this friction and produces clean energy
12. Acknowledgements :
We would like to thank you the Department of Electronics &
Telecommunication Engineering, and Prof. P. D. Gawande faculty at
Sipna College of Engineering & Technology, Amravati (Maharashtra),
India for their dedicated supervision and thoughtful Advice.
 13. REFERENCES
1) Article “piddle power generator for a bicycle” the sidekick.
2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamo/ Electromagnetism.
3) https://www.reelight.com/frictionlessgenerator.
4) Article “The Frictionless Bicycle Generator Powers Lights and
Mobile Devices.
5) http://www.bike2power.com/pedal-power-bikephone-chargers
6) http://mragheb.com/wind%2520power%2520gear/wi
ndturbindgenerator

CONCLUSION :-

The proper guidance of project head and the sincere efforts of

our group have lead to the successfully accomplishment of our concerned
projects.

“_________project name_____________________” was interesting to work on and

was also gained in this project work...
 Extra information:

Welding

Arc welding is one of several fusion processes for joining metals. By applying
intense heat, metal at the joint between two parts is melted and caused to
intermix - directly, or more commonly, with an intermediate molten filler metal.
Upon cooling and solidification, a metallurgical bond is created. Since the joining
is an intermixture of metals, the final element potentially has the same strength
properties as the metal of the parts. This is in sharp contrast to non-fusion
processes of joining (i.e. soldering, brazing etc.) in which the mechanical and
physical properties of the base materials cannot be duplicated at the joint.
In arc welding, the intense heat needed to melt metal is produced by an electric
arc. The arc is formed between the actual work and an electrode (stick or wire)
that is manually or mechanically guided along the joint. The electrode can either
be a rod with the purpose of simply carrying the current between the tip and the
work. Or, it may be a specially prepared rod or wire that not only conducts the
current but also melts and supplies filler metal to the joint. Most welding in the
manufacture of steel products uses the second type of electrode.

Equipment
The equipment for the shielded metal arc welding process consists of a power
source, welding leads, electrode holder, and work clamp or attachment. A
diagram of the equipment is shown below.
Motor Faults.
Unable to operate and low operating speed are two normal faults that can take
place in the motor. In both the cases it is necessary to check the motor by using a
voltmeter to ensure that the motor is receiving the full battery voltage. To test the
motor is situ, a pair of test leads is used to connect the motor directly to the battery.
However a spare wiper motor plug simplifies this job. This test indicates the
possible faults in the switch and wiring. After a reasonably long time of operation
the brushes wear down and the commutator becomes dirty. On many models it is
recommended to replace the brush when the main brushes are worn to a length of
less than 5 mm, or the stepped portion of the third brush has worn away. The
complete new brush sets including springs and plastic mounting plate is normally
reinstalled. The commentator should be cleaned using a petrol-moistened rag or a
strip of glass-paper when the surface is extremely blackened. Some motors use a
screw for adjustment of the armature end-float, a typical setting of which is 0.2
mm.

Principle of Operation of Solar Energy

Solar energy is available in abundance in most parts of the world. The

amount of solar energy incident on the earth’s surface is approximately1.5 x 1018
kWh/year, which is about 10,000 times the current annual energy consumption of
the entire world. The density of power radiated from the sun (referred to as solar
energy constant) is 1.373 kW/m2. Solar cell is a device which converts photons in
Solar rays to direct-current (DC) and voltage. The associated technology is called
Solar Photovoltaic (SPV). A typical silicon PV cell is a thin wafer consisting of a very
thin layer of phosphorous-doped (N-type) silicon on top of a thicker layer of
boron-doped (P-type) silicon. An electrical field is created near the top surface of
the cell where these two materials are in contact (the P-N junction). When the
sunlight hits the semiconductor surface, an electron springs up and is attracted
towards the N-type semiconductor material. This will cause more negatives in the
n-type and more positives in the P-type semiconductors, generating a higher flow
of electricity. This is known as Photovoltaic effect.

