Irrigation Report v2
Irrigation Report v2
Contents Page
Acronyms 5
1 TAKAI IRRIGATION 8
1.1 Background Data ............................................................................................ 8
1.1.1 Physical Setting of Project Area............................................................................... 8
1.1.2 Climate and Weather Conditions ............................................................................ 8
1.1.3 Humidity ................................................................................................................... 9
1.1.4 Crop Growth and Climate ........................................................................................ 9
1.1.5 Source of Water ...................................................................................................... 10
1.2 Agricultural Plan ........................................................................................... 10
1.2.1 Planning Concepts ................................................................................................. 10
1.2.2 Present Situation .................................................................................................... 11
1.2.3 Considerations for Development of Irrigated Agriculture ................................... 11
1.3 Irrigation and Drainage System .................................................................... 13
1.3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 13
1.3.2 Cropping Pattern.................................................................................................... 13
1.3.3 Irrigation Layout .................................................................................................... 13
1.3.4 Irrigation Water Requirements .............................................................................. 13
1.3.5 Crop Water Requirements ..................................................................................... 16
1.3.6 Field Irrigation Requirement ................................................................................. 18
1.3.7 Irrigation Method ................................................................................................... 18
1.3.8 Frequency and Efficiency of Irrigation .................................................................. 19
1.3.9 Irrigation and Drainage Layout ............................................................................. 20
1.3.10 Irrigation Water Supply .................................................................................. 20
1.4 Design Criteria ............................................................................................. 20
1.4.1 Canal Flow .............................................................................................................. 20
1.4.2 Velocity ................................................................................................................... 20
1.4.3 Roughness Coefficient (n) ..................................................................................... 21
1.4.4 Side Slopes ............................................................................................................. 21
1.4.5 Canal/Drain Gradients ........................................................................................... 21
1.4.6 Canal Bed Width and Depth of Flow ...................................................................... 21
1.4.7 Freeboard ............................................................................................................... 21
1.4.8 Canal Turnout ........................................................................................................ 22
1.4.9 Regulator/Check Structure .................................................................................... 22
1.4.10 Canal Drop Structure ..................................................................................... 22
1.4.11 Access Road ................................................................................................... 22
1.4.12 Summary of Proposed Project Design ........................................................... 22
1.5 Design .......................................................................................................... 23
1.5.1 Canal Design .......................................................................................................... 23
1.5.2 Details of the main canal are as follows ............................................................... 24
1.5.3 Details of Secondary canals are as follows ........................................................... 24
1.5.4 Drainage Design .................................................................................................... 25
1.5.5 Land Levelling ........................................................................................................ 25
1.6 Operation and Maintenance ......................................................................... 26
1.6.1 Operation of the System ........................................................................................ 26
1.6.2 Water Users Association (WUA) ............................................................................. 26
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2 TOFA IRRIGATION 31
2.1.1 Rainfall.................................................................................................................... 31
2.1.2 Temperature........................................................................................................... 31
2.1.3 Humidity ................................................................................................................. 32
2.1.4 Crop Growth and Climate ...................................................................................... 32
2.1.5 Source of Water ...................................................................................................... 32
2.2 Agricultural Plan ........................................................................................... 32
2.2.1 Planning Concepts ................................................................................................. 32
2.2.2 Present Situation .................................................................................................... 33
2.2.3 Considerations for Development of Irrigated Agriculture ................................... 34
2.3 Irrigation and Drainage System .................................................................... 35
2.3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 35
2.3.2 Cropping Pattern.................................................................................................... 35
2.3.3 Irrigation Water Requirements .............................................................................. 35
2.3.4 CROPWAT ............................................................................................................... 36
2.3.5 Crop Water Requirements ..................................................................................... 38
2.3.6 Field Irrigation Requirement ................................................................................. 39
2.3.7 Irrigation Method ................................................................................................... 39
2.3.8 Frequency and Efficiency of Irrigation .................................................................. 39
2.3.9 Irrigation and Drainage Layout ............................................................................. 40
2.3.10 Irrigation Water Supply .................................................................................. 40
2.4 Design Criteria ............................................................................................. 40
2.4.1 Canal Flow .............................................................................................................. 41
2.4.2 Velocity ................................................................................................................... 41
2.4.3 Roughness Coefficient (n) ..................................................................................... 41
2.4.4 Side Slopes ............................................................................................................. 41
2.4.5 Canal/Drain Gradients ........................................................................................... 42
2.4.6 Canal Bed Width and Depth of Flow ...................................................................... 42
2.4.7 Freeboard ............................................................................................................... 42
2.4.8 Canal Turnout ........................................................................................................ 42
2.4.9 Regulator/Check Structure .................................................................................... 42
2.4.10 Canal Drop Structure ..................................................................................... 42
2.4.11 Access Road ................................................................................................... 42
2.4.12 Summary of Proposed Project Design ........................................................... 43
2.5 Design .......................................................................................................... 43
2.5.1 Canal Design .......................................................................................................... 43
2.5.2 Drainage Design .................................................................................................... 45
2.5.3 Land Levelling ........................................................................................................ 45
2.6 Operation and Maintenance ......................................................................... 46
2.6.1 Operation of the System ........................................................................................ 46
2.6.2 Maintenance of the System ................................................................................... 49
2.7 Financial Analysis ......................................................................................... 50
3 MAKODA IRRIGATION 51
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 51
3.1.1 Crop Growth and Climate ...................................................................................... 51
3.2 Agricultural Plan ........................................................................................... 51
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4 SHANONO IRRIGATION 71
4.1 Background Data .......................................................................................... 71
4.1.1 Crop Growth and Climate ...................................................................................... 71
4.2 Agricultural Plan ........................................................................................... 71
4.2.1 Planning Concepts ................................................................................................. 71
4.2.2 Present Situation .................................................................................................... 72
4.2.3 Considerations for Development of Irrigated Agriculture ................................... 72
4.3 Irrigation and Drainage System .................................................................... 74
4.3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 74
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ACRONYMS
List of Tables
Table 1.1: Long-Term Average Monthly Climatological Data for Kano ................... 9
Table 1.2: Irrigation Water Supply ................................................................................. 14
Table 1.3: Crop Water Requirement ............................................................................ 16
Table 1.4: Long-Term Average Monthly Climatological Data for Takai.................. 17
Table 1.5: A detailed inventory of canals ................................................................... 23
Table 2.1: Long-Term Average Monthly Climatological Data for Kano ................. 31
Table 2.2: Irrigation Water Supply ................................................................................. 36
Table 2.3: Crop Water Requirement ............................................................................ 37
Table 2.4: Long-Term Average Monthly Climatological Data for Tofa ................... 38
Table 2.5: Inventory of canals ....................................................................................... 43
Table 3.2: : Irrigation Water Supply ............................................................................... 55
Table 3.3: Crop Water Requirement ............................................................................ 56
Table 3.4: Long-Term Average Monthly Climatological Data for Makoda............ 57
Table 3.5: Inventory of canals ....................................................................................... 62
Table 4.2: Irrigation Water Supply ................................................................................. 75
Table 4.3: Crop Water Requirement ............................................................................ 76
Table 4.4: Long-Term Average Monthly Climatological Data for Shanono ........... 77
Table 4.2: Inventory of canals ....................................................................................... 82
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Table of Figures
No table of figures entries found.
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1 TAKAI IRRIGATION
1.1 Background Data
Geology
Generally the geology of the area consist of the Granite gneiss belonging to the
Migmatite – Gneiss Complex formation however the project areas are predominantly of
the Precambrian to Cambrian Basement complex.
Topography
The topography around the Irrigation area is slightly undulating with well-defined river
course which makes the area not susceptible to flood. The vegetation is that which is
typical of the Northern Nigeria; sparse vegetation with some isolated trees/shrubs. Most
part of the area is already cultivated with crops like maize, guinea corn, pepper,
tomatoes and other grains.
Rainfall
The dry and hot season runs from the months of November to April.
In the months of December and January, the dry and dust-laden Eastern and North –
Easterly winds blows from Sahara desert towards the project area.
The main rainy season is July to October but occasional showers fall in May- June
particularly in the higher rainfall areas in the South with maximum precipitation in August.
The rainy season usually commences with local thunderstorms and line squalls.
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Most rain falls in the summer months of May to October, followed by a 6 month dry
season, during which time the woody vegetation loses its leaves and the grasses dry up
and may burn. The Mean Annual Rainfall for the project area is
837.7mm
The movements of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) determine the quantity of
rainfall in a particular year - if it penetrates far to the north there will be a long rainy
season and good rains; if it does not move sufficiently far north, then the rains may fail
totally. During the winter, hot dry winds (known in much of West Africa as the
"Harmattan") blow from the north, often bringing dust and sand from the Sahara with
them.
Temperature
The mean maximum and minimum temperatures for Takai for the period of 50 years as
obtained from the FOA climate software for use in irrigation design (CLIMWAT for
CROPWAT) have been averaged and presented in Table 1. The mean monthly minimum
temperatures show that during the first part of the year, there is a gradual increase then
gradual reduction in temperature. In January, the mean monthly maximum
temperatures are about 31.60C, and by March, these values rise to 37.60C. The onset of
intense rains has a cooling effect with maximum temperatures dropping to 29.50C in
August; the peak of the rainy season. During the rainy season, minimum temperatures
are fairly steady. Mean monthly maximum and minimum temperatures in January may
be as much as about 31.6 and 140C respectively. Following the rains, there is a slight
increase in temperature range as minimum temperature is reduced by the effect of the
dry dust harmattan. By April the south-westerly air mass is dominant over the harmattan
from then until the onset of the rains, the hottest season occurs with mean maximum
temperature of 38.70C.
1.1.3 Humidity
Humidity is relatively high as a result of influence by humid maritime air mass that blows
from the Atlantic for some period of the year. Mean monthly value for humidity ranges
from a minimum of 40% in January to a maximum of 83.1 in August (Table 1). The factors
responsible for humidity include evaporation, solar radiation, vegetal cover and wind
action.
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Rainfall
The major limitation to crop growth in the tropics is the amount, time and spread
of rainfall. The rainfall expected at the project site in an average year is about
837.7mm. The spread of rainfall covers at least 96 days. The rainfall amount and
spread in relation to evaporation at the project site, more than provide for most
cereal crops in year. The variability in annual rainfall from year to year however
can be pronounced. This can result in season, which can alternatively be too wet
or dry and calls for good water management.
The dry season begins about October when most cereal/legumes are ripening.
This has an advantage of reducing the cost and time of drying most crops. There
are only six months in a year when rainfall is in excess of evaporation, over the
remaining six months, there is water deficit in the soil. This means that in a normal
year, irrigation would be very much required from October to April.
Temperature
Next to rainfall, the climatic factor that determines what type of crop may be
grown at the project site is temperature. Generally, there is no problem with the
growth of any tropical cereal, legumes and fibre crops during the rainy season.
