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A Review of Concentrated Photovoltaic-Thermal (CPVT) Hybrid Solar Systems
A Review of Concentrated Photovoltaic-Thermal (CPVT) Hybrid Solar Systems
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Xing Ju Chao Xu
North China Electric Power University North China Electric Power University
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Science Bulletin
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/scib
Review
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: In conventional photovoltaic (PV) systems, a large portion of solar energy is dissipated as waste heat since
Received 17 August 2017 the generating efficiency is usually less than 30%. As the dissipated heat can be recovered for various
Received in revised form 26 September applications, the wasted heat recovery concentrator PV/thermal (WHR CPVT) hybrid systems have been
2017
developed. They can provide both electricity and usable heat by combining thermal systems with concen-
Accepted 30 September 2017
Available online 9 October 2017
trator PV (CPV) module, which dramatically improves the overall conversion efficiency of solar energy.
This paper systematically and comprehensively reviews the research and development of WHR CPVT sys-
tems. WHR CPVT systems with innovative design configurations, different theoretical evaluation models
Keywords:
Hybrid solar system
and experimental test processes for several implementations are presented in an integrated manner. We
Waste heat recovery aim to provide a global point of view on the research trends, market potential, technical obstacles, and
Photovoltaic/thermal the future work which is required in the development of WHR CPVT technology. Possibly, it will offer
Concentration a generic guide to the investigators who are interested in the study of WHR CPVT systems.
Concentrator photovoltaic/thermal Ó 2017 Science China Press. Published by Elsevier B.V. and Science China Press. All rights reserved.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scib.2017.10.002
2095-9273/Ó 2017 Science China Press. Published by Elsevier B.V. and Science China Press. All rights reserved.
X. Ju et al. / Science Bulletin 62 (2017) 1388–1426 1389
Nomenclature
solar energy is expanded as it produces both heat and electricity an acceptable thermal efficiency and a higher thermal yield
simultaneously [8,9]. As the flat stationary PV panel dominates temperature than the flat-plate PVT, which expands the applica-
the PV market, many of the studies are engaged in flat-plate PVT tion area of the hybrid system.
hybrid systems. These investigations are reviewed in many papers Despite the aforementioned advantages, the CPVT hybrid sys-
[10–14], including glazed/unglazed liquid/air flat-plate PVT mod- tem faces several challenges. Due to the precise 1-axis or 2-axis
ules. The integration of flat-plate PV and thermal collector reduces tracking system of concentrators, additional costs may be intro-
the production and installation costs, and it is scalable for different duced in CPVT systems. The maintenance costs also rise because
applications demanding both electricity and heat. As thus, the flat- of the system complexity. The mismatch loss in PV modules, which
plate PVT systems are quite practical, especially for integrating occurs when the electrical parameters of one solar cell are signifi-
with building rooftop and façade [15]. However, considering the cantly altered from those of the remaining devices, may deterio-
big drop between the theoretical and practical efficiencies and rate due to the non-uniform illumination and shading of the
the costs, there is still a margin to improve the flat-plate PVT. Fur- framework. Under non-uniform illumination, the inherent non-
thermore, since solar cells cannot be used as an efficient thermal uniform temperature on PV cells also causes mismatch losses
absorber due to their large emissivity of the encapsulation mate- and hot-spot heating. High-heat flux heat-exchangers, which are
rial, the flat-plate PVT system usually generates low temperature employed to keep PV modules operating at a low and uniform tem-
heat, which is hard to use in most applications. Thence, the com- perature, are also crucial in CPVT systems. Moreover, the reliability
mercial flat-plate PVT systems usually focus on the solar cell cool- and weatherability problems, including stagnation temperature,
ing only, and the thermal energy is considered as a byproduct. As thermal shock and electrical insulations, are also more difficult
an alternative, the CPVT system uses low-cost optical elements to when combining with concentrators.
replace the expensive semiconductor materials of solar cells (typ- The PV and PVT systems can be categorized as shown in Fig. 1.
ically silicon and III-V materials such as GaAs). The use of optical Presently, there are diverse configurations of CPVT system. Based
concentrators can increase the illumination on PV cells. On one on the distribution method and conversion sequence of energy
hand, for the PV system, the output power of PV modules rises flux, CPVT systems can be classified into three types: the WHR
within a proper concentration ratio (CR) range along with the con- CPVT, the spectral beam splitting (SBS) CPVT, and the energy distri-
version efficiency [16]. The ohmic loss would also be reduced in bution fitting (EDF) CPVT. Similar to the CPV systems, as the sys-
series connected solar cells. Since the solar cell area is saved, tem configuration is mainly affected by the CR of optical
expensive III-V multi-junction solar cells can be used to achieve concentrators, WHR CPVT systems could be further categorized
higher efficiencies. On the other hand, for the thermal system, into three types: low CR system (CR 10x) which is named as
the thermal receiver area decreases, inherently reducing the low concentration WHR CPVT system (LCPVT), medium CR system
thermal losses to circumstance. The thermal system can achieve (10x < CR 100x) which is named as medium concentration WHR
1390 X. Ju et al. / Science Bulletin 62 (2017) 1388–1426
Flat-plate PV
Low concentration - LCPV
PV
Flat-plate PVT
Spectral beam splitting (SBS) CPVT Low concentration - LCPVT
PVT
CPVT system (MCPVT), and high CR system (CR > 100x) which is CRs can be adequately received by PV and thermal receiver
named as high concentration WHR CPVT system (HCPVT). separately.
