DiscoJ'ery of the Neanderthal Skull [4 [

know what the beings looked like, he was at least conl'inced that they were
true men. He wrote, "No human skeleton of undoubted Pleistocene age
has as yet been discovered in river I gravel] strata on the continent suffi­
ciently perfect to allow us to Jorm an idea oj the physique oJ the Klver­
drift [Paleolithic] men, and no human bones have as yet been recorded
from the flul'iatile deposits of Great Britain. The few fragments, however,
which remain to us, prove that at this remote period man was present in
Europe as man, and not as an intermediate form connecting the human
race with the lower animals. ,.

DISCOVERY OF THE
NEANDERTHAL SKULL
D. Schaaffhausen
In the early part of the year 1857, a human skeleton was discovered in
a limestone cave in the Neanderthal, near Hochdal, between Dusseldorf
and Elberfeld. Of this, however, I was unable to procure more than a
plaster cast of the cranium taken at Elberfeld, from which I drew up an
account of its remarkable conformation, which was, in the first instance,
read on the 4th of February, 1857, at the meeting of the Lower Rhine
Medical and Natural History Society, at Bonn (Verhandl. d. Naturhist.
Vereins der preuss. Rheinlande und Westphalens, xiv. Bonn, 1857). Sub­
sequently Dr. Fuhlrott, himself gave a full account of the locality, and of
the circumstances under which the discovery was made. He was of the
opinion that the bones might be regarded as fossil; and in coming to this
conclusion, he laid especial stress upon the existence of dendritic deposits
with which their surface was covered, and which were first noticed upon
them by Professor Mayer. To this communication I appended a brief
report on the results of my anatomical examination of the bones. The
conclusions at which I arrived: (1) that the extraordinary form of the skull
was due to a natural conformation hitherto not known to exist, even in
the most barbarous races; (2) that these remarkable human remains be­
I
longed to a period antecedent to the time of the Celts and Germans, and
i were in all probability derived from one of the wild races of northwestern
Europe, spoken of by Latin writers; and which were encountered as au­
tochthones by the German immigrants; and (3) that it was beyond doubt
that these human relics were traceable to a period at which the latest
t
~
"On the Crania of the most Ancient Races of Man," by Professor D. Schaaffhausen,
r of Bonn. (From Muller's Archiv., 1858, pp. 453.) With remarks and original figures,
11 taken from a cast of the neanderthal cranium, by George Busk. The Natural History
r Review, Vol. I, No. II (April, 1861), Article XVII. (London and Edinburgh: Williams
and Norgate, 1861) pp. 155-174.
 Disco I' er;

animals
assumpl
affordec
AsDi
stances,
"A sma
deep ff(
wall of 1

100 feel
valley. ]
narrow
scended
with dil
of 4 or
fragmeI
covered
the caVl
plane. l
who we
me on t
and it '
ognized
the disl
less in
this cin
bly per
My
results:
The
remark
ment a
coal esc
frontal
behind
the roc
and hi]
the fn
partial
ridges,
horizol
pari etc:
tal. Tl
time 0
its cul
centim
DiscOl'ery of the Neandertha! Sku!! 143