Below shows the working mechanism of a silicon solar cell.

Silicon Solar Cell and its working mechanism

Silicon Solar Cell and its working mechanism (Source: global.kyocera.com)

The amount of current generated by a PV cell depends on its efficiency, its
size (surface area) and the intensity of sunlight striking the surface. For
example, under peak sunlight conditions a typical commercial PV cell with
a surface area of about 25 square inches will produce about 2 watts peak
power.

Governing principles of Solar Energy

Solar Irradiance

The Sun is the fundamental driving force for energy in the Earth's climate system.
It is of crucial importance to understand fully the conditions of its arrival at the
top of the atmosphere and its transformation through the earth. The amount of
solar power available per unit area is known as irradiance. Irradiance is a
radiometric term for the power of electromagnetic radiation at a surface, per unit
area. It is used when the electromagnetic radiation is incident on the surface.
Irradiance fluctuates according to the weather and the sun’s location in the sky.
This location constantly changes through the day due to changes in both the sun’s
altitude (or elevation) angle and its azimuth (or compass) angle. Figure 2 below
shows the two angles (the sun’s elevation angle and the sun’s compass angle)
used to specify the sun’s location in the sky.
 Sun’s location in the sky (Source: Photovoltaic system design course manual)

Advantages and Limitations of Solar Energy

Renewable energy sources in general, and Solar Energy source in particular, has
the potential to provide energy services with zero or almost zero emission. The
solar energy is abundant and no other source in renewable energy is like solar
energy. Every technology has its own advantages and disadvantages. As the solar
insolation and atmospheric conditions vary significantly from place to place,
efficiency of solar energy also differs accordingly.

Advantages

1. It is an abundant Renewable Energy

 2. This technology is Omnipresent and it can be captured for conversion on a
daily basis
3. It is a Non-polluting technology, which means that it does not release green
house gases
4. It is a Noiseless technology as there are no moving parts involved in energy
generation
5. This technology requires Low-maintenance because of lack of moving parts
6. It can be installed on modular basis and expanded over a period of time
7. Most viable alternative for providing electricity in remote rural areas as it
can be installed where the energy demand is high and can be expanded on
modular basis.

Limitations

• As the technology is in an evolving stage, the efficiency levels of

conversion from light to electricity is in the range of 10 to 17%,
depending on the technology used.

• The initial investment cost of this technology is high. At present the

technology is basically surviving because of subsidy schemes available
by the government.

• Solar energy is available only during daytime. Most load profiles

indicate peak load in the evening/night time. This necessitates
 expensive storage devices like battery, which need to be replaced
every 3 to 5 years. Generally, the cost of the Battery is 30 to 40% of the
system cost.

• As the efficiency levels are low, the space required is relatively high.
For instance, with the existing levels of technologies, the land required
for putting up a 1 MW solar PV power plant is between 6 to 9 acres.
However, research is going on to increase the efficiency levels of the
cell.

• Solar energy is heavily dependent on atmospheric conditions.

• Solar insolation varies from location to location, so there are certain

geographic limitations in generating solar power.

• With the existing module and inverter manufacturing technologies, it

may not be worthwhile in terms of costs to deploy solar energy for
certain loads which require very high starting power (e.g. air
conditioners).

Flat Plate Arrays

Flat plate arrays use both diffused and direct sunlight. They can operate in either
fixed orientation or in a sun-tracking mode. For most applications, flat plate
arrays are in fixed orientation. However, with the advent of low-cost passive sun-
trackers, flat plate tracking arrays are becoming more popular.

Below depicts a flat plate collector.

Solar Photovoltaic Technologies

The heart of the solar energy generation system is the Solar cell. It consists of
three major elements, namely:

• The semiconductor material which absorbs light and converts it into electron-
hole pairs.