The system configurations and energy flux of WHR, SBS, and The WHR and SBS CPVT systems have been developed since
EDF CPVT systems are shown in Fig. 2 and described as follows. 1970s and 1980s [18], respectively, and they have been reviewed
(1) The WHR CPVT system is developed based on the conven- in several documents [18–31]. However, most of these papers
tional flat-plate PVT system. As shown in Fig. 2a and b, the thermal mainly concern the examinations of flat-plate PVT systems, and
subsystem is the cooling system of PV modules and is usually discussions on CPVT systems are not quite profound and compre-
active cooling on the module backside. In addition, there are other hensive. Only a few reviews are completely concerned for the
cooling methods, such as immersion cooling, passive cooling, and CPVT, including the reviews of Sharaf and Orhan [19,20], Zhang
phase change cooling, that may also be adopted. During operation, et al. [21], and Ju et al. [32]. The scientific basics, the technological
all incident solar energy is firstly received by PV modules. Part of fundamentals, characteristics, design considerations, advances,
the radiation with energy near the bandgap of PV cells is converted solar components, energy and exergy models, performance assess-
into electricity in PN junction, while the majority of the rest part is ment methods, and application areas of CPVT systems were sum-
converted to heat through the thermalization process. After that, marized. As an emerging concept, researches on EDF CPVT is not
the cooling system absorbs the heat for further utilization such enough. A typical research was recently presented by Meng et al.
as domestic hot water or space heating. From an energy conversion [33], in which an annular PV receiver is deployed outside of a ther-
point of view, this process is based on cascade utilization of solar mal receiver. As thus, the central high concentrated illumination is
energy. received by the thermal receiver, and the remaining is converted
(2) The SBS CPVT system is based on the notion that solar by PV module. Reversed designs using high concentration area
energy can be utilized according to its spectral wavelength. The for PV and low concentration area for the thermal receiver were
spectral beam of solar radiation is ranging from 200–4000 nm, cor- also proposed by Ju et al. [34] and Han et al. [35,36] for CPVT or
responding to photon energy 0.31–6.20 eV. As only photons with CPV-CSP hybrid systems. Combinations of these three solar energy
energy over the solar cell bandgap can be converted by PV cells, harness approaches may inspire novel designs and better perfor-
photons with lower energy are directed to the thermal receiver mance, such as the combination of EDF and WHR concept [34–
for heat generation. As bandgaps of silicon and GaAs solar cells 36], and the combination of interference/absorption SBS and
are 1.11 and 1.43 eV, respectively, the solar radiation is usually WHR concept [37–39].
split into ultraviolet + visible (UV + VIS) part and near-infrared The above three types of CPVT differ greatly from each other.
(NIR) part. As thus, the SBS CPVT system can make full utilization Most of the review papers are not concerned with a specified type
of solar energy in a broad solar spectrum wavelength range. As of CPVT. Especially for WHR CPVT, although it seems simpler than
shown in Fig. 2c and d, an additional optical element for spectral the other two types of CPVT, it’s design and operation constraints
beam splitting is necessary, and the spectral beam splitter could are much tighter. The system designs and performance character-
be a dichroic filter, a liquid or solid absorptive filter, a holographic istics are quite different from that of SBS and EDF CPVT systems.
filter, a luminescent filter, etc. [17]. Compared with the WHR CPVT Studies on WHR CPVT techniques have not been systematically
system in which the temperature of the thermal subsystem is lim- and comprehensively reviewed yet. A review particularly on
ited by PV cells’ operating temperature, the SBS CPVT system has WHR CPVT researches would be helpful to achieve better under-
thermally decoupled PV and thermal subsystems, which means standing on this kind of CPVT technology.
the thermal yield can achieve a higher temperature over the oper- This paper aims to provide an up-to-date comprehensive review
ating temperature limitation of PV cells. of the research and development of CPVT systems using WHR tech-
(3) The EDF CPVT system is an emerging concept. As shown in nologies. Basic conceptions and the purpose of this paper are intro-
Fig. 2e and f, the EDF CPVT system is specially designed for non- duced in Section 1. Section 2 provides brief profiles of the research
uniform concentrated solar radiation, such as the Gaussian distri- documents on different types of WHR CPVT systems, including the
bution of point focused concentrators. This type of CPVT design CPVT systems using low, medium and high concentration solar col-
aims to make full use of the spillage loss of the truncated energy lectors, and the researches mainly concerning applications. The
profile. The edge part of concentrated illumination, which is usu- special components and system configurations, system character-
ally discarded, is recovered in this type of CPVT. Under the non- istics, application fields, advantages and disadvantages of these
uniform concentrated illumination, the facula area with different WHR CPVT systems are presented in detail. Section 3 summarizes
X. Ju et al. / Science Bulletin 62 (2017) 1388–1426 1391
Full spectrum 2.1. Low concentration WHR CPVT system (LCPVT) (CR = 1–10x)
UV+VIS
The LCPVT systems of CR < 10x are the simplest type of CPVT
approaches. Flat specular/diffuse reflectors and CPCs are the typical
PV module optical configurations of LCPVT systems, and parabolic reflectors
Cooling system
and linear (2D) Fresnel lenses have also been applied in LCPVT
Concentrator systems.
(c)
Booster Boosters
PVT panel
PVT panel
(a) (b)
Fig. 3. (Color online) The LCPVT system using flat-plate boosters as the concentra-
tor: (a) top booster; (b) top and bottom booster.
Fig. 4. (Color online) The passive cooling LCPVT system with a finned cooling chamber. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [43]. Copyright Ó 2016 Elsevier.
X. Ju et al. / Science Bulletin 62 (2017) 1388–1426 1393
Fig. 7. The BI-LCPVT system with a booster diffuse reflector. Reprinted with
permission from Ref. [50]. Copyright Ó 2002 Elsevier.
Fig. 9. The double-pass air LCPVT system with a symmetrical CPC. Reprinted with
permission from Ref. [64]. Copyright Ó 2005 Elsevier.
Fig. 11. (Color online) The LCPVT system with an external CPC and an outer glass tube. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [80].
1396 X. Ju et al. / Science Bulletin 62 (2017) 1388–1426
Fig. 15. The BI-LCPVT wall elements with a parabolic reflector. Reprinted with
permission from Ref. [98]. Copyright Ó 2003 Elsevier.
Fig. 16. The BI-LCPVT solar window. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [100]. Copyright Ó 2010 Elsevier.