animals of the diluvium still existed; but that no proof in support of this
assumption, nor consequently of their so-termed fossil condition, was
afforded by the circumstances under which the bones were discovered.
As Dr. Fuhlrott has not yet published his description of these circum­
stances, I borrow the following account of them from one of his letters.
"A small cave or grotto, high enough to admit a man, and about 15 feet
deep from the entrance, which is 7 or 8 feet wide, exists in the southern
wall of the gorge of the Neanderthal, as it is termed, at a distance of about
100 feet from the Dussel, amI about 00 feet above the bottom of the
valley. In its earlier and uninjured condition this cavern opened upon a
narrow plateau lying in front of it, and from which the rocky wall de­
scended almost perpendicularly into the river. It could be reached, though
with difficulty, from above. The uneven floor was covered to a thickness
of 4 or 5 feet with a deposit of mud, sparingly intermixed with rounded
fragments of chert. In the removing of this deposit, the bones were dis­
covered. The skull was the first noticed, placed nearest to the entrance of
the cavern; and further in, the other bones, lying in the same horizontal
plane. Of this I was assured in the most positive terms by two laborers
who were employed to clear out the grotto, and who were questioned by
me on the spot. At first no idea was entertained of the bones being human;
and it was not till several weeks after their discovery that they were rec­
ognized as such by me, and placed in security. But, as the importance of
the discovery was not at the time perceived, the laborers were very care­
less in the collecting, and secured chiefly only the larger bones; and to
this circumstance it may be attributed that fragments merely of the proba­
bly perfect skeleton came into my possession."
My anatomical examination of these bones afforded the following
results:
The cranium is of unusual size, and of a long, elliptical form. A most
remarkable peculiari ty is at once obvious in the extraordinary develop­
ment of the frontal sinuses, owing to which the superciliary ridges, which
coalesce completely in the middle, are rendered so prominent, that the
frontal bone exhibits a considerable hollow or depression above, or rather
behind them, whilst a deep depression is also formed in the situation of
the root of the nose. The forehead is narrow and low, though the middle
and hinder portions of the cranial arch are well developed. Unfortunately,
the fragment of the skull that has been preserved consists only of the
portion situated above the roof of the orbits and the superior occipital
ridges, which are greatly developed, and almost conjoined so as to form a
horizontal eminence. It includes almost the whole of the frontal bone, both
parietals, a small part of the squamous and the upper third of the occipi­
tal. The recently fractured surfaces show that the skull was broken at the
time of its disinterment. The cavity holds 16,876 grains of water, whence
its cubical contents may be estimated at 57.64 inches, or 1033.24 cubic
centimeters. In making this estimation, the water is supposed to stand on
!c{4 MAN'S DISCOVERY OF HIS PAST

a level with the orbital plate of the frontal, with the deepest notch in the
squamous margin of the parietal, and with the superior semicircular ridges
of the occipital, Estimated in dried millet seed, the contents equalled 31
ounces, Prussian Apothecaries' weight, The semicircular line indicating
the upper boundary of the attachment of the temporal muscle, though not
very strongly marked, ascends nevertheless to more than half the height of
the parietal bone, On the right superciliary ridge is observable an oblique
furrow or depression, indicative of an injury received during life. The
coronal and sagittal sutures are on the exterior nearly closed, and on the
inside so completely ossified as to have left no traces whatever, whilst the
lambdoidal remains quite open. The depressions for the Pacchionian
glands are deep and numerous; and there is an unusually deep vascular
groove immediately behind the coronal suture, which, as it terminates in
a foramen, no doubt transmitted a vena em£ssaria. The course of the
frontal suture is indicated externally by a slight ridge; and where it joins
the coronal, this ridge rises into a small protuberance. The course of the
sagittal suture is grooved, and above the angle of the occipital bone the
parietals are depressed.

mm."
The length of the skull from the nasal process to the frontal
over the vertex to the superior semicircular lines of the
occi pi tal measures 303 (300) = 12.0"
Circumference over the orbital ridges and the superior semi­
circular lines of the occipital . . 590 (580) = 23.37" or 23"
Width of the frontal from the middle of the temporal line
on one side to the same point on the opposite . 104 (1l4) = 4.1"-4.5"
Length of the frontal from the nasal process to the coronal
suture . . 133 (125) = 5.25"-5"
Extreme width of the frontal sinuses . 25 ( 23) = 1.0"-0.9"
Vertical height above a line joining the deepest notches in
the squamous border of the parietals . 70 = 2.75"
Width of hinder part of skull from one parietal protuber­
ance to the other . 138 (150) = 5.4"-5.9"
Distance from the upper angle of the occipital to the supe­
rior semicircular lines . . 51 ( 60) = 1.9"-2.4"
Thickness of the bone at the parietal protuberance . 8
- - at the angle of the occipital . 9
- - - at the superior semicircular line of the occipital . 10 = 0.3"
.. The numbers in brackets are those which I should assign to the different measures,
as taken from the plaster cast.-G. B.