• The junction formed within the semiconductor, which separates the photo-
generated carriers (electrons and holes)

• The contacts on the front and back of the cell that allow the current to flow to
the external circuit. Two main streams of technologies have been evolved for the
manufacture of Solar Cells/Modules namely
• Flat plate Technology

• Concentrated Technology

The Flat Plate Technology is further classified in two ways namely Crystalline
Technology and Thin Film Technology. The Concentrated Photovoltaic Technology
has been classified according to the Type of cell and the Optical system.

Crystalline Technology

Crystalline Silicon (c-Si) was chosen as the first choice for solar cells, since this
material formed the foundation for all advances in semiconductor technology.
The technology led to development of stable solar cells with efficiency up to 20%.

Two types of crystalline silicon are used in the industry. They are

• Monocrystalline Silicon

• Multicrystalline Silicon

Mono-Crystalline Silicon

Mono-Crystalline Silicon cells are produced by growing high purity, single crystal
Si rods and slicing them into thin wafers. Single crystal wafer cells are expensive.
They are cut from cylindrical ingots and do not completely cover a square solar
module. This results in substantial waste of refined silicon. The efficiency of
mono-crystalline silicon cells remains between 17-18% because of the purity level.
Below depicts the Monocrystalline Cell

Mono crystalline silicon cell

Multi-Crystalline Silicon

Poly-crystalline silicon cells are made from sawing a cast block of silicon first into
bars and then wafers. This technology is also known as Multi crystalline
technology. Poly-Si cells are less expensive to produce than single crystal silicon
cells as the energy intensive process for purification of silicon is not required.
They are less efficient than single crystalline cells. The efficiency of poly crystalline
silicon cells ranges from13-14%.
Battery Charging Current and Battery Charging Time formula
Here is the formula of Charging Time of a battery.

Charging Time of battery = Battery Ah / Charging Current

T = Ah / A
Example,
Suppose for 120 Ah battery,
First of all, we will calculate charging current for 120 Ah battery. As we know that
charging current should be 10% of the Ah rating of battery.
so charging current for120Ah Battery = 120 x (10/100) = 12 Amperes.
but due to losses, we can take 12-14Amperes for charging purpose.
suppose we took 13 Amp for charging purpose,
then charging time for 120Ah battery = 120 / 13 = 9.23 Hrs.
but this was an ideal case…
practically, this is noted that 40% of losses ( in case of battery charging)
then 120 x (40 / 100) = 48 …..(120Ah x 40% of losses)
therefore, 120 + 48 = 168 Ah ( 120 Ah + Losses)
Now Charging Time of battery = Ah/Charging Current
168 / 13 = 12.92 or 13 Hrs ( in real case)
Therefore, an 120Ah battery would take 13 Hrs for completely charging ( with
13A charging current).

Battery Chemistry Lead Acid (VRLA)

Battery Cell Size 12V

Voltage - Rated 12V

Capacity 7Ah

Size / Dimension 6.00" L x 2.62" W x 3.72" H (152.5mm x 66.5mm x 94.5mm)

Termination Style Spade, .187" (4.7mm)

Discharge Rate 20Hr

Standard Charge Current 1.5 Ah

Standard Charge Time 4.5H

Weight 5.6 lbs (2.5kg)

Shipping Info -
How do batteries work?
Electricity, as you probably already know, is the flow of electrons through a
conductive path like a wire. This path is called a circuit.
Batteries have three parts, an anode (-), a cathode (+), and the electrolyte. The
cathode and anode (the positive and negative sides at either end of a traditional
battery) are hooked up to an electrical circuit.
The chemical reactions in the battery causes a buildup of electrons at the anode.
This results in an electrical difference between the anode and the cathode. You can
think of this difference as an unstable build-up of the electrons. The electrons want
to rearrange themselves to get rid of this difference. But they do this in a certain
way. Electrons repel each other and try to go to a place with fewer electrons.
In a battery, the only place to go is to the cathode. But, the electrolyte keeps the
electrons from going straight from the anode to the cathode within the battery.
When the circuit is closed (a wire connects the cathode and the anode) the
electrons will be able to get to the cathode. In the picture above, the electrons go
through the wire, lighting the light bulb along the way. This is one way of
describing how electrical potential causes electrons to flow through the circuit.
However, these electrochemical processes change the chemicals in anode and
cathode to make them stop supplying electrons. So there is a limited amount of
power available in a battery.
When you recharge a battery, you change the direction of the flow of electrons
using another power source, such as solar panels. The electrochemical processes
happen in reverse, and the anode and cathode are restored to their original state and
can again provide full power.