Fig. 17. Lighting effect of the BI-LCPVT with linear Fresnel lenses: (a) the absorbers
out of focus and no shading effect; (b) on focus with shading effect. Reprinted with
permission from Ref. [104]. Copyright Ó 2007 Elsevier.
Fig. 19. (Color online) The BI-LCPVT with hyperbolic lenses. Reprinted with
permission from Ref. [111]. Copyright Ó 2016 IEEE.
efficiencies, while the constant volume refrigeration led to saving tric efficiency of 11%. The up-scaled 50x concentrated MCPVT
of auxiliary heater at the outlet. greenhouse was also experimentally investigated by Sonneveld
et al. [118,119] and Swinkels et al. [112]. The systems would lead
2.1.7. Summary of LCPVT to electrical and thermal energy output from the excessive solar
Details of the LCPVT systems mentioned before are listed in energy entering a greenhouse. A 480 m2 greenhouse with station-
Table 1. It can be observed that there are several important distin- ary Fresnel lens and the tracking PVT receiver would provide an
guishing features for the WHR LCPVT systems. electric power of 30 W/m2 at global radiation of 870 W/m2. And
(1) Features of the optical system 20% of the total incident direct radiation would be collected as
The flat-plate reflectors and the CPC optical systems can provide thermal yield.
geometrical CRs lower than 4 suns and optical CRs lower than The domed/curved linear Fresnel lens may provide a more effi-
2.5 suns. The systems prefer to be stationary to avoid the expensive cient and compact design for solar systems [32]. Using the domed
tracking systems. At a higher CR of 4 < Cg < 10, the linear focused linear Fresnel lens, Kerzmann and Schaefer [113,120,121] proposed
system with 1-axis tracking is more widely accepted. The integra- a 2-axis tracking, medium concentrated (80x) system, as shown in
tion of LCPVT system with building and greenhouse highly Fig. 20. An energy model was developed, and the simulation results
depends on its CR. showed that under solar and climate conditions of Phoenix, Ari-
In the WHR LCPVT systems, 1-axis tracking systems can be zona, a 6.2 kWp system could provide about 380 L hot water
employed with East-West oriented axis or North–South oriented (49 °C) and 38.9 kWhe averaged electricity production per day
axis. For systems with North–South oriented axis, an automatic [121], which is enough for the electricity and hot water demand
tracking system is necessary, but for systems with East-West ori- of a 6 family residence.
ented axis, it is an economic option to adjust the collector Jaffré et al. [122] used tilted mirrors as the secondary optics to
manually. improve the illumination and compensate tracking errors of the
The diffuse radiation plays an important role in the LCPVT sys- MCPVT receiver using the domed linear Fresnel lens (as shown in
tems. Even for low concentrated tracking systems, the diffuse radi- Fig. 21). Performances of the components, such as the transmission
ation would provide a non-negligible portion of incident radiation spectrum of optical elements, illumination distribution, and varia-
[103]. tions of the CR with incidence angle and focal length, were tested.
(2) Features of the PV subsystem Based on the measurements, and taking into account the 77% opti-
At CR lower than 10 suns, the commercially available silicon cal efficiency, the electrical and thermal efficiencies were 8.5% and
solar cells, including monocrystalline, polycrystalline and amor- 38.5%, respectively.
phous silicon (c-Si, pc-Si and a-Si) solar cells, are usually selected Based on the design of domed Fresnel lens, Feng et al. [123]
in the LCPVT for economic reasons. The typical conversion effi- designed and studied a CPVT system using wedge-shaped cycloidal
ciency of these solar cells is lower than 20%. For LCPVT systems Fresnel lens. The performance of the optical system was analyzed
using flat specular or diffuse reflectors, the solar panels are directly based on the Monte Carlo ray-tracing method. A CPVT prototype
applied, which would be easy to assemble. But for systems with V- using GaAs cells was tested in clear weather and hazy weather.
trough, CPC trough, parabolic reflector and linear Fresnel lens solar The results showed that, at noon time of clear weather, the maxi-
collectors, the solar cells are connected linearly to make up the PVT mum power generating efficiency was about 18%, and the total
absorber. energy efficiency achieved more than 55%. It was also shown that
(3) Features of the thermal subsystem the hazy weather had a great influence on the electrical efficiency
Water or air is adopted as the main HTF in studies. Flowing but the thermal efficiency was less affected.
through a tube/channel with or without fins, the coolant tempera-
ture increases to 40–60 °C for tap water or local heating. Several 2.2.2. Linear Fresnel reflector
systems can also provide illumination for greenhouse or buildings. Similar to the parabolic troughs and linear Fresnel lenses,
Despite the fact that the cells with such a low heat flux do not although some of the researches use the linear Fresnel reflectors
need to be actively cooled, passive cooling systems or ther- to provide a low concentrated solar radiation, the reflector is more
mosiphon systems are not commonly used in LCPVT systems, since intensively used in MCPVT systems. Rosell et al. [124] coupled a
active cooling systems can provide more convenient and control- linear Fresnel reflector with a channel PVT collector. As shown in
lable solutions. Fig. 22, the system was 2-axis tracking and of 11x optical CR. With-
If it is necessary to store the thermal energy, a water tank would out electrical production, the measured thermal performance was
be a regular solution. Other methods, including PCM heat storage, over 60%. The theoretical analysis further confirmed that the ther-
are still in the early stage. mal conduction between the PV cells and the absorber plate is a
critical parameter. After that, a 20x concentrated CPVT system
2.2. Medium concentration WHR CPVT system (MCPVT) (CR = 10– was developed for commercial applications (The CIDEM rewards
100x) a group of entrepreneurs of the UdL for a solar energy project. @
http://www.udl.cat/, accessed March 28th, 2017).