The temperature requirement for most common tropical crops is adequate.
Increase the income and consequently raise the living standard of small
farmers
Increase the production of basic foods and improve the diet and
nutritional standard of the rural population
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The means for realizing these aims includes bringing new virgin land under
cultivation, and intensification of production, broadening the range of product in
individual farms by crop diversification and adding new lines of production to the
existing ones. In the project area, as in most agricultural projects, it will probably
be necessary to resort to combination of these options. Intensification can take
many forms, such as the use of chemical fertilizers, irrigations or improved crop
varieties. This course of action i.e. the use of physical inputs is measurable and
controllable in the sense that resources can be allotted as required. However, the
newly available resources must be rendered in ways that are acceptable to
farmers, who need motivation to overcome their ingrained distrust towards
unfamiliar concepts. The acceptability of agricultural innovations by the intended
beneficiaries is therefore as important as the physical and ecological factors.
The link between the planning authority and the people at the farm level are
professionals – agronomist, extension agents, engineers etc. a shortage of
available professional manpower can thus impede the introduction of
innovations, even when the benefits of the proposed techniques can be proven.
Moreover, to attain the desire results, the professionals should be proficient not
only in their special fields but must also be familiar with the cultural background
of the local population.
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not exploited sufficiently and irrigation is therefore proposed in order to intensify land use
and increase the agricultural production.
The plan for irrigated crop production makes use of farming methods that are not
relatively new and untried in the project area. The plan combines irrigation, the
introduction of new crop varieties with improved crop care (fertilizer application, crop
rotation, weed and pest control, etc) and mechanization of several farming operations.
Eventually it will become necessary to improve post-harvest activities such as threshing,
drying, storage and marketing of produce.
A description of the various considerations relating to the plan for irrigated agriculture is
given below.
Crop Selection
The selection of crops for possible inclusion in the agricultural plan for the Takai irrigation
project was governed first and foremost by suitability to local conditions from an
agronomical point of view. However, other relevant aspects were also examined,
including potential marketing outlets, possibilities for processing of the primary product
and farmers’ willingness and ability to accept the innovations of a more market-oriented
form of agriculture, i.e. emphasis on production of cash crops.
- Traditional staple crops, such as maize, millet, groundnut and ridi (sesame seed)
which are the predominant crops around the project area, maize and rice. Of these the
grain food, mainly guinea corn and maize, are especially suitable for cultivation under
irrigation since improved varieties of these crops respond well to a controlled moisture
regime (as well as to other agro –technical improvements). The responses of root and
tuber crops to irrigation are not known and these crops will therefore not be included in
the present plan.
Cropping Programme
The cropping programme is a cultivation schedule which takes into consideration the
timing of farming operations and the relationship between these operations and the
annual rainfall regime. As far as possible, harvesting operations and land preparation
should coincide with relatively dry periods, while sowing should take place at the
beginning of the wet season. The cropping programme also serves to determine the
aggregate water demand and to correlate it with the availability of water for irrigation.
The crop water demand is outlined in detail in the next chapter.
The cropping programme also enables the labour situation to be anticipated. Where it is
foreseen that the available labour will not suffice (as, for example, during short peak
seasons, when demand surges) mechanization of some operations may be called for.
Farm Mechanization
At present, no mechanized equipment is used on small family farms in the project area.
As mentioned above, mechanization may help to resolve labour problems on the farms,
especially when these occur seasonally. Moreover, mechanization is indispensable for
activities which cannot be performed manually. Mechanization in irrigated agriculture
becomes a crucial factor since land preparation must be done as effectively as possible
in the limited time available.
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The introduction and use of farm machinery requires not only investment capital for its
purchase but also trained manpower for its operation and maintenance. Moreover
adequate supplies of fuel, lubricants and spare parts must be assured. Any shortcoming
in the upkeep of the equipment or the provision of supplies will render mechanization
ineffectual, thus inevitably affecting project benefits.
Use of Fertilizers
Traditional farming methods make use of the bush fallow system to restore plant nutrients
in the topsoil. However, once this system is replaced by a more intensive cropping
pattern, it becomes necessary to replenish plant nutrients by other means. Where
livestock is kept, manure may be used to some extent; otherwise the soil will be enriched
with chemical fertilizers. The farmers around the project area are conversant with the use
of fertilizer to a very large extent.
1.3.1 Introduction
The irrigation and drainage component of the project involves the development of the
farm land in Takai, on the left and right flanks of Takai River. The scheme will be by gravity
as the farmland are on lower terrain than the reservoir. A total area of about 10ha been
proposed to be developed as small-holder farms with provision of irrigation and
drainage facilities utilizing the water resources of the dam reservoir.
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crop coefficients, an overall field efficiency of 40% (water conveyance & application
efficiencies) for the irrigation system and based on a 8 hour irrigation/day. A peak
irrigation requirement of 1.17 l/sec/ha was estimated by the CROPWAT software but for
lack of experience in handling of conventional irrigation facilities 1.50 l/Sec/ha was
adopted for the detailed designs of the irrigation system.
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CROPWAT
CROPWAT is a computer programme for the calculation of crop water requirements and
irrigation requirements from existing or new climatic and crop data. Furthermore, the
program allows the development of irrigation schedules for different management
conditions and the calculation of scheme water supply for varying crop patterns.
This Windows version used for this project is based on the DOS versions CROPWAT 5.7 of
1992 and CROPWAT 7.0 of 1999. Apart from a completely redesigned user interface,
CROPWAT 8.0 for Windows includes a host of updated and new features.
These include:
monthly, decade and daily input of climatic data for calculation of ETo
backward compatibility to allow use of data from CLIMWAT database
possibility to estimate climatic data in the absence of measured values
decade and daily calculation of crop water requirements based on updated
calculation algorithms including adjustment of crop-coefficient values
calculation of crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling for dry crops
and for paddy & upland rice
interactive user adjustable irrigation schedules
daily soil water balance output tables
easy saving and retrieval of sessions and of user defined irrigation schedules
graphical presentations of input data, crop water requirements and irrigation
schedules
easy import/export of data and graphics through clipboard or ASCII text files
extensive printing routines, supporting all windows-based printers
context-sensitive help system
All calculation procedures as used in CROPWAT 8.0 are based on the FAO guidelines as
laid down in the publication No. 56 of the Irrigation and Drainage Series of FAO "Crop
Evapotranspiration - Guidelines for computing crop water requirements
Evapotranspiration
The effect of climate on crop water requirement is given by the reference (or
potential) crop evapotranspiration, ET0. The effect of the characteristics of the selected
crops on crop water requirements is given by the crop coefficient kc. The relationship between
ET0 and actual evapotranspiration (ETcrop) is thus:
ET Crop = ETo * kc
Reference Evapotranspiration
The selection of a prediction method for evaluating the reference evapotranspiration
(ET0) depends on the type of climatic data available, and the accuracy required in
determining water needs The modified Penman method, which would offer the best
evaluation procedure with minimum possible error (of about 10%), is generally used for
calculating the reference evapotranspiration in Nigeria.
The following available meteorological data for Takai was used in the estimation of the
evapotranspiration for the project area using the FAO Crop water Requirement Model
(CROPWAT) and data obtain are as presented in table 1.
Evaporation
Air Temperature
Sunshine Hours
Wind Speed
Relative Humidity
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Crop Coefficients
The crop coefficient (kc) relates to evapotranspiration of a disease- free crop grown in
large fields under optimum soil water and fertility conditions and achieving full
production potential under the growing environment. Crop coefficients which normally
differs for the different crops depends on the length of the growing season, planting or
sowing date, and rate and stage of crop development.
Table 2 shows the crop coefficients for different crops in relation to the their length of
growing season, planting date and stage of development
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identical, crop water requirement refers to the amount of water that needs to be
supplied, while crop evapotranspiration refers to the amount of water that is lost through
evapotranspiration. The crop water requirements have been evaluated at intervals for
the selected crops. Table 2 shows the crop water requirements as obtain from
CROPWAT. It has been assumed that within each secondary and tertiary block the
farmers would wish to arrange their activities such that both water and labour
requirements are spread over a period for each operation
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The efficiency of irrigation would depend mainly on the soil characteristics, the method
of irrigation, the farmer's ability and the losses in the conveyance system.
The soil characteristic which is relevant for calculating irrigation frequencies is the
available water per metre depth of soil. In order to determine the available water, the
moisture contents at field capacity and wilting point are required. The average depth
of available water per metre depth of soil as determined from the laboratory tests is in
the range 100 – 150mm. Refer to Soil report in the annex of this report for details.
Actual irrigation scheduling is a day to day decision after the project is in operation.
Daily readings of climatological values including daily evapotranspiration, temperature,
wind speed, rainfall, stage of growth and related crop water requirement etc. will give
the essential background for the irrigation management to decide about application
time, rate and intervals.
For planning purposes, theoretical calculations taking meteorological data into account
and also considering the soil properties and crop management factor, were carried out
to determine the theoretical irrigation interval. The calculated intervals serve as
determining factors to compute the maximum daily possible water demand to be
discharged through a canal system, which must be capable to carry that specific flow
rate. The theoretically calculated irrigation intervals will therefore be just a guideline for
the later irrigation management. Refer to CROPWAT output in the Annex of this report for
the irrigation schedule.
For convenience of irrigation management, an overall irrigation interval of 7 days for all
crops and for all the months was estimated. Exceptions from the above are periods after
planting and shortly before harvesting, when irrigation intervals of 3 - 5 and 8-14 days
respectively were taken to satisfy crop and agricultural requirements respectively. The
required maximum gross application depth of 85 mm to satisfy the plant requirement
and to take account of all losses occurring during conveyance and distribution was
found accordingly.Irrigation Schedule
The losses in the fields are due to surface run-off and/or deep percolation of excess
water and depend on the frequency of irrigation and on percolation rates.
The application efficiency in the project area due to water losses by surface run-off
and/or non-uniform application of water is estimated to be 55% and the distribution
efficiency of 45% (FAO paper No. 24) giving an overall project efficiency of 50%. The
efficiency of the field application depends on the soil, irrigation method and
management. The application efficiency is low in the project area due to the soil type
that abound in the area and the general lack of experience of the farmers in
conventional irrigation operation practices leading to anticipated communication
problems.
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Due to the not well defined canal and drainage lines over each of the area, regular
shaped fields were not always possible and varying dimensions had to be adopted.
𝑑𝑐
𝑞𝑐 =
259 × 𝑒
1.4.2 Velocity
Based on manning's formula, canal velocity is given by
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𝑅2/3 𝑆 1/2
𝑣=
𝑛
Permissible velocity is that velocity that would not cause eroding of the canal material or
excessive deposition of silt or growth of aquatic weeds.
where b = bedwidth
d = depth of flow
1.4.7 Freeboard
The value of freeboard is given by f = cd
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Where f = freeboard
d = depth of flow
c = a coefficient varying from 0.46 to 1.0 depending on flow.
