Historical Dictionary
Historical Dictionary
GOLITZIN,
PROKURAT,
HISTORICAL
DICTIONARY
OF THE
HISTORICAL DICTIONARY OF
THE ORTHODOX CHURCH
ORTHODOX
CHURCH
M I C H A E L P R O K U R AT
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HISTORICAL DICTIONARIES
OF RELIGIONS, PHILOSOPHIES, AND MOVEMENTS
Edited by Jon Woronoff
by
Michael Prokurat
Alexander Golitzin
Michael D. Peterson
PO Box 317
Oxford
OX2 9RU. UK
Editor's Foreword
Preface
Tntroduction
Chronology
Map
The Dictionary
Appendix
Bibliography
The historical scope of this work focuses on the last 150 years, although
major topics from the second century A.D. to the present are also treated.
Some of the entries from earlier periods have been discovered only in the
last century and are vital to the way the reading of Christian history has
changed in the twentieth century. Unfortunately, length is a primary fac-
tor in a one-volume reference work and so too in the process of selection
of topics, and for this reason many items had to be excluded-not least
of which were general Scripture entries and the sweep of history from
Moses to Jesus from the perspective of the Eastern Church. Since these
subjects are the most ancient, and a considerable library of dictionaries
and encyclopedias exists on them in English, it seemed a justifiable de-
cision to limit our entries to those roughly after the New Testament pe-
riod and corpus.
Our goal in writing a dictionary was specifically to meet a need for Or-
thodox and non-Orthodox alike; and it led us to a result that is different
from other extant reference works on Orthodoxy. The excellent books
The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (edited by F.L. Cross and
E.A. Livingston, Oxford University Press, 1978) and The Orthodox
Church (by Timothy Ware [Bishop Kallistos of Diokleia], Penguin
Books, 1993) served as approximate examples for us, but we tried to
broaden the number of subjects by reviewing extant histories, dictionar-
ies, and encyclopedias on Orthodoxy, Christianity, Byzantium, Russia,
and so on. We found Orthodox America 1794-1976 (edited by Con-
stance J. Tarasar, Orthodox Church in America Department of History
and Archives, 1975) to be a good one-volumeresource for American Or-
thodox church history, but the indexing and cross-listing is difficult for
quick reference. Our goal in writing may be described as a dictionary in-
sofar as that format might include a one-volume desk encyclopedia or a
reference work sometimes called a handbook.
The need for a dictionary of the Orthodox Church in the narrow sense
of a list of words with definitions has been provisionally met by Web-
ster's Third New International Dictionary. Many, if not most, of the
technical Greek and Russian theological words and terms that would oth-
erwise be underlined and treated as foreign-up until Webster's Third-
are now listed as "American" words. (We call them "American" words
xii Preface
rather than "English" because they cannot be found in the Oxford Eng-
lish Dictionary, and scholars who identify solely with the OED English-
language tradition will doubtless continue to treat the words listed in
Webster's Third as foreign.) The fact that these terms exist in a large
American dictionary should be credited to Fr. Georges morovsky's serv-
ing as an editor for Webster's Third and to the inimitable American char-
acteristic of positively accepting as its own the culture and language of
large segments of its population. We recommend Webster's Third to
those looking for word definitions, and we have occasionally supple-
mented or changed those of their definitions that seem to us inadequate.
Since there were three of us writing, a certain division of labor was
tentatively in force during the composition process. The initial plan, the
long list of individual entries and the category divisions in the bibliog-
raphy, were selected by Michael Prokurat. The selection was based on
the pragmatic criterion of the availability of resources rather than on
any preconceived theological or historical outline. From the long list,
Alexander Golitzin and Michael Prokurat chose specific topics for re-
search-Golitzin usually chose the Byzantine and Prokurat the Russian,
although not exclusively-and both edited the final product. Michael Pe-
terson, as Branch Librarian at the San Anselmo collection of the Gradu-
ate Theological Union, was the best equipped to compile the bibliogra-
phy, which concentrates on books published in English during the last
fifteen years. After Peterson prepared drafts of the bibliography, the
other two writers reviewed and supplemented them with older classics
and specific books used in the field, especially foreign language selec-
tions. Peterson also prepared some biographical information on living
persons. Melanie Gogol-Prokurat drew the map and provided several
drawings for entries better understood by illustration than by text.
At the outset we decided against presenting just the bare facts. We
have included controversial items and opinions (theologoumena) in or-
der to illustrate living traditions and to give what we think is an intelli-
gent position or choice in formulating questions or in resolving some
current debates. Similarly, in matters of biography, when theologians
and hierarchs were or are known to us personally, we did not avoid a spe-
cial note in addition to the Curriculum Vitae information.
Although various English translations of the Bible may be found in
use in the Orthodox Church-especially the Revised Standard Version,
the New American Bible, and the King James Version-abbreviations
for the books of the Bible and biblical quotations cited herein follow the
New Revised Standard Version unless otherwise indicated. (For exam-
ple, occasional adjustments are made for a translation from Greek rather
than Hebrew, liturgical language, or theological differences.) Some of
the best Orthodox biblical scholars worked on both the Revised Standard
Version and the New Revised Standard Version, and with the maps, ar-
Preface xiii
Michael Prokurat
School of Theology
University of St. Thomas
Houston, Texas
21 November 1995
Entry of the Theotokos
Acronyms and Abbreviations
1 Chr 1 Chronicles
1 Cor 1 Corinthians
1 Esd 1 Esdras
1 Jn 1 John
1 Kgs 1 Kings
1 Macc 1 Maccabees
1 Pet 1 Peter
1 Sam 1 Samuel
1 Thess 1 Thessalonians
1 Tim 1 Timothy
2 Chr 2 Chronicles
2 Cor 2 Corinthians
2 Esd 2 Esdras
2 Jn 2 John
2 Macc 2 Maccabees
2 Pet 2 Peter
2 Sam 2 Samuel
2 Thess 2 Thessalonians
2 Tim 2 Timothy
3 Jn 3 John
3 Macc 3 Maccabees
4 Macc 4 Maccabees
AACC All African Conference of Churches
Add Esth The Additions to Esther
Bar Baruch
Be1 Be1 and the Dragon
C. century
Cmte. Committee
Col Colossians
Dan Daniel
Deut Deuteronomy
Eccl Ecclesiastes
E P ~ Ephesians
Esth Esther
Ex Exodus
xvi Acronyms and Abbreviations
Ezek Ezekiel
Fr. Father
Gal Galatians
Gen Genesis
GOY0 Greek Orthodox Youth Organization
GTU Graduate Theological Union
Hab Habakkuk
Hag Haggai
Heb Hebrews
Is Isaiah
Jas James
Jdg Judges
Jdt Judith
Jer Jeremiah
Jn John
Jon Jonah
Josh Joshua
Lam Lamentations
Let Jer The Letter of Jeremiah
Lev Leviticus
Lk Luke
LXX Septuagint
Ma1 Malachi
Mk Mark
Mt Matthew
NCC National Council of Churches
Neh Nehemiah
NRSV New Revised Standard Version
Num Numbers
Ob Obadiah
OCA Orthodox Church in America
OED Oxford English Dictionary
O.S. Old Style, Julian Calendar
PA01 Patriarch Athenagoras Orthodox Institute
Patr. Patriarch
Philm Philemon
Philp Philippians
Pr Man Prayer of Manasseh
Prov Proverbs
Ps Psalms
q.v. quod vide, which see (single occurrence)
99-v. which see (multiple occurrences)
RCC Roman Catholic Church
Rev Revelation
Acronyms and Abbreviations xvii
Rom Romans
RSV Revised Standard Version
SCOBA Standing Conference of Orthodox Bishops in
America
Sir Ben Sirach
Song of Thr The Song of the Three Children
St. Saint
Sus Susannah
Tob Tobit
UCB University of California-Berkeley
UOC Ukrainian Orthodox Church
UOC-KP Ukrainian Orthodox Church-Kievan Patriarchate
WCC World Council of Churches
Wis Wisdom of Solomon
Zech Zechariah
Zeph Zephaniah
Introduction
Belief
The classical statement of faith or belief within the Orthodox Church
is the Nicene-ConstantinopolitanCreed. The articles were written on the
Father and the Son at the First Ecumenical Council in Nicaea (A.D.325)
based upon a credo thought to be already in use. The articles on the Holy
Spirit and the Church were added at the Second Ecumenical Council in
Constantinople (A.D. 381), largely under the influence of St. Basil the
Great and St. Gregory of Nazianzus. It has remained unchanged within
the Orthodox Church since the Second Ecumenical Council.
The Orthodox understanding of the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed
is that it does not define (or redefine) the faith, but rather that it expresses
2 8 Introduction
lHuman: Although this word in Greek could be translated "Man," with a cap-
ital, the point of the phrase is that Jesus Christ became one of us, a human being,
and not that he became a male person-which is what is connoted in modem
American English if the word "man" is used.
2Who is coming: Either "comes" or "is coming" is the only possible transla-
tion, although "will come" is a translational mistake that has been in the English-
speaking world for centuries, and can be found in almost all, if not all, churches
of any denomination which use English and this Creed. When this mistake is cou-
pled with that found in Foomote #3, the result is that it looks as if the Messiah will
come at a different time and in a different place, both of which are in the future:
"pie in the sky, by and by." This was not intended by the original Greek Church
Fathers, and the theological implications of the incorrect translation are poten-
tially devastating-and make the Eucharist somewhat incomprehensible.
Introduction 3
And in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the Giver of Life, who proceeds
from the Father, who together with the Father and the Son is wor-
shiped and glorified, who spoke through the prophets.
In one, holy, catholic, and apostolic Church.
I acknowledge one baptism for the forgiveness of sins.
I look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the age3to
come. Amen.
History
3Age: "The age to come" is a known biblical phrase from both the Hebrew of
the Old Testament and the Greek of the New. See Footnote #2 above.
4 Introduction
Probably the most striking historical witness of the Orthodox Church for
modem Christians is its uninterrupted presence at the holy places described
in the life of Jesus of Nazareth, the Apostle Paul, or the Bible generally.
Further, the Orthodox may also be found speaking the descendant lan-
guage(~)in which the words of the Bible were originally spoken and writ-
ten-appreciating these words from within their own languages rather than
from without. When Western Christians make pilgrimage to the Holy Land
or look at the Church's roots, they invariably meet the Orthodox firmly and
permanently entrenched on these foundations-whether in the Church of
the Resurrection (Holy Sepulcher), on the Ascension Mount, or in the an-
cient churches of Thessalonika or Athens. This history is intrinsically con-
nected with classical Western history from Rome to Charlemagne, on to
the Crusades, Renaissance, Reformation, and up to the present.
Orders of Clergy
As we have seen, the primary responsibilities of bishops and priests
are in presiding at the Eucharistic assembly and in administering the dio-
cese and parish, respectively. Archbishops and metropolitans are usually
bishops of larger, metropolitan areas and work with many episcopal col-
leagues. They may also be the heads of autocephalous (self-governing)
churches, but wherever the local church has been continuously auto-
cephalous for a long period of time, the title patriarch is usually bestowed
upon the presiding archbishop.
In addition to the episcopacy (bishop) and presbytery (priest), the di-
aconate (deacon) is the next major order whose function is classicaly de-
fined as "serving table," usually interpreted as both serving at the Lord's
table (Eucharist) and in the distribution of foodstuffs to the needy. The
diaconate is a permanent office in the Eastern Church and not just a step
to the priesthood, though it can be; and it is common in the Russian
Church for every parish to have a deacon. Whether the deacon serves
only a liturgical function, or as a full- or part-time minister within a dio-
cese or parish, is largely a matter of need and training. Other types of
deacon are protodeacon and archdeacon, both of which are classically
supervisory roles over other deacons, but in practice indicate a bishop's
deacon or an honorary title. These offices are similar to those of arch-
priest, protopresbyter, archbishop, etc., wherein the classical definition
has to do with leadership over others of the same rank, but practically
speaking nowadays the title is frequently an honorific. Primary reasons
for titles as honorifics stem from (1) the practice of the Russian Church,
6 Introduction
nificant Orthodox population has been invaded at least once in the twen-
tieth century by countries identifying themselves as Western Christian.
The Russian Orthodox are sensitive to the fact that the national genocide
which occurred under the Bolsheviks, and more particularly under
Stalin, murders that numbered in the tens of millions, elicited a marginal
response from the West, and even today is not well-known. Similar sen-
sibilities may be found among Armenian, Serbian, Arab, and other
Christians-all cases in which twentieth century genocide has been de-
nied, let alone acknowledged with sympathy or addressed as criminal.
This is not to say that totalitarianismor uncontrolled tragedies do not oc-
cur, but the fact that the occurrences are not well reported or responded
to in the West is remarkable.
In such a context, is it strange that the Orthodox are not always trust-
ing when in dialogue with Western Christians? Or is it the fault of the
Orthodox themselves, who still speak about long-past atrocities of the
"glorious Crusades," when they should abandon diplomatic subtlety and
speak directly about what they really mean-recent aggressive tenden-
cies from the West.
Present Accomplishments
The twentieth-century accomplishments of Orthodoxy are difficult to de-
scribe because of theirprofundity. The single greatest witness of the Church
may best be evaluated in terms of human sacrifice or martyrdom. It is be-
yond imagination that twentieth-century communist totalitarianism in
Slavic countries produced more martyrs to the faith than all the Christian
martyrdoms of the preceding centuries combined. The only comparable
historical phenomenon is the tragic extermination of tens of millions of
Introduction 9
Chinese in this century by their own totalitarian regime. The parallels are
stupifying: More people seem to have died in peacetime under these two
regimes than all the casualties of all the wars of the last two centuries-and
in each case the West was relatively silent about the fates of these peoples,
though less so in later evaluating the dangers of communism as it en-
croached on Western interests. Thus, the great gift of the Orthodox Church
to this century is its continued survival and life, through sacrifice and death.
A comparatively lesser, but nonetheless important, achievement of
Orthodoxy today is its continued, consistent presence in ecumenical di-
alogue with other Christians, attesting to the credal dictum that the
Church is one, holy, catholic, and apostolic. Coming from a nine-
teenth-century context wherein lack of communication and distance
made East and West mutually foreign, the twentieth century has been
one of not only formal introduction, but of serious exchange and dia-
logue. This ecumenical spirit has promoted mutual understanding and
given theological definition to areas where only suppositions and sus-
picions once reigned free. As a practical result, the dialogue has in-
creased interdenominational charity and helped end profligate mis-
sionizing of Christians by Christians. Both the present Patriarch of
Constantinople and the Patriarch of Moscow have made it a point to
encourage ecumenical dialogue officially in recent archpastoral ad-
dresses to the Church at large.
Future Challenges
Challenges facing the Orthodox in the coming century-or millennium-
are manifold; and the problematic situation in North America is very much
a microcosm of worldwide questions. Before describing these particulars,
it is important to reiterate the classic goals of the Church with which it be-
gan: to preach the Gospel and serve the Sacraments,in short to provide sal-
vation as the embassy of the Kingdom of God. All other goals are sub-
servient to the primary task of the Church qua Church.
In North America the Orthodox Church is historically an 6mig1-6 phe-
nomenon with ethnocentric associations, long before the word "ethnocen-
tric" became a politically correct part of the American vocabulary. The dif-
ficulties experienced by American society at large with
ethnocentricity-philosophically speaking the question of "the one and the
many7'-are the same as those experienced for centuries by the Orthodox
Church under the rubric of phyletism: What is the essence of the one soci-
ety as it is represented now in the western hemisphere by the many ethnic
groups? Or the one Orthodox Church represented by the ethnic Orthodox?
The question is first and foremost one of the communication of the
Church's evangelical witness. But the question of "ethnic" form and
"faith" content is compounded by a phenomenon unfamiliar to Ameri-
cans, a phenomenon relatively common in wealthier Greek and Russian
10 Introduction
Mt
Completion of Pauline corpus: 2 Thess, Col, Eph
Lk-Acts
Jn, 1-3 Jn
2 Esd, 4 Macc (dates uncertain)
Heb
Rev (ca. 95)
1 Clement (95196)
Gnostics
Montanists
Modalists
Advent of Rabbinic Pharisaism
Roman persecutions
Epistle to Barnabas, Didache (ca. 100)
Jas, 1 Pet, Jude
Ignatius of Antioch (+ 115)
Pastoral Letters; 1 Tim, 2 Tim, Titus
Bar Cochba Revolt (132-135); Aelia Capitolina f.
2 Pet (ca. 140)
Shepherd of Hennas (ca. 148)
Protoevangelium of James (ca. 150)
2 Clement (date unknown, possibly ca. 150)
Polycarp of Smyrna (+156)
Apologists: Justin Martyr (+ 165) et al.
Cont. above plus
Adoptionists
Novationists (mid c.)
Manichaeans
Encratites
Subordinationists
Plotinus (+270)
Irenaeus of Lyons (+ca. 200)
Clement of Alexandria (+2 15)
Hippolytus of Rome (+236)
Origen (+254)
Cyprian of Carthage (+258)
Didaskalia (late 3rd c.)
Donatists
Arians
Eunomians
Messalians (?)
Apollinarians
LXX Versions: Lucian's-Constantinople, Hesy-
chius's-Alexandria, Origen's-Palestine
14 Chronology
.St. Petersbur
9
* INov orod
3
The Dictionary
ALLEGORY. The Greek root means literally "to say something else."
In modern terms it refers to a veiled or figurative presentation, wherein
the elements of the presentation are symbolic of substituted values. In
the Hellenistic world, it signified the bringing out of hidden meanings
from a sacred text, and was elaborated as a technique for the literary
and philosophical exegesis of texts (e.g., Homer, Hesiod), which a
cultivated society found embarrassing as sacred scripture. The term
"allegory" is used in one place in the New Testament (Gal 4:24),
though the technique is employed without the use of the term else-
where (e.g., Is 5: 1-6; Mt 13: 19 f.); but it was a 1st c. Alexandrian Jew,
Philo, who first applied the method in a thoroughgoing way to the Old
Testament in order to explicate the sublime and lofty character of the
Jewish faith. Christian writers of Alexandria (q.v.), perhaps as early
as the Epistle of Barnabas (q.v.) in about 150, and definitively with
26 Alleluia
Clement and Origen (qq.v.) later, took Philo's lead and used the tech-
nique to demonstrate the rationality, moral quality, and mystical call-
ing of Christianity. Gregory of Nyssa (q.v.) was the 4th c.'s most able
practitioner of this art of exegesis, carrying on the torch of the great
Alexandrians and contributing significantly to the development of
Christian Greek thought-in particular with his Life of Moses. Alle-
gory thus contributed to the Christian acquisition of the philosophical
patrimony and to the "interiorization" of the Scriptures (q.v.) in the
long Holy Tradition of Orthodox spiritual literature (q.v.).
ANCYRA. Now Ankara, a city of central Asia Minor (q.v.), the capital
of the Roman province of Galatia and early the site of a Christian
church, it rose to prominence and occasional notoriety as a theologi-
cal center. Two important councils held there dealt with issues such as
the reconciliation to the Church of those who lapsed during persecu-
tion and the penitential system (A.D. 314), and the Semi-Arian issue
of Christology (q.v.) and the "homoousios"(358)-which term Bishop
Basil of Ancyra rejected along with Arianism (q.v.). One of its best-
known bishops, Marcellus (d. ca. 375), was roundly condemned by
most of his eastern peers as a Trinitarian Modalist, but supported by
Rome, Athanasius (qq.~.),and the West in general. The see was raised
to the dignity of a metropolitanatein the 4th c. and continued to be one
of the most important church centers in the region for the remainder
of the first millennium. In the 20th c. Ankara became the capital of the
Turkish Republic under Kemal Ataturk, marking the conclusion of the
Ottoman Empire (q.v.).
to the body and its natural appetites, while the body takes its suste-
nance from lifeless matter. All is therefore reversed. Everything be-
comes a matter of appetite fueled in the last analysis by the demands
of a demonic pride.
Into this cycle of consuming and dying Christ, the "Second Adam,"
came to restore humanity to its original calling by accomplishing that
vocation, once and for all, in himself. Through his birth, death, and
resurrection, he restored the lost integration of humanity and estab-
lished the "new creation." It is up to the individual Christian, however,
to discover in him- or herself the realization of Christ's accomplish-
ment and presence, i.e., to arrive through him in the Holy Spirit (q.v.)
at the manifestation of his likeness. All potential has been restored in
Christ. The powers of sin and death have been overcome and "life
reigns from the tomb," to quote the Easter oration of John Chrysos-
tom (q.v.). Heaven and earth have been united forevermore.
Nonetheless, in Orthodoxy the mystery of the image of God in
every human being demands the possibility of both assent and re-
fusal. The grace (q.v.) of Christ cannot be "irresistible." Although
the ontological condition of nature has been altered-or better, re-
stored-in Christ, each person is required to bring his or her own
will into conformity with the salvation that he, uniquely, has ac-
complished. This is the place for what Orthodox asceticism (q.v.)
calls the "ordeal" (agon), the reeducation of the will. Nature has
been healed, but the person- hypostasis, or irreducible individual-
ity-of every human being is called, with the assistance of grace, to
realize in itself what has already occurred through the union of hu-
man nature with the Second Person of the Trinity (the "hypostatic
union"). Orthodoxy requires, in short, that every human person
choose what he or she has already become in Christ Jesus. Hence,
God permits his creature to be "tempted," i.e., put to the test. This
life is thus the "arena," the place of combat-or better, the sphere of
that choice required by the Creator out of respect for the mystery of
his creature's freedom (q.v.).
In turning to the modern debate over human nature, particularly the
issues of gender raised by contemporary feminism, "gay rights," and
"alternative lifestyles," Orthodoxy displays at once a certain intransi-
gence and a replay of debates from its own past in the patristic tradi-
tion. Intransigencebecause the nature of sexual relations-and sexual
politics-must be read in the light of a revelation not easily dismissed
in order to be in accord with contemporary fashions. Given the reve-
lation, for example, it is difficult to see how an argument defending
the possiblity of sexual intercourse between people of the same gen-
der could be constructed. Holy Tradition (q.v.) is consistently unam-
biguous on that score.
Antioch 31
an alleged secret tradition. Irenaeus replied that the faith of the chosen
was never hidden, but indeed is proclaimed openly in the "apostolic"
sees. The communion among these sees and with all "catholic" (q.v.)
communities demonstrates that the teaching succession of the Apos-
tles is not the property of a select few. It is one and the same with the
teaching proclaimed by all the bishops throughout the world who re-
main in communion with one another. The idea of the succession will
later acquire its association with the physical laying on of hands in the
service of the consecration of bishops.
the official religion of the Empire. Even then, the early (Christian)
basilica design (drawings #1, #2) employed in the construction of the
Constantinian churches was largely adoptive and is called the "long de-
sign." Simultaneously,the adoptive round or polygonal domed church
(drawings #3, #4), technically termed the "central-plan design," was
constructed by Constantinian imperial patrons. The focuses of the two
designs are radically different. Apparent from the drawings, one can
see that the basilica design draws attention to the transept and apse at
one end, while the round domed design focuses toward the center.
New and original designs appeared in the next few centuries with
cruciform exterior shapes (drawing #7), and notably with a dome
sprung off four reinforced columns (drawings #5, #6) in a transformed
basilica-type construction. This evolved into a domed cruciform de-
sign, whether the cross was the shape of the exterior walls or only in-
scribed within rectangular basilica walls. Russian churches (drawing
#8) largely followed Byzantine floor plans, but with the significant ad-
dition of cupolas of varying types. Although the drums and "onion
domes" are primarily an exterior aesthetic feature that beautifully
blossom in flat terrain and expansive sky, they are also well-suited to
handle the heavy snow loads of the northern climes.
Identifying the function of interior areas of ancient and modern
churches is relatively easy, if one keeps in mind the fact that the ar-
chitectural structures follow liturgical function and not vice versa.
Classically churches, East and West, are internally divided into three
parts, the narthex or vestibule, the nave or main body, and the altar
area at the east end, apsed at the high place or easternmost niche. A
baptistry, permanent or portable, is frequently found in the narthex or
forecourt (atrium), since these areas are associated with teaching,
penance, and Baptism (qq.~.).The nave is not only the place "where
the believers stand," but the central place of liturgy (q.v.) other than
the altar. In the pontifical Divine Liturgy the bishop begins the service
in the nave, and during daily services frequently stands or sits on his
throne in the southeast corner of the nave, the altar being used only
minimally. The wall separating the nave from the altar area is the
iconostasis (q.v.), which may range from an ornate railing to a full
wall, ceiling to floor, covered with icons (q.v.).
The altar area is partitioned into three parts. The bema or central part
is the altar proper, with the arnbo in front and the apse and high place be-
hind the square table. The prothesis (preparation of the bread and wine)
is the name of the room north of the bema, and the procession of the Holy
Gifts in the Great Entrance proceeds from this room to the bema; but fre-
quently the prothesis table is moved into the bema proper and the pro-
cession is correspondingly adjusted. The north altar room may also be
used to collect food for the poor, as a reliquary, etc. The south altar
Architecture, Church 39
40 Architecture, Church
Archondonis, Bartholomew 41
room is the diaconicon, a sacristy for the servers, vestments, and litur-
gical utensils (qq.~.).(See Icon; Iconostasis; Liturgical Utensils.)
DRAWINGS: 1. Interior of the Constantinian basilica (i.e., long
church), Church of the Nativity, Bethlehem, A.D. 326. 2. Conjectural
elevation of Constantinian basilica, Old St. Peter's, Rome, ca. A.D.
333. 3. Central plan church, Santa Costanza, Rome, ca. A.D. 350. 4.
Cross section of Santa Costanza. 5. Byzantine foundations indicating
floor plan of Hagia Sophia (q.v.), 532-537, Architects Anthemius of
Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus. 6. Domed basilica, Hagia Sophia,
combining long and central plan; the dome is sprung from pendentives
(i.e., dome-on-dome construction). 7. Central plan dome with cruci-
form basilica influence, Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna, A.D.