For MCPVT systems with CRs of 10–100 suns, solar tracking and The design of linear Fresnel reflectors can be more compact and
more effective cooling must be taken into account, which makes modularized to achieve a better market performance. A formerly
the systems more complex than LCPVT systems. The MCPVT sys- commercially available CPVT system was co-developed by Aus-
tems usually utilize parabolic troughs, linear Fresnel lenses and tralian National University (ANU) and Chromasun Inc. for domestic
reflectors as the concentrators. applications [125–128]. As presented in Fig. 23, the novel system,
which is called Micro-Concentrator (MCT), consisted of a fully
2.2.1. Linear (2D) Fresnel lens sealed enclosure which housed 2 linear Fresnel reflectors and 2
A planar Fresnel lens MCPVT system of CR = 25x was applied for hybrid PVT receivers. A single module of MCT system (aperture
claddings of greenhouses [117]. It helps to block up the direct radi- 3.5 m2) provided an electrical output of more than 300 W, and a
ation which is about 77% of the global radiation. The Fresnel lenses thermal output of more than 1500 W at 950 W/m2 DNI. The total
were stationary, and the PVT module was kept in the focus point by efficiency of MCT was up to 70%. Over the span of a day, the MCT
a tracking system. The measurements showed that the incoming achieved an average electrical efficiency of 8% and thermal
direct radiation resulted in a thermal efficiency of 56% and an elec- efficiency of 50%–60% [129]. The design philosophy of MCT is to
Table 1
1400
System details cited in the literature of LCPVT systems.
Year Author Method Type Details Co (suns) Cg (suns) Tracking Cells Package Structure HTF Tin Tout DT Application gE gT gO
(°C) (°C) (°C) (%) (%) (%)
2016 Ziapour et al. [43] TH Flat reflector Mirror and / / Stationary / Panel Channel, Water 25 45.9 / Domestic hot 12.55 36.15 /
Aluminum passive cooling water
reflector
1986 Al-Baali [40] EX Flat reflector / 1.41 / Stationary Si Panel / Water 29 42 / / 11–13 / /
2016 Haddad et al. [41] EX Flat reflector Aluminum plate / / Stationary c-Si Panel Finned channel Air / 36 / / / / /
1991 Garg et al. [42] TH Flat reflector / 1.13–1.21 / Stationary Si Panel Channel Air / / 10–20 Drying 7–9 30–60 /
2012 Du et al. [45] EX Flat reflector Segmented flat / 8.5 2-axis c-Si Linear Pipe Water 31– 56–60 / / 7.4–8.3 44–47 /
mirror 32
2015 Chaabane et al. [46] TH Flat reflector Segmented flat / 8.5 2-axis c-Si Linear Channel Water 31 43 / / 9.3 74.2 /
mirror
2007 Robles-Ocampo et al. EX Flat reflector Stainless steel 1.8 / Stationary c-Si Bifacial Channel Water 24– 35–40 10–20 / 16.4 50 60
[47] panel 30
2014 Ibrahim and Khalil EX Flat reflector / / 4 1-axis pc-Si Bifacial Tube Water 22.4 53 in tank / / / / /
[48] panel
2016 Gurel [49] TH Flat funnel / / / Stationary c-Si Sphere Paraffin wax Paraffin / / / / 14.67 / /
reflector phase change wax
thermal
energy storage
2002; 2005 Tripanagnostopoulos EX Flat reflector Diffused 1.35 / Stationary pc-Si, a- Panel / Air or / / / Rooftop 12 (air); 13 30 (air); 70 /
et al. [50,51] aluminum plate Si water (water) (water)
2009 Tripanagnostopoulos T&E Symmetric/ Specular / 2.5 (V- Stationary c-Si Panel Tubes Water / / / Building / / /
a
EX: experimental, TH: theoretical, T&E, theoretical and experimental, PA: patent.
b
Co: optical CR, Cg: geometrical CR; NM: not mentioned, treated as the geometrical CR; Cg is considered as a primary factor on CPVT system classification if it is available in documents.
c
Tin: inlet temperature, Tout: outlet temperature; DT: temperature difference between the inlet and outlet of thermal system.
d
gO: overall efficiency, gE: electrical efficiency, gT: thermal efficiency. In case that both theoretical and experimental results are available in the literature, experimental results are adopted.
1401
1402 X. Ju et al. / Science Bulletin 62 (2017) 1388–1426
Fig. 23. (Color online) The MCT system developed by ANU and Chromasun Inc.
Reprinted with permission from Ref. [125]. Copyright Ó 2012 John Wiley & Sons,
Ltd.
Fig. 26. (Color online) The parabolic trough MCPVT system: (b) the prototype CPVT system; (a) aluminum spine. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [141]. Copyright Ó 2005
Elsevier.
Fig. 28. The structure of a two-stage MCPVT system. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [147]. Copyright Ó 2014 Elsevier.
X. Ju et al. / Science Bulletin 62 (2017) 1388–1426 1405
Fig. 29. Different configurations of parabolic trough MCPVT systems. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [149].
Fig. 30. (Color online) The MCPVT system consisting of a PTC and a linear triangular
receiver. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [152]. Copyright Ó 2012 Elsevier.
Fig. 32. (Color online) A cylindrical trough MCPVT system integrated with
greenhouses by combining the SBS technology. Reprinted with permission from
Ref. [137]. Copyright Ó 2010 Elsevier.
improve the cooling efficiency, they suggested putting the inlet cussed for best coolant flow geometry, and the single duplex-
near the top PV and outlet near the bottom glass. series arrangements were selected for economic reasons. Results
The other usually used point focused concentrator, the spot of the further study showed a broad optimal operating region for
Fresnel lens, was also used to generate medium concentrated illu- this type of active cooling system in parabolic trough HCPVT sys-
mination. Radwan et al. [160] theoretically proved that the tems. Del Col et al. [165] proposed a 2-axis parabolic trough CPVT
microchannel heat sink is effective to recover the dissipated heat system (Fig. 34) with a geometrical CR around 130x. They used a
of a CPVT with the Fresnel lens. At CR of 40x, the local solar cell secondary concentrator made of two flat mirrors, which con-
temperature ranges from 37 to 41 °C, whereas the electrical and tributed to the concentrated flux on GaInP/GaAs/Ge cells. The mod-
thermal efficiencies achieve 18.5% and 62.5%, respectively. A com- elled and measured data showed that the electrical efficiency of
parison between different cooling systems also indicates that using the system displayed a minor penalization with increasing reduced
a microchannel cooling technique achieves the utmost possible temperature difference (reduced temperature difference = [(HTF
reduction of solar cell temperature. outlet temperature + HTF inlet temperature)/2 ambient temper-
ature]/DNI). It is possible to increase the operating temperature
2.2.5. Summary of MCPVT to produce heat at medium temperature (80–90 °C). The measured
Details of the MCPVT systems mentioned before are listed in global system efficiency ranged between 55% and 70%.