S = Canal gradient
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1.5 Design
𝑑𝑐
𝑞𝑐 = l/s/ha for continuous flow
259×𝑒
For this project the Canal flow was computed using the CROPWAT software
which arrived at 1.17l/sec/ha, but due to lack of experience in handling
conventional Irrigation facilities 1.5l/sec/ha will be use. The design also assumed 8
hrs pumping of irrigation per day and 6 days per 7 day week.
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MC1
Flow (Q) = 68l/s (0.068m3/s)
Bed width (B) = 0.35m
Flow depth (d) = 0.3m
Freeboard-f = 0.3m
Canal side slope (SS) = 1: 1
Canal bed slope = 0.0006
Velocity (V) = 0.68m/s
Type B
Flow (Q) = 45l/s
Bed width (B) = 0.3m
Flow depth (d) = 0.3m
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Freeboard-f = 0.3m
Canal side slope (SS) = 1: 1
Canal bed slope = 0.0003
Velocity (V) = 0.34m/s
Machinery and equipment required for rough and medium levelling include bull dozers,
tractor drawn or wheeled scrapers, land graders and levellers. The equipment used for
smoothening is land plane and land leveller.
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For the Takai scheme, it is proposed that the farming community takes full responsibility
with very little support from the Lower Niger River Basin Development Authority. Initial
training on the operation of the scheme should be given by the contractor on the
construction contract while supervision should be vested on the LNRBDA.
The farming community should be assisted in forming Water Users Association (WUA),
comprising three Farmers Irrigation Groups (FIGs) established on the basis of command
of the four tertiary canals.
At the start of an irrigation season, the schedule of deliveries should be worked out with
diversion requirement for each turnout diverted in line with the scheduling of water
requirement for each level of the system.
Water management at on-farm level should be practiced to conform to the proposed
distribution schedule and irrigation rule which is shown as follows;
Execution of irrigation water supply in accordance with the planting stage of the
crop
Strict adherence to the rotational irrigation schedule
In general, in developing countries the principal role in irrigation development rests with
the government and it is the government and its irrigation agency that prescribes the
role of Water Users Association (WUA) in the adoption and implementation of
participatory irrigation management.
Depending on the mix of the above factors in a given situation, the role of the WUAs
could include any of the following as may be agreed between the NEWMAP and the
farmers:
The responsibility of the farmers is only at the terminal level. The NEWMAP is
responsible for the entire irrigation system and delivers water at the turnout.
The farmers are expected to construct and maintain farm ditches and drainage
ditches, distribute water among them, and pay the irrigation fees prescribed by
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the government. Under this arrangement farmers are usually organized into
informal groups in preparation for the establishment of WUA for water distribution
and maintenance of farm and drainage ditches.
Irrigation Service Fees (ISF) are collected from the water users by NEWMAP
irrigation fee collectors.
NEWMAP and WUAs enter into two types of contract labelled as Type 1 and Type
2 contracts.
o Under Type 2 contract, the WUAs assist in delivering water to the various
turnouts, prepare the List of Irrigated and Planted Areas (LIPA), distribute
ISF bills prepared by NEWMAP, collect payment of ISF from farmers and
remit the collection to NEWMAP. For this activity they are entitled to a
share in the amount collected in accordance with the following
tabulation:
Each WUA in the irrigation system enters into an agreement with NEWMAP for
O&M of a lateral canal that irrigate the area of the WUA. NEWMAP remains
responsible for the O&M of the main canal and the headworks and delivers
water to each WUA at the head gate of each lateral canal.
ISF bills to farmers are prepared by NEWMAP from the LIPA prepared by the WUA
and verified by NEWMAP staff.
ISF is collected by the WUA and collections are shared between NEWMAP and
the WUA in accordance with a formula designed to cover the O&M expenses of
NEWMAP and provide incentives for increased collection by the WUA
The same arrangement as (c) above, except that NEWMAP's share is a fixed
percentage of the ISF to be collected which is subsequently billed by NEWMAP to
the WUA. The WUA bills each individual member.
The WUA is responsible for O&M and financial management of the entire
irrigation system in accordance with an agreement on irrigation management
transfer that stipulates the responsibilities of the WUA and the NEWMAP.
Guidelines for establishing joint management of irrigation systems between government and
farmers irrigation associations
The process of organizing the farmers is crucial. It is necessary to build the irrigation
associations (IA) from the bottom by first organizing Turnout Service Areas (TSAs) through
farmer participation in activities that develop the farmers' capacity to make group
decisions and to establish proper criteria and procedures for choosing TSA leaders.
In most cases, these activities would be on planning and implementation of
improvements to the irrigation facilities to make the system responsive to farmers' needs.
Farmer participation should include decision making in the identification and
prioritization of problems, planning solutions and improvements and arrangements for
takeover of O&M by the farmers.
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The higher levels of the organization should be established only after the TSAs have been
established with good, responsible leaders. The role and selection of the TSA leaders is
crucial in planning and implementation of water distribution, maintenance, and conflict
management and irrigation fee collection.
The TSA leaders should be members of the board of directors (BOO) or of the
management and decision-making body of the organization and the operative
committees at the top should be replicated from the base so that plans and decisions
can be effective.
Sufficient lead-time should be provided for organizing the farmers before they go into
contracts for joint management and undertake construction of improvements to the
irrigation system. Sometimes, this takes about a year.
Organizing of farmers should not be contracted out in the same manner as construction
or other projects. The best contract provisions cannot provide sufficient flexibility to meet
field conditions that are difficult to predict and are likely to change in place and in time,
especially in the coordination of technical and institutional activities essential to
successful promotion of farmer participation.
The IAs should be given proper training in irrigation system management, financial
management, leadership development and holding regular meetings at IA and TSA
levels, including review and planning Workshops after every cropping season. However,
no amount of training or strengthening will be effective if the organizational structure of
the IA is deficient. As an example, rotation of water deliveries for equity of water
distribution is possible only if the IA is properly structured. The role of the Irrigation
Superintendent and his staff is crucial to successful establishment and implementation of
joint management. Farmers can be organized into IAs that can go into joint
management only if the task is adequately supported by the Irrigation Superintendent. In
the process of improving an irrigation system to make it responsive to farmers' needs, the
Irrigation Superintendent should foster farmer participation in all aspects of system
improvement. He should consider and take action on all legitimate and feasible farmers'
requests for system improvement and use these as opportunities for developing farmer
responsibilities and capacities. Thus all improvements should be joint undertakings
between the irrigation agency and the farmers with both sharing work responsibilities
and affordable investment of resources. The Irrigation Superintendent and his staff and
the IAs should work out jointly all procedures for managing the irrigation system and see
to it that the procedures are properly implemented, periodically reviewed; and
improved upon as needed.
Two other crucial requirements are the policy and incentives on joint management
adopted by the irrigation agency at the central level and the support given to the
Irrigation Superintendent from the regional level when such intermediate levels exist. At
the central level, it is essential that there is clear operational policy requiring farmer
participation in all aspects of irrigation systems development and improvement, and that
the policy is backed by adequate budgetary support for properly organizing and
training IAs.
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Where the level of irrigation fees is properly set and collection is efficient in an irrigation
system under joint management, it could generate substantial financial surplus in O&M.
A major part of this surplus should be retained in the system for emergency and for
further improvements.
When the system under joint management is under the supervision of a regional office of
the NEWMAP, regional level support is crucial as the implementation of supervision and
training activities are delegated to the regional office by the central office.
For small- and medium-sized systems, agency capacity for training of staff and IAs, and
for repair and improvement work requiring heavy equipment, are usually in the regional
offices. Thus, regional level support is necessary for effective joint management.
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Personnel Services
Equipment and construction operations
Office including building
Insurance and other overhead costs.
2. Irrigation Operation; Under this head the following items are included
Irrigation operation capital cost
Equipment and building cost
Fuel services
Office requirement and services
Insurance and other overhead cost
3. Irrigation Maintenance cost; under this head following items are included
Equipment
Material
Office and services
Personnel services
Insurance and other overhead charges
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2 TOFA IRRIGATION
2.1.1 Rainfall
The dry and hot season runs from the months of November to April.
In the months of December and January, the dry and dust-laden Eastern and North –
Easterly winds blows from Sahara desert towards the project area.
The main rainy season is July to October but occasional showers fall in May- June
particularly in the higher rainfall areas in the South with maximum precipitation in August.
The rainy season usually commences with local thunderstorms and line squalls.
Most rain falls in the summer months of May to October, followed by a 6 month dry
season, during which time the woody vegetation loses its leaves and the grasses dry up
and may burn. The Mean Annual Rainfall for the project area is
837.7mm
The movements of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) determine the quantity of
rainfall in a particular year - if it penetrates far to the north there will be a long rainy
season and good rains; if it does not move sufficiently far north, then the rains may fail
totally. During the winter, hot dry winds (known in much of West Africa as the
"Harmattan") blow from the north, often bringing dust and sand from the Sahara with
them.
2.1.2 Temperature
The mean maximum and minimum temperatures for Tofa for the period of 50 years as
obtained from the FOA climate software for use in irrigation design (CLIMWAT for
CROPWAT) have been averaged and presented in Table 1. The mean monthly minimum
temperatures show that during the first part of the year, there is a gradual increase then
gradual reduction in temperature. In January, the mean monthly maximum
temperatures are about 31.60C, and by March, these values rise to 37.60C. The onset of
intense rains has a cooling effect with maximum temperatures dropping to 29.50C in
August; the peak of the rainy season. During the rainy season, minimum temperatures
are fairly steady. Mean monthly maximum and minimum temperatures in January may
be as much as about 31.6 and 140C respectively. Following the rains, there is a slight
increase in temperature range as minimum temperature is reduced by the effect of the
dry dust harmattan. By April the south-westerly air mass is dominant over the harmattan
from then until the onset of the rains, the hottest season occurs with mean maximum
temperature of 38.70C.
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2.1.3 Humidity
Humidity is relatively high as a result of influence by humid maritime air mass that blows
from the Atlantic for some period of the year. Mean monthly value for humidity ranges
from a minimum of 40% in January to a maximum of 83.1 in August (Table 2.1). The
factors responsible for humidity include evaporation, solar radiation, vegetal cover and
wind action.
Rainfall
The major limitation to crop growth in the tropics is the amount, time and spread of
rainfall. The rainfall expected at the project site in an average year is about 837.7mm.
The spread of rainfall covers at least 96 days. The rainfall amount and spread in relation
to evaporation at the project site, more than provide for most cereal crops in year. The
variability in annual rainfall from year to year however can be pronounced. This can
result in season, which can alternatively be too wet or dry and calls for good water
management.
