Chapter 1. Open Sets, Closed Sets, and Borel Sets

1.4.
Borel Sets 1
Chapter 1. Open Sets, Closed Sets,

and Borel Sets
Section 1.4. Borel Sets
Note. Recall that a set of real numbers is open if and only if it is a countable
disjoint union of open intervals. Also recall that:
1. a countable union of open sets is open, and
2. a countable intersection of closed sets is closed.
These two properties are the main motivation for studying the following.
Definition. A collection A of subsets of a set X is an algebra (or Boolean algebra)

of sets if:
1. A, B ∈ A implies A ∪ B ∈ A.
2. A ∈ A implies Ã = X ∼ A ∈ A (Ã is the complement of A).
3. A, B ∈ A implies A ∩ B ∈ A (this follows from (1) and (2) by DeMorgan’s

Laws).
We also require that ∅, X ∈ A. (This last condition, absent in previous editions

of Royden, insures that an algebra is nonempty.)
Example. A = {∅, N, evens, odds} is an algebra on N.

1.4. Borel Sets 2
Note. By induction, (1) and (3) hold for any finite collection of elements of A.
Theorem. Given any collection C of subsets of X, there exists a smallest algebra

A which contains C. That is, if B is any algebra containing C, then B contains A.
Definition. The smallest algebra containing C, a collection of subsets of a set X,

is called the algebra generated by C.
Definition. An algebra A of sets is a σ-algebra (or a Borel field) if every union of

a countable collection of sets in A is again in A.
Example. Let X = R and A = {A ⊂ R | A is finite or Ã is finite}. Then A is an

algebra but not a σ-algebra (since N = ∪{n} but N ∈
/ A).
Proposition 1.13. Let C be a collection of subsets of a set X. Then the intersec-

tion A of all σ-algebras of subsets of X that contain C is a σ-algebra that contains
C. Moreover, it is the smallest σ-algebra of subsets of X that contain C in the sense
that if B is a σ-algebra containing C, then A ⊂ B.
Definition. The σ-algebra of Proposition 1.13 is the σ-algebra generated by C.

1.4. Borel Sets 3
Recall. A countable union of closed sets of real numbers need not be closed:
∞
[ 1 1
0 + ,2 − = (0, 2).
n=1
n n
∞
[
In fact, a countable union of closed sets may be neither open nor closed: {ri } = Q
i=1
where the rationals are enumerated as Q = {ri | i ∈ N}. We are interested in
describing (or at least naming) the sets we get from countable unions, intersections,
and complements of open sets. More specifically, we are interested in the “Borel
sets.”
Definition. The collection B of Borel sets is the smallest σ-algebra that contains
all open sets of real numbers.
Note. How many Borel sets are there: |B| =? According to Corollary 4.5.3 of Inder
Rana’s An Introduction to Measure and Integration (2nd Edition, AMS Graduate
Studies in Mathematics, Volume 45, 2002), |B| = c = |R| (= ℵ1 if you buy the
Continuum Hypothesis). This is bad (why?).
Note. What do Borel sets “look like”? We can describe some of them.
Definition. A set which is a countable union of closed sets is an Fσ set. A set

which is a countable intersection of open sets is a Gδ set.
1.4. Borel Sets 4
Note. According to Wikipedia (hmm. . . ), “F ” is for ferme (French for “closed”)

and σ for somme (French for “sum” or “union”). “G” is for gebiet (German for
“neighborhood”) and δ for durchschnitt (German for “intersection”).
Note. A countable set is Fσ since it is a countable union of the singletons which

compose it. Of course closed sets are Fσ . Since a countable collection of countable
sets is countable, a countable union of Fσ sets is again Fσ . Every open interval is
Fσ :
∞
[ 1 1
(a, b) = a + ,b −
n=1
n n
(a and b could be ±∞), and hence every open set is Fσ (this is Problem 1.37).
Notice. The complement of an Fσ set is a Gδ set (and conversely).
Theorem. Young’s Theorem. (Problem 1.56)

Let f be a real valued function defined on all of R. The set of points at which f is
continuous is a Gδ set.
Note. The converse of Young’s Theorem also holds:

Theorem. (From Real Functions by Hahn, and Counterexamples in Analysis by
Gelbrum and Olmstead.) If A ⊂ R is a Gδ set, then there exists f : R → R such
that f is continuous at each point of A and discontinuous at each point of R \ A.
1.4. Borel Sets 5
Note. With δ for intersection and σ for union, we can construct (for example) a
countable intersection of Fσ sets, denoted as an Fσδ set. Similarly, we can discuss
Fσδσ sets or Gδσ and Gδσδ sets. These classes of sets are subsets of the collection of
Borel sets, but not every Borel set belongs to one of these classes.
Theorem. (Problem 1.57.)

Let {fn} be a sequence of continuous functions defined on R. Then the set of points
x at which the sequence {fn(x)} converges to a real number is the intersection of
a countable collection of Fσ sets (i.e., is an Fσδ set).
Revised: 12/11/2015

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1.4.

Chapter 1. Open Sets, Closed Sets,

1. a countable union of open sets is open, and

2. a countable intersection of closed sets is closed.

Definition. A collection A of subsets of a set X is an algebra (or Boolean algebra)

2. A ∈ A implies Ã = X ∼ A ∈ A (Ã is the complement of A).

3. A, B ∈ A implies A ∩ B ∈ A (this follows from (1) and (2) by DeMorgan’s

We also require that ∅, X ∈ A. (This last condition, absent in previous editions

Example. A = {∅, N, evens, odds} is an algebra on N.

Theorem. Given any collection C of subsets of X, there exists a smallest algebra

Definition. The smallest algebra containing C, a collection of subsets of a set X,

Definition. An algebra A of sets is a σ-algebra (or a Borel field) if every union of

Example. Let X = R and A = {A ⊂ R | A is finite or Ã is finite}. Then A is an

Proposition 1.13. Let C be a collection of subsets of a set X. Then the intersec-

Definition. The σ-algebra of Proposition 1.13 is the σ-algebra generated by C.

Definition. A set which is a countable union of closed sets is an Fσ set. A set

Note. According to Wikipedia (hmm. . . ), “F ” is for ferme (French for “closed”)

Note. A countable set is Fσ since it is a countable union of the singletons which

Notice. The complement of an Fσ set is a Gδ set (and conversely).

Theorem. Young’s Theorem. (Problem 1.56)

Note. The converse of Young’s Theorem also holds:

Theorem. (Problem 1.57.)

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