Table 2. Several important distinguishing features for the WHR The 2-axis tracking linear parabolic HCPVT systems are more
MCPVT systems are summarized as follows. complex than the above mentioned 1-axis tracking MCPVT sys-
(1) Features of the optical system tems. But the 2-axis tracking system can maximize the system per-
The linear concentration optics, including the parabolic trough, formance, whereas the linear geometry releases any precision
linear Fresnel lens and reflector, can provide a CR of 10–100 suns. constraints for the azimuthal tracking. These facts will help to
Since stationary ones cannot achieve such a high concentration, reduce the additional cost. An economic evaluation performed by
both 1-axis and 2-axis tracking systems are adopted. The cost of Quaia et al. [166] demonstrated the viability of the 2-axis tracking
2-axis tracking linear systems would also increase compared with PTCs. The LCoE of a 144x concentrated 2-axis tracking PTC CPVT
the 1-axis tracking ones. system is 0.087 €/kWh, which is competitive compared with differ-
In researches using the Fresnel lens concentrator, the domed ent commercially available PV and thermal technologies.
Fresnel lens seems more popular than the flat one. Domed Fresnel
lens has advantages of reduced coma, minimum reflectance, 2.3.2. Spot (3D) Fresnel lens
shorter focal length, and so on [163]. 2-Axis tracking-type spot (3D) Fresnel lenses are usually
For greenhouses and buildings with large surfaces and illumina- applied in high concentrated PV (HCPV) systems. The spot Fresnel
tion demand, a stationary concentrator with a moving receiver is a lenses are comprised of PMMA, quartz, or glass materials. The
viable choice. Tracking of the receiver is possible with the use of PMMA Fresnel lenses can be made larger than glass lenses, as well
two motors. One is for the distance to the Fresnel lens, and the as being much cheaper and lighter. However, the glass or quartz
other is for the translocation parallel to the lens. This type of opti- materials are of much lower thermal expansion coefficient and
cal system can provide a low or medium CR for CPVT systems. The better thermal stability. The spot Fresnel lens can concentrate
transmissive linear Fresnel reflector provides another option for extremely high illumination (200–7000 suns) onto solar cells
the building elements with illumination. [167]. Mbewe et al. [168] developed a very simple semi-
(2) Features of the PV subsystem experimental model for silicon solar cells under concentrated illu-
The WHR MCPVT systems use crystalline silicon solar cells, as mination. The agreement between the predicted and tested data
the pc-Si and a-Si cells are not quite suitable to be operated at was shown to be within 10% for all parameters. Arab et al. [169]
the CR over 10 suns. With the use of linear concentrators, the cells patented a CPVT system with two-stage solar concentration optical
are packed linearly in nearly all investigations. elements. The primary optical element could be square Fresnel
At the CRs of over 10 suns, the uniformity of solar radiation lenses, parabolic dishes and so on. The sun tracking system adopts
plays an import role in the PV efficiency. The system performance two or more linear actuators, and when the actuators extend or
can be improved by better mirror reflectivity, and also by pursuing retract, the tilt of the solar collector can be changed.
a suitable focal line with uniform illumination. Performance of an HCPVT system with spot Fresnel lenses was
(3) Features of the thermal subsystem also experimentally compared with the ordinary high concentrated
Thermal load on MCPVT systems increases, and passive cooling photovoltaic (HCPV) system under different operating conditions
or thermosiphon methods are no longer suitable. Channels with [170]. To minimize the heat losses, an additional internal
fins are more frequently adopted as the cooling structure, and thermo-isolation was mounted between the air gap and the PV
water is considered as a primary HTF to achieve a better cooling cells. The indoor experiments showed that the efficiency of heat
performance. transfer was improved at low flow rates. But at high flow rates,
even without additional isolation, the closed air gap of the module
2.3. High concentration WHR CPVT system (HCPVT) (CR > 100x) was effective enough to reduce the parasitic heat losses. On the
other hand, outdoor experiments showed that the PVT module
For CPVT systems with CR > 100x, solar cells operate at extre- achieved a considerable increase in the total efficiency, and about
mely tough conditions, such as high energy flux and high temper- 70% of the incoming solar power can be extracted from the PVT
ature. This will affect the system configurations in various aspects. module.
Researches on the HCPVT systems are described as follows. Hussain and Lee [171] performed experimental and theoretical
studies to discuss the maximum power generation of a CPVT sys-
2.3.1. Parabolic trough concentrator tem. The CPVT employed 8 Fresnel lenses as the concentrator
CPVT systems with 2-axis tracking linear parabolic concentra- and a U-shaped pipe with 8 solar cells as the receiver (Fig. 35).
tors would achieve higher CRs than the 1-axis tracking parabolic The influences of fluid flow rate, solar irradiation, and ambient
troughs mentioned before. O’leary and Clements [164] modelled temperature were discussed. The estimated electrical and thermal
the performance of a CPVT system with 2-axis tracking PTC efficiencies were 18% and 54%, respectively. A prototype scale CPVT
(Fig. 33). The model did not account for convective heat losses to with similar configurations was also tested [172]. The maximum
the surroundings. Three different piping arrangements were dis- water temperature in the tank was measured to be 60–69 °C at dif-
Table 2
System details cited in the literature of MCPVT systems.