425-450; first successful example of combining the long and central
plan. 8. Square plan Russian church enclosing a Greek cross with a
large dome at the cross's center; cupolas (onion domes) adorn the roof
like great candle flames, helping to bear the snow load.
designs of the modern state of Greece. It has been the largest concen-
tration of Orthodox monks virtually since its inception. Its twenty
monasteries are: the Great Lavra of Athanasios of Athos (963), Vato-
pedi (10th c.), Agiou Paulou (10th c.), Iveron (10th c., orginally Geor-
gian), Xeropotamou (10th c.), Ephigmenou (11th c.), Panteleimon
(1 lth c., Russian), Docheiariou (1 lth c.), Xenophontos (1 lth c.), Con-
stamonitou (1 lth c.), Caracallou (1 lth c.), Philotheou (12th c.), Hi-
landar (12th c., Serbian), Koutloumousiou (12th c.), Pantokrator (12th
c.), Simonos Petras (13th c.), Dionysiou (13th c.), Gregoriou (13th c.),
Zographou (13th c., Bulgarian), and Stavronikita (16th c.). Over the
past millennium of its existence, Athos has been of incalculable im-
portance for the Orthodox oikoumene (q.v.), marked by two great re-
vivals: the first in the 14th c. and 15th c., characterized by the writings
of Gregory Palamas and the Orthodox-wide movement of hesychasm
(qq.~.),and second during the 18th c. and 19th c., which saw the pub-
lication of the Philokalia by Nicodemus the Athonite in Greek and
Paisii Velichkovsky (qq.v.) in Slavic and Romanian. These two peri-
ods have indelibly imprinted the life and thought of the Orthodox
Church. The present modest revival of monastic life, very much in the
spirit of its predecessors, began in 1968 and may well bring the same
kind of benefits to the whole Church.
The benefits Athos gives the Church are not easily summarized. It
produced no universities, no enduring institutions, nor, while con-
tributing a number of bishops and the occasional patriarch over the
centuries, has it established any succession of reforming hierarchs
akin to the progeny of the early medieval monastery of Cluny, which
changed the face of the Western Church and of Europe in general. The
Holy Mountain's gifts to Orthodoxy are altogether of the intangible
variety, perhaps best summed up by an epithet for it popular among
some of the monks: "the Mountain of silence." The silence in ques-
tion is that of theophany (q.v.), of the divine presence, and the saints
who have come out of that presence in an unfailing stream are the sum
and entirety of Athos's gift to the Church. Rightly, the latter has al-
ways prized this contribution beyond any other. The glory of God, to
paraphrase St. Irenaeus (q.v.), is the human person radiant in the
Spirit. Athos has, over its thousand years, provided time and again the
proof of the Spirit's presence in a sorry world; and that, at least for Or-
thodox Christians of the past fifty generations, is enough and more.
(See Ascesis; Monasteries; Monasticism.)
BAPTISM. Baptism, Chrismation, and the Eucharist (q.v.) are all ad-
ministered together as Holy Mysteries (sacraments) that admit one
into the membership of the Church, i.e., are rites of Christian initia-
tion. Baptism is preceded by repentance and catechesis (qq.v.) in the
case of adults, and assumes a continuous membership in a Christian
community. Baptism of children occurs only in cases wherein the chil-
dren are reared and taught in a Christian home and community,
whether by parents or others. Baptism is not construed so much as a
cleansing from "original sin" (q.v.), though it is for cleansing of sins
as Paul teaches, but more especially as baptism into the death and res-
urrection of Christ. When the repentant sinner is immersed in the bap-
tismal waters, he or she descends to death with Christ. When coming
up out of the waters, the newborn Christian is resurrected with Christ,
all in the name of the Holy Trinity (q.v.) (Mt 28: 19). Rudimentary in-
structions on the administration of Baptism are found in the Didache
VII (q.v.). With regard to the Baptism of adults in the Church today,
the following items are normative from Holy Tradition (q.v.):
1) After evangelism, reception into the catechumenate and the assign-
ing of sponsors occurs and is followed by catechesis;
2) The inscription of names or naming service begins a series of exor-
cisms (q.v.) and a forty-day lenten preparation; and
3) The liturgical rites of Baptism, Chrismation (the Kiss of Peace), and
the Eucharist (qq.v.) proceed to a postbaptismal catechesis and a
deepened experience of life in the Church. In the case of the Bap-
tism of children, all of the elements above are to be included in the
rearing and education of the child by the family.
Athos (q.v.) later in the same decade, especially of their claims to the
vision of the "uncreated light" of Mt. Tabor (site of the Transfigura-
tion), sparked the last great theological debate in Byzantine Church
history, the Hesychast (q.v.) Controversy. Barlaam's opponent in the
fray was Gregory Palamas (q.v.), at the time a monk on Athos and later
Archbishop of Thessalonica. Since Gregory proved the winner in the
exchange, no further honors awaited Barlaam, at least not in Byzan-
tium (q.v.). Gregory's Triads in Defense of the Holy Hesychasts was
his greatest work. Its central thesis, the distinction in God between
essence and energies, was recognized as Orthodox doctrine in the lo-
cal councils of 1341, 1347, and 1351. Barlaam had left the city, the
Empire, and the Orthodox Church by the time the first council had
met. He ended his life back in Italy, a bishop in the Roman Catholic
Church (q.v.), vainly endeavoring to teach Petrarch Greek.
(1977), Jesus Christ and the Temple (1980), and The Fathers Speak
(1986). He is remembered by his students with warmth and respect-
and by his Arab students from ancient cities and villages for his un-
canny ability to describe the archaeological features of their home-
towns on a house by house basis.
BARTHOLOMEW(ARCHONDONIS),Archbishop of Constantinople,
New Rome and Ecumenical Patriarch see Archondonis, Bartholomew.
to 1965 the Archbishop of Boston and New England, and from 1965
until his death the Archbishop of New York and Metropolitan of all
America and Canada of the "Metropolia," historically the Russian Or-
thodox Greek Catholic Missionary Diocese of North America. Fol-
lowing the autocephaly of the "Metropolia" as the Orthodox Church
in America (q.v.), he became the first primate, serving from 1970 to
1977.
BLESSING. The verb "to bless" and the noun "blessingls" are used ex-
tensively in Orthodox cultures with a wide range of meanings not
found in everyday English, but these uses are rooted in cultures and
parlance reflecting sensitivities to the Bible. Thus, not only are types
and degrees of blessing distinguished,but the subject and object of the
blessing change-frequently not God (q.v.) but a human being. We
shall follow Webster's definitions and expand wherever necessary.
1) "To consecrate or hallow by religious rite or words: make or pro-
nounce holy (and God blessed the seventh day, and sanctified it)." We
may fairly distinguish at least five important nuances under this defi-
nition used by Orthodox: a) when God initiates and blesses something
without reference to human volition, as in the first creation account in
Genesis, b) when God initiates and blesses with reference to human
volition, as in the blessings of the patriarchs, c) when human beings
pray for the indwelling of the Holy Spirit (q.v.) in a person or sancti-
fied object used for sacramental purposes, d) when human beings pray
for simpler, utilitarian blessings in which an object is used for its right-
ful purpose and for salvation, as in the blessing of a vehicle of travel,
e) the separation or setting aside of a person or object for exclusive use
in service to God, as in a Nazirite vow or the consecration of a chal-
ice. Generally, the word "consecration" or "sanctification" is used in
reference to the "strongest types" of blessings in the group.
2) "To make the sign of the cross upon or over-often used reflex-
ively." In addition tidevoting oneself in prayer and guarding from
evil, the sign of the cross is used liturgically to communicate the
"peace of God" and to lay claim to someone on behalf of the Kingdom
of God, as at the service of enlistment before Baptism (q.v.). In Or-
thodox practice the blessing of the sign of the cross is not restricted to
the clergy, but is made by the laity as well, e.g., a mother over a child,
spouses over one another before sleep, etc.
3) "To invoke divine care for: Pray for." To this definition we would
add "to obtain permission or approval, especially in cases where obe-
dience or spiritual authority are involved," e.g., when a monastic seeks
a blessing from the head of the monastery to travel.
Bloom, Anthony 63
cathedral in Paris since 1979, he has also been a member of the World
Council of Churches Faith and Order Commission. His articles and
books are mainly in French and tend to focus on the Trinity, the Eu-
charist, and the ecumenical movement.
BOSNIA. The region in the north central area of the former Yugoslavia
(q.v.) and, until recently, characterized by a mixed population of Or-
thodox Serbs, Catholic Croats, and Muslim Slavs, with the latter hold-
ing the plurality. The medieval state of Bosnia, more or less contigu-
Breck, John R. 65
BYZANTINE LAW. Up until the last two centuries of its existence, the
law of Byzantium was Roman law as codified under Justinian (qq.v.)
and as supplemented by the later additions of several emperors, as in
Leo VI's Ecloga and Novels dealing with marriage and criminal law,
or the summary, the Epanagoge (q.v.) prepared during the reign of the
same emperor. This web of legislation, already venerable at the begin-
ning of the Byzantine era (q.v.), contributed significantly to Byzan-
tium's remarkable stability and placed effective, if not theoretical, lim-
its on the powers of the emperor. Perhaps more importantly, it was also
the matrix within which the Orthodox Church enacted its Canon Law
(q.v.), the emperor being the latter's enforcer. Together with the scrip-
tural, liturgical, and patristic sources provided to the Slavic churches in
translation, a substantial selection of this legal tradition was also trans-
mitted, for example in such collections as the Slavic Kormchaya
Kniga. These collections included, as was the case in Byzantine law,
both civil and ecclesiastical legislation.
worship, and not its form or content. The Byzantine rite has thus served
as the single greatest factor ensuring the unity of the Orthodox Church,
in a way perhaps analogous to what used to prevail in the Anglican
communion with respect to the old Book of Common Prayer. While
generally characterized as sumptuous in its use of art, incense, and po-
etry, the frequent perception that this is the most static of the great
Christian "rites" is a misconception-in fact, the opposite is nearer the
truth. Of all ancient liturgies, the Byzantine has perhaps been the most
fluid, in a state of continuous change since its beginnings in Constan-
tinople and marked by at least two great shifts-in the 9th c. and 14th
c. -during its growth in the Byzantine era (q.v.) alone.
acter, but were not doctrinal. Even Justinian felt compelled to acquire
the blessing of the Church's leaders-though often, admittedly, via
coercion. Happily, historians in more recent times, with the exception
of those grinding away at obvious axes, have largely abandoned the
word and its implications. (See Authority; Church and State.)
CANON LAW. The term "canon" is a Greek word that comes from He-
brew and means a "reed or straight ro$ used for measuring, i.e., a
"yardstick" (which has the same bivalent senses in English). In early
Christianity it was used to connote a rule or norm of behavior, truth,
or faith (Gal 6:16). Canons are distinguished from dogmas (q.v.) in
that canons are generally disciplinary rules for the organization and
administration of the Church, whereas dogmas are immutable doc-
trines and basic principles of faith. For example, canons may be
changed by human agency but dogmas may not. The canons of the
Seven Ecumenical Councils (q.v.) are given certain precedence in the
Eastern Church over laws of local churches.
Canons differ also from state laws on Church matters, an important
point since Orthodoxy has a long history of relations between Church
and state (q.v.). Every state defines the relationship between itself
and Church bodies, but this is not Canon Law. Canon Law differs both
in origin and discipline from state law, e.g., Byzantine law (q.v.).
Canon Law is made by the Church, while state law is issued by secu-
lar powers-two different institutions of society. Further, the princi-
ple of Church discipline is voluntary obedience and not forced con-
straints, as it is with the state. It is true that the Church may impose
74 Cappadocia
Emngelh: First
First Pcriod Liturglool Actmn
I I
TEACHING N& for repentam; The W y of the Lord The Triniw Baptian. Chrismation. Eucharist.
T m Ways; Kinpdom The CoronsnU The C d ....
and other ucrmmmts. ethics hnn
of God The Gospels The Lord's Prayer the -spiritual vimpdnt
* I
Formal dmhrlon to ' I m m i n mparatia Rebirth fmn deahaFuil and dewan-
the list of those to be : a d fasting for tho n munation with & liqliturgicalex-
botind !ceotion into the pvMng on Christ ip.rience a d life
!in the Church
!py of the Word
I
Begins Lent 140 days meks following h.n: 1to Dsnral
I
I I
I
Name of Subject Inquirers 1 Cmchumem
I
*Those persons who are baptized, but not chrismated and in full communion with the Orthodox Church, fall into this second area.
**These time spans are normative and pastorally adaptable.
Catechumen-Catechism 79
BAPTISMAL DAYS
1. Holy Saturday Paschal Service
Mt 28: 1-20 ("Go therefore and make disciples of all nations bap-
tizing them. . . . ")
2. Pentecost
Jn 7:37-52, 8: 12 ("If anyone thirst, let him come to me and drink.
. . . ")
3. Theophany
Mt 3: 13-17 (The baptism of Jesus)
CATECHETICAL SEASONS
1. Forty days of Great Lent
2. Forty days from Thomas Sunday to Pentecost
3. Forty days of the pre-Nativity fast
Table #1 has been used recently to describe the renewal of adult cate-
chesis in the Orthodox Church.
dyo physesin). The difficulty lay in the "in." To the dissidents, this
preposition sounded like the affirmation of two Christs, one God and
the other man. They held instead to the formula dear to Cyril of
Alexandria (q.v.), "one nature of God the Word incarnate," i.e., Christ,
though human and divine, is yet one, truly God become human. This
formula led to the epithet "monophysite" (mia physis, one nature), not
of their choosing, by which they have usually been known.
The troublesome phrase had been received by the council fathers in
a letter from Pope Leo I (q.v.), and the latter had been strikingly pre-
emptory in his insistence on its adoption. The Church of Rome would
afterward be consistent in its sensitivity to any possible threat to the
council with which it saw its prestige identified. This double dilemma,
Roman intransigence on the one side and stubborn loyalty to the older
formula of Cyril on the other, explains much about the 230-year de-
bate that followed this council, punctuated by the Fifth Ecumenical
Council at Constantinople in 553, and concluding with the Sixth,
again at the capital, in 681. The emperors, in particular Justinian (q.v.)
and Heraclius, sought consistently to bring the dissidents back into
communion with the Church of Constantinople,and thus with the Em-
pire, while at the same time trying to keep the nervous authorities in
Rome content, keeping open the possibility of reconquest in the West.
The task proved impossible and, with the rise of Islam (q.v.) and the
ensuing loss of the Roman Near East, the efforts came to an end. The
schism in the East, however, remains to the present day, although talks
between the Chalcedonian and Oriental Orthodox (q.v.) over the past
thirty years lend some substance to the hope that it might come to an
end in the foreseeable future.
not in theory. The political and cultural schism fostered by the Carolin-
gians (q.v.) foreshadowed the ecclesiastical rupture that would come
two and a half centuries later. While the last political echo of Charle-
magne's Empire died with the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Em-
pire in 1919, his legacy endures. It is surely no accident, though proba-
bly not deliberate, that the founding members of the early European
Economic Community corresponded essentially (less southern Italy)
with the territories of his 9th-c. kingdom.
stand the introduction of the Jilioque (q.v.) clause into the Nicene-
ConstantinopolitanCreed at the Council of Toledo in 589.
Debate in the 5th c. took its start from the arguments that Apolli-
naris of Laodicea had advanced during the counter-Arian debates of
the 4th c. Apollinaris argued that the divine Word had become incar-
nate not in a complete humanity, but merely in a physical body. Gre-
gory of Nazianzus (q.v.) had responded with the formula, "What is not
assumed is not saved." Christ had to have been a complete human be-
ing for theosis to be a reality. Continuing this line of thought, notable
representatives of the Antiochene school such as Theodore of Mop-
suestia (q.v.) and Diodore of Tarsus so emphasized the completeness
of Christ's humanity as to throw the union between the "assumed
man" (Jesus) and the divine Son into some doubt. Christ, at least to the
critics of this school, took on the aspect of a committee of two. A pupil
of Theodore's, Nestorius of Constantinople, was led in 428 to deny
that Mary the Virgin (q.v.) could rightly be called Theotokos ("Birth-
giver of God"), but could only be considered as the bearer of Christ,
Christokos. This drew the formidable opposition of Cyril of Alexan-
dria (q.v.), who saw Nestorius's distinction as threatening the unity of
the God-man and, in consequence, the believer's hope of deification.
Cyril won his case at the Third Ecumenical Council at Ephesus in 43 1.
His often unscrupulous and violent methods, however, together with
some real ambiguitiesin his theology, led to the secession of the whole
east, Syriac-speaking Church of Persia from communion with the
Church of the Byzantine Empire (qq.~.).This community, wrongly
identified too strictly as adherents of "Nestorianism," persists to the
present day.
Cyril's imprecise terminology, together with his stature as the inter-
preter of the incarnation, led to further difficulties following his death
in 444. Later in the same decade, a Constantinopolitan archimandrite
named Eutyches advocated a union of God and man in Christ, which
was, in effect, a blending of the two wherein Jesus' humanity was seen
as entirely swallowed up by the glory of his godhead. The Tome of
Pope Leo the Great (q.v.) was written in response to Eutyches and
served as the basis for the doctrinal definition at the Fourth Ecumeni-
cal Council at Chalcedon in 45 1. Leo's balanced thought and phrasing
stressed the completeness of Christ's two "natures" (q.v.), human and
divine, and their union in the one person or hypostasis of the Word. Un-
fortunately, the pope's insistence on the phrase, "in two natures," led
to great resistance on the part of the entire Church of Egypt and much
of that of Syria (qq.~.).The latter's standard of orthodoxy was the
phrase, "one nature of the incarnate Word," which Cyril (q.v.) had of-
ten used in the (mistaken) belief that it came from Athanasius-it was
actually Apollinaris's invention. To the "monophysites," Leo's phrase
86 Christology
known in the Church's sacraments and in the images she has sanc-
tioned for veneration. Here, too, in this Christological understanding
of the holy icons, we may find the seeds of the later work of Gregory
Palamas in defense of the holy hesychasts of Athos (qq.v.) that con-
cluded the theological contributions of the Byzantine era-and that
continues to live at the center of Orthodox thought and piety today.
CHURCH AND STATE. Until the 19th-c. rise of nationalism and the
consequent appearance of state churches, and with the notable excep-
tion of Russia and certain earlier local churches (e.g., Armenia, Geor-
gia [qq.~.],etc.), the understanding of the state in the Orthodox
Church had been governed by the latter's relationship to the two great
Empires, Roman and Ottoman (qq.~.),which dominated the eastern
Mediterraneanbasin for two millennia. Early Christian attitudes to the
Roman Empire oscillated, depending on persecutions, between seeing
the emperor and his imperium as the providential guardians of law and
order (e.g., Rom 12), or else as the agents of the devil and the antichrist
(e.g., Rev). The imperial cult of the emperor's spirit or genius was, of
course, consistently resisted.
Radical change came with the accession to power of Constantine
the Great (q.v.). Eusebius of Caesarea (q.v.), in numerous writings in.
cluding his Church History and especially his oration In Praise of
Constantine, sketched the outlines which would become the official,
political theology of Byzantium (q.v.). This held that the Empire was
a providential gift, intended by God to stretch across the oikoumene
(q.v.; or "inhabited earth") and to parallel the universal Church of
Christ, to become in short the secular arm or reflection of the Church.
The emperor, while no longer divine, was presented as the "image of
Christ," i.e., in Christ's capacity as governor and ordering power of
the universe @antaerator). In a famous phrase, Constantine therefore
called himself the "bishop" or overseer of the Church's outer life-in
effect, its chief executive officer-though he never claimed the right
to define its faith. (See Caesaropapism.)
Some two centuries later, Justinian (q.v.) articulated the doctrine of
"symphony": imperium and sacerdotium coexist as the mutually com-
plementary and supporting aspects of a single Christian polity, with
the emperor seeing to its good order and defending its orthodoxy and
the bishops retaining full authority (q.v.) for Christian teaching and
discipline, and in particular the exclusive right to pronounce on the
88 Church and State
Church. Again, his is much of the original vocabulary that later charac-
terized Christian mystical literature in both East and West.
the Lapsi (Latin: "the fallen") in the mid-3rd c. and the Donatist
Schism (q.v.) in North Africa in the early 4th c. were important events
that focused on the appropriate confession of faith for those who had
denied Christ under persecution. Many local councils, often comprised
of Christians who had been crippled or lost friends and family during
imperial persecutions, legislated on the equity of accepting back into
the Church members who had fallen away during persecution. The leg-
islation of local councils continued on into the seven Ecumenical
Councils (q.v.), and became associated with the Eucharist (q.v.) when
the penitential ranks were institutionalized and assigned a place ap-
proaching, but not participating in, the Holy Mysteries (sacraments).
During this same period asceticism and monasticism (q.v.) flour-
ished publicly, and with it came selfless obedience and spiritual di-
rection. As early as Antony (q.v.) and the ascetics of the desert, we
witness a profound sensitivity toward obeying a spiritual guide who is
capable of identifying the signposts of the way (q.v.) of the Lord, the
spiritual journey of the wayfarer, the pilgrim. Over the centuries the
parish tradition of liturgical confession in preparation for the Eu-
charist and the monastic tradition of spiritual direction were com-
bined. In Greek such a confessor/director is called a geron and in
Russian, a starets. Although the two functions of liturgical confessor
and spiritual director are entirely separable, a combination of the two
is considered a great gift. A well-known Russian spiritual father of the
19th c. was Fr. John of Kronstadt, and of the 20th c. Fr. Alexander
Elchaninov (qq.~.).
The liturgical service of sacramental confession in the Orthodox
Church, though popularly associated with the confession of sins, still
has as its focus the confession of faith-namely the Nicene-Constan-
tinopolitan Creed (q.v.). It is notably devoid of the classical ego ab-
solve ("I absolve thee") found in corresponding Western liturgy (q.v.)
(except in a version of the Russian service); and is taken in form to be
a public, rather than private, service. When administered privately,
which is usually the case, the service is performed en face with the
priest and penitent both standing before the Gospel and Cross, the
priest standing as a witness for the whole Church.
Carthage in North Africa in 249 and presided over the African Church
until his death by martyrdom. His writings deal chiefly with the
Church, sacraments (q.v.), and hierarchy; and appear to have been
translated early into Greek and to have exercised no little influence on
Orthodox ecclesiology (q.v.).
Two issues in particular drew Cyprian's attention, the confession of
penitents who had fallen into apostasy (q.v.) during the persecution of
the Emperor Decius (250-51), and the recognition of the sacraments
(q.v.) of schismatic or heretical Christian communities. His replies have
the virtue of clear thinking and a rigorously consistent and rhetorically
effective presentation. In response to the first issue, Cyprian maintained
that it was wholly the province of the Church's bishops to pronounce
the forgiveness of sin and to assign penances. This was over and against
the claims being advanced by those who had suffered during the perse-
cutions (the "confessors") who argued that they alone had the moral
right to pronounce on this issue. Regarding the second issue, he held that
any who had left or were born outside the visible communion of the
Church catholic, that is, belonged to communities not part of the united
episcopate, were not to be reckoned as within the Church in any sense:
"outside the Church there is no salvation." The sacraments of dissidents
therefore had no authenticity whatsoever.
Cyprian found an ally for this opinion in Firrnilian of Cappadocia
and an adversary in Bishop Stephen of Rome. The latter appears to
have been the first to have appealed to his own authority (q.v.) as the
unique successor of the apostle Peter. Cyprian, to the contrary, held
that all bishops share equally in the "chair of Peter." The controversy
between the two thus appears as the first instance of that tension in the
ecclesiology (q.v.) of the Church between a "papal" and an "episco-
pal and conciliar" vision that finds its ultimate expression in the divi-
sion between Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy (qq.~.).
DANIEL, St. 1) the Stylite (ca. 409-493). Taking his name from the
prophet and book of the Old Testament-which in turn was taken
from the character Dan 'El of Semitic folklore-Daniel was a stylite,
an ascetic who followed the unusual discipline of spending his life on
a platform atop a column (styles). As a disciple of a more famous
stylite, Symeon (q.v.), Daniel's Life holds that he was blessed by his
master to be the latter's "Elisha." Making his home on a pillar for
thirty-three years just outside the imperial capital, Constantinople
(q.v.), he was indeed accorded great respect by both the ecclesiastical
and civil authorities, doubtless in great part as the result of his im-
mense popular following. He is said to have left his pillar only once
(ca. 476) to rebuke Emperor Basilicus's monophysitism (q.v.).
2) Prince of Moscow (1261-1303). Youngest son of Alexander
Nevskii (q.v.), Daniel became ruler of Moscow and inaugurated its
rise to power within his family, devoting himself to a peaceful Tartar
appanage and expanding its borders. On the bank of the Moscow
River a church with a cloister was founded in his honor, in which he
took monastic vows before his death. On 30 August 1652, his relics
were transferred to the famous St. Daniel's (Danilov) Monastery in
Moscow. The site has a particular contemporary importance: it was
very recently renovated while the Soviets were still in power, being
one of the first large-scale (trial run) ecclesiastical renovations in Rus-
sia. It houses the important Russian patriarchal Department of Exter-
nal Affairs (comparable to a foreign office or secretary of state).
DAPHNI. The name of the ancient Greek shrine to Apollo on Mt. Par-
nassus to the north of Athens and site of an oracle famous throughout
classical Greece and, later, the early Roman Empire (q.v.). With a
slight change in spelling, Daphne is the site of a Byzantine monastery
Deification 107
church still standing six miles to the west and south of Athens. The
church, together with its interior iconography, is considered one of the
finest examples of Byzantine art and architecture (qq.v.) extant in
Greece.
ticulate the hints present in the New Testament and Church Fathers
(q.v.), have sought to define the Church fundamentally as sacrament,
i.e., as the presence in this world and communication of the Kingdom
of God, the body of the risen Christ animated by the Holy Spirit (q.v.).