HOW DOES A BATTERY WORK?

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be saved in various forms. One
way to store it is in the form of chemical energy in a battery. When connected in a
circuit, a battery can produce electricity.

Batteries convert Chemical Energy into Electrical Energy

A battery has two ends -- a positive terminal (cathode) and a negative terminal
(anode). If you connect the two terminals with wire, a circuit is formed. Electrons
will flow through the wire and a current of electricity is produced. Inside the
battery, a reaction between chemicals take place. But the reaction takes place
only if there is a flow of electrons. Batteries can be stored for a long time and still
work because the chemical process doesn't start until the electrons flow from the
negative to the positive terminals through a circuit.

A Chemical Reaction Takes Place in a Battery

A Simple example -- The lemon cell battery

Let's start with a very simple battery that uses a lemon that has two different
metallic objects inserted into it, for example a galvanized nail and a copper coin or
wire. The copper serves as the positive electrode or cathode and the galvanized
(zinc coated) nail as the electron-producing negative electrode or anode. These
two objects work as electrodes, causing an electrochemical reaction which
generates a small potential difference.

Since copper (Cu) atoms attract electrons more than zinc (Zn) atoms, if you place
a piece of copper and a piece of zinc in contact with each other, electrons will
pass from the zinc to the copper. As the electrons concentrate on the copper they
will repel each other and stop the flow of electrons from zinc to copper. On the
other hand, if you put strips of zinc and copper in a conductive solution, and
connect them externally with a wire, the reactions between the electrodes and
the solution will allow the electrons to flow continuously through the wire.

How does a lemon battery work?

A lemon battery is made with a lemon and two metallic electrodes of different
metals such as a copper penny or wire and a galvanized (zinc coated) nail.

The energy for the battery does not come from the lemon, but rather the
chemical change in zinc (or other metal). The zinc is oxidized inside the lemon,
exchanging some of its electrons in order to reach a lower energy state, and the
energy released provides the power. The lemon merely provides an environment
where this can happen, but they are not used up in the process.

Assuming that zinc and copper electrodes are used (such as a copper coin and a
zinc plated nail) then a single lemon could generate approximately 0.9 Volts. To
the left a series circuit of lemons shows 3.41 volts being produced

NOTE: Potatoes, apples, sauerkraut, or any other fruit or vegetable containing

acid or other electrolyte can be used, but lemons are preferred because of their
higher acidity. In potatoes, for instance, the electrolyte is phosphoric acid, while
in lemons it is citric acid.

In a lemon battery, both oxidation (loss of electrons) and reduction (gain of

electrons) occur. This battery is similar to the original "simple voltaic cells"
invented by Alessandro Volta (see below). At the anode, metallic zinc is oxidized,
and enters the acidic solution as Zn2+ ions:
Zn --> Zn2 + + 2 e-
At the copper cathode, hydrogen ions (solvated protons from the acidic solution in
the lemon) are reduced to form molecular hydrogen:
2H++ 2e- --> H2
What makes the electrons move?
When you let go of a ball you are holding it falls to the ground because the Earth's
gravitational field pulls the ball down. In a similar way charged particles such as
electrons need to have work done to move them from one point to another. The
amount of work per unit of charge is called is called the electric potential
difference between the two points. The unit of potential difference is called the
volt.
The potential difference between the cathode and anode are set up from the
chemical reaction. Inside the battery electrons are pushed by the chemical reaction
toward the positive end creating a potential difference.
It is this potential difference that drives the electrons through the wire.
Potential difference can be positive or negative, likened to gravitational energy,
moving up a hill or down a hill. In a battery the flow of electrons is downhill...
electrons can flow uphill as in the case of a battery charger.
Why don't electrons just move from anode to cathode inside the battery?
The electrolyte in the battery keeps lone electrons from going straight from the
anode to the cathode within the battery. When the terminals are connected with a
conductive wire, electrons can easily flow from anode to cathode.
What direction do electrons move in the wire?
Electrons are negatively charged, so they will be attracted to the positive end of a
battery and repelled by the negative end. When the battery is hooked up to a device
that lets the electrons flow through it, they flow from negative (anode) to positive
(cathode) terminal.
Who invented the electrochemical cell (battery)?