Year Author Method Type Details Co Cg (suns) Tracking Cells Package Structure HTF Tin Tout DT Application gE gT gO
(suns) (°C) (°C) (°C) (%) (%) (%)
2010; 2012; 2013 Kerzmann and Schaefer TH Domed linear Fresnel / / 80 2-axis GaInP/ Linear Channel Water 21 50 / Domestic 35 / /
[113,120,121] lens GaAs/ hot water
Ge
2014 Jaffré et al. [122] EX Domed linear Fresnel PMMA 17 20 2-axis c-Si Linear Channel Water / <50 / Domestic 8.5 38.5 /
lens hot water
2011 Sonneveld et al. [117] EX Linear Fresnel lens PMMA / 25 Moving c-Si Linear Pipe Water 20 60 / Greenhouse 11 56 67
receiver
(2 motor)
2011(3) Sonneveld et al. [118,119]; EX Linear Fresnel lens PMMA / 50 Moving Si Linear Pipe Water / / / Greenhouse / / /
Swinkels et al. [112] receiver
(2 motor)
2016 Feng et al. [123] T&E Domed linear Fresnel PMMA / / 1-axis GaAs Linear Channel Water / / / / 18 45 55
lens
1987 Sharan et al. [161] T&E Parabolic trough / / 1–60 1-axis / Linear Tube Water / 25–37 / / / / /
1987 Sharan et al. [162] TH / / / 1–50 1-axis / Linear Tubular tube; Water 25 32 / / 7 / /
flat vertical
tube; flat
horizontal tube
2005 Rosell et al. [124] T&E Linear Fresnel / 11.1 13.6 2-axis Si Linear Channel Water 30 58 / / / >60 /
reflector
2010(3); 2011(4); Everett et al. [126–128,131]; EX Linear Fresnel Anodized 15 30 1-axis, c-Si Linear Channel Water 36 42 / Rooftop 8 50–60 70
1407
(continued on next page)
1408 X. Ju et al. / Science Bulletin 62 (2017) 1388–1426
20–
(%)
45
gO
/
Efficiencyd
62.5
(%)
gT
18.5
(%)
gE
gO: overall efficiency, gE: electrical efficiency, gT: thermal efficiency. In case that both theoretical and experimental results are available in the literature, experimental results are adopted.
Application
Co: optical CR, Cg: geometrical CR; NM: not mentioned, treated as the geometrical CR; Cg is considered as a primary factor on CPVT system classification if it is available in documents.
/
/
(°C)
DT
/
34.6–90.2
(°C)
Tout
Thermal subsystemc
/
(°C)
Tin
26
30
Water
Water
HTF
microchannel
Rectangular
aluminum
Structure
Channel
ducts
Tin: inlet temperature, Tout: outlet temperature; DT: temperature difference between the inlet and outlet of thermal system.
Package
PV subsystem
Dense
array
/
Fig. 33. The 2-axis tracking HCPVT system with a PTC: a) concentrator design; b)
receiver with cooling channels. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [164].
pc-Si
pc-Si
Cells
receiver
2-axis
2-axis
(effective)
Cg (suns)
1–40
22
(suns)
Concentratorb
Co
EX: experimental, TH: theoretical, T&E, theoretical and experimental, PA: patent.
/
/
Plastic film
multilayer
(Ebiral)
Details
Glass
/
cylindrical trough
with interference
filter
Fig. 34. (Color online) The 2-axis tracking HCPVT system with a PTC and a
Method
secondary optical concentrator: (a) CPVT system under testing; (b) the design of
T&E
TH
ferent flow rates, and the efficiencies would be increased when the
Su et al. [159]
house heating, the life cycle savings (LCS) were 7, 344 $, 8, 658 $
and 11, 405 $, respectively, and the relevant discounted payback
periods (DPP) were 21, 16 and 11 years, respectively.
2014
2016
Year
The U-shaped pipe was also applied to the CPVT system pro-
c
b
a
posed by Renno and Petito [174]. As shown in Fig. 36, the system
X. Ju et al. / Science Bulletin 62 (2017) 1388–1426 1409
Fig. 35. (Color online) The HCPVT system with a U-shaped solar energy collector. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [171]. Copyright Ó 2015 Elsevier.
up to 160 °C at CR > 300x, and the overall efficiency is over 75% for 2.3.5. Summary of HCPVT
CR > 500x. Details of the HCPVT systems mentioned before are listed in
Tracking systems may suffer from problems of structural insta- Table 3. The distinguishing features for the WHR HCPVT systems
bility under high wind conditions. To minimize the influence of are summarized as follows.
that problem, a spherical concentrator, consisting of a stationary (1) Features of the optical system
dish and a tracking absorber, was built and investigated in the WHR HCPVT systems employ concentrating optics such as dish
early stage of 1980s. This type of concentrator was also investi- reflectors or spot Fresnel lenses that concentrate sunlight to inten-
gated for the HCPVT system. Bar-lev et al. [194] analyzed the CPVT sities of 100 suns or more. The systems with 2-axis tracking para-
requirements, and modified the design of the receiver to generate bolic trough or tower-heliostat are also investigated, but they are
both hot water and electricity. A special two-section polygonal not considered as the main research object, as the CR and cost of
cone shape PVT absorber can provide a constant illumination dis- 2-axis tracking parabolic trough are not competitive in HCPVT sys-
tribution on the receiver, and the light incidence angle on the tems, and the tower-heliostat system is of high complexity.