In particular Russian theologians such as Nikolai Afanasiev, Georges
Florovsky, John Meyendorff, and Alexander Schmemann, together
with Greeks such as John Zizioulas and the Romanian Dumitru
Staniloae (qq.~.),have advanced an ecclesiology based on the Eu-
charist (q.v.) as central-to the other sacraments (q.v.) and the
Church's historical self-understanding,e.g., the evolution of the three
sacred orders (sacramental ministers).
The contribution of these men has been admired by and influenced
other Christians, notably Roman Catholics; but they have raised the
legitimate question that Eucharistic ecclesiology does not address the
political reality of the universal Church, i.e., the Christian Church is a
worldwide society whose unity requires an officer charged with the re-
sponsibility for the whole. They see this office in the "petrine min-
istry" exercised by the papacy (q.v.). The question of primacy is per-
haps the burning issue facing the Orthodox Church as it approaches
the 21st c. The old relations between Church and state (q.v.) that ob-
tained in the Christian East up until the opening of the 20th c., wherein
the Church's unity was in great part the responsibility of the Christian
state, now no longer apply. Recent initiatives on the part of the Ecu-
menical Patriarch (q.v.) allow some hope that contemporary Ortho-
doxy is moving toward a possible resolution of the question.
of Jesus Christ. From the risen Christ comes the gift of the Holy Spirit
(q.v.), and in the latter the presence in the fallen world of the King-
dom of God, i.e., the Church. As the Church exists in a fallen world,
its fundamental concern must be the salvation of the souls whom it
embraces. Thus the second and directly related meaning of economy:
actions taken by the Church in the person of its officers (bishops, and
by extension priests) for the redemption of individual believers in the
sphere of Canon Law (q.v.). While representing the Church's govern-
ing of souls and communication of grace, the canons are never in
themselves absolute. They may be enforced literally, kat'akribeian, or
with discretion, kat 'oikonomian,depending on the discernment of the
needs of the particular soul. "Economy" of canonical application can
therefore mean either a loosening of the canonical prescriptions (akin
to Roman Catholicism's "dispensation"), or the imposition of a disci-
pline stricter than that which the canons provide.
EGYPT. The Roman province of Egypt included the Nile valley to the
First Cataract, the present-day Aswan Dam, and the territory of
Cyrenica, the coastlands of modem Libya. An intensely conservative
peasantry and pagan priesthood were politically and culturally domi-
nated by the Greek-speakingcapital, Alexandria (q.v.). While most of
the Christian literature coming from Egypt through the 4th c. and 5th
c. was in Greek, the conversion of the peasantry by the latter century
gave birth to monasticism (q.v.) and to the earliest Coptic literature.
Following the Council of Chalcedon (451), the Egyptian or Coptic
Church (q.v.)-i.e., the vast majority of indigenous Christians-broke
Eighth Day 117
EPHESUS. One of the largest cities and great ports of the Roman Em-
pire (q.v.), its ruins are located on the southern Aegean near the mod-
ern Turkish city, Selcuk. As the capital of the Proconsular Province of
Asia Minor (q.v.) in the New Testament era, Ephesus was famous for
one of the "Seven Wonders of the World," the great temple of Artemis
(or Diana) built in 330 B.C. Ephesus was also one of the most impor-
tant cities of the ancient church, linked for example to the Apostle
John and the labors of Paul (Acts 18-19; Eph), and is one of the seven
churches addressed in Rev (ch. 2). It was later the site of the Third Ec-
umenical Council (q.v.), which probably took place in the double
church near the theater, the remains of which are still visible today. Its
dominance over Asia Minor was, however, superceded by the rise to
prominence of Constantinople (q.v.) at the close of the 4th c.
Desert Fathers (q.v.), who often resisted the over-exacting penances im-
posed by the ecclesiastical hierarchy. (See Economy.)
serves in Ethiopic translations copies of texts from the Old and New
Testament apocrypha, e.g., Enoch, the Ascension of Isaiah, Jubilees,
and Eusebian works, of centuries before and after Christ. From the
16th c. to the 19th c. the country drew the attention of missionary ef-
forts from various Roman Catholic orders, with marginal success out-
side of an Eritrean Uniat group. Under its own native bishops since the
1950s, the Ethiopian Church has been an active participant in the Ori-
ental Orthodox-Orthodox Dialogue (q.v.) since the latter's inception
in the 1960s.
their spiritual legacy in Russia is not well known. They settled in Rus-
sia during the reign of Catherine 11, largely due to conscription in their
home countries and their pacifist political stance. The tsars for the
most part respected their religious pacifism and pardoned them from
governmental service, while establishing them as large communities
in agricultural areas where they retained their own culture and lan-
guage. They seem to have been tolerated by the Church as benign and
understood as a type of primitive Christian community in dogmatics
and social organization.
Theologically, they brought with them an orientation toward
apocalypticism and some adventism, and were disposed toward al-
legory (q.v.) and "spiritual" interpretation of the Bible. Some left
Russia in the 19th c. with the threat of conscription from unsympa-
thetic tsars and because of the forced Russification under Ober-
Procurator Pobedonostsev. Stalin is said to have eradicated five
million Germans in his purges of the Volga River basin, most of
whom would have been Lutheran and Evangelical Brethren.
EVIL EYE. Belief in the evil eye is common to many European cultures,
and is usually associated with the glance or stare of a person who is
thought to be capable of inflicting injury, wittingly or unwittingly, on
another. In the Orthodox Church the understanding of the phenome-
non, which may be ascertained by reading the prayer against the evil
eye, is more spiritually substantive than superstitious: The evil eye
is clearly identified with the covetous glance or the jealous stare. A
prime example of the evil eye is the jealousy or covetousness aroused
in a barren woman against another's newborn child, as in 1 Kings 3
wherein Solomon renders wise judgment between two women claim-
ing the same child. Thus, according to such a definition one might pro-
voke the evil eye through pride, ostentatious display, or braggery.
Conversely, one might protect one's self from the evil eye through hu-
mility, modesty, and thankfulness.
that person for the Church and removing him from the power of evil.
Similarly, the daily exorcisms most probably dealt with very specific
sins (q.v.), which were to be overcome before Baptism (q.v.) could take
place. It is pointless to propose for this daily practice any of the curi-
ous aspects of exorcism currently popular in the American media,
when what was most likely at stake was good, sound spiritual direction
against sin over a prolonged period of time. This spiritual approach
gives us a principle related to the ethics of the way (q.v.) of the Lord,
or two ways, providing practical advice for the daily spiritual life of the
catechumen, and at the same time demanding accountability from him.
When the adult catechumenate is restored, the first three exorcism
prayers of the baptismal service should be included at the beginning
of catechesis (q.v.), or perhaps interspersed throughout it; and they
should be explained as claiming that person for the Kingdom of God
and the Church, and removing him or her from the power of evil.
Throughout the catechetical period, the teaching of the Two Ways
may serve as a guide to deal with specific sins, which are to be over-
come before reception into the Church can take place. This is to pro-
vide continuing practical advice for the daily spiritual life of the cate-
chumen. The process logically and naturally leads to the individual's
later participation in the sacrament of Confession (qq.~.).Basically,
catechesis, exorcism, and confession require good, sound spiritual di-
rection against sin, and accountability to God (q.v.).
-F-
FASTING see Ascesis.
FEASTS, TWELVE GREAT. After Pascha (q.v.) or Easter and the
Sunday resurrectional liturgy (q.v.), the Twelve Great Feasts com-
memorate the most important saving events connected with the life of
Jesus Christ that the Church celebrates throughout the course of the
year. Although a few of the feasts (Palm Sunday, Ascension, Pente-
cost) are movable because they are dependent on Pascha, all the rest
are on fixed calendar days. The Christian ecclesiastical year, just as the
Jewish year, begins in September, and so the feasts are thus arranged:
1) 8 September, Nativity of the Theotokos (q.v.)
Originating in Syria-Palestine in the 6th c. and celebrated in Rome in
the 7th c., this feast commemorates Mary's (q.v.) birthday, not for its
historical accuracy-because we do not know the exact date of her
birth-but as the first feast of the new year, in a certain way making
all other of the feasts possible. The words of the liturgical celebration
express it well: "Your birth, 0 virgin mother of God, announces the
joy of the whole world, for from you has come and shines the Sun of
Justice, Christ our God."
Feasts, Twelve Great 12 7
narrative of the meeting of the Lord by Simeon and Anna, and the
recitation of the beautiful Nunc Domitis.
7) 25 March, Annunciation
As early as Hippolytus and Tertullian (qq.v.) in the 3rd c., there is
mention of the crucifixion on 25 March, and with it in Hippolytus and
other later writers, the Annunciation. But the earliest reference to a
liturgical celebration is at the Council of Toledo in 656, though there
is a church commemoratingthe Annunciation built in Nazareth before
400. The feast celebrates the visitation of the Archangel Gabriel to
Mary in Lk 1, announcing to her the birth of Jesus, Son of the Most
High. It focuses on its connection with the nativity of Jesus and the
real role that Mary's sanctity and volition played in that event.
8) One week before Pascha, Entrance of the Lord into Jerusalem
Known popularly as Palm Sunday (although it falls on Monday in the
Gospel of John), this feast inaugurates Holy Week-separate from Lent
(q.v.) in the East- and is intrinsically linked with the raising of Lazarus
and the causal events that led to Jesus' arrest and crucifixion. On this
day the faithful hold palms, or branches of willows in the Russian Or-
thodox tradition, to identify themselves with the people who greeted Je-
sus as he entered Jerusalem, an entrance that was both a display of po-
litical and eschatological significance as the beginning of the last week.
9) Forty days after Pascha, Ascension
Celebrated by the whole Church h m at least the 4th-5th c., this feast
commemorates the end of the Resurrection appearances and the joyous
"sitting down of Jesus Christ at the right hand of the Father." Although
the Eastern Church liturgically follows the Lucan chronology (Lk 24;
Acts l), the only one that gives us a forty-day ascension, it is not unaware
of the other alternatives that see the Resurrection-Ascension-Pentecostas
a single event, since the Johannine readings are prescribed for the forty-
day period. A Russian Orthodox monastery sits atop the Mount of Olives
and marks the traditional identification of the site of the Ascension.
10) Fifty days after Pascha, Pentecost
The fiftieth day after Passover is the Feast of Weeks in Jewish practice,
or Pentecost; and in the Lucan chronology (Acts 2) is identified as the
day the Holy Spirit descended upon the apostles (q.v.). Pentecost marks
the birth of the Church and falls near the end of the Paschal celebrations,
although the whole of the time between Easter and Pentecost has occa-
sionally been referred to as Pentecost, a fast-free time when the liturgi-
cal book (q.v.) the pentecostarion is used. On this day, in addition to the
descent of the Holy Spirit, the Orthodox especially remember the confu-
sion of tongues at the Tower of Babel as contrasted with the translation
of the Good News into languages comprehensible to all.
11) 6 August, Transfiguration of the Lord
Celebrated in Asia, probably by Armenians, as early as the 4th c., it
Fedotov, George P. 129
was in wide use in the East before 1000, but not in the West until it
additionally commemorated the defeat of the Turks at Belgrade in
1456. The Gospel event is recorded in the synoptics (Mt 17; Mk 9; Lk
9)' alluded to in 2 Pet 1, and marks the center of all the synoptic
Gospels, along with the confession of Peter and the prediction of the
Cross and Resurrection (q.v.). The understanding of transfiguration
and theosis (q.v.) are quite different in the East from the West.
Whereas the West might see the event on Mount Tabor primarily as a
revelation of Jesus as God, the East understands it, not only as a rev-
elation of the Trinity (q.v.), but as the visible manifestation of the
transformed humanity of Jesus, a glory shared by Moses and Elijah.
12) 15 August, Dormition of the Theotokos
Known in the East also as the feast of the Falling Asleep of Mary, and
in the West as the Assumption, the holy day was observed in Syria-
Palestine from at least the 4th-5th c. Belief in the bodily assumption
of Mary was a topic of the 6th c. among Gregory of Tours, Dionysius
(Ps.) the Areopagite (q.v.), and later Germanus of Constantinople.The
celebration not only draws attention to the sanctity and faithfulness of
Mary's life, but to the recapitulation of the experience of the whole
Church and the life of the believer in her: "The source of life is laid in
the grave and her tomb becomes a ladder to heaven." This feast is an
apt conclusion to the cycle of the liturgical year, which began with
Mary's birth.
FZLZOQUE. This Latin phrase means "and (from) the Son," and refers to
a late Western Latin interpolation into the third part of the Nicene-
Constantinopolitan Creed (q.v.), specifically to the clause on the pro-
cession of the Holy Spirit (q.v.). The phrase was added to the text of
the Creed by the Spanish Church at the Council of Toledo in 589, then
two centurieslater found its way to the imperial chapel of Charlemagne
(q.v.) at Aachen, and thence to Rome (q.v.) at the beginning of the 1lth
c. Never accepted by the Orthodox Church, theJilioque- together with
the understanding of papal primacy -remains the most important, sin-
gle theological issue dividing the Western and Eastern Churches. (See
Carolingians; Holy Spirit; Trinity.)
ulty is affiliated with the university at Joensuu, and there are two monas-
tic communities. The majority of Finnish Orthodox derive from Kare-
lia, the eastern provinces lost to the Soviet Union in the Russo-Finnish
wars of 1939 through 1944. The resettlement and scattering of Ortho-
dox Finns throughout the rest of the country following that war continue
to pose difficulties for this minority church, although in the most recent
years the church has attracted converts and has begun to grow.
Tikhon (q.v.), at the same time the patriarch dismissed the ecclesias-
tical administration of the Synod in Exile (q.v.) created by a council
of emigrant bishops at Sremski Karlovci, Yugoslavia. In 1925Evlogii
established St. Sergius Orthodox Theological Institute (q.v.), Paris.
Because of the confounding ecclesiastical situation, Evlogii's exar-
chate fell successively under two patriarchates (qq.~.),Moscow from
1921 to 1931 and 1945 to 1946, and Constantinople from 1931 to
1945. He submitted to the authority of the Moscow Patriarchate in
1945, but the decision in favor by the exarch diocese was not estab-
lished until after his death. His primary written work is My Life's
Path: The Memoirs of Metropolitan Evlogii, Based on His Own Ac-
counts by T. Manukhina (in Russian). The first half of the book de-
scribes Russian church life at the turn of the century, and the second
half is a detailed history of the Russian tmigr6 church in Europe.
GILLET, LEV, "A Monk of the Eastern Church," monastic priest, theo-
logian, ecumenist (189213-29 March 1980). Reared in a Roman
Catholic family near Grenoble, he studied philosophy there and at
Paris. In 1914 he served in the French army, was wounded and taken
prisoner, and served two years in a German camp. Released in 1917,
he settled in Geneva to pursue studies in mathematics and psychology.
In 1920 he entered the French Benedictine Abbey of Farnborough,
England, and came under the influence of the Uniate Metr. Andrew
Szeptyckyi of Lvov. The community sent him to study at St. Anselmo,
Rome, where he collaborated with Dom Lambert Beauduin on ways
to bring about the unity of the Roman and Russian Churches.
Deeply influenced by the ecumenical outlook of Vladimir Soloviev
(q.v.) and unsupported at Farnborough in his Orthodox interests, he
went to Lvov in 1924 where Metropolitan Szeptyckyi ordained him
deacon and priest following profession as monk. He served briefly as
Gnosticism 139
Szeptyckyi's secretary. In 1927 he did relief work for the Russian em-
igrants in Nice, and on 25 May 1928 he concelebrated Divine Liturgy
with Metropolitan Evlogii (q.v.). Archimandrite Lev was thus re-
ceived into the Orthodox Church, and from 25 May until his death
served only the Orthodox. From 1928 he did charity work for the
Russian Student Christian Movement and was assigned by Evlogii to
serve the chapel of Mother Maria Skobtsova's (q.v.) "hermitage," and
was the rector of Paris's only French-speaking Orthodox parish. In
Paris he became interested in the ideas of Sergius Bulgakov and was
a close friend to Paul Evdokimov (qq.~.),and lived there until his de-
parture for London in February 1938.
In the early 1940s he had a research fellowship to study Jewish-
Christian relations at Selly Oak College, Birmingham. From 1948 un-
til his death he served as Orthodox chaplain to the Fellowship of St. Al-
ban and St. Sergius (q.v.), London. He is author of Communion in the
Messiah (1942), Orthodox Spirituality: An Outline of the OrthodoxAs-
cetical and Mystical Tradition (trans. 1945), On the Invocation of the
Name of Jesus (trans. 1949),Jesus, A Dialogue with the Saviour (trans.,
2nd ed. 1963),In Thy Presence (trans. 1977), The Jesus Prayer (trans.,
rev. 1987), and Encounter at the Well: Retreat Addresses (1988).
GRACE. The Greek word, charis, means free gift, gratuity. Grace in Or-
thodox theology is thus the unmerited gift of God (q.v.). More specif-
ically, it signifies the Father's gift of himself through Christ in the
Holy Spirit (q.v.). The distinction, important for Latin Scholasticism
(q.v.), between created and uncreated grace finds no equivalent in the
Christian East. The two concepts of grace clashed in the debate over
the holy hesychasts, won by Gregory Palamas (qq.~.).Gregory's clear
insistence on grace as finally God himself in his uncreated energies
was upheld by local councils held in Constantinople (q.v.) in 1341,
1347, and 1351. The particular, Western concern with the relationship
between (or opposition of) nature and grace, seen especially in Au-
gustine of Hippo's (q.v.) debate with Pelagius and resulting in the for-
mer's advocacy of predestination, continued to affect Western Chris-
tianity into the Reformation (e.g., Luther and Calvin) and beyond, but
has no counterpart in the Orthodox East. The latter's theology and an-
thropology (qq.~.),while insisting on the divine initiative and on theo-
sis (q.v.) as the content of salvation, simultaneouslyrequires room for
the free response of the human being. The whole sphere of Orthodox
asceticism (q.v.) bears witness to this notion of synergia, cooperation,
between divine grace and created nature (q.v.). The two are never read
in opposition to one another or as mutually exclusive. This insistence
is at least as old as Irenaeus of Lyons (q.v.), especially his vision of
created nature, summed up in the human being, as presupposing grace
in order to become truly itself. In other words, whatever is without
grace is, for Irenaeus and the whole patristic tradition of the East, at
the same time less than "natural," i.e., fallen.
Russia and which have resurfaced in the post-Soviet era. (See Pha-
nariot; Tikas, Seraphim).
his championship of the hesychasts (q.v.) and, with them, of the tradi-
tion of Eastern Christian asceticism against the charges of Barlaam of
Calabria (q.v.). Gregory's greatest work, The Triads in Defense of the
Holy Hesychasts, assembled the scriptural and patristic evidence for
theosis (qq.~.),arguing that the claims to a direct experience of God
(q.v.) by saints past and present were evidence of a distinction in God
between the divine essence and activities, or energies. The Triads-
following on the Hagioritic Tome Gregory had authored (1340141) and
the monks had signed-opened up an intense debate in the Orthodox
Church that lasted for over a decade, and culminated in Gregory's of-
ficial vindication at the local councils held at Constantinople (q.v.) in
1341, 1347, and 1351. The essencelenergies distinction has subse-
quently been accepted as the official teaching of the Orthodox Church.
During his lifetime Gregory was convicted of heresy (q.v.) and ex-
communicated,and also captured and imprisoned by the Turks, but re-
mained steadfast in his faith. Elected Archbishop of Thessalonica
(q.v.) in 1347, he died in office. Some ten years after his death, ca.
1369, his lifelong disciple and admirer, the Patriarch Philotheos of
Constantinople, saw to his canonization. He is commemorated in the
Orthodox Church on the second Sunday of Great Lent (q.v.).
HELENA, St. (ca. 250-ca. 330). The mother of Constantine the Great
(q.v.), she was the daughter of an innkeeper in Roman Bithynia
(whom legend made into a British king) who became the concubine
of Constantius Chlorus, Constantine's father. She was faithful to both
her man and her son, and appears to have influenced the latter's con-
version to Christianity. Helena together with Olga of Rus' may be in-
directly credited with the conversion of two great empires, the Byzan-
tine and Russian. As a patroness of the Church advanced in years, she
is associated with a pilgrimage to the Holy Land in 326 and Constan-
tine's active program of basilica construction there (Mt. of Olives,
Bethlehem), as well as with the discovery of the Cross of Christ. There
may be some historical grounds for this identification since the tradi-
tion has 4th-c. roots. She is commemorated in the Orthodox Church
on the same day, May 21, as her son. (See Feasts, Twelve Great-
Exaltation of the Cross.)
HELLEMSM. This term has two active senses within the present-day
Orthodox Church. The first, and broader, refers to the patrimony of
classical Greek and later Greco-Roman thought, the inheritance in par-
ticular of the great philosophers from Plato to Plotinus, together with
the institutionsof the later Roman Empire, especially the idea of Rome
(q.v.) itself as a universal state. All of this constitutes that "Hellenism"
that the Church Fathers (q.v.) breathed as their native air, and with
which they struggled at every turn. Intellectually,this meant the great
effort of Greek Christian-i.e., Byzantine-theology to recast the lan-
guage and vocabulary of pagan thought into a vessel capable of bear-
ing the Christian mystery. Spiritually, in the forge of asceticism and
monasticism (qq.~.),it meant the hammering out and refining of that
vessel, on the one hand, and the witness to the experience, on the other.
154 Henotikon
HERESY. This word derives from the Greek verb haireolhaireomai, "to
take" or "to choose." In ecclesiastical use it signifies a conscious
"choice," taken on a matter of defined doctrine in disagreement with
the faith. This faith or "mind" of the Church is determined by Scrip-
ture, by an Ecumenical Council (qq.~.),or by universal and long-
standing consensus. The author of such a choice, the heresiarch, will,
in the conventions of church historians, usually have given his name
to the opinion and party deriving from it.
The history of the Church and its teaching is in great part a history
of Christian heresies. In New Testament times intense struggles went
Heresy 155
Alaska (q.v.), off Kodiak until 1837.He originally came from Valaam
(Lake Ladoga) Monastery to Alaska in 1794. His secular name and
parents are unknown. Father Herman came with a group of about a
dozen monk-missionaries, half of whom perished within five years.
By 1823 Herman was the sole survivor of the original mission who
was still in Alaska.
In the history of North American horticulture, Herman is listed as
the discoverer of a method of fertilization based on the harvest of "sea
cabbages9'-a type of marine plant-which is dried or composted and
used to enrich Alaskan soil. He probably brought this practice, un-
known in the New World, from Lake Ladoga Monastery where it had
been in use. Since the history of Russians in Alaska is largely also a
history of food production, it was important that Herman was known
for growing turnips, potatoes, and garden vegetables-when others
had failed. In 1825 he grew 150 to 180 beds of potatoes, but all the
gardening enterprise ceased after his death.
In any case Herman is better known for other achievements:
1) The early success of the missionary party -thousands of baptisms,
etc. were performed-may be attributed to their "missionary edu-
cation" in traveling across Europe and Asia to Alaska for almost a
year. Stopping in monasteries establishedby the Russian Church all
along the way, Herman and the others were recipients of an educa-
tion in missionizing indigenous "shamanistic" populations by suc-
cessful historical example. (See Komi.) These way stations were
first established as missions to the native peoples of their lands.
2) In Kodiak the monks laid the foundation of the Holy Resurrection
Church and established a school in which they taught catechism,
history, mathematics, language, agriculture, and domestic science
to the indigenous population. In spite of this new learning, the na-
tive cultures were not suppressed, and there existed an official di-
rective to prevent interference in their societies.
3) Herman and the others in the missionary party were in serious con-
flict with the Golikov-ShelikovCompany (i.e., the Russian-American
Company, founded in 1799) over the treatment of natives, especially
under Governor Alexander Baranov. Eventually the missionaries
were put under house arrest for trying to extend rights of Russian cit-
izenship to the natives. At this point, 1808-1818, Herman probably
went into seclusion at Spruce Island.
4) From these events and his later seclusion he was known for the
sanctity of his life, many aspects of which can be compared to the
Desert Fathers (q.v.). It is said that Herman had had the same spir-
itual father at Valaam as Seraphim of Sarov (q.v.), the Elder
Nazary, and was affectionately called "Apa" (grandfather or elder)
by the natives.
158 Hesychasm
HESYCHASM. This word derives from the Greek verb meaning "to be
quiet" or "at rest." In early monastic usage "hesychast" was used for
an ascetic "at rest" in the quiet of a desert retreat, i.e., an anchorite or
hermit. "Hesychasm" as a special term comes to particular promi-
nence in the 14th c. in what is at least a double sense. First, and more
narrowly, it refers to a monastic movement centered on Mt. Athos
(q.v.), especially among the hermits who were preoccupied with the
meaning and technique of the "Jesus Prayer." The monks believed that
the Jesus Prayer-the repeated and concentrated invocation of the di-
vine name-served to provide the most direct path to encounter with
the presence of the Risen One. This movement provoked the negative
criticism of Barlaam the Calabrian, and found its chief defender in
Gregory Palamas (qq.~.).In its larger sense "hesychasm" is often used
to denote a broad movement of renewal that was led by monks con-
nected with and formed by hesychast spirituality. That movement
stretched from the chancery of the Ecumenical Patriarch through the
Balkans to the monasteries founded by Sergius of Radonezh (qq.v.)
and his successors. Called by some scholars the "Hesychast Interna-
tionale," this wide current of ideas and personalities did much to
strengthen and unite the Orthodox Church on the eve of the fall of
Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks (qq.~.).
tory of the Church covered the first three centuries of Christianity and is
still an invaluable resource. He incorporated into it other works, now
lost, such as those of the 2nd-c. church historian Hegesippus, who wrote
on Jerusalem and Rome, and probably gave us the list of early Roman
popes found in Epiphanius (Haer. 27.6). Subsequent Church historians
writing in Greek included: Socrates (d. 439) and Sozomen (d. ca. 450),
who carried Eusebius's story through the Trinitarian controversiesof the
4th c.; Theodoret of Cyrrhus (q.v.), who continued into the Christologi-
cal debates through Chalcedon (q.v.); Zachariah the Rhetor (d. ca. 550),
who took the latter controversies through the rnid-6th c. from the mono-
physite side; and Evagrius Scholasticus (d. 593/4), who represented the
Chalcedonian side through to the century's end. Lesser writers include
Philostorgius (d. 395) and Gelasius of Caesarea (d. 425) from the Greek
side and John of Ephesus (d. 586), who wrote in Syriac (q.v.).