The dry season begins about October when most cereal/legumes are ripening. This has
an advantage of reducing the cost and time of drying most crops. There are only six
months in a year when rainfall is in excess of evaporation, over the remaining six months,
there is water deficit in the soil. This means that in a normal year, irrigation would be very
much required from October to April.
Temperature
Next to rainfall, the climatic factor that determines what type of crop may be grown at
the project site is temperature. Generally, there is no problem with the growth of any
tropical cereal, legumes and fibre crops during the rainy season. The temperature
requirement for most common tropical crops is adequate.
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Increase the production of basic foods and improve the diet and nutritional
standard of the rural population
Increase the production of vegetables and other cash crops
Improve livestock husbandry or pisciculture as supplementary farm enterprises.
The aims of agricultural development cannot be spelt out in terms of production only,
especially in terms of production channelled to urban markets. One of the prime
objectives of development is to bring about a transformation of traditional farming
practices leading to viable enterprises, which will provide fair return on the farmers
labour and raise their standard of living comparable to that of the non agricultural
sectors of the economy.
The means for realizing these aims includes bringing new virgin land under cultivation,
and intensification of production, broadening the range of product in individual farms by
crop diversification and adding new lines of production to the existing ones. In the
project area, as in most agricultural projects, it will probably be necessary to resort to
combination of these options. Intensification can take many forms, such as the use of
chemical fertilizers, irrigations or improved crop varieties. This course of action i.e. the use
of physical inputs is measurable and controllable in the sense that resources can be
allotted as required. However, the newly available resources must be rendered in ways
that are acceptable to farmers, who need motivation to overcome their ingrained
distrust towards unfamiliar concepts. The acceptability of agricultural innovations by the
intended beneficiaries is therefore as important as the physical and ecological factors.
The link between the planning authority and the people at the farm level are
professionals – agronomist, extension agents, engineers etc. a shortage of available
professional manpower can thus impede the introduction of innovations, even when the
benefits of the proposed techniques can be proven. Moreover, to attain the desire
results, the professionals should be proficient not only in their special fields but must also
be familiar with the cultural background of the local population.
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Crop Selection
The selection of crops for possible inclusion in the agricultural plan for the Tofa irrigation
project was governed first and foremost by suitability to local conditions from an
agronomical point of view. However, other relevant aspects were also examined,
including potential marketing outlets, possibilities for processing of the primary product
and farmers’ willingness and ability to accept the innovations of a more market-oriented
form of agriculture, i.e. emphasis on production of cash crops.
The crop studied included the following:
Traditional staple crops, such as maize, millet, groundnut and ridi (sesame seed)
which are the predominant crops around the project area, maize and rice. Of
these the grain food, mainly guinea corn and maize, are especially suitable for
cultivation under irrigation since improved varieties of these crops respond well to
a controlled moisture regime (as well as to other agro –technical improvements).
The responses of root and tuber crops to irrigation are not known and these crops
will therefore not be included in the present plan.
Vegetable and fruit crops
Cropping Programme
The cropping programme is a cultivation schedule which takes into consideration the
timing of farming operations and the relationship between these operations and the
annual rainfall regime. As far as possible, harvesting operations and land preparation
should coincide with relatively dry periods, while sowing should take place at the
beginning of the wet season. The cropping programme also serves to determine the
aggregate water demand and to correlate it with the availability of water for irrigation.
The crop water demand is outlined in detail in the next chapter.
The cropping programme also enables the labour situation to be anticipated. Where it is
foreseen that the available labour will not suffice (as, for example, during short peak
seasons, when demand surges) mechanization of some operations may be called for.
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Farm Mechanization
At present, no mechanized equipment is used on small family farms in the project area.
As mentioned above, mechanization may help to resolve labour problems on the farms,
especially when these occur seasonally. Moreover, mechanization is indispensable for
activities which cannot be performed manually. Mechanization in irrigated agriculture
becomes a crucial factor since land preparation must be done as effectively as possible
in the limited time available.
The introduction and use of farm machinery requires not only investment capital for its
purchase but also trained manpower for its operation and maintenance. Moreover
adequate supplies of fuel, lubricants and spare parts must be assured. Any shortcoming
in the upkeep of the equipment or the provision of supplies will render mechanization
ineffectual, thus inevitably affecting project benefits.
Use of Fertilizers
Traditional farming methods make use of the bush fallow system to restore plant nutrients
in the topsoil. However, once this system is replaced by a more intensive cropping
pattern, it becomes necessary to replenish plant nutrients by other means. Where
livestock is kept, manure may be used to some extent; otherwise the soil will be enriched
with chemical fertilizers. The farmers around the project area are conversant with the use
of fertilizer to a very large extent.
2.3.1 Introduction
The irrigation and drainage component of the project involves the development of the
farm land in Tofa, on the left and right flanks of Tofa River. The scheme will be by gravity
as the farmland are on lower terrain than the reservoir. A total area of about 10ha been
proposed to be developed as small-holder farms with provision of irrigation and
drainage facilities utilizing the water resources of the dam reservoir.
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The irrigation water requirements of the recommended crops was calculated using the
estimated monthly potential evapotranspiration values of the project area, the individual
crop coefficients, an overall field efficiency of 40% (water conveyance & application
efficiencies) for the irrigation system and based on a 8 hour irrigation/day. A peak
irrigation requirement of 1.17 l/sec/ha was estimated by the CROPWAT software but for
lack of experience in handling of conventional irrigation facilities 1.50 l/Sec/ha was
adopted for the detailed designs of the irrigation system.
2.3.4 CROPWAT
CROPWAT is a computer programme for the calculation of crop water requirements and
irrigation requirements from existing or new climatic and crop data. Furthermore, the
program allows the development of irrigation schedules for different management
conditions and the calculation of scheme water supply for varying crop patterns.
This Windows version used for this project is based on the DOS versions CROPWAT 5.7 of
1992 and CROPWAT 7.0 of 1999. Apart from a completely redesigned user interface,
CROPWAT 8.0 for Windows includes a host of updated and new features.
These include:
monthly, decade and daily input of climatic data for calculation of ETo
backward compatibility to allow use of data from CLIMWAT database
possibility to estimate climatic data in the absence of measured values
decade and daily calculation of crop water requirements based on updated
calculation algorithms including adjustment of crop-coefficient values
calculation of crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling for dry crops
and for paddy & upland rice
interactive user adjustable irrigation schedules
daily soil water balance output tables
easy saving and retrieval of sessions and of user defined irrigation schedules
graphical presentations of input data, crop water requirements/irrigation
schedules
easy import/export of data and graphics through clipboard or ASCII text files
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Evapotranspiration
The effect of climate on crop water requirement is given by the reference (or
potential) crop evapotranspiration, ET0. The effect of the characteristics of the selected
crops on crop water requirements is given by the crop coefficient kc. The relationship between
ET0 and actual evapotranspiration (ETcrop) is thus:
ET Crop = ETo * kc
Reference Evapotranspiration
The selection of a prediction method for evaluating the reference evapotranspiration
(ET0) depends on the type of climatic data available, and the accuracy required in
determining water needs. The modified Penman method, which would offer the best
evaluation procedure with minimum possible error (of about 10%), is generally used for
calculating the reference evapotranspiration in Nigeria.
The following available meteorological data for Tofa was used in the estimation of the
evapotranspiration for the project area using the FAO Crop water Requirement Model
(CROPWAT) and data obtain are as presented in table 1.
Evaporation
Air Temperature
Sunshine Hours
Wind Speed
Relative Humidity
Crop Coefficients
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The crop coefficient (kc) relates to evapotranspiration of a disease- free crop grown in
large fields under optimum soil water and fertility conditions and achieving full
production potential under the growing environment. Crop coefficients which normally
differs for the different crops depends on the length of the growing season, planting or
sowing date, and rate and stage of crop development.
Table 2 shows the crop coefficients for different crops in relation to their length of
growing season, planting date and stage of development. The estimated
evapotranspiration values based on the modified Penman equation (Table 1) with
necessary crop coefficients (table 3) are used for the estimation of crop water demands
using CROPWAT. Automatic necessary deductions were made to the calculated values
to cater for the contribution by rainfall as part of the crop water requirement met by
rainfall.
The amount of water required to compensate the evapotranspiration loss from the
cropped field is defined as crop water requirement. Although the values for Crop
evapotranspiration under standard conditions (Etc) and crop water requirement are
identical, crop water requirement refers to the amount of water that needs to be
supplied, while crop evapotranspiration refers to the amount of water that is lost through
evapotranspiration. The crop water requirements have been evaluated at intervals for
the selected crops. Table 2.3 shows the crop water requirements as obtain from
CROPWAT. It has been assumed that within each secondary and tertiary block the
farmers would wish to arrange their activities such that both water and labour
requirements are spread over a period for each operation.
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Principles
These have all been confirmed by simulating the above conditions using the SIRMOD
program (Surface Irrigation Simulation Model) developed at the Biological and Irrigation
Engineering Department of the Utah State University, USA. This model is based on the
FAO publication No 45 which deals with the guidelines for designing and evaluating
surface irrigation systems.
Irrigation Schedule
A guide to good water management is the establishment of an appropriate frequency
of irrigation and depth of water to be applied. These are dependent on soil
characteristics, the depth of root zone and the crop water requirements.
The efficiency of irrigation would depend mainly on the soil characteristics, the method
of irrigation, the farmer's ability and the losses in the conveyance system.
The soil characteristic which is relevant for calculating irrigation frequencies is the
available water per metre depth of soil. In order to determine the available water, the
moisture contents at field capacity and wilting point are required. The average depth
of available water per metre depth of soil as determined from the laboratory tests is in
the range 100 – 150mm. Refer to Soil report in the annex of this report for details.
Actual irrigation scheduling is a day to day decision after the project is in operation.
Daily readings of climatological values including daily evapotranspiration, temperature,
wind speed, rainfall, stage of growth and related crop water requirement etc. will give
the essential background for the irrigation management to decide about application
time, rate and intervals.
For planning purposes, theoretical calculations taking meteorological data into account
and also considering the soil properties and crop management factor, were carried out
to determine the theoretical irrigation interval. The calculated intervals serve as
determining factors to compute the maximum daily possible water demand to be
discharged through a canal system, which must be capable to carry that specific flow
rate. The theoretically calculated irrigation intervals will therefore be just a guideline for
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the later irrigation management. Refer to CROPWAT output in the Annex of this report for
the irrigation schedule.
For convenience of irrigation management, an overall irrigation interval of 7 days for all
crops and for all the months was estimated. Exceptions from the above are periods after
planting and shortly before harvesting, when irrigation intervals of 3 - 5 and 8-14 days
respectively were taken to satisfy crop and agricultural requirements respectively. The
required maximum gross application depth of 85 mm to satisfy the plant requirement
and to take account of all losses occurring during conveyance and distribution was
found accordingly.