Besides the cranium, the following bones have been secured:­

1. Both thighbones, perfect, These, like the skull, and all other bones,
are characterized by their unusual thickness, and the great development
of all the elevations and depressions for the attachment of muscles. In the
Anatomical Museum at Bonn, under the designation of "Giant's bones,"
 1"
DiscOlcrr o/Ihe Neullc!el'/hul SI,1I11 I
I"""TJ

Fig. 21. The Neanderthal ,kull a, depicted by Lubbock (1~78, fig,. 192-194). This early
drawing is remarkably accurate when compared to the photograph of the original ,howl' in
Hrdlicka (1930, pI. 30).
1..+6 MAN'S DISCOVERY OF HIS PAST

are somc rccent thighboncs, with which in thickness the foregoing pretty
Ilearly correspond, although they arc shorter.

Giant's bones Fossil bones

111m, mm.
Length 542 = 21.4" 43k = 17.4"
Diallleter of head of femur 5·) = 2.14" 53 = 2.0"
of !()\\'er articular end, from one condyle
to the other kg = 3.5" 87 = 3.4"
of felllur in the middle 33 = 1.2" 30 = 1.1"

2. A perfect right humerus, whose SIZe shows that it belongs to the

thigh bones.
m m.
Length 312 = 12.3"
Thickness in the middle 26 = 1.0"
Diameter of head .. 49 = 1.9"

Also a perfect right radius of corresponding dimensions, and the upper

third of a right ulna corresponding to the humerus and radius.
3. A left humerus, of which the upper third is wanting, and which is
so much slenderer than the right as apparently to belong to a distinct
individual; a left ulna) which, though complete, is pathologically de­
[onned, the coronoid process being so much enlarged by bony growth,
that flexure of the elbow beyond a right angle must have been impos­
sible; the anterior fossa of the humerus for the reception of the coronoid
process being also filled up with a similar bony growth. At the same time,
the olecranon is curved strongly downwards. As the bone presents no sign
of rachitic degeneration, it may be supposed that an injury sustained dur­
ing life was the cause of the anchylosis. ''\Then the left ulna is compared
with the right radius, it might at first sight be concluded that the bones
respectively belonged to different individuals, the ulna being more than
half an inch too short for articulation with a corresponding radius. But it
is clear that this shortening, as well as the attenuation of the left humerus,
are both consequent upon the pathological condition above described.
4. A left ilium) almost perfect, and belonging to the femur; a fragment
of the right scapu.la; the anterior extremity of a rib of the right side; and
the same part of a rib of the left side; the hinder part of a rib of the right
side; and, lastly, two short hinder portions and one middle portion of
ribs, which, from their unusually rounded shape, and abrupt curvature,
F
more resemble the ribs of a carnivorous animal than those of a man. Dr. 1
H. v. Mayer, however, to whose judgment I defer, will not venture to
declare them to be ribs of any animal; and it only remains to suppose that
this abnormal condition has arisen from an unusually powerful develop­
ment of the thoracic muscles.
The bones adhere strongly to the tongue, although, as proved by the
use of hydrochloric acid, the greater part of the cartilage is still retained
Discor('/"l' oj rhe 'Vel/llder/hul Sf- ull I·n

in them, which appears, however, to have undergone that transformation

into gelatine which has been observell by v. Bibra ill fmsil bones. The
surface of :111 the bones is in many spots covered wilh minute black
specks, which more especially under a lens, are seen to be lormed of very
df'licate dendrites. These deposits. which were first ohserved on the bones

Fig. 22. Reconstruction by H. Klaatsch of the origlllal Neanderthal skull from near Dusseldorf.
The area beneath the black line is reconstructed and based on other Neanderthal material.
(After Koenigswald, 1958. pl. r.)