Among the Latins, Lactantius (d. 330s) contributed an impressive
history of the African Church's persecutions under the Emperor Dio-
cletian, while Rufinus of Aquileia (d. ca. 410) wrote perhaps the most
impressive Church history by a Western writer until the Venerable
Bede (d. 735) produced his remarkable History of the English Church.
Augustine of Hippo's (q.v.) City of God, while not a history per se, is
nonetheless worth mentioning as the unique theology of history in the
patristic age. Finally, Jerome compiled a bibliography of ecclesiasti-
cal writers and translated and updated Eusebius's Chronicle, which is
a summary of universal history with dates.
Church history continued to be written throughout the Byzantine era
(q.v.). But since Church and state (q.v.) came to be practically identified
during Byzantium's medieval period, the histories produced are as
much histories of the Empire as of the Christian Church. Examples are
the works of Michael Psellos (1lth c.) and Anna Comnena (12th c.).
HOLY LAND. The term is used infrequently in Scripture (q.v.), for the
first time in Zech 2: 12, and connotes Palestine, the present territory of
Israel-Jordan, and, especially, of the holy city, Jerusalem. It is the land
of the Old Testament revelation and of Jesus Christ. Other and later
holy places are those locales associated with great ascetic saints (q.v.)
such as a monastery, a cave, or a chapel. They can be the scenes of
deaths or tombs of noted martyrs (q.v.), as the Vatican in Rome was of
Peter and Paul. Evidence does suggest that Christian pilgrimages (q.v.)
to the latter site occurred as early as the 2nd c.; but clearly pilgrimage
must have been familiar from classical Judaism, which required cele-
bration of the feasts-and all sacrifice-to take place in Jerusalem.
Clear evidence of Christian pilgrimages to Palestine does not come un-
til the 4th c. and the changes wrought by Constantine (q.v.), though
they might have been earlier. But this is very speculative because of the
renovation of the city done by Hadrian, reconstructing the new city as
the (pagan) Aelia Capitolina. The theology of holy places derives from
the general sacramental understanding of the Orthodox Church: Where
the very elements of bread and wine or water and oil may became ve-
hicles of God's presence in the sacraments of Eucharist, Baptism
(qq.~.),Anointing, so may the earth itself be affected through the labors
of God's holy ones and the visitation of his grace (q.v.).
HOLY SPIRIT. The third person of the Trinity (q.v.) given by the risen
Christ to his disciples (Jn 20, Acts 2), and as the sign of the messianic
age and new creation (Rom 8). It is the gift given to every believer at
Hopko, Thomas J. 1 61
Baptism (q.v.) and Chrismation, the one who effects the consecration
of the bread and wine at the eucharistic epiclesis, the goal and means
of all Orthodox asceticism (q.v.). The Spirit is counselor, comforter,
the mark of the presence of Christ, the heart and power of prayer (q.v.),
the reality of the eschaton.
All the above is common to the patristic background of Christian
East and West. Orthodoxy parts company with the Latin West in see-
ing the procession or eternal origin of the Spirit as coming from the
Father (Jn 15:26) and sent, in the economy (q.v.) of Christ, through
the Son. The Latin addition to the article on the Spirit in the Nicene-
Constantinopolitan Creed (q.v.) of the phrase, "and from the Son" (fil-
ioque), was viewed in the East as inadmissible.
This reaction was argued on two grounds, canonical and properly
theological. Thejlioque (q.v.) entered the Creed by a unilateral action
of the West without Eastern consent or participation. It first appears in
the Creed as cited by the Council of Toledo in 589, then was adopted
by the Carolingians as part of their politico-theological program, and
was finally, under German pressure, adopted by the papacy around
1014. Second, the Greek theologians felt that the addition disturbed
the balance of the Trinity by confusing the persons of the Father and
the Son, and by refusing to distinguish between the temporal economy
of the Son and Spirit and the eternal relations of the Three within the
Godhead. Patriarch Photius (q.v.) of Constantinople summed up these
arguments in his Mystagogy, ca. 880, and subsequent Byzantine writ-
ers added little. The question of the Spirit constitutes, together with
the papacy itself, the most serious point of division between present-
day Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism (q.v.).
ill, and homeless being the continual object of the benefactions of the
wealthy and powerful. The emperors as "imitators of Christ" were
obliged to lead the way by reflecting God's love for humanity, his phil-
anthropia, and often did so through the founding and endowing of hos-
pitals. These institutions were normally attached to monasteries, pro-
vision for which had appeared as early as Basil the Great's legislation
on monasticism (q.v.), and staffed by professionally trained physicians
and nurses, the standard of whose care appears to have normally been
very high.
staring down from the church's central dome, and dozens-or hun-
dreds-of other pictures around the walls of the church portray im-
portant events in the life of Christ together with the saints and
prophets. All the images are painted in roughly the same distinctive
style. This distinctiveness and the multitude of images-the latter be-
ing the simple sense of the Greek word, eikon-is not the product of
a wildly decorative urge. It is instead the fruit of a long theological re-
flection unique in the Christian world.
From 731 until 843 the emperors of Byzantium (q.v.) led a move-
ment to remove images from the churches of the Empire. In response
to this imperially sponsored iconoclasm (literally, "image smashing"),
John of Damascus, Germanos of Constantinople, and Theodore of
Studion (qq.~.),who led the iconodule (or iconophile) movement, ad-
vanced powerful and ultimately convincing theological arguments in
favor of the images. Against the imperial contention that the worship
of images was simply idolatry, these writers replied that, while wor-
ship belonged indeed to God alone, veneration of the images was
nonetheless called for and distinctive. The prayer (q.v.) of the devout
is addressed to its object through or by means of theimage. In answer
to the iconoclasts' frequent citation of the Decalogue's commandment
against images, they replied that God (q.v.) in the Old Testament
could not be portrayed. But because in Christ God's eternal Word had
taken on the permanent "vesture" of humanity, it would be a denial of
the Incarnation to refuse the possibility -and even the obligation-of
Christ's portrayal in images as well as in the words of Scripture and
the liturgy (qq.~.).
Christian art thus became a necessary theological and sacramental
endeavor. Precisely as symbols or types, the sacred images constituted
a conjoining of the human and divine spheres, and served as indica-
tors and vehicles of the Kingdom of God, of the creation transfigured
and renewed in Christ. The arguments advanced by the 8th c. and 9th
c. defenders of icons were taken over from earlier Church Fathers who
had written on the Scriptures and the sacraments (qq.~.),and were
now deployed in favor of the images. The sacred writings had long
been spoken of as a network of types, as pointers and connections, in-
dicating and to some degree actually incarnating the presence of the
Word made flesh in Jesus. This language of scriptural typology was
joined in the iconophile movement to the symbolism of earlier sacra-
mental discourse. Symbol signifies, literally, the conjunction of dif-
ferent things (from sym-ballo, "to throw or put together"). Thus the
Eucharist (q.v.) was freely described in earlier patristic literature as a
"symbol." The same language, but now with "symbol" specifically
ruled out as adequate to the Eucharist, was applied to the sacred im-
ages. The sum of these arguments was officially sanctioned by the
Seventh Ecumenical Council (q.v.) at Nicaea in 787, and this Council
was definitively recognized by the permanent restoration of the icons
in 843 following a second series of iconoclast emperors.
It should be pointed out that iconoclastic emperors frequently pro-
moted the cult of the emperor, with its corresponding iconography of
the emperor on banners and coins, but excluded any religious repre-
sentations. Parallels to this attitude can be drawn with Lenin's use of
his own iconography or with classical American Protestantism's use of
the picture of U.S. presidents on banners and money-both to the ex-
clusion of religious iconography. The general question is not whether
iconography is appropriate, for every culture has its icons. (We know
from archaeology that even Judaism was not strictly iconoclastic;
and the Old Testament speaks of representations of Cherubim and
Seraphim, as well.) The real question is whether a culture's iconogra-
phy adequately represents its belief system. In this sense the issue is not
one restricted historically to the Church in the East, but is the perennial
biblical question put to the people of God: Who is your King?
All this theory had a decisive effect on the actual making of sacred
images. Christian art became strictly regulated. The distinctive style
of Byzantine icons, marked by such characteristics as inverted per-
spective, elongated figures, lack of chiaroscuro, as well as their fab-
rication in a context of prayer and fasting (qq.~.),are the deliberate
result of the theological arguments advanced on their behalf. As sacra-
mental~and "theology in color," icons are not mere ornaments. Nei-
ther are they simply and purely instructional, nor are they optional in
the construction and elaboration of an Orthodox church. Rather, they
are seen as necessary adjuncts and expressions of the Church at wor-
ship, as representing-or better, making present-the whole "com-
pany of Heaven." The assemblage of imagery is intended to "symbol-
ize" the reality of the Church as the new creation, the meeting place
of Heaven and earth.
A further consequence of the iconoclast controversy was the com-
pilation of manuals of iconography, precise instructions as to the
shape, distinctive features and colors, of Christ and the saints. From
the late Byzantine era (q.v.) to Muscovite Russia these manuals pro-
liferate. At its best, therefore, Byzantine sacred art is done under cir-
cumstancesthat recall the great poets' work with the sonnet form. The
form is fixed and the genius of the artist required to work within it.
Masterpieces unquestionably resulted, for example, the anonymous
artist's portrayal of the Resurrection in the famous image at Chora in
Constantinople, or the works of Theophanes the Greek and Andrei
Rublev in 14th c. and 15th c. Russia. While the art of the icon declined
under the influence of religious art coming from Western Europe, in-
fluenced by the Italian Renaissance from the 18th c. to the early 20th
166 iconoclastic Controversy
c., significant calls for the renewal of tradition (led in Russia by Prince
E. Trubetskoy and in Greece by Photius Kontoglu) have contributed
much to the recovery of the sacred art in this century. In many respects
iconographic art may be viewed as a kind of summary or distillation
of Orthodox theology and spiritual experience.
A word is in order regarding purported American iconoclasm-
purported because it is difficult to claim that a people who watches an
average of four hours of television a day is iconoclastic. American re-
ligious iconoclasm comes from the Protestant Reformation's desire,
exclusive of Luther, to return to the practice of the "Early Church,"
which practice was naively identified with the Judaism of the 16th c.
and 17th c. (Not only had Judaism undergone its own particular de-
velopment as a religion, but recent archaeology has taught us that syn-
agogues contained their own iconography-probably through the ad-
vent of Islam [q.v.] when Jewish iconography seems to have ceased.
Thus, it may be speculated that American Protestant iconoclasm is a
result of the influence of the Moslem invasions, mediated by Medieval
Judaism.) The question remains whether America's religious iconog-
raphy will ever adequately represent the culture's beliefs.
shows the Way") with the mother pointing to the child enthroned on
her lap; the gorgoepikousa ("she who is swift to hear"); the platytera
("she whose womb is more spacious than the heavens") showing the
child in triumph within the mother; and the "Lady of the Passion"
showing two angels flanking the mother and child and carrying the
Cross together with the spear and the sponge (known in the West as
"Our Lady of Perpetual Help"). Of the three most famous icons of the
Theotokos in Russia, our Lady of Vladirnir (1 lth c. Constantinopoli-
tan work) is of the oumilenie type, while the two others, our Lady of
Tikhvin and our Lady of Kazan, are of the hodigitria type. A fourth,
the Iveron Madonna, is a copy of theportaitissa ("she who guards the
gate") at the Iveron monastery on Mt. Athos (q.v.), also of the hodig-
itria type. Each of the Twelve Great Feasts (q.v.) that remembers
Mary especially has an icon of her which portrays a historical scene.
ICXC NIKA. Abbreviation of the Greek phrase, "Jesus Christ has con-
quered," the ICXC NIKA, arranged around a cross with the IC and XC
at the top and the NI KA at the bottom, is both used iconographically
and stamped on the top of the prosphora, the Offertory loaves baked
especially for the Eucharist (q.v.). It is from this part of the loaf that
the priest cuts out the portion, prior to the service, which serves as the
consecrated host. Nika also refers to a historical event, the riots at the
Hippodrome in Constantinople (q.v.) in 532, which nearly toppled the
regime of the Emperor Justinian (q.v.). They did, however, provide
him later with the opportunity to replace the church of the Holy Wis-
dom, destroyed by the rioters, with the splendid edifice that still stands
today, Hagia Sophia (q.v.).
in the Latin West during the Trinitarian controversies of the 4th c. (see
his De Trinitate). His exile in Asia Minor (q.v.) from 357 to 361 al-
lowed him to acquire a thorough familiarity with Greek Christian
thought, particularly that of Origen (q.v.). His sensitivity in this regard
is the most striking of any of the Latin Fathers until Rufinus of
Aquileia two generations later. He wrote both major historical works
and commentaries on Scripture. 2) Ilarion of Kiev (?-1051) marks a
high point in the religious culture of Kievan Rus' (q.v.). His sermons,
in particular the famous "On Law and Grace," constitute the first orig-
inal theological thought in Church Slavic along with his Confession of
Faith, and they are genuine monuments in the early history of Slavic
literature. He is known particularly for his philosophy of history and
eschatological focus.
IRAN. Ancient Iran, or Persia, from 226 to 630 was the Byzantine Em-
pire's main competitor. Its armies under the last of the Sassanid
Shahinshahs devasted the Empire's eastern provinces in the early 7th
c. In particular, the flourishing communities in the Holy Land (q.v.)
suffered lasting damage. Under Islam (q.v.) Iran continued to struggle
with Byzantium (q.v.) in the disputed border nations of Armenia and
Georgia. A significant Christian population has lived within the Iran-
ian Empire of the Sassanids and their Muslim successors from ancient
times, and has continued to do so until the present era, though greatly
reduced. It was chiefly within the confines of Sassanid and then Mus-
lim Iran that the Assyrian (Nestorian) Church (q.v.) made its home
and, by the 13th c., spread up to and beyond the borders of China.
Most recently with the American invasion of Kuwait and the bomb-
ing of Iran, though no mosques were damaged, more than two dozen
Christian churches were destroyed. The policy of Saddam Hussein
was also to use (Nestorian) Christians as the first line of defense, and
resultingly many were lost in battle to American forces.
stantinople (qq.v.) itself had suffered siege on two occasions, most se-
riously in 717. The dynasty is perhaps better known for having initi-
ated the Iconoclast Controversy, which sought to advance the role of
the emperor in the Church's life-more than a theological dispute
over the place of icons (q.v.). (Leo I11 wrote of himself as high priest
and successor of St. Peter.) The failure of the Isaurian Dynasty in the
long run to make good on either its doctrinal program or its vision of
the imperial office marked the high-water point of Byzantine cae-
saropapism (q.v.).
JOHN OF RILA, monk, St. (ca. 876-946). John founded the wilderness
monastery of Rila in about 930 in the mountains south of Sofia,
present-day capital of Bulgaria. The monastery quickly became and
has remained the center of Bulgarian monasticism, and was recently
returned to the Bulgarian Church (qq.v.) by the (now defunct) Com-
munist government. John was renowned for sanctity during his life-
time, a monastic life begun as a hermit and ended as head of the com-
munity. His cult increased following his death and eventually
extended throughout the Orthodox oikoumene (q.v.), as evidenced by
his "Life," composed in the 12th c.
178 john Shahovskoy
in the Church and state in high office, and Muscovy expanded in the
16th c. with this leadership.
JUSTINIAN, CODE OF. The phrase refers to the revision and codifi-
cation of Roman Law ordered by Justinian I (q.v.), overseen by the ju-
rist, Trikonian, and completed in 529. It forms, together with Justin-
ian's other legal publications, the Digest, Institutes, and Novels, the
Corpus Juris Civilis. With further periodic revisions, e.g., the Epana-
goge (q.v.), it served as the basis of civil and ecclesiastical law for the
remainder of the Byzantine era (q.v.). The rediscovery of the Corpus
Juris Civilis by Western Europe in the 1lth c. prompted an efflores-
cence of legal studies. This continued on and established the founda-
tions of Roman Catnolic Canon Law (qq.~.),the Corpus Juris Canon-
ici of Gratian (d. 1140), and the civil law in most of Europe.
KIEVAN RUS'. The Slavic Churches trace their origins back to Con-
stantinople through the missionary efforts of Constantine-Cyril and
Kievan Rus' 185
collected editions. The Book of Psalms was the most popular one, out-
pacing even the Gospels, and was used not only as the "prayerbook of
the Church" but also as the chief reading primer. After the psalter and
individual Gospels came the prophets and wisdom literature, espe-
cially Sirach. The Palaea, a "Reader's Digest version" of the "histor-
ical books" of the Old Testament dressed up with apocryphal legends,
completed the list.
While reading was a virtue of the elite, and liturgy appealed to both
elite and peasant, Holy Scripture and apocryphal works were rivaled
in popularity only by translations of the lives of saints, followed by
sermons (see Kirill of Turov) and patristic exegeses. Thus, three of the
largest and most popular literary corpuses of Kievan Rus' had Scrip-
ture as their centerpiece. (See Russian Orthodox Church.)
martyred during the Revolution. [At the time of this printing he is be-
ing considered for canonization by the Russian Church and his full bi-
ography is not yet available.]
KOMI. The Zyryans (or Zyrians) are known also as Komi, and consti-
tute one of two parts of the Permyak branch of the Finno-Ugric pop-
ulations of central Russia. In the 9th c. the Permians divided into Komi
and Udmurts. Historically, the Komi came into contact with Chris-
tianity as early as the 12th c. since they were trading partners with
Novgorod. Their conversion is associated with Stephen of Perm (c.
1345-1396), who was a Russian born among the Zyryans. In 1370, af-
ter spending thirteen years as a monk at Rostov, Stephen traveled to
this people situated east of the Volga. He believed, in concert with Or-
Kontoglu, Photios 189
thodox Holy Tradition (q.v.), that the people should worship in their
own language, so he created an alphabet for them from line design in
their embroidery and carving. Following this, he translated the Bible
and the liturgy of the Church from Greek into Zyryan. He also is
known to have founded schools and seminaries to train native clergy.
The Komi still live between the upper West Dvina River, Kama, and
Pechora, a large region west of the northern Urals toward Archangel.
In 1979 the Komi numbered more than 325,000.
KYRIE ELEISON. This refrain, "Lord, have mercy," is the phrase re-
peated most often during the course of Orthodox services. It is sung
following each petition of the many litanies characteristic of the main
offices of daily and Sunday worship (Eucharist [q.v.]) and repeated
frequently by the readers or cantors between selections from the
Psalter during the lesser offices .(Prime, Terce, etc.). The ornnipres-
ence of the Kyrie eleison provides a constant reminder for Orthodox
faithful of their dependence on God's (q.v.) mercy, his philanthropy,
and of their own lack of worthiness before the Righteous Judge. The
prayer (q.v.) is therefore a capsule summary of Orthodox theology
(q.v.) and spirituality. Its frequent repetitions recall the prayer of the
Publican in Lk 18 as well as the discipline of the "Jesus prayer" so
prominent in Orthodox asceticism (q.v.).
LANGUAGE. The Orthodox Church has never had a unique sacred lan-
guage, although during the Byzantine era (q.v.) imperial policy sought
192 Lateran Synod
LATIN RITE. The use of the term "rite" here is of Roman Catholic
(q.v.) provenance. It means not merely the ceremonies, but the piety,
Canon Law (qq.~.),and theological self-expression of a given Chris-
tian community. "Latin rite" thus signifies all these things as applied
to the Christians of the Latin tradition, i.e., Western Europe (less, of
course, the Protestant nations and the Romanians). In fact the "rite" of
the Western Church was not uniform in its earlier days. Right up un-
til the Second Vatican Council it counted several local variations in
terms of liturgical use, for example the Ambrosian (Milan), Mozara-
bic (parts of Spain), Dominican, and-much earlier-Celtic and Gal-
lican "rites." This century has also seen attempts on the part of local
Orthodox churches to establish "Latin" or "Western rite" communi-
ties in communion with the Orthodox oikoumene, most notably by the
Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of New York and all
North America (qq.~.).
In general, the Latin rite (meaning in particular the liturgy of Rome)
is characterized by a great sobriety and, in its pre-Vatican I1 days, by a
markedly scriptural orientation. This is especially noticeable in the
monastic offices, which, unlike the Byzantine rite's (q.v.) love for elab-
orate theological poetry, are built largely on the chanting of the Psalter.
Later developments, particularly the long struggles over the Trinity and
Christology (qq.~.),had vastly more influence on Eastern worship than
on Western. Certain changes that came into the Latin rite in the early
and later medieval periods caused considerable opposition in the East
when they became known, for example the use of unleavened bread in
the Eucharist (q.v.), the withholding of confirmation until later in child-
hood accompanied by the withdrawal of the Eucharist from infants, and
the withholding of the consecrated wine from the laity.
LENT. There are technically four "lents," or fasting seasons, during the
liturgical year of the Orthodox Church: the Great Lent consisting of
"forty days" preceding Holy Week and Easter, the Apostles' Fast pre-
ceding the Feast of SS. Peter and Paul (June 29th), two weeks pre-
ceding the Dormition of the Theotokos (August 15th), and the forty
days in preparation for the Nativity of Christ (December 25th).
It is Great Lent, however, that enjoys both chronological and litur-
gical primacy, and was the model for the others. A fasting period of
up to a week preceding the paschal vigil appears as early as the 3rd c.
Believers, according to the Apostolic Tradition (q.v.), were expected
Leo the Great 195
LEO THE GREAT, Pope of Rome, theologian, St. (?461). Pope from
440 to 461, the epithet "Great" is genuinely deserved. It derives in
good part from this pope's contribution to the Christology of the
Council of Chalcedon (qq.v) in 45 1. Leo's Tome (q.v.), essentially the
reissue of his earlier letter to Patriarch Flavian of Constantinople in
449, constituted the ground of the Council's dogmatic definition of
Christ as "one person (hypostasis) in two natures (en dyo physesin),"
human and divine. Leo's other contribution, even more controversial
(in the East), was his repeated insistence on a very high view of the
Roman bishop as successor to St. Peter and very much the supervisor
of the Christian oikoumene (q.v.). His objections, for example, to
Chalcedon's elevation of Constantinople (q.v.) to second place in the
hierarchy of churches as "new Rome" (Canon #28) remained a point
of irritation between West and East until their mutual schism (q.v.) in
196 Leontius of Byzantium
the 1lth c. More positively, one must also reckon with the pastoral and
liturgical sense of this great church leader, an aspect of his character
that emerges most clearly in his homilies on the Christian feasts (q.v.),
few of which are available in English. His handling of the invasions
of the Huns and Vandals accrued prestige to the office of the papacy
(q.v.), along with the acquisition of jurisdiction of the Western
provinces.
LEX CREDENDI. Literally, this Latin phrase means the "law of what
must be believed." It is the equivalent of the earlier 2nd c. expressions,
kanon tes aletheias (rule of truth) and regulaJidei (rule of faith), ad-
vanced by Irenaeus and Tertullian (qq.~.),respectively, and it means
the content of the faith that the Church professes and demands of its
members. From the 2nd c. onward, this amounted to the faith con-
fessed by the Christian at Baptism (q.v.). Later, longer formularies
were composed by Church councils. Such included the Nicene-
Constantinopolitan Creed, still recited by the candidate just prior to
Baptism, and the definitions of the Ecumenical Councils (qq.~.).
LEX ORANDI. This phrase means the "law of prayer," and is intimately
related to the preceding "law of belief." As the ancient formula has it,
lex orandi lex est credendi, or "As we pray, so we believe". Prayer
(q.v.) and belief were seen as absolutely interrelated and mutually sup-
porting from the earliest times. Irenaeus (q.v.) thus argues for the re-
ality of Christ's humanity against gnosticism's phantom with an ap-
peal to the Eucharist (qq.~.):"Our opinion [the real body of Christ] is
in accord with the Eucharist, and the Eucharist in turn establishes our
opinion" (Adv.Haer. IV,18,5). Basil the Great (q.v.) uses the Trinitar-
ian invocation at Baptism as the foundation of his argument for the di-
vinity of the Holy Spirit (q.v.) in his De Spiritu Sancto. Augustine of
Hippo (q.v.) begins with an appeal to the practice of infant Baptism in
his arguments for original sin (q.v.) against Pelagius. Later still, the
long-established use of icons in the Church's liturgy (qq.v.) will be-
come one of the foundations for the defense of images against icono-
clasm led by John of Damascus and Theodore of Studion (qq.~.).
of preparation, the celebrant prepares the leavened bread and wine for
the service. This rite recalls Christ's birth and death in the cutting out
of the portion intended to serve as the host. The Theotokos, the saints
(q.v.), and the living and dead of the community -the entire Church
everywhere and always-are recalled by the removal of portions from
the prosphoras and their placement on the paten (diskos) around the
host.