The losses in the fields are due to surface run-off and/or deep percolation of excess
water and depend on the frequency of irrigation and on percolation rates.
The application efficiency in the project area due to water losses by surface run-off
and/or non-uniform application of water is estimated to be 55% and the distribution
efficiency of 45% (FAO paper No. 24) giving an overall project efficiency of 50%. The
efficiency of the field application depends on the soil, irrigation method and
management. The application efficiency is low in the project area due to the soil type
that abound in the area and the general lack of experience of the farmers in
conventional irrigation operation practices leading to anticipated communication
problems.
The irrigation and drainage layout show the location of canals, drains, farm units and
most of the associated structures. The layout is based on the irrigable area identified by
the soil survey studies and the topography.
Due to the not well-defined canal and drainage lines over each of the area, regular
shaped fields were not always possible and varying dimensions had to be adopted.
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2.4.2 Velocity
Based on manning's formula, canal velocity is given by
𝑅2/3 𝑆 1/2
𝑣=
𝑛
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2.4.7 Freeboard
The value of freeboard is given by f = cd
Where f = freeboard
d = depth of flow
c = a coefficient varying from 0.46 to 1.0 depending on flow.
S = Canal gradient
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A total Right of Way of 5.5m comprising of 4.0m road and 0.75m shoulders on both sides.
The road thickness is made up of compacted subgrade, a 150mm thick sub¬base and
wearing course of lateritic material.
Field roads of 4m total width are provided alongside the field canals.
2.5 Design
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MC1
Flow (Q) = 68l/s (0.068m3/s)
Bed width (B) = 0.35m
Flow depth (d) = 0.3m
Freeboard-f = 0.3m
Canal side slope (SS) = 1: 1
Canal bed slope = 0.0006
Velocity (V) = 0.68m/s
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Type B
Flow (Q) = 45l/s
Bed width (B) = 0.3m
Flow depth (d) = 0.3m
Freeboard-f = 0.3m
Canal side slope (SS) = 1: 1
Canal bed slope = 0.0003
Velocity (V) = 0.34m/s
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Machinery and equipment required for rough and medium levelling include bull dozers,
tractor drawn or wheeled scrapers, land graders and levellers. The equipment used for
smoothening is land plane and land leveller.
Depending on the mix of the above factors in a given situation, the role of the WUAs
could include any of the following as may be agreed between the NEWMAP and the
farmers:
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The responsibility of the farmers is only at the terminal level. The NEWMAP is
responsible for the entire irrigation system and delivers water at the turnout.
The farmers are expected to construct and maintain farm ditches and
drainage ditches, distribute water among them, and pay the irrigation fees
prescribed by the government. Under this arrangement farmers are usually
organized into informal groups in preparation for the establishment of WUA for
water distribution and maintenance of farm and drainage ditches.
Irrigation Service Fees (ISF) are collected from the water users by NEWMAP
irrigation fee collectors.
NEWMAP and WUAs enter into two types of contract labelled as Type 1 and
Type 2 contracts.
Each WUA in the irrigation system enters into an agreement with NEWMAP for
O&M of a lateral canal that irrigate the area of the WUA. NEWMAP remains
responsible for the O&M of the main canal and the headworks and delivers
water to each WUA at the head gate of each lateral canal.
ISF bills to farmers are prepared by NEWMAP from the LIPA prepared by the
WUA and verified by NEWMAP staff.
ISF is collected by the WUA and collections are shared between NEWMAP and
the WUA in accordance with a formula designed to cover the O&M expenses
of NEWMAP and provide incentives for increased collection by the WUA
The same arrangement as (c) above, except that NEWMAP's share is a fixed
percentage of the ISF to be collected which is subsequently billed by NEWMAP
to the WUA. The WUA bills each individual member.
The WUA is responsible for O&M and financial management of the entire
irrigation system in accordance with an agreement on irrigation management
transfer that stipulates the responsibilities of the WUA and the NEWMAP.
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Guidelines for establishing joint management of irrigation systems between government and
farmers irrigation associations
The process of organizing the farmers is crucial. It is necessary to build the irrigation
associations (IA) from the bottom by first organizing Turnout Service Areas (TSAs) through
farmer participation in activities that develop the farmers' capacity to make group
decisions and to establish proper criteria and procedures for choosing TSA leaders.
In most cases, these activities would be on planning and implementation of
improvements to the irrigation facilities to make the system responsive to farmers' needs.
Farmer participation should include decision making in the identification and
prioritization of problems, planning solutions and improvements and arrangements for
takeover of O&M by the farmers.
The higher levels of the organization should be established only after the TSAs have been
established with good, responsible leaders. The role and selection of the TSA leaders is
crucial in planning and implementation of water distribution, maintenance, and conflict
management and irrigation fee collection.
The TSA leaders should be members of the board of directors (BOO) or of the
management and decision-making body of the organization and the operative
committees at the top should be replicated from the base so that plans and decisions
can be effective.
Sufficient lead-time should be provided for organizing the farmers before they go into
contracts for joint management and undertake construction of improvements to the
irrigation system. Sometimes, this takes about a year.
Organizing of farmers should not be contracted out in the same manner as construction
or other projects. The best contract provisions cannot provide sufficient flexibility to meet
field conditions that are difficult to predict and are likely to change in place and in time,
especially in the coordination of technical and institutional activities essential to
successful promotion of farmer participation.
The IAs should be given proper training in irrigation system management, financial
management, leadership development and holding regular meetings at IA and TSA
levels, including review and planning Workshops after every cropping season. However,
no amount of training or strengthening will be effective if the organizational structure of
the IA is deficient. As an example, rotation of water deliveries for equity of water
distribution is possible only if the IA is properly structured. The role of the Irrigation
Superintendent and his staff is crucial to successful establishment and implementation of
joint management. Farmers can be organized into IAs that can go into joint
management only if the task is adequately supported by the Irrigation Superintendent. In
the process of improving an irrigation system to make it responsive to farmers' needs, the
Irrigation Superintendent should foster farmer participation in all aspects of system
improvement. He should consider and take action on all legitimate and feasible farmers'
requests for system improvement and use these as opportunities for developing farmer
responsibilities and capacities. Thus all improvements should be joint undertakings
between the irrigation agency and the farmers with both sharing work responsibilities
and affordable investment of resources. The Irrigation Superintendent and his staff and
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Design Report -Zephyrgold August 2018
the IAs should work out jointly all procedures for managing the irrigation system and see
to it that the procedures are properly implemented, periodically reviewed; and
improved upon as needed.
Two other crucial requirements are the policy and incentives on joint management
adopted by the irrigation agency at the central level and the support given to the
Irrigation Superintendent from the regional level when such intermediate levels exist. At
the central level, it is essential that there is clear operational policy requiring farmer
participation in all aspects of irrigation systems development and improvement, and that
the policy is backed by adequate budgetary support for properly organizing and
training IAs.
Where the level of irrigation fees is properly set and collection is efficient in an irrigation
system under joint management, it could generate substantial financial surplus in O&M.
A major part of this surplus should be retained in the system for emergency and for
further improvements.
When the system under joint management is under the supervision of a regional office of
the NEWMAP, regional level support is crucial as the implementation of supervision and
training activities are delegated to the regional office by the central office.
For small- and medium-sized systems, agency capacity for training of staff and IAs, and
for repair and improvement work requiring heavy equipment, are usually in the regional
offices. Thus, regional level support is necessary for effective joint management.
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Prior to irrigation water releases, all facilities must be in good condition. At the
commencement of irrigation, farmers shall not be allowed to take water from the canal
unless farm ditches are properly cleaned and ready to receive irrigation water. This
would oblige the end users to undertake their part of maintenance of the system.
2. Irrigation Operation; Under this head the following items are included
3. Irrigation Maintenance cost; under this head following items are included
Equipment
Material
Office and services
Personnel services
Insurance and other overhead charges
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3 MAKODA IRRIGATION
3.1 Introduction
Temperature
Next to rainfall, the climatic factor that determines what type of crop may be grown at
the project site is temperature. Generally, there is no problem with the growth of any
tropical cereal, legumes and fibre crops during the rainy season. The temperature
requirement for most common tropical crops is adequate.
Source of Water
The principal source of water for agricultural purposes around the project area has been
rain. This still remain the water source to be considered in this scheme as there are no
other sources for now. There is a dam been proposed to be the source of water for the
proposed irrigation scheme. The topography of the area is good for a small dam, the
catchment area for the River is also reasonable and the topography can provide good
impoundment. Moreover, the reservoir of the dam will inadvertently provide sufficient
water for the project. The scheme is therefore proposed to be that of dam reservoir
based scheme.
Water from the dam shall flow by gravity into the main canals and running through the
irrigation area.
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has been adapted to natural soil-moisture regime, even that production is usually
handicapped by lack of moisture however, under the present system, land resources are
not exploited sufficiently and irrigation is therefore proposed in order to intensify land use
and increase the agricultural production.
The plan for irrigated crop production makes use of farming methods that are not
relatively new and untried in the project area. The plan combines irrigation, the
introduction of new crop varieties with improved crop care (fertilizer application, crop
rotation, weed and pest control, etc) and mechanization of several farming operations.
Eventually it will become necessary to improve post-harvest activities such as threshing,
drying, storage and marketing of produce.
A description of the various considerations relating to the plan for irrigated agriculture is
given below.
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3.5.1 Introduction
The irrigation and drainage component of the project involves the development of the
farm land in Dawankaya/Jigawa Sateme on the left flank of the River. The scheme will
be by gravity as the farmland are on lower terrain than the reservoir. A total area of
about 35Ha been proposed to be developed as small-holder farms with provision of
irrigation and drainage facilities utilizing the water resources of the dam reservoir.
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water/irrigation management practice can be proposed for the project. All these were
computed using CROPWAT.
The irrigation water requirements of the recommended crops was calculated using the
estimated monthly potential evapotranspiration values of the project area, the individual
crop coefficients, an overall field efficiency of 40% (water conveyance & application
efficiencies) for the irrigation system and based on a 8 hour irrigation/day. A peak
irrigation requirement of 1.17 l/sec/ha was estimated by the CROPWAT software but for
lack of experience in handling of conventional irrigation facilities 1.50 l/Sec/ha was
adopted for the detailed designs of the irrigation system.
Table 3.1: : Irrigation Water Supply
CROPWAT
CROPWAT is a computer programme for the calculation of crop water requirements and
irrigation requirements from existing or new climatic and crop data. Furthermore, the
program allows the development of irrigation schedules for different management
conditions and the calculation of scheme water supply for varying crop patterns.
This Windows version used for this project is based on the DOS versions CROPWAT 5.7 of
1992 and CROPWAT 7.0 of 1999. Apart from a completely redesigned user interface,
CROPWAT 8.0 for Windows includes a host of updated and new features.