absorber surface is closer to normal. Further investigations showed (2) Features of the PV subsystem
that up to 58% of the absorber surface may be unilluminated at the Multi-junction solar cells are currently favored over silicon as
worst conditions, and the unilluminated surface should be used they are more efficient at higher CRs and temperatures. Though
only for heat generation. the cost of multi-junction GaAs solar cell is much higher than that
of comparable silicon cells, the cell cost remains a small fraction of
the cost of the overall HCPV system, and the system economics
2.3.4. Tower-heliostat might still favor the multi-junction GaAs cells.
As the tower-heliostat optical system which is usually applied Design of DA-CPV modules becomes an important issue under
in the CSP can provide a high total energy flux in a more central- non-uniform irradiation. To achieve current matching, various PV
ized way, the CPVT system combining the tower system seems a connection methods were investigated, and the total cross tied
potential method to obtain simultaneously thermal and electrical (TCT) method achieved less mismatching loss [196]. Irregularly
energy from the sunlight. Compared with the conventional CPVT shaped PV cells would be another option to solve this problem
systems, the energy of a tower-heliostat system is more central- [180].
ized, resulting in the benefits that both the energy loss of pipe net- (3) Features of the thermal subsystem
work and the flow control complexity are reduced. However, the The solar cells operating at over 100 suns require high-capacity
complexity and difficulty of such a system prevent it from com- heat sinks to prevent thermal destruction and to manage temper-
mercialization presently. ature related performance losses. Microchannel heat sinks have the
Hagfarah and Nazarinia [195] investigated a tower CPVT system advantages of high heat transfer performance, easy integration
which generated simultaneously electricity and thermal energy. A with moving components, light weight, and high stability, and thus
receiver prototype with a DA-CPV module and a microchannel heat are supposed to be a viable method to cope with the extremely
exchanger was designed and fabricated. A simulation using the high thermal load.
System Advisor Model (SAM) software proved the viability of Water-glycol mixture and pressurized water can be used as the
tower CPVT system. The results indicated that the levelized costs cooling fluid at temperatures above 100 °C. As the temperatures of
of electricity and energy are 0.119 $/kWhe and 0.021 $/kWh, HCPVT systems rise, water-glycol mixture and pressurized water
respectively. The water temperature is raised to 65 °C, and the cell as the HTF are increasingly studied. A closed thermal cycle and a
temperature can be maintained below 90 °C. secondary heat exchanger are necessary for these systems.
Ju et al. [34] proposed a patent aimed to increase the fluid tem-
perature. The design is based on tower/dish HCPVT and CPV-CSP. 2.4. Researches on the application of WHR CPVT
As shown in Fig. 38a and b, since the energy flux distribution fol-
lows a Gaussian or trapezoid profile, an annular CSP thermal recei- WHR CPVT systems were suggested or applied in many inten-
ver is mounted surrounding the DA-CPV modules with a sive application fields since its appearance. On one hand, the ther-
microchannel cooling system. The coolant R134a first absorbs the mal energy can be used for domestic hot water, local heating, air
wasted heat of CPV modules, and then is heated to a higher tem- conditioning, absorption cooling, thermal desalination, district
perature in the thermal receiver. Further studies [35,36] also heat, organic Rankine cycle, and so on [197]. On the other hand,
showed that, if the thermal energy is used for electricity genera- the electric energy can be used to drive the auxiliary devices of a
tion, the overall generating efficiency can be increased by 20% at thermal system, or to drive the processes which can easily be com-
500 suns. bined with the thermal processes. The documents mentioned
above have already discussed many application fields, but the
researches were mainly concerned with the development of CPVT
devices. Investigations on the applications are summarized espe-
cially in this section.
2.4.1. Polygeneration
In polygeneration CPVT systems, the PV part provides electricity
for system parasitic consumption, local electricity supply or grid
demands. Simultaneously, the thermal part provides heat, used
for space heating, domestic hot water and driving the absorption
chiller to produce cooling energy.
Kribus and Mittelman [198] theoretically compared several
configurations for polygeneration based on the WHR CPVT concep-
tion. Polygeneration leads to increased conversion efficiency, and
Fig. 38. (Color online) The CPV-CSP hybrid system with an external thermal
the PV based polygenerations show better performance than the
receiver: (a) the system schematic; (b) the solar receiver. Reprinted with permis- heat engine based ones. They also concluded that within the CRs
sion from Ref. [36]. investigated, the combined system with a bottoming absorption
Table 3
1412
System details cited in the literature of HCPVT systems.
Year Author Method Type Details Co Cg Tracking Cells Package Structure HTF Tin Tout DT Application gE gT gO
(suns) (suns) (°C) (°C) (°C) (%) (%) (%)
1980 O’leary and TH Parabolic trough / / / 2-axis Si Linear Channel with Water- 26.7 47.2 / / / / /
Clements [164] fins glycol
2014 Del Col et al. [165] T&E Parabolic trough & flat / / 130 2-axis GaInP/ Linear Channel Water 80 86 / / 14– 40– 55–73
mirror (Two-stage GaAs/Ge 20 55
concentrator)
2012 Quaia et al. [166] TH Parabolic trough Glass 144 / 2-axis / Linear / Water / / / / / / 56
1985 Mbewe et al. [168] TH Spot Fresnel lens / 1– / NA Si Separate Channel Water / / / / / / /
1000
2011 Arab et al. [169] PA Parabolic dish / Spot Plastic, acrylic material; / / 2-axis / Separate / / / / / Domestic hot water; / / /
Fresnel lens & quartz, glass, metal; water purification;
secondary optics (Two- semiconductor material; films absorption air
stage concentrator) and fluid-filled structures conditioning; engine
2014 Rumyantsev et al. EX Spot Fresnel lens Glass / 867 2-axis InGaP/ Separate Chamber Water 8– 25– / / 22– 47– 70
[170] GaAs/Ge 12 44 24 48
2015(2); 2016 Hussain and Lee T&E Spot Fresnel lens Glass / 600 2-axis InGaP/ Separate cells U-shape tube Water 30 40– / / 18 54 76
[171–173] GaAs/Ge in the tube 75
2016 Renno and Petito T&E Spot Fresnel lens / 208.6 / 2-axis InGaP/ Cells on the U-pipe Water- 10 42– / Air heating and 28.9 / /
[174] InGaAs/ pipes glycol 55 cooling
Ge
2016 Xu et al. [175] T&E Spot Fresnel lens / / 1090 2-axis InGaP/ Cells on the Grooved U- Water 35 70 / / 28 60 /
GaAs/Ge pipes pipe
a
EX: experimental, TH: theoretical, T&E, theoretical and experimental, PA: patent.
b
Co: optical CR, Cg: geometrical CR; NM: not mentioned, treated as the geometrical CR; Cg is considered as a primary factor on CPVT system classification if it is available in documents.
c
Tin: inlet temperature, Tout: outlet temperature; DT: temperature difference between the inlet and outlet of thermal system.
d
gO: overall efficiency, gE: electrical efficiency, gT: thermal efficiency. In case that both theoretical and experimental results are available in the literature, experimental results are adopted.