by Dr. Mayer, are most distinct on the inner surface 01 the cranial bones.
They consist of a ferruginous compoLlnd, and, from their black color,
may be supposed to contain manganese. Similar dendritic formations
also occur, nut infrequently, on laminated rocks, and are usually found in
14::-. MAN'S DISCOVFR Y OF HIS PAST Discol'C

minute fissures and cracks, At the meeting of the Lower Rhine Society of our I
:It Bonn, on the 1st of Avril, 1857, Prof. 1\byer stated that he hac! noticed des PIa
in the museum or Poppelsdorf similar dendritic crystallilatlollS on several crania,
fossil bones of <luimals, and particularly 011 those of [!lSIlS s/Jcaloclls, but oped; a
stiJl more abundantly and beautifully displayed on the fossil bones and transiti(
teelll of E(jllils adomiticus, Fle/)lIos jnimigc!1ills, &c., from the caves of Then
Bohe and SLlndwig. Faillt indications of similar dendrites were visible in the fror
a ROillan skull from Siegburg; whiJst other ancient skulls which hac! lain individl
for (enturi(~s in the earth presented no trace of them . . . characte
As we cannot now look UpOIl the primitive world as representing a of the 0
wholly dilIerent condition of things, from which no transition exists to the usual pI
org:lnic lile of the present time, the designation of fossil, as applied to a pendage
l)()nc, has no longer the sense it conveyed in the time of euvier. Sufficient enduran
grounds exist for the assumption that man coexisted with the animals size of a
found in the diluvium; and Illany a barbarous race may, before all histori­ bones. 1
cal time, have disappeared, together with the animals of the ancient frontal s'
,,,,oriel, whilst the races whose organization is improved have continued III many
the genus. The bones which form the subject of this Paper present with the
characters which, although not decisive as regards a geological epoch, are, cate a sn
nevertheless, such as indicate a very high antiquity. It may also be re­ of mille
marked that, common as is the occurrence of diluvial animal bones in the the whe
muddy deposits of caverns, such remains have not hitherto been met with conrent~
in the caves of tbe Neanderthal; and that the bones, which were covered I tis,
by a deposit of mud not more than four or flve feet thick, and without similar
any protective covering of stalagmite, have retained the greatest part of it exist~
their organic substance. whethe'
These circumstances might be adduced against the probability of a geo­ tending
logical antiquity. Nor should we be justifled in regarding the cranial con­ deraile<
formation as perhaps representing the most savage primitive type of the from. 1
human race, since crania exist among living savages, which, though not skulls;
exhibiting such a remarkable conformation of the forehead, which gives
con[on
the skull somewhat the aspect of that of the large apes, still in other re­
pressio
spects, as for instance in the greater depth of the temporal fossae, the
The

crest-like, prominent temporal ridges, and a generally less capacious cra­

nial cavity, exhibit an equally low stage of development. There is no or less

reason for supposing that the deep frontal hollow is due to any artificial of the

flattening, such as is practiced in various modes hy barbarous nations in at the

the Old and New ·World. The skull is quite symmetrical, and shows no Hesse

indication of counter-pressure at the occiput, whilst, according to Morton, NO'.

in the Flat-heads of the Columbia, the frontal and parietal bones are promi
always unsymmetrical. Its conformation exhibits the sparing development even
of the anterior part of the head 'which has been so often observed in very barou
ancient crania, and <',ffords one of the most striking proofs of the influ­ must
ence of culture amI civili7ation on the form of the human skull. The kind:
Abbe Frere, whose collection uf u'ania belonging to the different centuries in tht
Disco!"e!")" of Ihe Ncandcnhal Sklil/ 1~9