These include:
monthly, decade and daily input of climatic data for calculation of ETo
backward compatibility to allow use of data from CLIMWAT database
possibility to estimate climatic data in the absence of measured values
decade and daily calculation of crop water requirements based on updated
calculation algorithms including adjustment of crop-coefficient values
calculation of crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling for dry crops
and for paddy & upland rice
interactive user adjustable irrigation schedules
daily soil water balance output tables
easy saving and retrieval of sessions and of user defined irrigation schedules
graphical presentations of input data, crop water requirements and irrigation
schedules
easy import/export of data and graphics through clipboard or ASCII text files
extensive printing routines, supporting all windows-based printers
context-sensitive help system
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All calculation procedures as used in CROPWAT 8.0 are based on the FAO guidelines as
laid down in the publication No. 56 of the Irrigation and Drainage Series of FAO "Crop
Evapotranspiration - Guidelines for computing crop water requirements.
Evapotranspiration
The effect of climate on crop water requirement is given by the reference (or
potential) crop evapotranspiration, ET0. The effect of the characteristics of the selected
crops on crop water requirements is given by the crop coefficient kc. The relationship between
ET0 and actual evapotranspiration (ETcrop) is thus:
ET Crop = ETo * kc
Reference Evapotranspiration
The selection of a prediction method for evaluating the reference evapotranspiration
(ET0) depends on the type of climatic data available, and the accuracy required in
determining water needs The modified Penman method, which would offer the best
evaluation procedure with minimum possible error (of about 10%), is generally used for
calculating the reference evapotranspiration in Nigeria.
The following available meteorological data for Makoda was used in the estimation of
the evapotranspiration for the project area using the FAO Crop water Requirement
Model (CROPWAT) and data obtain are as presented in table 1.
Evaporation
Air Temperature
Sunshine Hours
Wind Speed
Relative Humidity
Crop Coefficients
The crop coefficient (kc) relates to evapotranspiration of a disease- free crop grown in
large fields under optimum soil water and fertility conditions and achieving full
production potential under the growing environment. Crop coefficients which normally
differs for the different crops depends on the length of the growing season, planting or
sowing date, and rate and stage of crop development.
Table 2 shows the crop coefficients for different crops in relation to the their length of
growing season, planting date and stage of development
The estimated evapotranspiration values based on the modified Penman equation
(Table 1) with necessary crop coefficients (table 3) are used for the estimation of crop
water demands using CROPWAT. Automatic necessary deductions were made to the
calculated values to cater for the contribution by rainfall as part of the crop water
requirement met by rainfall.
Table 3.2: Crop Water Requirement
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These have all been confirmed by simulating the above conditions using the SIRMOD
program (Surface Irrigation Simulation Model) developed at the Biological and Irrigation
Engineering Department of the Utah State University, USA. This model is based on the
FAO publication No 45 which deals with the guidelines for designing and evaluating
surface irrigation systems.
Irrigation Schedule
A guide to good water management is the establishment of an appropriate frequency
of irrigation and depth of water to be applied. These are dependent on soil
characteristics, the depth of root zone and the crop water requirements.
The efficiency of irrigation would depend mainly on the soil characteristics, the method
of irrigation, the farmer's ability and the losses in the conveyance system.
The soil characteristic which is relevant for calculating irrigation frequencies is the
available water per metre depth of soil. In order to determine the available water, the
moisture contents at field capacity and wilting point are required. The average depth
of available water per metre depth of soil as determined from the laboratory tests is in
the range 100 – 150mm. Refer to Soil report in the annex of this report for details.
Actual irrigation scheduling is a day to day decision after the project is in operation.
Daily readings of climatological values including daily evapotranspiration, temperature,
wind speed, rainfall, stage of growth and related crop water requirement etc. will give
the essential background for the irrigation management to decide about application
time, rate and intervals.For planning purposes, theoretical calculations taking
meteorological data into account and also considering the soil properties and crop
management factor, were carried out to determine the theoretical irrigation interval.
The calculated intervals serve as determining factors to compute the maximum daily
possible water demand to be discharged through a canal system, which must be
capable to carry that specific flow rate. The theoretically calculated irrigation intervals
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will therefore be just a guideline for the later irrigation management. Refer to CROPWAT
output in the Annex of this report for the irrigation schedule.
For convenience of irrigation management, an overall irrigation interval of 7 days for all
crops and for all the months was estimated. Exceptions from the above are periods after
planting and shortly before harvesting, when irrigation intervals of 3 - 5 and 8-14 days
respectively were taken to satisfy crop and agricultural requirements respectively. The
required maximum gross application depth of 85 mm to satisfy the plant requirement
and to take account of all losses occurring during conveyance and distribution was
found accordingly.
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Apply the irrigation water efficiently to avoid long-term problems such as high
water tables and salinity, and short-term problems such as water logging
To apply the irrigation water using a system that is efficient in terms of labour and
money.
3.6.2 Velocity
Based on manning's formula, canal velocity is given by
𝑅2/3 𝑆 1/2
𝑣=
𝑛
Permissible velocity is that velocity that would not cause eroding of the canal material or
excessive deposition of silt or growth of aquatic weeds.
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3.6.7 Freeboard
The value of freeboard is given by f = cd
Where f = freeboard
d = depth of flow
c = a coefficient varying from 0.46 to 1.0 depending on flow.
S = Canal gradient
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13 SC2-1 - 153 18
14 SC2-2 - 140 16
15 SC2-3 - 214 17
16 SC2-4 - 126 18
17 SC2-5 - 100 17
18 SC3-1 - 125 21
19 SC3-2 - 148 18
20 SC3-3 80 15
21 SC3-4 90 18
22 SC3-5 100 14
23 SC4-1 120 16
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24 SC4-2 118 20
25 SC4-3 115 17
26 SC4-4 95 16
27 SC4-5 78 15
28 SC5-1 96 18
29 SC5-2 78 17
30 SC5-3 87 14
31 SC5-4 84 15
32 SC5-5 75 16
19 SC2-6 2,919 438
3.7 Design
𝑑𝑐
𝑞𝑐 = l/s/ha for continuous flow
259×𝑒
For this project the Canal flow was computed using the CROPWAT software
which arrived at 1.17l/sec/ha, but due to lack of experience in handling
conventional Irrigation facilities 1.5l/sec/ha will be use. The design also assumed 8
hrs pumping of irrigation per day and 6 days per 7 day week.
Type
Secondary Canal SC2-1 = 18 l/s A
Secondary Canal SC2-2 = 22.5 l/s B
Secondary Canal SC2-3 = 24.8 l/s B
Secondary Canal SC2-4 = 33.8 l/s B
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MC2
Flow (Q) = 171 l/s (0.171m3/s)
Bed width (B) = 0.45m
Flow depth (d) = 0.35m
Freeboard-f = 0.35m
Canal side slope (SS) = 1: 1
Canal bed slope = 0.0006
Velocity (V) = 0.68m/s
MC1
Flow (Q) = 68l/s (0.068m3/s)
Bed width (B) = 0.35m
Flow depth (d) = 0.3m
Freeboard-f = 0.3m
Canal side slope (SS) = 1: 1
Canal bed slope = 0.0006
Velocity (V) = 0.68m/s
Type B
Flow (Q) = 45l/s
Bed width (B) = 0.3m
Flow depth (d) = 0.3m
Freeboard-f = 0.3m
Canal side slope (SS) = 1: 1
Canal bed slope = 0.0003
Velocity (V) = 0.34m/s
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In general, in developing countries the principal role in irrigation development rests with
the government and it is the government and its irrigation agency that prescribes the
role of Water Users Association (WUA) in the adoption and implementation of
participatory irrigation management.
The factors which affect the role of WUAs are:
Laws and policies of the country and its irrigation agency;
Size and complexity of the irrigation systems;
Physical condition of the irrigation systems;
Size of irrigated farm holding;
Farmers net income;
Capability of irrigation agency and its staff;
Capability and organizational arrangements of the WUA;
Local politics;
Local social customs and practice
Environmental problems.
Depending on the mix of the above factors in a given situation, the role of the WUAs
could include any of the following as may be agreed between the NEWMAP and the
farmers:
The responsibility of the farmers is only at the terminal level. The NEWMAP is
responsible for the entire irrigation system and delivers water at the turnout.
The farmers are expected to construct and maintain farm ditches and drainage
ditches, distribute water among them, and pay the irrigation fees prescribed by
the government. Under this arrangement farmers are usually organized into
informal groups in preparation for the establishment of WUA for water distribution
and maintenance of farm and drainage ditches.
Irrigation Service Fees (ISF) are collected from the water users by NEWMAP
irrigation fee collectors.
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NEWMAP and WUAs enter into two types of contract labelled as Type 1 and Type
2 contracts.
Under Type 1 contract, the WUA undertakes canal maintenance, which do not
require heavy equipment. Such activities may include clearing, desilting,
embankment repair etc., for which NEWMAP pays the WUA an agreed amount
per km of canal, on a monthly basis.
Under Type 2 contract, the WUAs assist in delivering water to the various turnouts,
prepare the List of Irrigated and Planted Areas (LIPA), distribute ISF bills prepared
by NEWMAP, collect payment of ISF from farmers and remit the collection to
NEWMAP. For this activity they are entitled to a share in the amount collected in
accordance with the following tabulation:
Each WUA in the irrigation system enters into an agreement with NEWMAP for
O&M of a lateral canal that irrigate the area of the WUA. NEWMAP remains
responsible for the O&M of the main canal and the headworks and delivers
water to each WUA at the head gate of each lateral canal.
ISF bills to farmers are prepared by NEWMAP from the LIPA prepared by the WUA
and verified by NEWMAP staff.
ISF is collected by the WUA and collections are shared between NEWMAP and
the WUA in accordance with a formula designed to cover the O&M expenses of
NEWMAP and provide incentives for increased collection by the WUA
The same arrangement as (c) above, except that NEWMAP's share is a fixed
percentage of the ISF to be collected which is subsequently billed by NEWMAP to
the WUA. The WUA bills each individual member.
The WUA is responsible for O&M and financial management of the entire
irrigation system in accordance with an agreement on irrigation management
transfer that stipulates the responsibilities of the WUA and the NEWMAP.
Guidelines for establishing joint management of irrigation systems between government and
farmers irrigation associations
The process of organizing the farmers is crucial. It is necessary to build the irrigation
associations (IA) from the bottom by first organizing Turnout Service Areas (TSAs) through
farmer participation in activities that develop the farmers' capacity to make group
decisions and to establish proper criteria and procedures for choosing TSA leaders.
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The higher levels of the organization should be established only after the TSAs have been
established with good, responsible leaders. The role and selection of the TSA leaders is
crucial in planning and implementation of water distribution, maintenance, and conflict
management and irrigation fee collection.