The "liturgy of the catechumens" or synaxis comprises the opening
invocation of the Kingdom of God in Trinity (q.v.), the Great Litany
(a series of responsorial petitions for the Church and the world), the
Antiphons (selections from the Psalms, on great feasts [q.v.] interca-
lated with hymns particular to the feast, and the Beatitudes), the "Lit-
tle Entrance" or procession with the Gospel Book, the "Thrice-Holy"
or Trisagion hymn, readings from the Epistle and Gospel of the day,
the homily, and two closing litanies recalling the specific needs of the
community and of the catechumenate (q.v.).
The "liturgy of the faithful" is the Eucharist proper. It includes the
prayers preparatory to the offertory, the singing of the cherubic
hymn and the "Great Entrance" or solemn transfer of the veiled
bread and chalice from the table of preparation to the altar, the litany
of supplication, the kiss of peace, the common recital of the Nicene-
Constantinopolitan Creed (q.v.), the anaphora or prayers of thanks-
giving and remembrance of God's saving acts in Christ (the anam-
nesis), the epiclesis or invocation of the Holy Spirit (q.v.), which
completes the consecration, the commemoration of the living and
the dead (the diptychs), a repetition of the litany of supplication, the
Lord's Prayer, the fraction of the consecrated bread and its mingling
with the chalice followed by an infusion of boiling water (zeon), the
communion of the celebrant(s) and laity, prayers accompanying a
litany of thanksgiving, the "prayer behind the ambo" (the ancient
dismissal), the present dismissal, and the distribution of antidoron,
the bread left over from the prothesis.
While relatively fixed in form, the eucharistic liturgy will differ
somewhat according to the liturgical year, chiefly in the hymns sung
during the liturgy of the catechumens, and in the liturgy of the faith-
ful depending upon whether Chrysostom's or Basil's liturgy is pre-
scribed (see Liturgies). Additional differences may derive from the
choice of a system of liturgical colors adopted under the influence of
the Latin rite, which is particularly the case in Russia (e.g., purple for
Lent, red for the Cross and martyrs, etc.), or the presence or absence
of a deacon and/or bishop. In the case of the former's presence, the
priest's part is limited to the exclamations (ekphonesies) concluding
each litany and the prayers of consecration, etc. An episcopal cele-
brant will considerably modify the form of the service in the direction
Liturgy 203
of greater length and formality. The bishop is, however, always theo-
retically or symbolically present in that no Eucharist is celebrated
without an antimension, the cloth that bears his signature and upon
which the bread and wine are placed at the Offertory.
The recent influence of liturgical movements in 19th-c. Russia with
John of Kronstadt (q.v.) and in 20th-c. attempts to "rediscover" the
character of the sacraments as celebrated in the early Church (begun
in Roman Catholic [q.v.] circles), together with the influence of the
Kollyvades' (q.v.) monastic and ascetic renewal, have led several ar-
eas of the Orthodox oikoumene (q.v.)-e.g., Russia, Greece, and
America-to some further modifications: more frequent communion
by the laity, the reading aloud of the "secret prayers" of the anaphora
and elsewhere, a reduction of the iconostasis (q.v.), a return to the tra-
ditional canon of iconography, etc.
Referring now to the offices, the current liturgical practice of the
Orthodox Church seems to have taken its more or less present form by
the last two centuries of the Byzantine era (q.v.). While it appears that
the morning and evening services of the Church (as well as the Eu-
charist, or at least the synaxis) drew upon the Temple and synagogue
liturgies of the first centuries, the public celebration of these offices
and of supplementary daily services such as the Hours (Prime, Terce,
etc.) is not clearly attested until the 4th c. By that time, however, and
particularly in the Church of Jerusalem (see Cyril of Jerusalem), one
finds the daily cycle and much of the paschal cyle well established.
Further developments over the next four centuries resulted in the Oc-
toechos (q.v.) and the elaborate commemoration of the saints system-
atized in the Menaia and Synaxarion.
The impress of the liturgical year upon the offices, especially Ves-
pers and Matins, is today quite profound. Matins is certainly the most
variable. It may be combined with Vespers to form an "All Night
Vigil" on the eve of great or patronal feasts (q.v.), especially popular
in Russian and Athonite use. It may or may not have apolyeleos (lit.,
"much oil," referring to the lighting of the church's lamps and there-
fore the festal character of the service), a Gospel reading (proper to
Great Feasts and to Sundays, the latter featuring a sequence of twelve
Resurrection pericopes) or several Gospels (e.g., the Passion Gospel
readings of Good Friday morning). Matins may, further, feature one
or more Canons (liturgical poems) and the chanting of one or more of
the nine scriptural odes (Old and New Testament hymns beginning
with Ex 15). It may feature the great (meaning "sung") or lesser (re-
cited) doxology or hymn of light. It may, finally, be adapted to pro-
vide the basis for a number of the services of special needs, e.g., the
funeral and memorial services, the prayer services of thanksgiving (Te
Deum or Molieben) and intercession.
204 Lives of the Saints
already implicit in the creation of the world and explicit in the Old
Testament revelation. The cosmos is sustained by the divine wills (lo-
goi) addressed to each created thing and by the words of the Word
present in the Scriptures (q.v.).
LYONS. Today the third largest city in France, located on the Rhane
River about 100 miles north of the Mediterranean Sea, during the Ro-
man Empire (q.v.), it was the capital of the province of southern Gaul
and site from A.D. 150 of a colony of predominantly Greek-speaking
Christians, probably from Asia Minor (q.v.). Subjected to a fierce lo-
cal persecution in 177, the community survived and, in the 180s and
early 190s, was episcopally governed by one of the greatest of the
early Church Fathers, Irenaeus (qq.~.).The latter made explicit refer-
ence to his own origins in Asia Minor as a disciple of the martyr-
bishop, Polycarp of Smyrna (q.v.), a disciple-according to (Euse-
bius's) Irenaeus-of the evangelist and apostle John.
I" makes of the vision of Ezekiel (ch. 1) has a long, subsequent history
in both Byzantine worship and ascetic literature.
relations with the Serbian Church (q.v.). Both the national and eccle-
siastical future of this republic continue to be, as of this writing, highly
uncertain.
over George Scholarios to his views and tonsured him, with the name
Gennadios (q.v.), while he lay dying. Gennadios would go on to be-
come the first Ecumenical Patriarch (q.v.) following the city's fall to
Sultan Mohammed I1 in 1453. Mark was afterward (1456) canonized
and is commemorated today, together with Photius of Constantinople
and Gregory Palamas (qq.~.),as one of the "pillars of Orthodoxy."
MARTIN I, Pope of Rome, St. (?-655). Pope from 649 to 653, Martin
convened the Lateran Synod of 649 at the urging of Maximus the Con-
fessor (qq.v.) in order to condemn the Monothelite Formula sponsored
by the Emperors Heraclius and Constans 11. In consequence of the
Pope's opposition, Constans had both him and Maximus brought to
Constantinople (q.v.) where they were imprisoned, tried, and con-
demned to exile for treason. Martin was the last of the popes to be so
treated by Byzantium (q.v.), and his example was surely in the mind
of Pope Stephen 11, facing the Isaurian Dynasty (q.v.), when he made
his decision for the Franks a century later (see Carolingians). Martin
died a martyr (q.v.) in exile in the Crimea in 655, anticipating Max-
imus's fate by seven years.
MARTYR. The word means "witness" in its legal sense, as in the wit-
nesses sworn in at a court of law. In Acts the word is used of the apos-
tles (q.v.) as witnesses of Christ's ministry and Resurrection. Soon
214 Mary
MARY OF EGYPT, ascetic, St. (5th c.). The (later) penitential "Life" of
Mary of Egypt is read on the fifth Thursday of Great Lent (q.v.), and the
last Sunday of the same fast is dedicated to her. According to the earlier
"Life" by Cyril of Scythopolis (the biographer of Sabas [q.~.]),she was
a woman who left Jerusalem to spend eighteen years repenting in the
Judaean wilderness. In the later "Life," probably composed by Sophro-
nius of Jerusalem in the 7th c., she became an Alexandrian courtesan
who traveled the world in search of new pleasures and then repented
while going to Jerusalem. She spent the remaining thirty years of her
life in extreme asceticism (q.v.) alone in the desert. Discovered by the
priestmonk Zosima (q.v.), she confided her life's story and received the
viaticum. This second story in particular caught the imagination of the
faithful, and Mary has ever since been held up by the Church as a pow-
erful image of repentance (q.v.).
MELCHITES. This term is drawn from the Semitic root for king
(melek in Hebrew, malkah in Syriac) and was used orginally to refer
Melito 217
MELITO, Bishop of Sardis, St. (?-ca. 190). Aside from one surviving
sermon, the Homily on Easter, his works are known only through
other writers, such as Eusebius of Caesarea (q.v.). Of his life we know
only that he was a prolific writer and he made a pilgrimage (q.v.) to
the holy places of Palestine. The poetic homily, possibly a hymn,
which was discovered in 1940,provides a glimpse into a theology and
exegesis similar to those of Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and Tertullian
(qq.~.):the history of salvation centers on Christ, described as "by na-
ture God and man," as the pivot between the old covenant and the new.
Thus, Melito applied a thoroughly typological reading to the texts of
the Old Testament.
MESSALIANISM. The word comes from the Syriac word for prayer
(q.v.); the mesalanye thus are "those who pray." In Greek the same
people were known as "euchites" (euche, prayer). The origins, exact
teachings, and individuals who made up this ascetic movement in the
late 4th c. and early 5th c. remain matters of scholarly debate. In ex-
treme form, Messalianism appears to have been Syrian in origin and
ascetic in orientation, so much the latter that the normal institutions of
the church-especially the hierarchy and sacraments (q.v.)-were
disdained.
Methodius 219
The Macarian Homilies (q.v.) have often been linked with the Mes-
salians. In fact, true Messalian extremists appear to have been rare,
and "Macarius" was more anti-Messalian than anything else. The
most recent studies indicate that what many Greek bishops of the 4th
c. and 5th c. labeled as "heretical" were motifs and idioms native and
long traditional to Syriac-speaking Christianity. While it is doubtless
true that the Macarian Homilies were for a time caught in the cross-
fire of this miscommunication, it is also the case that they were quickly
and enthusiastically received in ascetic circles in the Greek East and
ultimately in the Latin West. No less than John Wesley was one of
their devotees. We would add that, if "Macarius" was Messalian, then
so were Symeon the New Theologian, Gregory Palamas (qq.~.),and
indeed most of the great saints and writers in the continuum of Or-
thodox spirituality (q.v.).
the priesthood. He was dean of the Seminary from 1984 until his re-
tirement in June 1992. From 1967 to 1975 he was a moderator of the
World Council of Churches Faith and Order Commission. From 1967
to 1992 he was professor of Byzantine studies at Fordham University,
and from 1977 to 1978 he was acting director of studies at Harvard's
Dumbarton Oaks-where he also held the position of lecturer in
Byzantine theology for many years. He was editor of "The Orthodox
Church" newspaper and St. Vladimir's Seminary Quarterly for two
decades before his deanship at St. Vladimir's, and his scholarly pub-
lications include A Study of Gregory Palamas (1959), Christ in East-
ern Christian Thought (1969), and Byzantine Theology (1973), among
many other excellent works. He received honorary doctorates from the
University of Notre Dame and General Theological Seminary, New
York.
It is difficult to choose Meyendorff's most remarkable accomplish-
ment, due to the extraordinary character of his life. His doctoral dis-
sertation on Gregory Palamas (q.v.) at the Sorbonne had to be de-
fended against the entire faculty in theology, and the debate continued
for decades in the journal Zstina. It was not unusual for Meyendorff to
hold two full-time teaching positions at the same time, while in addi-
tion editing publications, advising the Synod of Bishops, and fulfill-
ing priestly duties. He wrote technical articles, did his own editing,
and spoke publicly in three languages with little or no accent (Rus-
sian, French, and English), and did simultaneous translation among
those languages. Although his reputation came from Byzantine stud-
ies, for example serving on the advisory board for the multivolume
Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, his command of Russian church
history qualified him as a Russo-Byzantine scholar, using both terms
inclusively. With Georges Florovsky (q.v.) he will probably be
commemorated as one of the greatest Orthodox theologians and
ecumenists of the 20th c., and his students-and spiritual children-
remember him with warmth and respect.
Believer Schism a century later. This Council was held under the pres-
idency of Metropolitan Makarii of Moscow, who was consciously at-
tempting to systematize and construct a Muscovite culture. Both he
and Tsar Ivan IV broke with the Byzantine identification and "canon-
ized" Novgorodian tradition, especially when they cited historical
precedents, habits, and customs at the Council.
The Byzantine era (q.v.) that had ended a century before with the fall
of ~onst&tino~le was no longer a viable religious inspiration for a Mus-
covy that faced fresh challenges. A devotion to Byzantine contempla-
tive~,of the sort championed by the non-possessors, was replaced by an
emphasis on constructing a "Christian society." Makarii established the
first printing press in Russia, collected the lives of the saints, then cod-
ified them and published them as a model for proper piety (q.v.) in this
new society. He did the same with the Great Reading Compendiumand
the Biblical Codex, combining history and interpretative story into sin-
gle volumes. The Hundred Chapters themselves are difficult to analyze
because the answers do not address the questions asked. In any case,
uniformity and order seem to be the desired effect of the proceedings.
These councils laid the groundwork for the final break with the Greeks
in 1589, a political and ecclesiastical manifesto, with the establishment
of an autocephalous (q.v.) patriarchate in Moscow.
In 1654 the ancient metropolitanateof Kiev located within Ukraine
joined the Moscow patriarchate, completing an ongoing process of ex-
pansion and betterment of the life of the Church. Although Kievan
Rus' (q.v.) encapsulated the early history of the Church in all Rus' be-
fore the Novgorodian period, the recent preceding centuries were
marked by Poland-Lithuania's domination of Kiev, and overwhelm-
ing influence from the Roman Catholic Church in the Unia and Peter
Mogila (qq.~.).Parts of Ukraine continued to be annexed to Muscovy
through the end of the 17th c. The Church in pre-Petrine Russia
enjoyed tremendous wealth, including extensive landholdings and
monasteries-an otherwise peaceful situation that ended with Patri-
arch Nikon's reforms and the later enforcement of the Spiritual Reg-
ulation of Tsar Peter.
verse that precedes them. The evening hymn, "Joyful Light," is a 4th
c. example of a troparion, while the trisagion and Justinian's (q.v.)
"Only-begotten Son" are from the 5th and 6th c., respectively-al-
though no early musical settings for any of the troparia survive. Most
of the melodies are assumed to have been simple, used by congrega-
tions with no formal musical training. The theology of the text and the
musical arrangement are thought to have gone hand in hand. At least
the written melodies from 12th and 13th c. Latin, Greek, and Russian
manuscripts support these assumptions.
Next in development came the kontakia (singular: kontakion) of the
6th and 7th c., most notably those of Romanos the Melodist (q.v.).
Kontakia are long, metrical, poetic-narrative elaborations of twenty to
thirty stanzas on biblical texts. The stanzas are structurally alike and
may be sung to the same music. The genre might go back to Syriac
prototypes, and as a development of the troparia. In any case Ro-
manos, a Hellenized Syrian Jew converted to Christianity, seems to be
dependent on and preserves much of Ephrem the Syrian (q.v.). The
popular Greek employed by Romanos was characterized more by im-
agery than theological vocabulary. The best-known kontakion of the
Byzantine Church was probably the Acathistus Hymn, now used on
the fifth Saturday of Great Lent (q.v.) at the vigil.
The canon became the newest type of hymnography in the second
half of the 7th c., included in the celebration of matins. The canon con-
tains eight or nine odes, each ode consisting of three or four stanzas,
and it is more theological in content than the kontakion. The nine odes
of the canon are attached to nine biblical canticles. Each has succes-
sive stanzas exactly reproducing the first in meter, so that they all can
be sung to the same music.
The invention of the canon is attributed to the monks of Palestine, es-
pecially Andrew of Crete (q.v.). His younger contemporaries, John of
Damascus (q.v.) and Cosmas of Maiuma, continued his work, writing
the Easter canon and those of other major feasts (q.v.). From there the
genre was furthered in Constantinoplewith Theodore and Joseph of Stu-
dion as part of the struggle to preserve icons (qq.v.) in the 8th and 9th c.
From about the 8th c. Byzantine psalmody was systematized into
the eight ecclesiastical modes, the Octoechos (q.v.). This provided the
compositional framework for Eastern and Western musical practices.
The Greeks, Latins, and Slavs in the Middle Ages seem to have all had
the same Octoechos. Nonetheless, the earliest tunes for the chants of
the Divine Liturgy are older than the Octoechos and well might have
been artificially imposed on the eight-mode scheme. For example,
most of the ancient ordinary chants that appear throughout the liturgy
were based on a simple G A B A G tune, and this is recurrent in sev-
eral of the tones of the Octoechos (2,4,8, or 4 Plagal et al.).
Nahum of Ochrid 233
NOVATIONISM. This schism (q.v.) was named for the Roman pres-
byter, Novatian (d. ca. 25718), and began in the mid-3rd c. Unsuc-
cessful in his candidacy for the see of Rome in 251, Novatian quar-
reled with Bishop Cornelius over the possibility of readmitting apostate
Christians into the Church, i.e., believers who had renounced Christ
under the pressure of the Emperor Decius's persecution (25011). He
argued instead that serious sins could not be forgiven after Baptism
(q.v.), and that the Church could only properly be of the "pure." He
was consecrated bishop despite Cornelius's disapproval and initiated
a parallel group of his own. The communities he began spread to
North Africa, as well as to Asia Minor and even Constantinople
(qq.~.),where they were known as katharoi ("the pure ones").
Russia (1252-63) by the great khan and thus became the archetypal rep-
resentative of Novgorodian Christianity and the ideal Christian prince.
Religious development occurred during this period in the fields of
church architecture and iconography (qq.~.),Novgorod setting a stan-
dard of comparison for later representations in these arts. Christian lit-
erature (q.v.) was not only preserved, but its corpus expanded, due to
the literacy of the general population. This literature included the
Church Fathers (q.v.), the Bible, historical chronicles, and pilgrimage
travelogues. Not all the writings from the period were of equal spiritual
value, witness the Questions of Kirk (q.v.). Contacts with the Byzan-
tine world were maintained and the "Palaeologan Renaissance" took
root in Russia as well. Even frontier settlers participated in the copying
of books. The oldest surviving Church Slavic biblical manuscript, the
illuminated Ostromirovo Gospel (1056-57), originated here, as did the
Gennadievskii Bible (q.v.). The best-known theological debate took
place in this context as well between Joseph of Volokolamsk (q.v.) and
the Transvolgan Elders. The Josephites took the part of Church and state
(q.v.) cooperation and the possession by monasteries of lands and
goods, while Nilus of Sora and the Transvolgan Elders thought that
monasteries should not own property and took a more eschatological
view of the world and society (i.e., possessors vs. non-possessors).
It appears Novgorod established an intellectual and spiritual tradi-
tion that, when co-opted by Muscovy in the 16th c., provided the ideas
which supported the rise of Moscow. For this reason many eminent
Russian historians do not see the Novgorodian period as culturally
separate, since no distinct interruption in creativity or direction of de-
velopment occurred from Kievan Rus' to Muscovy. For instance, the
single great event, the Tartar Appanage, had a limited effect since the
Mongols did not attempt to convert conquered peoples. After the loot-
ing and destruction, they observed religious tolerance and respect. In
any case Novgorodian tradition became enshrined as the Russian ex-
ample when a monk from Pskov, Filofei, wrote Tsar Vasilii (Basil) III
describing Moscow as the "Third Rome" (ca. 1510), and Tsar Ivan IV
and Metropolitan Makarii of Moscow at the Council of One Hundred
Chapters (1551) made Novgorodian tradition the historical paradigm
of culture for Moscovite tradition (q.v.) following the fall of Con-
stantinople (1453).
OCHRID. This city, still standing on the eastern shore of the lake of that
name in the southwest corner of former Yugoslavian Macedonia
(q.v.), was the capital of one of the earlier Slavic states, the empire of
Tsar Samuel (d. 1014). Ochrid was an important early center, under
the direction of Naum and Clement of Ochrid (qq.~.),for the transla-
tion of Greek Christian texts and their transmission to the Slav lands.
After changing hands several times between Byzantine, Serb, and
Bulgarian rulers, it came under the rule of the Ottoman Empire (q.v.)
in 1394, where it remained until the conclusion of the Balkan Wars in
1912. The city is today little more than a modest resort, though be-
jeweled with several splendid medieval churches.
OZKOUMENE. Oikoumene comes from the Greek verb, oikeo (to in-
habit), and the term means, broadly, the inhabited or civilized world-
historically, the Roman Empire (q.v.). As the Empire after Constan-
tine (qq.v.) became more or less synonymous with the Christian
Church, the term eventually came to mean the universal sphere of
Christians. In recent times Orthodox writers have taken to speaking of
the "Ecumenical Church," meaning the entire Orthodox communion.
forms of Patriarch Nikon (q.v.). The origins of the need for translation
reform in the Russian Church in the 17th c. is most usually attributed
to mistakes and translation errors from Greek to Church Slavic, which
had affected Muscovite liturgy (q.v.) over an extended time span, a sit-
uation confirmed by Tsar Michael's commission for an investigation
of such and by visiting Greek clergy. When Patriarch Nikon initiated
the process of translation reform in 1652, he encountered tremendous
resistance. Only in about the last century has the premise been taken
seriously that some of the resistance might have been justified. From
a scholarly point of view, the Greek liturgical books (q.v.) themselves
had evolved in content and expression since the time the Church
Slavic translations had been made from them. Examples of the rubri-
cal practices reformed included the singing of a threefold Alleluia
(q.v.) instead of two and the making of the sign of the cross with three
fingers instead of two.
Nikon mustered support for his reforms from various quarters:
Church councils (1654, 1656), the patriarch of Constantinople, Mt.
Athos, the patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch (qq.~.),scholarly
Greek and Ukrainian monks, etc. After hopes were raised of defeating
the movement among the opposition when Nikon fell into disfavor
with Tsar Alexis (1658), two subsequentMoscow church councils up-
held the reforms but deposed Nikon (1666-67). This set the stage for
the raskol, the schism (q.v.) of the starovery or staroobriadtsy, of the
Old Believers or Old Ritualists.
The reforms had the full backing of Church and state, and opposi-
tion to them was falsely interpreted as rejection of both-punishable
by death. Those who opposed the reforms appealed to the faith of
Novgorodian and Muscovite (qq.v.) Christian forbears, as well as to
the Council of One Hundred Chapters (1551; Stoglav), which was
quite explicit on how many times Alleluia was to be sung and how
many fingers were to be used in making the sign of the cross-two!
(This fact was so distressing to later Russian historians through the
mid-19th c. that it was considered an Old Believer forgery.) Old Be-
lievers perished at the stake, whole monasteries were besieged and
captured, and the twenty-five years following the Council of Moscow
saw new apocalyptic Old Belief expectations as self-fulfilling prophe-
cies, when dozens of their communities destroyed themselves in mass
suicides. The most curious aspect of the schism was that both sides
thought the disputed matters were of life and death importance, al-
though nothing of a dogmatic nature was discussed-only ritual.
Old Believers survive to the present, and communities may be found
in the United States and Canada. The first major division occurred
early among them between the popovtsy, those with clergy, and the
bezpopovtsy, those without clergy. Most of the later sects emanating
244 Old Church Slavic
from the Old Believers (see Doukhobors) came from the "priestless"
group-a circumstance that resulted from the sect's lack of bishops to
ordain clergy. The entirety of the Old Belief was largely reorganized
in the 18th c. and numbered in the millions before the Russian Revo-
lution. Nicholas Riasanovsky has recently pointed out that the tragedy
of both Nikon's Muscovite Church and the Old Belief is that both
tended to focus on the form of the faith to such a degree as to eclipse
the content. To this may be added the observation that what began as a
somewhat legitimate protest to Nikon's reforms became, in the priest-
less sects, a manifestation of the most extreme cultic, self-destructive
behavior. Mistakenly, Westerners sometimes classify all of these sec-
tarians together as types of Protestants-tantamount to mixing Old
Catholics and Mennonites together with Branch Davidians and fol-
lowers of Jim Jones.
the following axioms: 1) God (q.v.) is both good and just; 2) God is the
creator of all; 3) the human being is free, and 4) ultimately rational; 5)
Scripture is the very presence of the Word of God, both in the Old and
New Testaments; 6) the Same became incarnate for human salvation;
and 7) his truth is imparted to and lives in his Church.
While always striving to remain faithful to the lex credendi (q.v.)
of his era, Origen did feel free to speculate. His forays into the origins
of the world and of bodies led him to postulate a primordial creation
of rational spirits, whose fall from grace led the Creator Word to fash-
ion the material world as both a house of punishment and a school-
room designed to teach the fallen about their true nature (q.v.) and re-
veal to them the path of return. This speculation was doubtless
motivated primarily by Origen's desire to defend the seven axioms
noted above, especially in opposition to the gnosticism of his era and
the nascent Neoplatonism (qq.v.) of his pagan contemporaries.
Much of later Greek patristic thought, indeed, of the whole Byzan-
tine era (qq.~.),may be said to have been a rethinking of Origen. This
applies not only to the formal thought of his system, but to scriptural
exegesis, spiritual life and asceticism, the whole life of prayer (qq.~.).
Origen is foundational to the Greek East in a way analogous to the role
Augustine of Hippo (q.v.) plays in the West. This is in spite of the fact
that the Fifth Ecumenical Council, at the urging of the Emperor Jus-
tinian (qq.~.),condemned Origen as a heretic three centuries after he
had died in the peace of the Church. The concomitant destruction of
the bulk of his writings, estimated by Eusebius of Caesarea (q.v.) at
over eight hundred titles, must rank as one of the great tragedies and
injustices of the Christian East. Certain of his works survive, but most
of what remains is available only in the (often dubious) translations of
Jerome and Rufinus of Aquileia.