The battery made by Volta is credited as the first electrochemical cell. It consists
of two electrodes: one made of zinc, the other of copper. The electrolyte is
sulfuric acid or a brine mixture of salt and water. The electrolyte exists in the form
2H+ and SO42-. The zinc, which is higher than both copper and hydrogen in the
electrochemical series, reacts with the negatively charged sulfate SO42- . The
positively charged hydrogen ions (protons) capture electrons from the copper,
forming bubbles of hydrogen gas, H2. This makes the zinc rod the negative
electrode and the copper rod the positive electrode.

We now have two terminals, and the current will flow if we connect them. The
reactions in this cell are as follows:

zinc
Zn --> Zn2+ + 2e-

sulfuric acid

2H+ + 2e- --> H2

The copper does not react, functioning as an electrode for the chemical reaction.

How does a modern battery (zinc-carbon battery) work?

A zinc–carbon dry cell or battery is packaged in a zinc can that serves as both a
container and negative terminal (anode). The positive terminal is a carbon rod
surrounded by a mixture of manganese dioxide and carbon powder. The
electrolyte used is a paste of zinc chloride and ammonium chloride dissolved in
water. The carbon (graphite) rod is what collects electrons coming from the
anode portion of the battery to return to the cathode portion of the battery.
Carbon is the only practical conductor material because every common metal will
quickly corrode away in the positive electrode in salt based electrolyte.

The zinc is oxidized according to the following half-equation.

Zn(s) --> Zn2+(aq) + 2 e- [e° = -1.04 volts]

The manganese dioxide is mixed with carbon powder to increase the electrical
conductivity. The reaction is as follows:
2MnO2(s) + 2 e- + 2NH4Cl(aq)-->
Mn2O3(s) + 2NH3(aq) + H2O(aq) + 2 Cl- [e° ˜ +.5 v]

and the CL combines with the Zn2+.

In this half-reaction, the manganese is reduced from an oxidation state of (+4) to

(+3). There are other possible side-reactions, but the overall reaction in a zinc-
carbon cell can be represented as:

Zn(s) + 2MnO2(s) + 2NH4Cl(aq) ---> Mn2O3(s) + Zn(NH3)2Cl2 (aq) + H2O(l)

The battery has an e.m.f. of about 1.5 V.

What are the different types of batteries?

Different types of batteries use different types of chemicals and chemical

reactions. Some of the more common types of batteries are:

Used in Duracell® and Energizer® and other alkaline

batteries. The electrodes are zinc and manganese-oxide.
Alkaline battery The electrolyte is an alkaline paste.

These are used in automobiles. The electrodes are made of

lead and lead-oxide with a strong acid as the electrolyte.
Lead-acid battery

These batteries are used in cameras for the flash bulb. They
are made with lithium, lithium-iodide and lead-iodide. They
Lithium battery can supply surges of electricity for the flash.
 These batteries are used in cameras for the flash bulb. They
are made with lithium, lithium-iodide and lead-iodide. They
Lithium battery can supply surges of electricity for the flash.

These batteries are found in laptop computers, cell phones

Lithium-ion battery and other high-use portable equipment.