The TSA leaders should be members of the board of directors (BOO) or of the
management and decision-making body of the organization and the operative
committees at the top should be replicated from the base so that plans and decisions
can be effective.
Sufficient lead-time should be provided for organizing the farmers before they go into
contracts for joint management and undertake construction of improvements to the
irrigation system. Sometimes, this takes about a year.
Organizing of farmers should not be contracted out in the same manner as construction
or other projects. The best contract provisions cannot provide sufficient flexibility to meet
field conditions that are difficult to predict and are likely to change in place and in time,
especially in the coordination of technical and institutional activities essential to
successful promotion of farmer participation.
The IAs should be given proper training in irrigation system management, financial
management, leadership development and holding regular meetings at IA and TSA
levels, including review and planning Workshops after every cropping season. However,
no amount of training or strengthening will be effective if the organizational structure of
the IA is deficient. As an example, rotation of water deliveries for equity of water
distribution is possible only if the IA is properly structured. The role of the Irrigation
Superintendent and his staff is crucial to successful establishment and implementation of
joint management. Farmers can be organized into IAs that can go into joint
management only if the task is adequately supported by the Irrigation Superintendent. In
the process of improving an irrigation system to make it responsive to farmers' needs, the
Irrigation Superintendent should foster farmer participation in all aspects of system
improvement. He should consider and take action on all legitimate and feasible farmers'
requests for system improvement and use these as opportunities for developing farmer
responsibilities and capacities. Thus all improvements should be joint undertakings
between the irrigation agency and the farmers with both sharing work responsibilities
and affordable investment of resources. The Irrigation Superintendent and his staff and
the IAs should work out jointly all procedures for managing the irrigation system and see
to it that the procedures are properly implemented, periodically reviewed; and
improved upon as needed.
Two other crucial requirements are the policy and incentives on joint management
adopted by the irrigation agency at the central level and the support given to the
Irrigation Superintendent from the regional level when such intermediate levels exist. At
the central level, it is essential that there is clear operational policy requiring farmer
participation in all aspects of irrigation systems development and improvement, and that
the policy is backed by adequate budgetary support for properly organizing and
training IAs.
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Where the level of irrigation fees is properly set and collection is efficient in an irrigation
system under joint management, it could generate substantial financial surplus in O&M.
A major part of this surplus should be retained in the system for emergency and for
further improvements.
When the system under joint management is under the supervision of a regional office of
the NEWMAP, regional level support is crucial as the implementation of supervision and
training activities are delegated to the regional office by the central office.
For small- and medium-sized systems, agency capacity for training of staff and IAs, and
for repair and improvement work requiring heavy equipment, are usually in the regional
offices. Thus, regional level support is necessary for effective joint management.
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Fuel services
Office requirement and services
Insurance and other overhead cost
3. Irrigation Maintenance cost; under this head following items are included
Equipment
Material
Office and services
Personnel services
Insurance and other overhead charges
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4 SHANONO IRRIGATION
b) Temperature
Next to rainfall, the climatic factor that determines what type of crop may be grown at
the project site is temperature. Generally, there is no problem with the growth of any
tropical cereal, legumes and fibre crops during the rainy season. The temperature
requirement for most common tropical crops is adequate.
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The aims of agricultural development cannot be spelt out in terms of production only,
especially in terms of production channelled to urban markets. One of the prime
objectives of development is to bring about a transformation of traditional farming
practices leading to viable enterprises, which will provide fair return on the farmers
labour and raise their standard of living comparable to that of the non agricultural
sectors of the economy.
The means for realizing these aims includes bringing new virgin land under cultivation,
and intensification of production, broadening the range of product in individual farms by
crop diversification and adding new lines of production to the existing ones. In the
project area, as in most agricultural projects, it will probably be necessary to resort to
combination of these options. Intensification can take many forms, such as the use of
chemical fertilizers, irrigations or improved crop varieties. This course of action i.e. the use
of physical inputs is measurable and controllable in the sense that resources can be
allotted as required. However, the newly available resources must be rendered in ways
that are acceptable to farmers, who need motivation to overcome their ingrained
distrust towards unfamiliar concepts. The acceptability of agricultural innovations by the
intended beneficiaries is therefore as important as the physical and ecological factors.
The link between the planning authority and the people at the farm level are
professionals – agronomist, extension agents, engineers etc. a shortage of available
professional manpower can thus impede the introduction of innovations, even when the
benefits of the proposed techniques can be proven. Moreover, to attain the desire
results, the professionals should be proficient not only in their special fields but must also
be familiar with the cultural background of the local population.
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handicapped by lack of moisture however, under the present system, land resources are
not exploited sufficiently and irrigation is therefore proposed in order to intensify land use
and increase the agricultural production.
The plan for irrigated crop production makes use of farming methods that are not
relatively new and untried in the project area. The plan combines irrigation, the
introduction of new crop varieties with improved crop care (fertilizer application, crop
rotation, weed and pest control, etc) and mechanization of several farming operations.
Eventually it will become necessary to improve post-harvest activities such as threshing,
drying, storage and marketing of produce.
A description of the various considerations relating to the plan for irrigated agriculture is
given below.
Crop Selection
The selection of crops for possible inclusion in the agricultural plan for the Shanono
irrigation project was governed first and foremost by suitability to local conditions from
an agronomical point of view. However, other relevant aspects were also examined,
including potential marketing outlets, possibilities for processing of the primary product
and farmers’ willingness and ability to accept the innovations of a more market-oriented
form of agriculture, i.e. emphasis on production of cash crops.
- Traditional staple crops, such as maize, millet, and groundnut which are the
predominant crops around the project area, maize and rice. Of these the grain food,
mainly guinea corn and maize, are especially suitable for cultivation under irrigation
since improved varieties of these crops respond well to a controlled moisture regime (as
well as to other agro –technical improvements). The responses of root and tuber crops to
irrigation are not known and these crops will therefore not be included in the present
plan.
Cropping Programme
The cropping programme is a cultivation schedule which takes into consideration the
timing of farming operations and the relationship between these operations and the
annual rainfall regime. As far as possible, harvesting operations and land preparation
should coincide with relatively dry periods, while sowing should take place at the
beginning of the wet season. The cropping programme also serves to determine the
aggregate water demand and to correlate it with the availability of water for irrigation.
The crop water demand is outlined in detail in the next chapter.
The cropping programme also enables the labour situation to be anticipated. Where it is
foreseen that the available labour will not suffice (as, for example, during short peak
seasons, when demand surges) mechanization of some operations may be called for.
Farm Mechanization
At present, no mechanized equipment is used on small family farms in the project area.
As mentioned above, mechanization may help to resolve labour problems on the farms,
especially when these occur seasonally. Moreover, mechanization is indispensable for
activities which cannot be performed manually. Mechanization in irrigated agriculture
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becomes a crucial factor since land preparation must be done as effectively as possible
in the limited time available.
The introduction and use of farm machinery requires not only investment capital for its
purchase but also trained manpower for its operation and maintenance. Moreover
adequate supplies of fuel, lubricants and spare parts must be assured. Any shortcoming
in the upkeep of the equipment or the provision of supplies will render mechanization
ineffectual, thus inevitably affecting project benefits.
Use of Fertilizers
Traditional farming methods make use of the bush fallow system to restore plant nutrients
in the topsoil. However, once this system is replaced by a more intensive cropping
pattern, it becomes necessary to replenish plant nutrients by other means. Where
livestock is kept, manure may be used to some extent; otherwise the soil will be enriched
with chemical fertilizers. The farmers around the project area are conversant with the use
of fertilizer to a very large extent.
4.3.1 Introduction
The irrigation and drainage component of the project involves the development of the
farm land in Yartiti on the left and right and left flanks of the River. The scheme will be by
gravity as the farmland are on lower terrain than the reservoir. A total area of about
35Ha been proposed to be developed as small-holder farms with provision of irrigation
and drainage facilities utilizing the water resources of the dam reservoir.
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water/irrigation management practice can be proposed for the project. All these were
computed using CROPWAT.
The irrigation water requirements of the recommended crops was calculated using the
estimated monthly potential evapotranspiration values of the project area, the individual
crop coefficients, an overall field efficiency of 40% (water conveyance & application
efficiencies) for the irrigation system and based on a 8 hour irrigation/day. A peak
irrigation requirement of 1.17 l/sec/ha was estimated by the CROPWAT software but for
lack of experience in handling of conventional irrigation facilities 1.50 l/Sec/ha was
adopted for the detailed designs of the irrigation system.
Table 4.1: Irrigation Water Supply
CROPWAT
CROPWAT is a computer programme for the calculation of crop water requirements and
irrigation requirements from existing or new climatic and crop data. Furthermore, the
program allows the development of irrigation schedules for different management
conditions and the calculation of scheme water supply for varying crop patterns.
This Windows version used for this project is based on the DOS versions CROPWAT 5.7 of
1992 and CROPWAT 7.0 of 1999. Apart from a completely redesigned user interface,
CROPWAT 8.0 for Windows includes a host of updated and new features.
These include:
monthly, decade and daily input of climatic data for calculation of ETo
backward compatibility to allow use of data from CLIMWAT database
possibility to estimate climatic data in the absence of measured values
decade and daily calculation of crop water requirements based on updated
calculation algorithms including adjustment of crop-coefficient values
calculation of crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling for dry crops
and for paddy & upland rice
interactive user adjustable irrigation schedules
daily soil water balance output tables
easy saving and retrieval of sessions and of user defined irrigation schedules
graphical presentations of input data, crop water requirements and irrigation
schedules
easy import/export of data and graphics through clipboard or ASCII text files
extensive printing routines, supporting all windows-based printers
context-sensitive help system
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All calculation procedures as used in CROPWAT 8.0 are based on the FAO guidelines as
laid down in the publication No. 56 of the Irrigation and Drainage Series of FAO "Crop
Evapotranspiration - Guidelines for computing crop water requirements .
4.3.5 Evapotranspiration
The effect of climate on crop water requirement is given by the reference (or
potential) crop evapotranspiration, ET0. The effect of the characteristics of the selected
crops on crop water requirements is given by the crop coefficient kc. The relationship between
ET0 and actual evapotranspiration (ETcrop) is thus:
ET Crop = ETo * kc
Crop Coefficients
The crop coefficient (kc) relates to evapotranspiration of a disease- free crop grown in
large fields under optimum soil water and fertility conditions and achieving full
production potential under the growing environment. Crop coefficients which normally
differs for the different crops depends on the length of the growing season, planting or
sowing date, and rate and stage of crop development.
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Table 2 shows the crop coefficients for different crops in relation to the their length of
growing season, planting date and stage of development
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Principles
The furrows are running along the major slope
The maximum furrow slope is the natural slope of the ground.
The maximum furrow length is limited to 100 m, shorter runs are sometimes
necessary because of the awkward topography.
The maximum non erosive furrow stream is given as 1l/s
The furrow spacing to achieve maximum wetting of the root zone is taken as 0.75
m.