THE OSTROG CIRCLE AND ITS BIBLE. The first full text of the
Church Slavic Bible, after the earlier Gennadievskii Bible (q.v.), was
Ottoman Empire 249
the entirety of the Orthodox oikoumene (q.v.), with the sole exceptions
of poland-~ithuaniaand Muscovy, had come under ottoman rule.
This underlined the importance of the Muscovite Grand Duke as the
single remaining, independent Orthodox sovereign. It certainly as-
sisted the rise of the 15th-c. mvth of Moscow as the "Third Rome,"
i.e., successor to both Rome and Constantinople (qq.v.) as capital of
the Orthodox Christian world.
For the vast population of Greeks, Slavs, Romanians, Armenians,
Georgians, co$s,-and Arabic-speaking Orthodox, the long centuries
of Ottoman rule meant a permanent reduction to second-class citizen-
ship in a Muslim Empire. In several instances, this slowly whittled
away their communities, which were lured to Islam (q.v.) by the
promise of social betterment, or else simply in search of relief from the
taxes imposed on the non-Moslem population. Paradoxically, Ottoman
rule accentuated the outward power of the Orthodox Church, elevating
the Ecumenical Patriarch (q.v.) to the position of ruler of the Christian
populace, and his bishops, in like manner, to the role of magistrates.
This status and its limits, coupled with the later decadence of the
Empire and the importation of romantic nationalism in the 18th and
19th c., had a singularly poisonous effect on the fabric of church life:
Ecclesiastical offices were bought and sold; scrambles for power and
continual intrigue dimmed the moral authority of the hierarchy; and,
perhaps worst of all, the Church's leaders became identified with the
interests of a particular nation and language. (See Ethnarch.) This oc-
curred first of all with the Greeks, following the lead of the Phanari-
ots (q.v.). Their favoring of their own nation led to similar move-
ments-in part, reactions against the patriarchate (q.v.)-among the
Slavs, Romanians, and Arabic-speakers.
The 19th-c. wave of revolt in the Balkans (q.v.) and creation of in-
dependent states saw the erection of an equal number of independent
(autocephalous [q.v.]) national churches-and the acceptance of the
equation of nationality with church and hierarchy. In 1870 Constan-
tinople labeled this principle in its extreme form "phyletism," the
heresy of tribalism. While-the condemnation has been generally ac-
cepted theologically, national allegiance as identical with church mem-
bership and the continuing inability of the Orthodox to act together as
the Church remain the single most crippling legacy of the Ottomans.
Its effects are particularly clear in the 20th-c. Orthodox "diaspora" in
the Americas, Australia, and Western Europe: a plethora of nationally
based "jurisdictions" simultaneously overlapping one another and
claiming to be manifestations of the one, undivided Church of Christ.
[q.v.]; trans. 1982) and Theology of the Icon (2 vols., trans. 1992), he
has done much in the 20th c. to help restore the traditional canon (i.e.,
composition, style, materials, etc.) of Orthodox iconography (q.v.) in
the West for those engaged in painting icons.
PAIDEIA. Paideia is derived from the Greek for child, pais, and in the
Hellenistic era evolved into the general term for upbringing, though
with the particular sense of formation or education; or it may be sim-
ply translated as "culture." By the 1st c. the word signified intimate
acquaintance with the classics of Greek thought and literature: poets,
playwrights, orators, historians, and philosophers. Just as the "classi-
cal education" of Renaissance humanism or 19th c. Eton were both
based on this product of pre-Christian Hellenism (q.v.), paideia was
the passport to the higher reaches of Greco-Roman society and the
badge of cultivation.Everyone who wanted to be anyone, whether Jew
or Greek, Syrian, Egyptian, or "Barbarian," strove to obtain it.
Christian writers, too, take up the term and its contents, particularly
Justin Martyr and the great Alexandrians, Clement and Origen (qq.~.).
These men adopted the term, embraced the philosophers, and sought at
the same time to cast the biblical word of God (q.v.), the Christ of the
Gospels, in the role of the supreme "Pedagogue," the author and mean-
ing of the classical paideia. This move opened up the higher reaches of
Roman imperial society to the Church and, at the same time, inaugu-
rated the ongoing struggle of Christian theology (q.v.) with the methods
and presuppositions of the philosophers. Basil the Great (q.v.) therefore
fought for the Christians' right to paideia against the attempts of Em-
peror Julian (360-363) to close the schools to the Church.
At the same time, however, monasticism (q.v.) presented itself as
the truepaideia and monks as the real "philosophers." This divorce or
252 Paisii Velichkovsky
the role of the popes as "vicars of Peter" (vicarii sancti Petri) was fur-
ther emphasized. While still a remote and distant figure for the newly
Christian nations, the bishops of Rome were all the more surrounded
by a unique aura of sanctity and venerability as guardians of the holi-
est shrine of the West (q.v.), the site of the Apostles' death and pres-
ence of their relics, and as themselves the living voice of Peter.
A further step was taken toward the peoples of the West and away
from the old Mediterranean axis of Christendom when Pope Stephen
I1 made his alliance with Pippin I, father of Charlemagne (q.v.), in 754.
The Donation of Constantine (q.v.) was published (it might also have
been authored in northern Gaul) sometime in the following half cen-
tury, a development literally crowned by the coronation of Charle-
magne in 800. Although in political schism from Byzantium, the popes
were still solicitous enough of Eastern sensibilities to avoid inflamma-
tory actions in other areas, notably theJilioque (q.v.). This changed in
the 1lth c. with the revival of the German empire under the Saxon em-
perors and the latter's encouragement of reforming popes drawn from
the northern (transalpine) territories of their kingdom.
The great era of the Gregorian Reforms in the 1lth c. and 12th c.,
named for Gregory VII (1073-85), culminated in the pontificate of In-
nocent I11 (1 198-1215), who was the theocratic head of a new Chris-
tian commonwealth, Western Europe of the High Middle Ages. This
new version of the ancient ideas of imperium and sacerdotium, indeed
of romanitas, stood in natural-and inimical-contrast to the older
version, which was all the while in force in Constantinople and the
East. (See Church and State.)
The ecclesiastical schism (q.v.) between Western and Eastern
Catholicism was a natural and inevitable consequence. It is no acci-
dent that 1054, the date usually assigned for the schism, occurred at
the end of the pontificate of the first of the great reforming popes, Leo
IX (1049-1054). The schism was sealed by the Crusades (q.v.), in par-
ticular the Fourth (1204), which took, sacked, and held Constantino-
ple until 1261.
For the Eastern Church, developments in the West could be, and
were, long ignored. Up until the reform movement, and its key signal
for the Orthodox in the insertion of the Jilioque into the Nicene-
Constantinopolitan Creed (q.v.) at Rome in 1014, Rome had main-
tained its importance as the first see of the Church. It was uniquely priv-
ileged and venerated for being the site of the ancient capital, the place
of the Apostles' martyrdom, and for its (near) perfect record of Ortho-
doxy in the periods of Trinitarian and Christological (qq.v.) debate. It
was valued by dissidents in the Byzantine Church, particularly when
imperial policy threatened Orthodoxy, because it stood outside the Em-
pire's effective boundaries and its bishop was free to speak on behalf
254 Papademetriou, George C.
of the faith received. One will thus find noted saints of the East, e.g.,
Maximus the Confessor, John of Damascus, and Theodore of Studion
(qq.~.),who admired and held the Roman Church in highest regard for
these very reasons.
The specific claims of the papacy -particularly as they reflected the
equation of the papal with the imperial role or with the unique suc-
cessor of Peter-remained by and large foreign concepts, alien to the
Eastern understanding of the Church as conciliar. The novelty and
shock of the papal claims were brought home only with the great re-
forms and, particularly, the Crusades. It is, humanly speaking, diffi-
cult to see how schism could have been avoided. The two halves of an
originally undivided Christendom had become two different Chris-
tendom~,and both could see room enough only for one. Subsequent
developments in the Roman Catholic Church (q.v.), in particular Vat-
ican 1's definition of papal infallibility and "universal ordinary juris-
diction" (the position that the popes may act as the local bishop in any
diocese of the Church), have only served to widen the gap.
PARAKLESIS. The Greek verb, parakaleo, means "to call upon, ex-
hort, comfort." Aparaklesis is thus an invocation or intercession, and
the term today is used for a prayer service of intercession addressed
most commonly to the Virgin Mary, Theotokos (q.v.). It is especially
popular among Greek Orthodox and is served often during the week-
days of the Dormition Lent (August 1-14). As with many such devo-
tional prayers, its form is that of a modified matins (orthros).
PARISH. The English word derives from the Greek verb, paroikeo, "to
sojourn," as in a temporary dwelling. Its use for an ecclesial comrnu-
nity derives from the ancient Christian manner of speaking of the
Church as "sojourning" (paroikousa) in this or that locale, i.e., as a
temporary resident, because the true home of the people of God is the
heavenly Jerusalem. In present-day use, the word signifies the subdi-
vision of a diocese or eparchy (q.v.) presided over by a presbyter
(priest) who represents the ruling bishop.
PATMOS. A small island of the Dodecanese in the Aegean Sea, not far
from the coast of Turkey, where according to Rev 1:9-10, John the
seer received his revelation. Since 1088 it has also been home to a con-
tinuously inhabited monastery directly under the jurisdiction of the
Ecumenical Patriarch (q.v.). The monastery began a school for the
training of clergy in the 18th c. that functions today. Its continuous oc-
cupation has also left it with a singularly full and valuable collection
of manuscripts from the later Byzantine era (q.v.).
five" first officially codified under Justinian (q.v.). The title was ex-
tended to the Metropolitan of Moscow in 1589. Serbia and Bulgaria
had had patriarchs in the late medieval era, and they reclaimed the ti-
tle for the archbishops of Belgrade and Sofia in the 20th c. The Ro-
manian Church on the unification of the three regions of Romania fol-
lowing World War II likewise took the title for the Archbishop of
Bucharest. The Archbishop of Tbilisi and Primate of Georgia (q.v.) re-
joices in the title "catholicos." Among the Oriental Orthodox (q.v.)
"patriarch" is claimed as a title for the Coptic Archbishop of Alexan-
dria, the Archbishop of Addis Ababa and Ethiopia, and the Primate of
the Jacobites (q.v.), while the Armenian and Indian churches employ
"catholicos."
PAX ROMANA. This Latin phrase, "the Roman Peace," refers to the
rule of the Roman Empire (q.v.) over the entire Mediterranean basin
from the century before Christ to the death of the Emperor Theodo-
sius I in 395 in the East, and at least until the fall of Rome in 476 in
the West, if not to the coronation of Charlemagne (q.v.) in 800. In any
event the pax romana was the matrix of the nascent Christian Church.
Many nations governed by a single polity had a profound influence on
the Church's institutions and psychology in both the Latin West and
Greek East.
PENTARCHY. Meaning the "rule of the five," this was never more than
a theory that no Church decision or ruling was fully binding until the
sees of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem
(qq.v.) had pronounced on it. The pentarchy was the official theory of
church government from the reign of Justinian (q.v.) on, although the
five sees had been singled out for the title "patriarch" at the Council
of Chalcedon (qq.v.) in 451. The implication of the theory, i.e., that all
five were in the final analysis fundamentally equal, was never ac-
cepted by the Church of Rome (q.v.), which from the 4th c. on laid
special emphasis on its apostolic and petrine claims to primacy. To be
fair, the pentarchy was a highly artificial theory, never implemented
until the great 5th c. debates over Christology (q.v.) had removed the
Alexandrian (Coptic [q.v.]) Church from communion and fatally split
the weakened Church of Antioch. In addition the theory's insistence
on the sovereignty of these five patriarchs was at least debatable, given
the early Church's emphasis on the equal authority of all bishops, an
emphasis still preserved in Orthodox Canon Law (qq.~.).Nonetheless,
it continues to hold sway in official Greek circles to the present day.
PERSIA. Under Cyrus the Great and later rulers, the Persian Empire
(539-332 B.C.) was the first of the great world empires of the ancient,
eastern Mediterranean world. Followed by Alexander the Great's suc-
cessors, and then Rome (q.v.), ancient Persian dominion provided a
pattern, soon to be established as normative government, of tolerance
of local customs and religions. The recovery of Persian independence
from the Seleucid successors to Alexander in the 2nd c. B.C. led to the
situation that prevailed throughout Roman and early Byzantine rule:
an unstable border region, roughly along the lines of the modern bor-
ders between Syria (q.v.) and Iraq. It experienced occasional battles
and, more rarely, all-out warfare. The revived Persian Empire of the
Sassanid dynasty (3rd-7th c. A.D.) provided an important shelter for
dissidents from the imperial church, in particular the great, Syriac-
speaking Church of the East. (See Assyrian Church.) Safe from the
machinations of Constantinople (q.v.), the eastern Syrian Church was
free to develop its own institutions and to spread as far as India and
China along the trade routes protected by the Shahs.
PHEME. A term of Byzantine imperial origin, the pheme was the title,
or "job description," of officials of the Empire, ceremoniously pro-
claimed on high occasions. In the Orthodox Church today, particularly
in churches using the typicon of Constantinople (q.v.), it is the solemn
title of the bishop proclaimed by the deacon and repeated by the choir
during the polychronion, the point in the Divine Liturgy just after the
entrance of the clergy into the sanctuary. In Byzantium (q.v.) and
tsarist Russia, this was the point when the reigning emperor's title was
announced and accompanied by the singing of "many years."
Much larger than the Cappadocians' selections from Origen, the sec-
ond Philokalia runs to five heavy volumes. The Greek version was
published in Venice (1782) and Paisii's Church Slavic translation in
Petersburg (1793), and the impact of each one has been enormous.
Paisii also oversaw a later translation into Romanian. In the 19th c. and
20th c., the translations were updated. Paisii's Church Slavic was ren-
dered into Russian by Theophan the Recluse in the mid-19th c. Fr. Du-
rnitru Staniloae (q.v.) has been working on an expanded Philokalia in
modem Romanian, accompanied by notes and commentary, since the
1930s. Bishop Kallistos Ware, with the late P. Sherrard (q.v.) and G.
Palmer, have put out four of five volumes of St. Nicodemus's version.
PHYLETISM. The word is derived from the Greek word for tribe,
phyle. Phyletism, or "tribalism," was condemned as a heresy by a lo-
cal council held at Constantinople (q.v.) in 1870. The specific cause
264 Piety
late antiquity. He fused the idea of the cosmos as one organism and
the realm of being as constituted by layers of reality. His active mys-
ticism, moreover, fired his concepts with a more than merely acade-
mic fervor. Plotinus's vision was, in short, a powerfully religious one,
and it fed the piety (q.v.) and thinking of the best pagan and Christian
minds after him. The Cappadocians all read him, as did Augustine of
Hippo (qq.v.) and Boethius in the West. His genius lay behind later
philosophers in the Neoplatonic tradition: Porphyry, Iamblichus, and
Proclus. Porphyry published his master's fifty-four treatises posthu-
mously as six Enneads, "sets of nine." Plotinus continued to be read,
if infrequently cited, well into the Byzantine era (q.v.).
PRESANCTIFIEDsee Liturgies.
largest city, and site of the largest Christian church. It thus appears,
for these reasons, to have exercised a certain degree of leadership from
the earliest times. Very quickly, at least by the 3rd c., the bishops of
the communities in the regional or provincial capitals of the Empire
took the lead in presiding over local councils, e.g., the councils at
Carthage in the time of Cyprian, or the active role of Alexandria in
Egypt (qq.~.).By the First Ecumenical Council at Nicaea in 325, the
three largest cities, Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch (qq.~.),were rec-
ognized as exercising a primacy already in effect over, respectively,
Italy, Egypt, and Libya, and the East, i.e., Syria and Palestine. The
Council of Constantinoplein 381 added the new imperial capital to the
list in second place, after Rome, and the Council of Chalcedon in 45 1
added Jerusalem to complete the five of the Byzantine pentarchy
(qq.v.).
In each case, save Jerusalem's, the factor that determined the differ-
ent councils' decisions was the size and importance of the city: " . . .
because Constantinople is New Rome," to quote Canon 3 (381). This
principle, called "accommodation," was already clashing in the 4th c.
with the rising claims of the Roman Church, in particular the latter's
assertion,beginning with Pope Julius, that leadershipin the Church de-
pended upon a local church's having had apostolic origins -hence the
principle of "apostolicity"-and that Rome, as the see of the Apostle
Peter, had inherited his pastoral care for the whole Church.
RAVENNA. A city on the north Adriatic coast of Italy, Ravenna was the
capital of the Ostrogoth kingdom from 476 to 540, and thereafter the
seat of the Byzantine exarch (qq.v.) of Italy and the West. Until the
Lombard conquest in 751 and Ravenna's incorporation into the papal
estates, the exarch was the voice of Byzantium (q.v.) in the West and
the political overlord of the Roman popes. The exarchate's disap-
pearance signaled the end of Byzantine influence on the papacy (q.v.)
and the new arrangement between the popes and the Empire of Charle-
magne (q.v.) and his successors. Byzantium's long presence in the
city, together with the Gothic kingdom, left Ravenna the site of mon-
uments of early Christian art and architecture (qq.~.),including the
mosaics of St. Apollinare and St. Vitale (the latter being the model of
Charlemagne's court chapel at Aachen), and the Arian and Orthodox
baptistries.
RELICS. The remains of holy men and women, whether their bones,
bodies, or clothing, or else objects associated with them or with the
great events of Christ's life (e.g., the fragments of the Cross), are all
believed to carry somethingof the presence, and hence blessing, of the
saint (q.v.) or event in question. They are normally enshrined in elab-
orately worked containers, called reliquaries, kept in the altar area, and
are brought out for veneration on the day the saint is commemorated.
Evidence for veneration of relics dates back at least to the mid-2nd c.
and the veneration accorded the remains of Polycarp of Smyrna (q.v.).
The theology of relics is firmly grounded in the Orthodox doctrine of
theosis (q.v.), or deification, understood as affecting the whole person
of the saint. Popular veneration of relics throughout the Byzantine era
(q.v.) and the Latin Middle Ages contributed to the unity of the
Church. The far ends of the Christian oikoumene (q.v.) would know,
through the relics, of saints who had lived in the most distant regions,
for example the veneration of Nicholas of Myra (q.v.) in the Low
Countries and England.
Renovated Church 273
was the site of the first gathering of all local Orthodox churches in sev-
eral centuries.
RIDIGER, ALEXIS 11, Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia (23 Feb-
ruary 1929- ). From a priestly family, he began his career as choir-
master of St. Simeon Church in Tallin and later at Kazan Church. He
was the senior subdeacon to Archbishop Paul of Tallin and Bishop
Isidore. After graduating from the Leningrad Theological Seminary in
1949, he did graduate studies at Leningrad Theological Academy and
was ordained deacon on 15 April 1950 and priest on 17 April for the
Holy Theophany Church, Iyxvi, Estonia. He received the Candidate
of Theology degree from the Academy in 1953, with the thesis "Met-
ropolitan Philaret (Drozdov) as Dogmatist," and was appointed pastor
of Dormition Cathedral in Tartu, Estonia, and dean of Tartu Deanery
on 15 July 1957. Made archpriest and dean of Tartu-Vilyana Deanery
in 1959, he became a monastic on 3 March 1961, after which he was
elected Bishop of Tallin and Estonia. Promoted to archbishop (1964)
and to metropolitan (1968), he became Metropolitan of Leningrad and
Novgorod on 29 July 1968. He was enthroned as Patriarch of Moscow
and All Russia on 10 June 1990. Long active in the ecumenical move-
ment, Alexis is among the first group of Russian Orthodox to partici-
pate in the World Council of Churches Central Committee (1961-68),
and was president of the Conference of European Churches (1964-
86). His ministry is characterized by good relations with Orthodox
outside Russia and active involvement in the social and political crises
that confront the people of his country.
ROME. Capital of the Roman Empire and see of the popes (qq.~.),
Rome and its mystique-Roma aeterna-have played practically as
important a role in the Orthodox as in the Roman Catholic Church
Rome 277
(q.v.). The ancient capital was, in a sense, the badge of legitimacy for
Constantinople, "New Rome," the capital of the East and of the Em-
pire, which, until its demise in 1453, claimed to be the continuation of
the polity begun by Augustus Caesar. The early Christian history of
the city is worth noting in brief, not only for its intrinsic value and its
influence on the East, but for the remarkably detailed list of its early
bishops (Epiphanius, Haer. 27.6). After the burning of the city by
Nero (A.D. 64) and the resulting martyrdom of Peter and Paul, the
Church grew under Vespasian (69-79) and Titus (79-81) until the per-
secutions of Domitian (81-96) and Trajan (98-117). Ignatius of An-
tioch (q.v.) was martyred at Rome (ca. 110-1 17), along with at least
one early bishop, Telephorus (ca. 126-136), Justin Martyr (q.v.), and
Cecilia-the latter two under the severe persecutions of Marcus Au-
relius (161-180).
The first century and a half of Christianity in Rome was character-
ized by these persecutions, while the bishops were Greek-speaking
and generally lesser known than contemporary Roman heretics Tat-
ian, Valentinus, and Marcion. These heretics seem to have been criti-
cized only by Rhodo, Pius, (possibly) Justin Martyr, and Hippolytus
(q.v.) from the Roman Church. (It is significant that the Christian
Apologists [q.v.] from this period, other than the aforementioned,
were not Roman.) The earliest Roman bishops who actively appear on
the historical record are Clement (ca. 88-97), who wrote an epistle to
the Corinthians, which was included in some early lists of the canon
of Scripture, Pius I (ca. 141-154), brother of the author of The Shep-
herd of Hermas and the bishop under whom Marcion was excommu-
nicated, and Anicetus (ca. 155-166), who discussed the quartodeci-
man question with Polycarp of Smyrna (q.v.). Victor I (ca. 189) was
the first Latin-speaking pope.
Controversies in the West during the 3rd c. were marked by a prac-
tical rigorism in dealing with situations stemming from persecution,
and theologically by modalism. Hippolytus, who appears as a consis-
tent and credible theologian of the Trinity (qq.~.),fought modalism
among the leadership of the Roman Church for decades. Schisms
(q.v.) due to rigorism occurred later concerning the presbyter Novat-
ian (q.v.), who as a disappointed candidate for the see led a group into
schism over reconciliation of those who made concessions to pagan-
ism during persecution, and over the treatment of the lapsed by
Cyprian of Carthage (q.v.). In the first instance, the Roman Church
was vindicated in its treatment of Novatian, while in the second case
Pope Stephen I was bested by Cyprian. The participation of the Ro-
man Church in the theological issues from the 4th c. to the 8th c. may
be tracked in the entries on the Ecumenical Councils and Christology.
Although one should be mindful of the fall of the Western Empire in
278 Rufinus of Aquileia
SCHISM. The Greek word means literally "a rip or tear, as in cloth,"
and thus in the language of ecclesiology (q.v.) signifies a division or
break in the communion of the Church. As some have observed, East-
ern Christendomlives rather more easily with such divisions than does
the West. Schisms have appeared with some frequency in the East
over the centuries, often for reasons more political than theological,
e.g., the "Bulgarian Schism," which saw the Church of Bulgaria out
of communion with the Ecumenical Patriarch (qq.v.) for more than
seventy years (1870-1945). When such a break is allied with a real or
perceived difference in doctrine, and thus with a manifestation of
heresy (q.v.), the break usually becomes permanent. Such was the
schism between the Byzantine Church and the Church of the East
Schrnemann, Alexander 291
Pentateuch, from Hebrew into Aramaic. The political unity of the an-
cient world achieved by Alexander the Great and again by the Romans
gave Greek an unprecedented ecumenical status among languages, and
the Greek language was claimed by the ancients to have superiority over
the Hebrew on purely linguistic grounds.
Issues relating to Scripture existed at each of the Seven Ecumenical
Councils (q.v.). The primary theological debate over Scripture at the
First Council had to do with its use within a common creed, later called
the Nicene Creed. Gnosticism and Arianism (q.v.) had created a crisis
that only the Greek word "homoousios" or "consubstantial" -a non-
Biblical word-could address. The Church Fathers (q.v.) maintained
that the description of Jesus Christ as "homoousios"or "of one essence
with the Father" was in fact "Biblical," though the word itself does not
appear in the Bible. Other canons from the Ecumenical Councils relate
to Scripture: Apostolic Canon #85 is the earliest canonical reference to
a list of the books of Scripture. The Orthodox Church's list of books is
the longest of all the churches, containing all the "apocryphal" (in
Protestant terminology) books or deuterocanonical books found in the
RSV or NRSV. The Metered Poems of St. Gregory the Theologian
(mid4th c.), the Iambics of Amphilocius, Bishop of Seleucus, and
African Code, Canon #24 all give advice as to which are the "genuine
books" of Scripture. Quinisext, Canon #2 (7th c.) gave blanket ap-
proval to all canons previously recognized in the Church. The Seventh
Ecumenical Council (787) in its first canon accepted all the canons of
the Sixth Ecumenical and the Quinisext, reinforcing the same view.
For contemporary questions regarding Hebrew and Greek Bibles, a
few remarks are in order. Since both the Greek and Russian Churches
use the Lucianic Septuagint liturgically, there is a tendency among the
faithful to romanticize the unanimity of the liturgical witness and
beauty of language, depicting the history of the Greek Scriptures as
devoid of controversy and independentof the Hebrew. History reveals
flaws in this attitude. For example, during the 4th c. there were three
different Septuagints in use in the major Christian centers of the east-
ern Mediterranean: 1) the churches in Antioch and Constantinople
(qq.v.) used the Lucianic recension; 2) Caesarea (q.v.) in Palestine uti-
lized a translation by Origen (q.v.) that was updated by Pamphilus and
Eusebius (q.v.); and 3) Alexandria (q.v.) had a third recension by a
certain Hesychius about which little else is known. The Constanti-
nopolitan practice, based on a translation done by the Presbyter Lu-
cian (who preferred Attic forms), finally won out. (For the history of
the Slavic and Russian Bible, see Constantine-Cyril; Gennadievskii
Bible; Methodius; Ostrog Bible; Russian Bible.)