of our epoch is now placed in the Anthropological Museum of the Jardin

des Plantes in Paris, came to the conclusion that, in the most ancient
crania, the occipital was the most, and the frontal region the least devel­
oped; and that the increase in the elevation of the latter marked the
transition from barbarous to civilized man . . .
There is no reason whatever for regarding the unusual development 01
the frontal sinuses in the remarkable skull from the Neanderthal as an
individual or pathological ddorll1ity; it is unquestionably a typical race
character, and is physiologically connected wit h the uncommon t hickncss
of the other bones of the skeletoll, which exceeds by about one half the
usual proportions. This expansion of the frontal sinLlses, which are ap­
pendages of the air passages, also indicates an unllSual force and power 01
endurance in the movements of the body, as may be concluded from the
size of all the ridges and processcs for the attachment of the muscles or
bones. That this conclusion may be drawn from the existence 01 large
frontal sinuses, and a prominence of the lower frontal reg-ion. is confirmed
in many ways u~' other observations, .. The cranial capacity, compared
with the uncOl1lmon st rength of the corporeal frame, would seCIII to indi­
cate a small cereural develojJlllenL. The skull as it is holds abolll ~\l ounces
of millet seed; and as, from the proportionate site of the wanting bones,
the whole cranial cavity should have about (i ounces more added, the
contents, were it perfect, \lIay be taken at 37 ounces. , .
It is, of course, a matter of the greatest interest to inquire whether a
similar conformation has been before noticed; whether it is IJlObablc that
it exists only in skulls to which a hi~h antiquity must be assiglled; amI
whether in any illstance of the kind observations llIay not have I)('en made
tending to supply ,dlat is wanting in the rc.sults of the investigation al)()"e
detailed, and to con firm or I 0 con tLld iet the (onclusiollS drawn there­
from. Large frontal sinuses, it is :Idmitted, arc occasionally noticed in
skulls; but these illStances alford only Jaint ill(licat ions of the remarkable
conformation which g'iws tile cr:lIliUlll we arc comidering its brutal ex­
pressIOn . . .
The dilference as regards the cranium is most marked in the greater
or less development 01 the anterior part of the he:l(l, and in the positioll
of the muzzle, which is occasionally r;ltlJer prominent, as is the case even
at the present time in some of Ihe Lerman races. as for instance, in
Hesse and the "'estenvald . . .
Now, when it is foulld froJl\ these numcrous examples, that a marked
prominence of the sllpL!orhital region, traces of ,vhich can be perceived
even at the present timc, O( (tllS l1\(bl freqllt'ntly in the crania or bar­
barous, and espcciall\ of 1101lhClII r;lces. to SOIIl(' or ,vlticll a high alltiCjuit,
must be assigned, it 1l1;1~ Illirh be SllPI)(l'{'d t[lat a conformation or this
kind represents the Clillt \csl iges o! :1 JlI imitiH' t\ pc. "'hich is manifested
in the most rem:nkahlc IlIalll1('1' in tl\(' \,'e;\lll!ert1J:d cranium, and which
150 MAN'S DISCOVERY OF HIS PAST DiSCUl'1

must have given the human visage an unusually savage aspect. This aspect sufllcie
might be termed brutal, inasmuch as the prominent supraorbital border that w,
is also characteristic of the facial conlormation of the large apes, although incidel
in these animals the prominence in question is not caused by any ex­ sideral
pansion of the frontal sinuses. These sinuses have been found by Owen The
to be wholly wanting, as well in the Gorilla, as in two Tasmanian amI stances
an Australian skull, a circumstance which is in acconlance with the weak cal po~
bodily constitutions of these savages . . . probab
In conclusion, the following propositions may be regarded as the result quaten
of the foregoing researches:­ instanc
The fragments of crania from Schwaan and PIau, on account both of mg as
their anatomical conformation and of the circumstances under which causeYI
they were found, may probably be assigned to a barbarous, aboriginal to det
people, which inhabited the North of Europe before the Germani; and, tlividu
as is proved by the discovery of similar remains at Minsk in Russia, and rej~lar "

in the Neanderthal near Elberfeld, must have been extensively spread­ forehe
being allied, as may be presumed from the form of the skull, with the be des
aboriginal popUlations of Britain, Ireland, amI Scandinavia. Whilst at appear
Schwaan the bones were deposited in a Germanic grave of stone, and of the
consequently are brought into relation with the historical period, the with h
bones from Piau, on the contrary, were merely laid in the sand, to­ Sir ell
gether with impIcments of bone of the rudest kind. The Minsk skull, in which
like manner, was found in the sand of an ancient river bed. But the dOllbtf
human bones and cranium from the Neanderthal exceed all the rest in Profess
those peculiarities of conformation which lead to the conclusion of their elevati
belonging to a barbarous and savage race. \,yhether the cavern in which peciall
they were found, unaccompanied with any trace of human art, were the in whi
place of their interment, or whether, like the bones of extinct animals second
elsewhere, they had been washed into it, they may still be regarded as the half th
most ancient memorial of the early inhabitants of Europe. is part
tinued
craniu
REMARKS BY GEORGE BI_'SK The
borde
The fact of the geological antiquity of Man, or, to use other words, lIlg or
of his having been contemporary with extinct animals whose remains are pressio
universally regarded by geologists as "fossil," has apparently been fully craniu
established, though rather, perhaps, from the discO\'ery of his work errone
1 han of his actual remains, under certain geological conditions. It has Chim
!)ccol1le a matter, therefore, among others, of extreme interest to deter­
mine how far it may be possible, from the scanty remains of his bones
as yet discovered, to ascertain whether, and in what respects, the priscan
race or races have differed from those which at present inhabit the earth.
Although the materials as yet in our possession are far too scanty to
allow of any satisfactory solution of this difficult question, they are
r Disco}e,..\' oj' Ihe Neander/hal Skull 151