The electrodes are nickel-hydroxide and cadmium. The

Nickel-cadmium or electrolyte is potassium-hydroxide.
NiCad battery

Zinc and carbon are used in all regular or standard AA, C and
Zinc-carbon battery D dry-cell batteries. The electrodes are made of zinc and
or standard carbon carbon, with a paste of acidic materials between them
battery – serving as the electrolyte.

Ever wondered why people with tooth fillings sometimes complain of getting an
electric shock like sensation while they nibble on to chocolates from the foil
coating or from the silver on desserts? It is not just a fleeting sensation, but is
actually a minor electric current tantalizing the nerves underneath the tooth. A
momentary cell is formed between the foil and the amalgam of the tooth filling
with the acidic saliva acting like the transport medium, the electrolyte.
History

Electricity has been by far, one of the most important and novel discoveries to
mankind. With population getting increasingly mobile, they have gravitated more
towards portable solutions of electricity, which manifests itself in the form of
Batteries. Electricity has been around us since the beginning of time, but its
practical use has been at our disposal since a few hundred years only.

While history stands witness to many artifacts such as the Parthian Battery
unearthed in Baghdad, which tell us that the concept had been existent even in
early civilizations like Egyptian and Babylonian, their use had been limited to
electroplating. In 1660, Otto von Guericke succeeded in generating static charge
in the form of sparks on rubbing and turning a sulfur globe. In 1791, Luigi Galvani
discovered animal electricity while experimenting on a frog with metallic prongs.
Prompted by the findings of this experiment, Alessandro Volta, the inventor of
the Electric Battery, initiated a series of experiments using different metals and
found out that certain fluids could generate a continuous flow of electricity when
used as a conducting medium. This led to the invention of the first voltaic cell
commonly known as The Battery in 1800.
Sir Humphry Davy discovered the phenomenon of chemical decomposition
(Electrolysis) on passing electricity through substances. In 1802, William
Cruickshank designed the first electrical battery for mass production which
resembled the flooded battery we still use. In 1859, Gaston Plante invented the
first rechargeable battery based on lead acid system which is still very popular
and hence came the first secondary cell. In 1899, Waldmar Jungner invented the
Nickel-Cadmium battery using Nickel for cathode and Cadmium for anode. It was
further improved by many people like Thomas Edison, Shlecht, Ackermann and
Georg Nuemann. It remained popular for many years to come until
environmentalists became concerned about contamination, if NiCd were disposed
off carelessly. This led to the development of Nickel Metal Hydrides and later the
popular Lithium Ion batteries. Numerous local, national and international players
are involved in this business providing portable battery solutions, a few of the key
players being Duracell International Inc., Electric Fuel Battery Corp., Energizer
Holdings Inc., GP Batteries International Ltd., Philips, Renata SA, Toshiba Battery
Co. Ltd., VARTA Consumer Batteries GmbH & Co. KGaA, Sony Electronics Asia
Pacific Pte. Ltd., ZeniPower Battery Co. Ltd., Sanyo Electric Co., LG Chem. Ltd
Exide industries Ltd. etc.

What is a Battery

So what actually is a Battery? It is a collection of one or more electrochemical

cells in which stored chemical energy is converted into electrical energy. The
principles of operation haven’t changed much since the time of Volta. Each cell
consists of two half cells connected in series through an electrolytic solution. One
half cell houses the Anode to which the positive ions migrate from the Electrolyte
and the other houses the Cathode to which the negative ones drift. The two cells
are may be connected via a semi permeable membranous structure allowing ions
to flow but not the mixing of electrolytes as in the case of most primary cells or in
the same solution as in secondary cells.

Different amounts of voltages are built up according to the separation between

the ions in the electrochemical series which results in the flow of ions in the
solution and electrons in the external circuitry in the form of current. The
performance of the cell continues to dip gradually as the concentration of ions in
the solutions decrease, marked by an increase in internal resistance eventually
leading to the exhaustion of the battery. The reversibility of this condition
classifies the battery into two major categories, Primary and Secondary.