Today, the relationships between the various Hebrew and Greek
textual traditions have to be taken very seriously. This was illus-
Sculpture 295
SECTS. Just as in the West, the Eastern Christian world has known a
number of sects over the centuries. The word denotes a group, usually
limited in number, that claims a peculiarly absolute grasp on truth, the
latter often consisting of a very specific and narrowly focused set of
affirmations and expectations. Thus the followers of Marcion in the
2nd c. and 3rd c., or one of the groups following this or that gnostic
leader (see Gnosticism), might fairly be labeled sects. In the Byzan-
tine (q.v.) era, one may point to unknown ascetics and their followers
for whom the term "Messalianism" was coined (4th-6th c.), or the du-
alist Paulicians and Bogomils of medieval Asia Minor and the Balkans
(qq.~.),respectively. More recently, the Russian schism of the 17th c.
and the resulting Old Believer (qq.v.) movement saw the latter giving
birth to a multitude of sects whose beliefs varied from simple liturgi-
cal conservatism to apocalypticfervor concluding in mass suicides. In
modern Greece, the introduction of the Gregorian Calendar in the
1920s led to "Old Calendarist" groups (or "True Orthodox," by their
own reckoning) who have since fractured into at least half a dozen
competing groups. The Orthodox oikoumene (q.v.) has also seen the
importation from the West of dozens of groups, including, of course,
"mainline" denominations, but also taking in others who in America
and in the East stand very much on the margins.
scription of Seraphim's life. His last years were also spent giving
direction to the nuns at the convent of Diveyevo, who continued a spe-
cial veneration of their spiritual father (q.v.) after his death. In spite of
caustic opposition to his canonizationby Russian intellectuals and the
Ober-Procurator Pobedonostsev, Seraphim was canonized in 1903,
and remains one of the most venerated of saints in Russia and in the
Russian emigration.
sistance, and this resulted in the rout of the Tartars at the battle of Ku-
likovo Polye on 8 September 1380. Sergius sent two monks to the bat-
tle with Prince Dmitri, and the two stories of their involvement reflect
two antithetical traditions about religion and war. One story reports
the monks had been soldiers and were sent to fight along with the
troops. Another says that the monks were sent with spiritual resources,
probably Holy Communion, to minister to the spiritual needs of the
soldiers-a type of forerunner to military chaplaincy.
Ironic as it may be, the boy whose family had been supplanted by
the rising power of Moscow helped that principality to continue its ex-
pansion. Not only was this accomplished by the freedom gained from
the Tartar yoke and the expansion of inhabited lands by the movement
of monastic "frontiersmen," but by simple, sound advice. Sergius had
enough influence over all classes of society to prevent four civil wars
among the Russian princes. And early Muscovite Christian tradition
(q.v.) bore Sergius's seal, disdaining internecine warfare, which al-
lowed Moscow to centralize its power even further.
The spiritual legacy of Sergius is formidable. He was known as a
clairvoyant and mystic, but not particularly for any human strength
other than charity. He healed soul and body, but was not considered a
popular healer. The rule of prayer (q.v.) he and his monks observed
left little time other than for necessary work, but he expressed his
Christian love in service to others. Sergius's legacy continued into the
20th c. as well: When the Soviets were unable to squelch his memory
and suppress his cult by closing his monastery and stealing his relics
(q.~.),they reopened the monastery in 1945, restored his relics, and-
with some embarrassment-proclaimed Sergius a national hero.
tery. The fascination that 2nd-c. readers had for apocalypse was used
by Hennas to teach them a new approach to sin after Baptism (qq.~.).
The single most important message of the book is that there is the
possibility of repentance after Baptism, explained in the respective di-
visions of the book in different ways-though that repentance is lim-
ited to a single occasion. This teaching differs from what was proba-
bly the then-current practice in Rome wherein repentance from capital
sins was not considered possible after Baptism, i.e., there was no sec-
ond confession (q.v.). Although The Shepherd of Hermas is not con-
tained in the canon of Scripture (q.v.), it is worth noting that both
Eastern and Western Christianity took its advice in modifying the de-
veloping penitential discipline.
SIMONY. The sin of "purchasing" grace with money was named for the
attempt of Simon Magus to buy the gift of the Holy Spirit (q.v.) (Acts
7:9-14). In later use the term came to signify the purchase either of high
ecclesiastical office or of the sacraments (q.v.). The former was a con-
tinual problem throughout the Middle Ages of both East and West, and
much exacerbated in the East during the Ottoman Empire (q.v.). Thus,
in the Byzantine era (q.v.), the kanonikon was expected as a matter of
course for ordination (q.v.) or the performance of a sacrament.
SIN. In both Hebrew and Greek the word means literally "to miss the
mark" (cognate terms: transgression, parabasis; fault, paraptoma;
crime or offense, eggklima). In Orthodox tradition sin may be con-
scious or unconscious, voluntary or involuntary. Further, sin, from
Paul through the Church Fathers (q.v.), is understood as a personal
force or power that has usurped the government of the world and in-
fected creation from the Fall of Adam. Christ came to deliver human-
ity through his death and resurrection from this force and its accom-
panying corruption, i.e., the rule of the devil and of death. Baptism
(q.v.) into Christ delivers the believer from the cosmic aspect of sin,
but he or she is left to engage with those remnants of a diseased world
still at work in his or her soul and environs. Thus the inescapable role
of asceticism (q.v.) in the Christian life and, in addition, the insistence
of the Orthodox tradition that sin, insofar as each person sins, is al-
ways personal in nature. Each is called to account for what he or she
has done or left undone. This differs significantly from the place that
original sin has held in the Christian West since, in particular, Augus-
tine of Hippo (q.v.). It is with the examination and tracing out of sin's
unconscious and unsuspected roots that the enormous literature of
monastic spirituality is primarily concerned.
church liturgical books (q.v.) were allowed to continue with the old
alphabet and numbers.
The establishment of secular schools on the European model antic-
ipated what was to happen with ecclesiastical schools. Besides send-
ing students abroad, Peter created a School of Mathematical and
Navigational Sciences (Moscow, 1701), a Naval Academy (St. Pe-
tersburg, 1715), medical schools (1706, 1709), a museum of natural
science and a library (St. Petersburg), the Imperial Academy of Sci-
ence (St. Petersburg), and about forty elementary schools in provin-
cial towns. Private schools and tutoring for the gentry survived Peter's
death, unlike the public schools- which did not take root until Cather-
ine I1 made Russian, not Latin, the language of instruction. As a result
of Peter's educational reform, a university was begun in Moscow
(1755) with departments of law, medicine, and philosophy. (Before
one might idealize Peter as the liberal visionary who promoted edu-
cation at all costs, it should be consideredthat almost all of his schools
had a direct bearing on "oiling his war machine," which he kept func-
tioning continually during his reign with the exception of twenty-four
scattered months.)
When Archbishop Theophanes Prokopovich prepared the "Spiritual
Regulation" for Peter, who issued it on 25 January 1721, uniform ec-
clesiastical schools were provided for with grades that progressed to
philosophy and theology (qq.v.) as the height of learning. Prokopovich,
who had studied at the Uniate (q.v.) College of Athanasius in Rome,
took the Kievan academy as his model for theological education. But
like the foreignness of the secular schools, the Kievan academy was
grounded in the "Latin learning" of Scholasticism (q.v.), and life in the
seminaries was "cloistered" from the influences of family and tradition.
Curiously, Prokopovich preferred to follow Protestant rather than Ro-
man Catholic problems in his Scholasticism-though Aquinas was
well-known. Since the ecclesiastical schools were predicated on the
Kievan model, hierarchs from the Ukraine opened them in Russia,
staffed them with Ukrainian teachers, and frequently brought their stu-
dents from the Ukraine. In certain instances only Ukrainian was spoken,
and only Ukrainians were advanced to candidacy for the episcopacy. A
forced "Ukrainization" occurred in Russia due to Peter's reforms.
Ironically, the secular schools did not survive the 18th c. and the ec-
clesiastical schools did. In the last decades of the century when Cather-
ine I1 popularized education, the ecclesiastical schools provided the
new teachers, who now graduated from "teachers' seminary." Still, the
success was forced: Peter's ecclesiastical schools were "caste" schools
with mandatory participation from clergy offspring. By mandatory is
meant not merely physical punishment, but criminal prosecution! The
student was fulfilling a duty to the state, and desertion was treated with
308 The Spiritual Regulation (Reglament)of Peter the Great
bers represent almost all the canonical Orthodox churches one can find
in the western hemisphere.
SYNOD. The term means "gathering," and is used to signify both the
gatherings or councils of bishops called together to debate questions
of pressing doctrinal or ethical concern, e.g., the Ecumenical Councils
(q.v.), or else regularly summoned gatherings to deal with details of
administration in a given locale, e.g., the frequent local councils. In
later times during the Byzantine era (q.v.), the "standing synod" (en-
demousa synodos) constituted the regular administrative body of the
Ecumenical Patriarch (q.v.), and in tsarist Russia from Peter I, the
term, preceded by "holy," signified the governing body of the Rus-
sian Church without the patriarchate. The term is finally important as
signaling a basic point of ecclesiology in the Orthodox Church, i.e.,
that the latter, in contrast to the papacy in the West, sees particular au-
thority (qq.v.) in the Church in the body of the episcopacy sitting in
council.
and defend the faith in language borrowed from the Greek philosoph-
ical tradition of Plato and Neoplatonism (qq.~.).Nor, it must be added,
did they feel the latter to be entirely at variance with the revelation in
Christ. The history of Orthodox theology (as of Roman Catholic
[qq.v.] and Protestant theology) is in great part the struggle against and
in alliance with the inheritance of the great pagan Greeks. Borrowing
a phrase from Fr. Georges Florovsky (q.v.), it is a wrestling with con-
cepts in order to discover the words "most adequate" to the mystery
of God (q.v.) become man (theoprepeis logoi).
In this struggle one may discern two basic approaches in Orthodox
Church Fathers, as the former were categorized by Dionysius the Are-
opagite (qq.~.).There is first and primarily apophatic theology. This
phrase goes beyond the mere negation of concepts. It denotes the fact
that the transcendent God (q.v.) is, indeed, transcendent, other, and thus
"known," in Dionysius's famous phrase, only "by unknowing." Clas-
sically apophatic theology insists on a particular content to this "un-
knowing," i.e., the possibility of a genuine experience of the unknow-
able God revealed in the Incarnate Word and communicated to the
believer in the action (energeia) of the Holy Spirit (q.v.). This is there-
fore the real mystical theology, the union beyond word and concept.
The experience of the divine leads to the other approach of classi-
cal Eastern theology, affirmative or cataphatic theology. The Un-
knowable is revealed in his creation, in the words of the Scriptures
(q.v.), and finally in the Word made flesh, Jesus Christ. These givens
constitute the realm of the oikonomia, God's self-extension into the
universe for humanity's creation and salvation. On the one hand,
words and concepts must be assigned and accorded their full serious-
ness, though always with the proviso that they carry within themselves
and point toward a presence that finally transcends both them and
every artifice of the created intellect. On the other hand, certain con-
cepts, or "names," do carry a particular weight because they are re-
vealed images, "notional icons" one might say, beyond which the be-
liever cannot go. This applies with particular force to the names
accorded the persons of the Trinity (q.v.). In the Trinity, and in the for-
mulations of the Ecumenical Councils concerning Christology (qq.~.),
apophatic and cataphatic can be seen to meet and fuse: not a man and
a god, but the God-man, not One and not Three, but both, and beyond
the categories of one and many.
Beyond the necessary intellectual engagement, the Church Fathers,
the liturgy, and the tradition of Christian asceticism (qq.v.) express
broader and higher meanings for theology, among them: 1) prayer
(q.v.), "he who prays is a theologian," says Evagrius of Pontus (q.v.); 2)
glorificationor praise occur particularly in the celebration of the liturgy,
both on earth among human beings and in heaven with the angels; 3) the
320 Theophany
TOMOS. This term, derived from the Greek temno ("to cut"; cf. the Bib-
lical Hebrew expression, "to cut a covenant" ), came to mean the
equivalent of the English "decree," or "definition." Examples are the
Tome of Leo (q.v.) and the "Tome of Mt. Athos," (1349150) by Gre-
gory Palamas (q.v.) in defense of the hesychasts (q.v.).
TOTH, ALEXIS G., priest, missionary (14 March 1853-7 May 1909).
Born in Szepes (near Presov), he was educated at the Roman Catholic
Seminary of Esztergom, the United Greek Seminary of Ungvar, and
the University of Presov with a degree in theology. Ordained in 1878,
he served various parishes, was chancellor, director of the United
Greek Catholic Seminary in Presov, and professor of Canon Law and
Church history, before being sent to the United States on 15 Novem-
ber 1889 as a "missioner" to Slavic and Carpatho-Russianimmigrants.
As the first resident pastor of the Uniate (q.v.) St. Mary's parish in
Minneapolis, he had a fateful-and mutually antagonistic-meeting
Tradition, Holy 323
the Eastern Church from the earliest years. By the time of Byzantium
(q.v.) proper, from the 6th c. on, a style of translation emerged that
continued to hold the field until very recently. With the Peshitta (Syr-
iac Bible, 5th c.), the translations of the Syriac golden age, and the
work of Constantine-Cyril and Methodius (qq.v.) and their disciples,
translators sought an exceedingly literal translation of Greek-even
slavish-so some might argue today.
TREBY. With the reduction of church support from the imperial govern-
ment after the Spiritual Regulation (q.v.) of Tsar Peter, it was common
for Russian clergy to live off donations paid for private services. These
treby, or "needs," originally connoted religious services for the needs
of individuals, i.e., "personal" sacraments or special prayers (qq.~.).
The term treby began to be identified with the needed living expenses
of the clergy because of the terrible living conditionsof the priests. The
system is still widespread in the Russian Church today.
Spirit as the Father's Word and Wisdom, and elsewhere as his "two
hands." In the 3rd c. Origen, borrowing from Platonism and the ear-
lier work of Clement of Alexandria and Justin Martyr (qq.~.),arranges
Father, Son, and Spirit in a descending hierarchy of hypostases (per-
sons, or substances).His terminology was preserved in the Greek East
during the great Trinitarian controversies of the 4th c. But his notes re-
lating to subordination and hierarchy were rejected as a result of the
ultimate victory of the Nicene Creed championed by Athanasius
(qq.~.).It was the glory of the CappadocianFathers, especially Basil's
On the Holy Spirit, Gregory of Nazianzus's Theological Orations, and
Gregory of Nyssa's (qq.v.) Against Eunomius and "On Not Three
Gods," to supply the language and concepts reconciling Origen's
terms with the Nicene homoousios (consubstantial) in such a way as
to become the classical formulation of the Orthodox doctrine of the
Trinity.
The ancient emphasis on the Father as source of the other persons
is the keystone of the teaching. The Father is the unique and personal
(hypostatic) source of the Son and Spirit. Both derive their being (ou-
sia) directly from him, the Son by "begetting" (genesis) and the Spirit
by "procession" (ekporeusis).The "being" that they receive is the Fa-
ther's own. The divine existence, will, and life is thus one and unique,
and the persons three. Begetting and procession are not, however, fur-
ther defined, and the omission is quite deliberate. The terms refer to
processes within the godhead that escape human knowledge and com-
prehension altogether. The Cappadocians thus lay heavy emphasis
upon paradox. The basic data of Christian experience are maintained,
God is one and three, and the antinomy of the divine equation is itself
held up as a fundamentalrevelation-in the words of Vladimir Lossky
(q.v.), "a cross for human ways of thought." The primary metaphor for
the godhead in Greek thought is therefore that of community.
Such was not the way of the West. Beginning earlier, but most im-
portantly with Augustine of Hippo (q.v.), it was the model of the sin-
gle human being that served the Latin writers as the ruling metaphor
for investigation of the divine mystery. Augustine's De Trinitate,
composed in the later years of his life, has set the agenda for Western
theology (q.v.) in much the same way as the Cappadocians did for the
East. Taking as his starting point Gen 1:26 and the idea of the human
person as imago Dei (image of God), Augustine sought the "footprints
of the Trinity" (vestigia trinitatis) in the human psyche. Among the
many triads that he proposed based on this model, that of memory-
intelligence-will was perhaps his favorite, although he was careful to
acknowledgethe inadequacy of any comparison to the divine mystery.
Given this model, however, his notion of the Spirit as proceeding from
both Father and Son followed naturally.
326 Trinity
More irenic voices from each camp have begun to seek some sort of ac-
cord in recent times. We mention in this regard the Russian church his-
torian V. Bolotov and the philosopher-theologian Vladimir Soloviev
(q.v.) in the 19th c. and the modern Roman Catholic theologians, A. de
Halleux and Y. Congar. Whether these efforts result in any ultimate res-
olution remains to be seen.
TRISAGION. This term applies first of all to the biblical thrice holy
(q.v.) of Is 6:3 and Rev 4 9 , the hymn of the heavenly liturgy. It ap-
pears as the Sanctus in the eucharistic liturgy of both the East and
West. In the East the same expression also applies to the hymn that re-
peats three times the petition, "Holy God, Holy Mighty One, Holy Im-
mortal One, have mercy upon us," which is normally sung following
the "little entrance" prior to the Epistle reading at the Divine Liturgy
(q.v.). (The origin of this form of the hymn is associated with 25 Sep-
tember ca. 450 when a great earthquake ceased in Constantinople.)
The hymn became cause for debate during the christological contro-
versies of the late 5th c. Between 468 and 470, the "monophysite" Pa-
triarch of Antioch (qq.~.),Peter the Fuller, introduced the phrase,
"Who was crucified for us," following "Holy Immortal . . . " Defend-
ers of Chalcedon (q.v.) objected to this christological reading of
the hymn, i.e., as referring all three titles to Christ, and insisted on it
instead as in praise of the Trinity (q.v.), denouncing the interpolation
as an unacceptable mingling of the persons of the Godhead. The hymn
is sung in the Oriental Orthodox churches (q.v.) to the present in its
interpolated form, and in Eastern Orthodox churches in the original
version.
During the third partitioning of Poland (1795) the West Ukraine and
Belarus were incorporated into the Russian Empire, and many Uniates
were coerced into the Russian Orthodox Church (q.v.). Although
the situation eased under Tsars Paul (1796-1801) and Alexander I
(1801-1825), Nicholas I (1825-1855) suppressed all Uniate dioceses
except the Polish Kholm in 1839, declaring all Uniates as Orthodox.
Kholm was conscripted into the "state Church" in 1875 in the wake of
the Polish uprising of 1862 to 1863. Uniate and Ukrainian separatist
sympathies were fueled by propaganda of the Austro-Hungarian Em-
pire in the period preceding World War I.
Outbursts of Uniate sentiment occurred throughout the reign of
Tsar Nicholas I1 (1894-1917) and a whole series of rather predictable,
tragic episodes, documenting a chronicle of ignominious "sheep steal-
ing," continued to play themselves out on new stages: the United
States, the loss of Russian Uniate territories after 1917; the regaining
of these territories by the Soviet Union; and the recent independence
of these territories in post-Communist Eastern Europe. In the United
States a Ruthenian "missioner," Fr. Alexis Toth (q.v.), worked dili-
gently and successfully to return many Carpatho-Russian Christian
parishes to canonical Orthodoxy.
The vicissitudes of the Czech, Polish, and Ukrainian (qq.v.) local
churches in the 20th c. occupy the other three stages, and the difficult
situation maintains through the present. For example, the Soviets and
the Russian Church cooperated to bring two to three million Uniates
in eastern Poland into Orthodoxy by fiat, to which were added Uni-
ates of the West Ukraine who had been under Soviet dominance only
after World War 11. Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, many
have returned to Rome (q.v.). The political dynamic of "Unia"
has been used by the Vatican in dealing with groups such as the
Maronites, the Melchites, the Syro-Chaldean Patriarchate, and the
Syro-Malankarese Church (qq.~.).
VENICE. Founded in 421 on the north coast of the Italian Adriatic and
for centuries an outpost of Byzantium (q.v.), Venice began to acquire
independence in the 9th c. By the 1 lth c. it controlled much of the
trade of the Empire as a foreign power. Tensions between the citizens
of Constantinople (q.v.) and Venetian merchants sparked the bloody
riots of 1187 that slew thousands of Western Europeans in the latter's
suburb of Galatea. Desire for vengeance and for securing the Venet-
ian trading monopoly prompted Doge Enrico Dandolo to divert the
Fourth Crusade (q.v.) in 1204 to take and sack the imperial city and
dismember its Empire. Venetian occupation of positions on the Greek
mainland and several islands, including Corfu and Crete, continued
for centuries. Venice itself treasures many of the spoils of the Crusade,
notably the four horses over the Cathedral of San Marco, the palo
d'oro fronting the high altar, and the many San Marco museum pieces
that have been (curiously) reworked.
priest and represents the power and blamelessness that should be exer-
cised in walking before the Lord. 7. In the Russian tradition the square
epigonation, or nabedrennik, is the first award given a priest for distin-
guished service, but it has no significancedifferent from item #8.8. The
palitza, or diamond-shaped epigonation, signifies the sword of the
Spirit, which is the Word of God, and is a senior award of the priest-
hood. At times in Greece this vestment has been employed to indicate
the educated clergy who are capable of preaching and hearing confes-
sion. 9. (The Russian square-cut phelonion is shown.) The phelonion,
or chasuble, is the distinguishing garment of the priesthood and proba-
bly has its origin in Byzantine court dress. 10. The priest's cross (not
shown) is worn in recent Russian tradition by all priests, but historically
it was a senior award of clergy as it still is in the Greek practice.
Bishop: 1. The sakkos, or dalmatic (see next page), is symbolic of
Christ's coat without seam, woven from top to bottom. 2. The omo-
phorion, or pall, typifies the wandering sheep that the Good Shepherd
takes upon his shoulders and carries to his Father. 3. The miter is a
crown that serves as an emblem of the power bestowed upon the High
Priest. 4. The pastoral staff, or crosier, indicates the spiritual authority
338 Vestments, Liturgical
of bishops and archimandrites over their flocks. The image of the Good
Shepherd is one familiar to agricultural societies; and it is well known
that a shepherd provides water, food, and safe haven for his flock-
guiding, rescuing, and correcting with his staff. 5. The eagle rug is a
small, round rug about a foot and a half in diameter with the represen-
tation of an eagle hovering over the bishop's see. The bishop stands on
it during the religious services, at each location as he moves to various
places in the church during the Divine Liturgy-the center of the
church, in front of the altar, behind the altar, etc. 6. The bishop's man-
Virgin Mary 339
tle (not shown), or cape, is usually multicolored purple and is sewn with
the "Tables of the Law," representing the Old and New Testaments, and
the "Fountains," red and white ribbons encircling the mantle and signi-
fying flowing streams of teaching and wisdom. 7. The panagia, or en-
colpion, is a pectoral icon (not shown) of the Mother of God with Child,
representing the Church bearing the Lord in its heart.
THE WAY (also called the Two Ways). In Scripture (q.v.): Participa-
tion in the Kingdom of God and salvation are tied to ethical and
mission-oriented action. This action is symbolically described as "The
Way of the Lord." The Two Ways for men and women are 1) the way
of the Lord, or the good and right way (Gen 18:19; Ps 18:21,25:9; 1
Sam 12:23); and 2) the way of evil, that of sinners and the wicked (Ps
1:l; Prov 2:12; Jer l8:ll; Ezek 3:18). Although a person's way may
be either good or evil (1 Kgs 8:36; Gen 6:12) depending on his free
will, the way of the Lord is always right, perfect, just, and true. As the
340 The Way
Old Testament text states, the Lord desires not the death of anyone,
but that he turn from the evil way and live. When God began to teach
and lead his people under the first covenant, the way of the Lord was
identified with the Mosaic Law.
Jesus talks about the way in his teaching ministry: "Enter by the nar-
row gate; for the gate is wide and the way is easy, that leads to destruc-
tion, and those who enter by it are many. For the gate is narrow and the
way is hard, that leads to life and those who find it are few" (Mt
7: 13-14). The New Testament writers saw the way of the Lord, as it was
proclaimed by the prophets, completed and fulfilled in Christ (Mt 3:3;
Mk 1:2-3; Lk 3:4; Jn 1:23; 1 Cor 12:31). In John's Gospel (14:4 ff.), Je-
sus says to the disciples "and where I go you know the way. . .I am the
way, and the truth, and the life; no one comes to the Father, but by me."
The "new and living way" (Heb 10:20) to God was made possible by
Christ as a way of salvation, of truth, and of peace. Thus, Luke rightly
identifies Christianity as "the Way" and emphasizes this repeatedly.
The Two Ways in the Qumran documents ("Dead Sea Scrolls"):
These antedate Jesus and are a condensed course in ethics or proper
moral behavior. This religious community had as its purpose to keep
the Law and the Covenant in the True Way. Unfortunately, members
of the community were taught "to be unremitting in hatred towards all
men of ill repute, and to be minded to keep in seclusion from them."
Jesus and John the Baptist were, no doubt, familiar with the Qumran
Community. The genius of John the Baptist as he is described in the
New Testament, and as distinct from the Qumran community, lies in
the fact that he did not limit the practice and preaching of the Good
Way to a closed community.
In early Christian writings and subsequently in catechesis (q.v.):
1) The Doctrine of the Apostles (Doctrina Apostolorum). This short
document is basically a Christianized version of the Qumran
teaching on the Two Ways.
2) Didache (q.v.) or The Lord's Teaching according to the Twelve
Apostles is found in later documents in a similar form, as in The
Apostolic Order and the Apostolic Constitutions (q.v.), thereby
indicating its continued importance. The first six chapters of the
Didache tell of the Way of Life (I-IV) and the Way of Death (V-
VI), but also make an important shift into the familiar Gospel id-
iom: "First, you shall love the God who made you, secondly your
neighbor as yourself." Love of neighbor is later equated with
showing others the love that God has shown oneself.