These have all been confirmed by simulating the above conditions using the SIRMOD
program (Surface Irrigation Simulation Model) developed at the Biological and Irrigation
Engineering Department of the Utah State University, USA. This model is based on the
FAO publication No 45 which deals with the guidelines for designing and evaluating
surface irrigation systems.
Irrigation Schedule
A guide to good water management is the establishment of an appropriate frequency
of irrigation and depth of water to be applied. These are dependent on soil
characteristics, the depth of root zone and the crop water requirements.
The efficiency of irrigation would depend mainly on the soil characteristics, the method
of irrigation, the farmer's ability and the losses in the conveyance system.
The soil characteristic which is relevant for calculating irrigation frequencies is the
available water per metre depth of soil. In order to determine the available water, the
moisture contents at field capacity and wilting point are required. The average depth
of available water per metre depth of soil as determined from the laboratory tests is in
the range 100 – 150mm. Refer to Soil report in the annex of this report for details.
Actual irrigation scheduling is a day to day decision after the project is in operation.
Daily readings of climatological values including daily evapotranspiration, temperature,
wind speed, rainfall, stage of growth and related crop water requirement etc. will give
the essential background for the irrigation management to decide about application
time, rate and intervals.
For planning purposes, theoretical calculations taking meteorological data into account
and also considering the soil properties and crop management factor, were carried out
to determine the theoretical irrigation interval. The calculated intervals serve as
determining factors to compute the maximum daily possible water demand to be
discharged through a canal system, which must be capable to carry that specific flow
rate. The theoretically calculated irrigation intervals will therefore be just a guideline for
the later irrigation management. Refer to CROPWAT output in the Annex of this report for
the irrigation schedule.
For convenience of irrigation management, an overall irrigation interval of 7 days for all
crops and for all the months was estimated. Exceptions from the above are periods after
planting and shortly before harvesting, when irrigation intervals of 3 - 5 and 8-14 days
respectively were taken to satisfy crop and agricultural requirements respectively. The
required maximum gross application depth of 85 mm to satisfy the plant requirement
and to take account of all losses occurring during conveyance and distribution was
found accordingly.
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𝑑𝑐
𝑞𝑐 =
259 × 𝑒
4.4.2 Velocity
Based on manning's formula, canal velocity is given by
𝑅2/3 𝑆 1/2
𝑣=
𝑛
Permissible velocity is that velocity that would not cause eroding of the canal
material or excessive deposition of silt or growth of aquatic weeds.
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Drains - s = 0.0002
4.4.7 Freeboard
The value of freeboard is given by f = cd
Where f = freeboard
d = depth of flow
c = a coefficient varying from 0.46 to 1.0 depending on flow.
S = Canal gradient
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A Summary of the major components of the irrigation system that would be provided in
the un eroded portion before the road in from of the damis as follows:
2 main canal, length 2,300m;
8 secondary canals, (3,000m);
Turnouts,
Drop Structures etc.
The proposed drainage system consists of:
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4.5 Design
𝑑𝑐
𝑞𝑐 = l/s/ha for continuous flow
259×𝑒
For this project the Canal flow was computed using the CROPWAT software which
arrived at 1.17l/sec/ha, but due to lack of experience in handling conventional Irrigation
facilities 1.5l/sec/ha will be use. The design also assumed 8 hrs pumping of irrigation per day
and 6 days per 7 day week.
MC1
Flow (Q) = 68l/s (0.068m3/s)
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Rough Levelling
Medium Levelling
Land Smoothening
Rough levelling is the removal of abrupt irregularities such as bunds, ridges, dunes and
filling of pits and depressions such as old river courses, gullies et cetera.
Medium levelling follows rough levelling and is intended to shape the field to a planned
grade.
Smooth levelling is the final operation to remove any irregularities left over from the first
two operations and leaves the field to a true grade desired.
In land levelling, it is desired that the cut should balance the fill within the area such that
no additional quantity is brought in from outside the area to avoid high transport costs.
Prior to levelling operations the topsoil should be removed and replaced after
completion of levelling operations.
It is proposed that the rough and medium levelling be carried out under the project
construction contract while smoothening operation be left to the individual farmers.
Machinery and equipment required for rough and medium levelling include bull dozers,
tractor drawn or wheeled scrapers, land graders and levellers. The equipment used for
smoothening is land plane and land leveller.
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Depending on the mix of the above factors in a given situation, the role of the WUAs
could include any of the following as may be agreed between the NEWMAP and the
farmers:
The responsibility of the farmers is only at the terminal level. The NEWMAP is
responsible for the entire irrigation system and delivers water at the turnout.
The farmers are expected to construct and maintain farm ditches and drainage
ditches, distribute water among them, and pay the irrigation fees prescribed by
the government. Under this arrangement farmers are usually organized into
informal groups in preparation for the establishment of WUA for water distribution
and maintenance of farm and drainage ditches.
Irrigation Service Fees (ISF) are collected from the water users by NEWMAP
irrigation fee collectors.
NEWMAP and WUAs enter into two types of contract labelled as Type 1 and Type
2 contracts.
Under Type 2 contract, the WUAs assist in delivering water to the various
turnouts, prepare the List of Irrigated and Planted Areas (LIPA), distribute ISF
bills prepared by NEWMAP, collect payment of ISF from farmers and remit the
collection to NEWMAP. For this activity they are entitled to a share in the
amount collected in accordance with the following tabulation:
Percentage Collected WUA Share (percent)
50-60 percent of billings 2
Above 60-70 percent of billings 5
Above 70-90 percent of billings 10
Above 90 percent of billings 15
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Each WUA in the irrigation system enters into an agreement with NEWMAP for
O&M of a lateral canal that irrigate the area of the WUA. NEWMAP remains
responsible for the O&M of the main canal and the headworks and delivers
water to each WUA at the head gate of each lateral canal.
ISF bills to farmers are prepared by NEWMAP from the LIPA prepared by the WUA
and verified by NEWMAP staff.
ISF is collected by the WUA and collections are shared between NEWMAP and
the WUA in accordance with a formula designed to cover the O&M expenses of
NEWMAP and provide incentives for increased collection by the WUA
The same arrangement as (c) above, except that NEWMAP's share is a fixed
percentage of the ISF to be collected which is subsequently billed by NEWMAP to
the WUA. The WUA bills each individual member.
The WUA is responsible for O&M and financial management of the entire
irrigation system in accordance with an agreement on irrigation management
transfer that stipulates the responsibilities of the WUA and the NEWMAP.
Guidelines for establishing joint management of irrigation systems between government andfarmers
irrigation associations
The process of organizing the farmers is crucial. It is necessary to build the irrigation
associations (IA) from the bottom by first organizing Turnout Service Areas (TSAs) through
farmer participation in activities that develop the farmers' capacity to make group
decisions and to establish proper criteria and procedures for choosing TSA leaders.
In most cases, these activities would be on planning and implementation of
improvements to the irrigation facilities to make the system responsive to farmers' needs.
Farmer participation should include decision making in the identification and
prioritization of problems, planning solutions and improvements and arrangements for
takeover of O&M by the farmers.
Organizing the farmers should be done with a well-trained catalyst. An alternative to
professional catalysts (community organizers) is the use of well-trained farmer. In
government-managed irrigation systems, potential farmer organizers can be selected by
the irrigation agency staffs that are familiar with the farmers and the problems and
needs of the irrigation system.
The higher levels of the organization should be established only after the TSAs have been
established with good, responsible leaders. The role and selection of the TSA leaders is
crucial in planning and implementation of water distribution, maintenance, and conflict
management and irrigation fee collection.
The TSA leaders should be members of the board of directors (BOO) or of the
management and decision-making body of the organization and the operative
committees at the top should be replicated from the base so that plans and decisions
can be effective.
The importance of the standing committees should be emphasized as it provides for
leadership development within the TSAs and the entire IA.
Sufficient lead-time should be provided for organizing the farmers before they go into
contracts for joint management and undertake construction of improvements to the
irrigation system. Sometimes, this takes about a year.
Organizing of farmers should not be contracted out in the same manner as construction
or other projects. The best contract provisions cannot provide sufficient flexibility to meet
field conditions that are difficult to predict and are likely to change in place and in time,
especially in the coordination of technical and institutional activities essential to
successful promotion of farmer participation.
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The IAs should be given proper training in irrigation system management, financial
management, leadership development and holding regular meetings at IA and TSA
levels, including review and planning Workshops after every cropping season. However,
no amount of training or strengthening will be effective if the organizational structure of
the IA is deficient. As an example, rotation of water deliveries for equity of water
distribution is possible only if the IA is properly structured. The role of the Irrigation
Superintendent and his staff is crucial to successful establishment and implementation of
joint management. Farmers can be organized into IAs that can go into joint
management only if the task is adequately supported by the Irrigation Superintendent. In
the process of improving an irrigation system to make it responsive to farmers' needs, the
Irrigation Superintendent should foster farmer participation in all aspects of system
improvement. He should consider and take action on all legitimate and feasible farmers'
requests for system improvement and use these as opportunities for developing farmer
responsibilities and capacities. Thus, all improvements should be joint undertakings
between the irrigation agency and the farmers with both sharing work responsibilities
and affordable investment of resources. The Irrigation Superintendent and his staff and
the IAs should work out jointly all procedures for managing the irrigation system and see
to it that the procedures are properly implemented, periodically reviewed; and
improved upon as needed.
Two other crucial requirements are the policy and incentives on joint management
adopted by the irrigation agency at the central level and the support given to the
Irrigation Superintendent from the regional level when such intermediate levels exist. At
the central level, it is essential that there is clear operational policy requiring farmer
participation in all aspects of irrigation systems development and improvement, and that
the policy is backed by adequate budgetary support for properly organizing and
training IAs.
Budgetary releases for such activities should be ahead of physical improvements to
ensure that farmers are properly organized and ready to participate effectively in the
physical improvement of the system. Sufficient funds should be made available on time
to enable the Irrigation Superintendent to meet schedules of improvement work agreed
upon with IAs to establish and sustain agency credibility with farmers. When the time is
right for IAs to take responsibilities in the O&M of the system, the central office should see
to it that a fair arrangement for sharing responsibilities and benefits is established
between the IAs and the agency.
Where the level of irrigation fees is properly set and collection is efficient in an irrigation
system under joint management, it could generate substantial financial surplus in O&M.
A major part of this surplus should be retained in the system for emergency and for
further improvements.
When the system under joint management is under the supervision of a regional office of
the NEWMAP, regional level support is crucial as the implementation of supervision and
training activities are delegated to the regional office by the central office.
For small- and medium-sized systems, agency capacity for training of staff and IAs, and
for repair and improvement work requiring heavy equipment, are usually in the regional
offices. Thus, regional level support is necessary for effective joint management.
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