ct sufficient, perhaps, to allow of its being entered upon. It is with this view
er that we reproducc the interesting paper by Professor SchaarEhausen, which
~h incidcntally trea ts upon the question at large, and con tains a con­
x­ siderable amount of information respecting it.
~n The human remains there described were discovered under circum­
stances which, though not altogether demonstrative of their real geologi­
cal position, leave no doubt of their enormous antiquity, and of the
probability of their having belonged to what has been termed the
lIt quaternary period. The conformation of the cranium, moreover, in this
instance is so remarkable, as to justly excite the utmost interest, approach­
of ing as it does in one respect that of some of the higher apes. It remains,
:h comequently, a subject of the deepest importance for future discoveries
al to determine whether the conformation in question be merely an in­
d, (hidual peculiarity, or a typical character. The peculiarity consists in a
ld renlarkable prominence or projection of the superciliary region of thc
forehead; for the enlargcment in this part is so great, that it can hardly
le bc described as limited to the superciliary ridges. Dr. Schaaffhausen
at appears to regard this extraordinary conformation as due to an expansion
ld of the frontal sinuses. In this we are not disposed altogether to agree
le with him; but as we have had an opportunity, through the kindness of
0­ Sir Charles Lyell, of examining only a plaster cast of the cranium, in
in which the interior is not shown, we, of course, are able to speak but
le doubtfully on the subject. A main reason for our disagreement with
In Professor Schaallhausen arises from the circumstance that a considerable
ir elevation of the same part is often observed in recent crania, more es­
:h pecially, as hc states, in those belonging to savage and barbarous races.
le in which no extraordinary cxpallSion of the sinuses is found to exist; and,
Js secondly, because the frontal sinuses rarely, we believe, extcnd beyond
le half thc length of the su praorbi ta 1 border; whilst in 111any cases-and this
is particularly evidcnt in the Neanderthal cranium-the elevation is con­
tinucd to the outcr angular process of the frontal bone, which, in that
cranium. is very rema I kabl y thickened.
The lateral extent of the frontal sinus, in cases where the superciliary
bordcrs are much elevated, is usually imperfectly indicated by an open­
ls, ing or depression, through which the frontal nerve passes; and this dc­
re pression is very manifest, especially on the right side, in the fossil
ly cranium, in which it is regarded by Professor Schaaffhausen, we believe
'k erroneously, as indicative of an injury received during life. In the mature
IS Chimpanzee and Gorilla, the supraorbital ridges are, as is well known,
r­ remarkably developed: in the former case, we are not aware that the
es enlargement is accompanied with any expansion of the frontal sinuses,
in which in fact do not exist in the ape, but it is due simply to a projection
h. of the margin of the orbit, ,,,,hich cavity is larger in proportion to the
to skull behind it, than it is in the human subject, and is thus in accordance
re with the greater development of the face generally. In the old Gorilla, on
152 M ,\N'S DISCOVERY OF HIS PAST

the other hand, although the bone itself is enormously thickened in the
monstrous projection above the orbit, there are very large frontal sinuses.
However this may be, the protuberance in question must be regarded
as showing a very savage type; and, in the extent to which it exists in
the Neanderthal cranium, it affords a character in which that skull ap­
proaches that of the Gorilla and Chimpanzee.
Dr. Schaaffhausen appears to have taken considerable pains to inquire
whether a similar conformation, or one approaching it, has been ob­
served in other instances of ancient or modern skulls, but without
success . . . ***