3) In the Epistle of Barnabas (see Barnabas) the Way of Light and
the Way of Darkness are described in the concluding chapters,
18-21. Barnabas identifies the Way of Light with Christianity
and expects his readers to be good lawgivers and advisers to one
Western Influences 341
YAKUT. This is the Turkic language of the most northern Turkic peo-
ple, whose language, religion, and people are all known as Yakut. Liv-
ing in the Lena River basin in northeastern Siberia, the Yakut herd
horses and cattle, hunt, fish, produce crafts, and trade. Subjugated by
Russia in the first half of the 17th c., many adopted Christianity by the
19th c. Nominally Russian Orthodox, some preserved their own
shamanism modifying it with Christianity, for example attributing
traits of God, Mary, and angels to shaman spirits-a type of "dual-
faith" (q.v.). In 1979 the Yakut numbered approximately 328,000.
ZOE MOVEMENT. Begun at the turn of the century, Zoe (Life) sought
to reinvigorate the Church of Greece through an emphasis on Scripture
(q.v.), particularly insisting on attention to the literal word of the sacred
books and on the cultivation of personal morality. Its core was, and re-
mains, a kind of quasi-monastic brotherhood, clergy and lay theolo-
gians pledged to a life of strict obedience to Christian norms and meet-
ing annually for a period of some weeks. Its influence has been, on the
whole, positive, although its puritanical emphases and unfortunate in-
volvement with the military junta that ruled Greece from 1967 to 1974
appear to have compromised it in the eyes of most younger Greeks.
Autonomous Churches
I. General
A. Bibliographies, Dictionaries, and Encyclopedias
B. Survey Works
C. Periodicals
D. Yearbooks, Annuals, and Newspapers
11. Art, Architecture, and Music
111. Asceticism and Spirituality
IV. Canon Law
V. Church Fathers
A. Primary Sources
B. Secondary Sources
VI. Cultural Studies
VII, Ecumenism
VIII. Hagiography
IX. History
A. Primary Sources
B. Secondary Sources
X. Liturgy
A. Liturgical Texts and Resources
B. Secondary Studies
XI. Scripture
XII. Theology
I. General
and St. Gregory Palamas. Selected and translated from the Russian
text Dobrotolubiye by E. Kadloubovsky and G.E.H. Palmer. London:
Faber and Faber, 1954.421 p.
. Writingsfrom the Philokalia On Prayer of the Heart. Translated
from the Russian text Dobrotolubiye, by E. Kadloubovsky and G.E.H.
Palmer, with a new foreword and the original introduction and bio-
graphical notes. London: Faber and Faber, 1951.420 p.
Photius I, Saint, Patriarch of Constantinople, ca. 820-ca. 891. On the
Mystagogy of the Holy Spirit. Translation by Holy Transfiguration
Monastery. Astoria, NY: Studion Publishers, 1983.2 13 p. English and
Greek. Translation of Mystagogia Spiritus Sancti.
Rousseau, Philip. Pachomius: The Making of a Community in Fourth-
Century Egypt. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985. xvi,
217 p. (The Transformationof the classical heritage; 6.) Bibliography:
p. 193-212.
Scupoli, Lorenzo, 1530-1610. Unseen Warfare: The Spiritual Combat
and Path to Paradise of Lorenzo Scupoli. Edited by Nicodemus of the
Holy Mountain and revised by Theophan the Recluse; translated by E.
Kadloubovsky and G.E.H. Palmer; introduction by H. A. Hodges.
Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1987.280 p.
Sergiev, Ioann Ilich (Fr. John of Kronstadt). Spiritual Counsels of Fa-
ther John of Kronstadt: Select Passagesfrom My Life in Christ. Edited
and introduced by W. Jardine Grisbrooke. Cambridge, England:
Clarke; Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1981. xxxi,
230 p.
Sherrard, Philip. Athos, the Holy Mountain. Photographs by Takis Zer-
voulakos. Woodstock, NY: Overlook Press, 1985. 176 p.
.Athos: the Mountain of Silence. With color photographs by Paul
du Marchie v. Voorthuysen. NY: Oxford University Press, 1960. vii,
110 p. Bibliography: p. 107-108.
Simonopetra, Mount Athos. Stelios Papadopoulos, ed. Athens: ETBA,
Hellenic Industrial Development Bank SA, 1991. 395 p. Translated
from the Greek.
Sofronii, Archimandrite. His Life Is Mine. Translated from the Russian
by Rosemary Edmonds. London: Mowbrays, 1977.128 p.
. The Monk of Mount Athos: Staretz Silouan, 1866-1938. Trans-
lated from the Russian by Rosemary Edmonds. Revised ed. Crest-
wood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1975. [I], 124 p. "A re-
vised edition, with additional material, of The Undistorted Image
which was published in 1958 and based on a translation and adapta-
tion of the original (1948) Russian text, Staretz Silouan, published
Paris, 1952."
. We Shall See Him as He Is. Translated from Russian by Rose-
mary Edmonds. Rev. ed. Essex, England: Stavropegic Monastery of
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Studies, 1988. x, 288 p. (Studies and texts; 83.) English and Greek. List
of the 150 chapter headings inserted.
Gregory, of Nyssa, ca. 335-ca. 394. The Biographical Works of Gregory
of Nyssa: Proceedings of the Fifth International Colloquium on
Gregory of Nyssa, Mainz, 6-10 September 1982. Andreas Spira, ed.
Cambridge, MA: Philadelphia Patristic Foundation, 1984. viii, 274 p.
(Patristic monograph series; n. 12.) English, French, German, and
Spanish.
. The Easter Sermons of Gregory of Nyssa: Translation and
Commentary:Proceedings of the Fourth International Colloquium on
Gregory of Nyssa, Cambridge, England, 11-15 September, 1978.
Edited by Andreas Spira and Christoph Klock with an introduction by
G. Christopher Stead. Cambridge, MA: Philadelphia Patristic Foun-
dation; Winchendon, MA: Distributed by Greeno, Hadden, 1981. x,
384 p. (Patristic monograph series; n. 9.)
. From Glory to Glory: Textsfrom Gregory of Nyssa's Mystical
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lated and edited by Herbert Musurillo. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's
"
Seminary Press, 1979. xiv, 298 p. Reprint of the 1961 ed. published
by Scribner, NY.
. The Life of Saint Macrina. Translated with introduction and
notes by Kevin Corrigan. Toronto, Ontario: Peregrina, 1989. 73 p.
(Peregrina translations series; n. 10. Matrologia Graeca.) Includes
bibliographical references (p. 7-9). Translation of Vita Sanctae
Macrinae.
Gregory, Sinaites, Saint, ca. 1265-1346. Saint Gregory the Sinaite: Dis-
course on the Transfiguration. David Balfour, ed. San Bernardino,
CA: Borgo Press, 1988. 170 p. English and Greek. "Reprinted from
Theologia." Originally published: Athens, 1982.
Die Griechischen Christlichen Schrifsteller der Ersten Jahrhunderte.
(Berlin: Akademie-Verlag). Bd. 1 (1897)- . Irregular. Title varies:
Griechischen christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten drei Jahrhunderte
1897-1941. Some vols. published in rev. editions. Publication sus-
pended 1942-52. German, Greek, or Latin. Issued by Kommission fiir
Spatantike Religionsgeschichte der Deutschen Akademie der Wis-
senschaften zu Berlin (called 1897- Kirshenvater- Commission der
Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften).
John, of Damascus, Saint. On the Divine Images: Three Apologies
Against Those Who Attack the Divine Images. Translated by David
Anderson. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1980. 107
p. Translation of Pros tous diaballontas tas hagias eikonas.
Leo, Diaconus, fl. 990. Leonis Diaconi Historia e recensione Caroli
Benedicti Hasii . . . :pramittitur Menologium gracorum Basilii Por-
phyrogeniti Imperatoris jussu editum: accedunt Hippolyti Thebani,
Bibliography 383
Holy Virgin Coptic Orthodox Church; Cranston, RI: St. Mary and St.
Mena, 1988. 191p. Originally presented as author's M.A. thesis, Uni-
versity of Ottawa, Canada. Bibliography: p. 181-186.
Winslow, Donald F. The Dynamics of Salvation: A Study in Gregory
of Nazianzus. Cambridge, MA: Philadelphia Patristic Foundation;
Winchendon, MA: Distributed by Greeno, Hadden, 1979. vii, 214 p.
(Patristic monograph series; n. 7.) Revision of Ph.D., thesis, Harvard
University, 1966. Bibliography: p. 201-214.
VI. Cultural Studies
Augustinos, Gerasimos. The Greeks of Asia Minor: Confession, Com-
munity, and Ethnicity in the Nineteenth Century.Kent, OH: Kent State
University Press, 1992. x, 270 p. Bibliographical references: p. 248-
261.
Bailey, Betty Jane. Eyes to See, Ears to Hear: Study Guide to the Peo-
ples and Churches of the USSR with an Historical Introduction. Bai-
ley and Constance J. Tarasar. NY: Friendship Press, 1987.60 p. Bib-
liography: p. 4 5 4 7 . Filmography: p. 47-48.
Belliustin, Ioann Stefanovich. Description of the Clergy in Rural Rus-
sia: The Memoir of a Nineteenth-Century Parish Priest. Translated
with an interpretive essay by Gregory L. Freeze. Ithaca: Cornell Uni-
versity Press, 1985. 214 p. Bibliography: p. 211-214. Translation of
Opisanie selskogo dukhovenstva.
Berdiaev, Nikolai Aleksandrovich. Dostoievsky. Translated by Donald
Attwater. NY: New American Library, 1974.227p. (A Meridian book.)
. The Russian Idea. Translated from the Russian by R. M. French.
Boston: Beacon Press, 1962. xx, 267 p. Translation of Russkaia ideia.
Billington, James H. The Icon and the Axe: An Interpretive History of
Russian Culture. NY: Knopf, 1966. xviii, 786, xxxiii p.
. Russia Transformed-Breakthrough to Hope: August 1991.
NY: The Free Press, 1992. vi, 202 p.
Brock, Sebastian P. Studies in Syriac Christianity. Variorum; Brook-
field, VT: Gower Publishing Co., 1992. p. (Collected studies; CS357.)
Companion vol. to: Syriac Perspectives on Late Antiquity.
Brown, Peter Robert Larnont. The Body and Society: Men, Women and
Sexual Renunciation in Early Christianity.NY: Columbia University
Press, 1988. xx, 504 p. (Lectures on the history of religions; new ser.,
n. 13.) Bibliography: p. [449]493.
. The Cult of the Saints: Its Rise and Function in Latin'Chris-
tianity. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981. xiv, 187 p.
(Haskell lectures on history of religions; new ser., n. 2.)
. Power and Persuasion in Late Antiquity: Towards a Christian
Empire. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992. x, 182 p.
(The Curti lectures; 1988.)
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Slavic Cultures in the Middle Ages. Edited by Boris Gasparov and Olga
Raevsky-Hughes. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.
(Christianity and the Eastern Slavs; v. 1.) (California Slavic studies;
16- .) English and Russian; summaries in English. Based on papers
delivered at two international conferences held in May 1988 at the
University of California, Berkeley and the Keenan Institute for Ad-
vanced Russian Studies to commemorate the millennium of the Chris-
tianization of Kievan Rus'.
Soldatow, George, ed. Nestor, Bishop of the Aleutians and Alaska,
1825-1882. Translated by George Soldatow. Minneapolis: AARDM
Press, 1993.476 p.
Stanton, Leonard J. The Optina Pustyn Monastery in the Russian Liter-
ary Imagination: Iconic Vision in Works by Dostoevsky, Gogol, Tol-
stoy, and Others. NY: P. Lang, 1992. (Middlebury studies in Russian
lanpage and literature; v. 3.)
Trubetskoi, Nikolai Sergeevich. N.S. Trubetzkoy's Letters and Notes.
Prepared for publication by Roman Jakobson with the assistance of H.
Baran, 0. Ronen, and Martha Taylor. NY: Mouton, 1985. xxiii, 506
p., [13] p. of plates. (Janua linguarum. Series maior; 47.) English and
Russian. Reprint. Originally published: The Hague; Paris: Mouton,
1975.
. Writings on Literature. Edited, translated, and introduced by
Anatoly Liberman. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press,
1990. xlvi, 127 p. (Theory and history of literature; v. 72.)
Ugolnik, Anthony. The Illuminating Icon. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans,
1988. xxiv, 276 p.
Ultimate Questions: An Anthology of Modern Russian Religious
Thought. Edited by Alexander Schmemann. NY: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1965. vii, 3 10 p.
Vryonis, Speros. The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and
the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh Through the Fiifteenth
Century. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971. xvii, 532 p.
(California. University. University at Los Angeles. Center for Me-
dieval and Renaissance Studies. Publications, 4\4.)
Ware, Timothy. Eustratios Argenti: A Study of the Greek Church Under
Turkish Rule. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964. xii, 196 p. "A list of
the writings of Eustratios Argenti": p. [176]-179. Bibliography: p.
[180]-187.
West, Rebecca, Dame. Black Lamb and Grey Falcon: A Journey
Through Yugoslavia. Rev. London: Macrnillan, 1982. 1181 p. (Paper-
mac.) Previous ed.: in 2 vols. 1942. Bibliography: p. 1153-1 158.
Williams, Benjamin D. Oriented Leadership: Why All Christians Need
It. Syosset, NY: Orthodox Church of America, 1994.
Yakunin, Gleb. Birnam Wood is Here: Letters on Civil Rights in the
Bibliography 395
VII. Ecumenism
Augsburg and Constantinople: The Correspondence Between the Tub-
ingen Theologians and Patriarch Jeremiah 11 of Constantinople on
the Augsburg Confession.George Mastrantonis. Brookline, MA: Holy
Cross Orthodox Press, 1982. xix, 350 p. (The Archbishop Iakovos li-
brary of ecclesiastical and historical sources; n. 7.)
Augsburg Confession in Ecumenical Perspective: With Anglican, Bap-
tist, Methodist, Orthodox, Reformed, and Roman Catholic Contribu-
tions. Harding Meyer, ed. Stuttgart: Kreuz, 1979. x, 190 p. (LWF re-
port; 617.)
Bulgakov, Afanasii. The Question of Anglican Orders: In Respect to a
"Vindication" of the Papal Decision, Which Was Drawn Up by the
English Roman Catholic Bishops at the End of 1897. Translation by
W. J. Birkbeck. London: S.P.C.K.; NY: E. & J. B. Young, 1899.46 p.
[l] leaf. (Church Historical Society. 55.)
Bulgakov, Sergei Nikolaevich. Father Sergius Bulgakov, 1871-1944: A
Collection of Articles by Fr. Bulgakovfor the Fellowship of St. Alban
and St. Sergius and Now Reproduced by the Fellowship to Commem-
orate the 25th Anniversary of the Death of This Great Ecumenist. Lon-
don: Fellowship of St. Alban and St. Sergius, 1969. [3], ii, 48 p.
Calian, Carnegie Samuel. Icon and Pulpit: The Protestant-Orthodox En-
counter. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1968.220 p. Bibliography:
p. 171-1 8 1. Bibliographical references included in "Notes" (p. 183-
214).
.Theology WithoutBoundaries: Encounters of Eastern Orthodoxy
and Western Tradition.Louisville,KY: WestminsterlJohn Knox, 1992.
13, 130 p.
Church, Kingdom, World: The Church As Mystery and Prophetic Sign.
Gennadios Limouris, ed. Geneva: World Council of Churches, 1986.
xii, 209 p. (Faith and order paper; n. 130.)
396 Bibliography
VIII. Hagiography
The Acquisition of the Holy Spirit in Russia [series]. Platina, CA: St.
Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, 1987- . 1. Kontsevich, Ivan
Mikhailovich. The Acquisition of the Holy Spirit in Ancient Russia.
(Translation from the Russian by Olga Koshansky; edited by the St.
Herman of Alaska Brotherhood. 1988, 368 p.) 2. Horenskii, Pave1
Aleksandrovich. Salt of the Earth: Or, a Narrative on the Life of the
Elder of Gethsemane Skete Hieromonk Abba Isidore. (Compiled and
arranged by Paul Florensky; translated from the Russian by Richard
Betts; edited and annotated, with poetry versification, by the St. Her-
man Brotherhood. 1987. 151 p.)
Acta sanctorum. 1684-1940. Paris, Rome: Victorem Palme. 67 v. New
edition of work published from 1643 to 1925 narrating the lives of the
Saints for each day of the calendar year. Work initiated by Joannes
Bollandus in 1629 and continued by the Bollandists.
Analecta bollandiana: Revue critique d'hagiographie. v. 1- (1882)- .
Brussels: SociCt6 des Bollandistes. Quarterly. Bulletin des publica-
tions hagiographiques. Text in Latin and French. Indexes: vols. 1-20
(1882-1901) 1 v.; vols. 21-40 (1902-22) 1 v.; vols. 41-60 (1923-42)
1 v.; vols. 1-80 (1882-1961) 1 v. Vols. for 1891- contain Bulletin des
publications hagiographiques. Supplements: Acta sanctorum.
Bibliotheca hagiographica graeca. 3. ed., mise B jour et consid6rable-
ment augment6 par Frangois Halkin. Brussels: Soci6t6 des Bollan-
distes, 1957-1969. 5 v. (Subsidia hagiographica, nos. 8a, 47,65.)
400 Bibliography
IX. History
A. Primary Sources
Akindynos, Gregorios, ca. 1300-ca. 1349. Letters of Gregory Akin-
dynos. Greek text and English translation by Angela Constantinides
Hero. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks, Research Library and Col-
lection, 1983. liii, 465 p. (Dumbarton Oaks texts; 7.) (Corpus fontium
historiae Byzantinae; v. 21. Series Washingtonensis.)
404 Bibliography
X. Liturgy
Holy Friday Matins With the Passion Gospels and Royal Hours. Pre-
pared by John Erickson and David Anderson. Introductionby Paul La-
zor. Syosset, NY: Department of Religious Education, Orthodox
Church in America, 1980. 136 p.
Hours (The)of the Orthodox Church. Wallasey: The Anargyroi Press for
the Brother of Saint Seraphim of Sarov, 1994.35 p.
Kunzler, Michael. Wir haben das wahre Licht gesehen: Einfuhrung in
Geist und Gestalt der byzantinischen Liturgie. Trier: Paulinus-Verlag,
1991.
Lamentations of Matins of Holy and Great Saturday; and also An
Homily on the burial of the Divine Body of our Lord and Saviour Je-
sus Christ, on Joseph of Arimathaea, and on the Lord's Descent into
Hades Which, After His Saving Passion, Wondrously Ensued on the
Holy and Great Saturday. By our Father among the Saints, Epipha-
nius, Bishop of Cyprus; translated from the Greek text by the Holy
Transfiguration Monastery. Boston: The Monastery, 1981. x, 5 1 p.
Translation of Epitaphios threnos.
Leitourgia tes Orthodoxou Ekklesias. The Liturgy of the Orthodox
Church. Translated and interpreted from the original Greek texts by
His Eminence Athenagoras Kokkinakis. London: Mowbrays, 1979.
261 p. Parallel texts in English and Greek.
Leitourgikon. Hai treis leitourgiai kata tous en Athenais kodikas. Hypo
Pan. N. Trempela. Athens: Verlag der Byzantinisch- neugriechischen
Jahrbiicher, 1935. 22 p., 1 l., 243 p. (Texte und Forschungen zur
byzantinisch-neugriechischen Philologie; nr. 15.)
Lenten Triodion. Translated from the original Greek by Mother Mary
and Kallistos Ware. Boston: Faber, 1978. 699 p. (The Service books
of the Orthodox Church.)
Liturgical Chants. Compiled by Laurence Mancuso. New Canaan, CT:
Franciscan Friars, 1962- . Preface signed Laurence Mancuso.
Liturgy of St. Mark. Edited from the manuscripts with a commentary by
Geoffrey J. Curning. Rome: Pontificium Institutum Studiorum Orien-
talium, 1990. xliii, 155 p. (Orientaliachristiana analecta; 234.) "Geof-
frey J. Cumming, a select bibliography": p. 147-149. Bibliography: p.
xvii-xxii. Greek text with English commentary.
Liturgy of the Presancti$ed Gifts. Prepared by Paul Lazor. Introduction
by Thomas Hopko. Rev. ed. NY: Department of Religious Education,
Orthodox Church in America, 1978.63 p.
Matins. Arranged for three-part singing. Arranged and compiled by Igor
Soroka. [s.l.: s.n.1, 1979. 156 p.
Matins of Holy Saturday With the Praises and Psalm 119. Prepared
by David Anderson and John Erickson. Introduction by Alexander
Schmemann. Syosset, NY: Department of Religious Education, Or-
thodox Church in America, 1982. 101 p.
418 Bibliography
Abridged Typicon. Feodor S. Kovalchuk, ed. 2d. ed. South Canaan, PA:
St. Tikhon's Seminary Press, 1985.229, xix p. Glossary of Liturgical
Terms, compiled by David F. Abramtsev, p. iii-xix.
Amargianakis, George. An Analysis of Stichera in the Deuteros Modes.
Copenhagen (Store Kannikestrade 11,1169 K): Kobenhavns Univer-
sitet, Institut for grask og latinsk middelalderfilologi, 1977. 2 v. (263
p.) (Cahiers de I'Institut du Moyen-Age grec et latin, Universitk de
Copenhague; 22-23.) English or Greek.
Ashjian, Mesrob. The Great Week in the Armenian Tradition. NY:
Prelacy of the Armenian Apostolic Church of America, 1978. Bibli-
ography: p. 63-64.
Baar, A. H. van den. A Russian ChurchSlavonic Kanonnik (1331-1332).
A Comparative Textual and Structural Study Including an Analysis of
the Russian Computus.(Scaliger38B, Leyden UniversityLibrary). By
A. H. van den Baar. The Hague: Mouton, 1969. 303 p. with 6 p. of
photos. (Slavistic printings and reprintings, 89.) Issued also as thesis,
Amsterdam. Bibliography: p. 293-300.
Baldovin, John Francis. The Urban Character of Christian Worship:The
Origins,Development, and Meaning of Stational Liturgy. Rome: Pon-
tificium Institutum Studiorum Orientalium, 1987. 319 p. (Orientalia
Christiana analecta; 228.) A revision of the author's Ph.D. thesis, Yale
University, 1984. Bibliography: p. 13-31.
Barrois, Georges Augustin. Scripture Readings in Orthodox Worship.
Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1977. 197 p.
Benedict, Father, of Alamogordo. The Daily Cycle of Services of the Or-
thodox Church. Alamogordo, NM: Saint Anthony the Great Orthodox
Publications, 1986. 29 p. Bibliography: p. 26-27.
Bdnddictions et les sacramentaux duns la liturgie: Confdrences Saint-
Serge: XXXNe Semaine d'tftudes liturgiques, Paris, 23-26 juin
1987. Andronikof, C. . . . et al.; Bdit6es par A. M. Triacca et A. Pis-
toia. Rome: C.L.V.-Edizioni Liturgiche, 1988. 382 p. (Bibliotheca
Ephemerides liturgicae: Subsidia; 44.)
Bertoniere, Gabriel. The Historical Development of the Easter Vigil and
Related Services in the Greek Church. Rome, Pontificium Institutum
Studiorum Orientalium, 1972. xxvii, 321 p. (Orientalia Christiana
analecta, 193.) Bibliography: p. xix-xxvii.
Brock, Sebastian P. The Holy Spirit in the Syrian Baptismal Tradition.
Bronx, NY: Available at John XXIII Centre, Fordham University,
1979. 139 p. (The Syrian churches series; v. 9.)
.Sogiatha: Syriac Dialogue Hymns. Kottayam: J. Vellian, 1987.
35 p. (The Syrian churches series; v. 11.) Bibliography: p. 6.
Cabasilas, Nicolaus, 14th cent. Come Before God in Prayer and Solemn
Feast. Brookline, MA: Holy Cross Orthodox Press, 1986.32 p.
. A Commentary on the Divine Liturgy. Translated by J. M.
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XI. Scripture
Anchor Bible Dictionary. 6 V. Edited by David Noel Freedman. NY:
Doubleday, 1992.
Ancien Testament dans 1'Eglise. Chambesy-Geneva: Editions du Centre
orthodoxe du patriarchat oecumknique, 1988. 234 p. (Etudes thko-
logiques de Chambesy. Ai theologikai meletai tou Sampezy; 8.) 7e
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XII. Theology
Aksum, Thyateira:A Festschrift for Archbishop Methodios of Thyateira
and GreatBritain. General editor George Dion. Dragas. London: Thy-
ateira House, 1985. 700 p. English, French, German, and Greek.
Aslanoff, Catherine, ed. The Incarnate God: The Feasts and the Life of
Jesus Christ. Translated by Paul Meyendorff. Crestwood, NY: St.
Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1994.
Behr-Sigel, Elisabeth. The Ministry of WomenIn the Church. Translated
from the French by Steven Bigham. Redondo Beach, CA: Oakwood
Publications, 1991. xiv, 229 p. Translation of Le minist&-ede lafemme
duns 1'6glise. Paris: Cerf, 1987.
Berdiaev, Nikolai Aleksandrovich. Christian Existentialism: A Berdyaev
Anthology. Selected and translated by Donald A. Lowrie. London: G.
Allen & Unwin, 1965.333 p.
. The Destiny of Man. Translation from the Russian by Natalie
Duddington. NY: Harper, 1960. viii, 310 p. (Harper torchbooks,
TB61.) (The Cloister library.)
. The Meaning of the Creative Act. Translated by Donald A.
Lowrie. NY: Collier Books, 1962. 319 p.
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