X. Ju et al. / Science Bulletin 62 (2017) 1388–1426 1413
heat pump (AHP) is better than ones with a bottoming heat engine. both offices and dwellings in the meteorology of Milan and Naples
For the PV/AHP hybrid system for refrigeration (single effect and was presented. The CPVT system shows an over 100% primary
double effect), the overall efficiency is up to 43%. energy saving, which is better than the 74% of such savings in evac-
The feasibility of using a CPVT trigeneration system to satisfy uated tube solar thermal collectors. The economic analysis also
the electricity and cooling demands of a server room was proved indicated that an electricity feed-in tariff unitary cost of higher
by Petrucci et al. [199]. Models of the main components, such as than 0.15 €/kWh is still necessary. Another case study was for
a single effect LiBr chiller and CPVT collectors, were developed in University Hospital District in Naples, Italy [203]. The studied sys-
Simulink for different operating conditions. The results showed tem (Fig. 39) combined parabolic trough CPVT collectors, a single-
that the energy demand in August can be fully covered, and there effect LiBr-H2O absorption chiller, storage tanks and additional
is still surplus power to be supplied to adjacent rooms. However, in balance-of-plant devices. The demands data regarding cooling,
the final hours of the January afternoon, the power is not enough heating and electricity were measured for a one-year operation.
for at least 2 h. From both energy and economic points of views, the performance
Another research work of the CPVT cogeneration system dis- of the system was excellent. The results showed that all produced
cussed its application on space cooling [200]. The exergetic analy- renewable energy can be consumed. Even without any public fund-
sis of a 10 MW CPVT plant located in Algeria showed an overall ing, the system can be profitable in a pay-back period around 12
conversion efficiency of 87.5%, in which the electrical efficiency years, and there is still a margin for improvement. Calise et al.
is 25% and the thermal efficiency is 62.5%. The coolant water tem- [204] also showed that a similar type of polygeneration CPVT sys-
perature of the CPVT system is up to 80 °C at 2000 suns. The eco- tem was technically feasible for the university building. A double-
nomic analysis of the cogeneration system also showed how to stage LiBr-H2O absorption chiller, a parabolic dish concentrator
optimize the CPVT power plant for a specific location. and a triple-junction receiver were integrated into the system.
Buonomano et al.’s [201] trigeneration CPVT system aims to The overall energetic and economic performance was evaluated,
provide electricity, space heating and cooling and domestic hot and also showed that a proper funding policy was necessary for
water for buildings. They analyzed the detailed performance of a commercialization. Compared with a similar flat-plate PVT system
parabolic dish CPVT system which is able to operate at up to previously investigated by the authors [205], the CPVT system
180 °C with two-effect absorptive cooling. Different from other achieved better overall energy performance with comparable eco-
investigations, diathermic oil was used as the HTF to improve the nomic performance. The CPVT polygeneration system was also
overall performance and permit its integration in high- investigated for energy demands of small isolated communities
temperature utilizations. Compared with the non-concentrating in European Mediterranean countries [206,207]. This polygenera-
and the parabolic trough PVT systems, the dish CPVT collector in tion system combined solar heating and cooling (single-stage
this work showed higher electrical and thermal efficiencies LiBr-H2O), CPVT, biomass-fired heater and multiple effect distilla-
(ge = 19%–25%, gt = 60%) in a wide range of operating conditions. tion (MED) for seawater desalination. The viability of the system
A CPVT polygeneration system with single effect LiBr-H2O was proved through accurate energetic, exergetic, thermoeco-
absorption chillers was simulated by a dynamic model [202]. The nomic, and exergoeconomic analyses based on dynamic simula-
work also considered the use of electric chiller and gas-fired heater tions. The factors that mostly affect the overall plant exergy
backup system. The optimized performance was obtained by a efficiency were discussed, including the exergy destruction in the
water to water auxiliary chiller. A case study of a building with CPVT collector, biomass heater, and MED section. The system
Fig. 39. (Color online) A polygeneration CPVT system for University Hospital District in Naples. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [203]. Copyright Ó 2014 Elsevier.
1414 X. Ju et al. / Science Bulletin 62 (2017) 1388–1426
was deemed to be profitable in many European areas with present technical, energy and environmental advantages over conventional
feed-in tariffs of PV technologies. Without funding, it would be systems. The required energy demand of desiccant air dehumidifi-
scarcely competitive, and only suitable for disadvantaged areas, cation is suitable to be provided by CPVT systems. The thermal
like small islands. energy can be used for continuous regeneration of the desiccant
material, and the electrical energy can be used to drive other
2.4.2. WHR CPVT systems with heat pump devices for air conditioning.
The heat pump can also be integrated with WHR CPVT systems, Al-Alili et al. [211,212] studied the application of CPVT hybrid
such that the HTF temperature can be increased without sacrificing system for air conditioning of buildings in hot and humid climates.
the PV efficiency. This kind of integration is more proper for As shown in Fig. 41, the system consisted of a solid desiccant wheel
LCPVTs, since to provide HTF with higher temperature would be cycle (DWC) and a traditional vapor compression cycle (VCC). The
a challenge. Xu et al. [208] fabricated a CPC-LCPVT integrating a DWC and VCC were driven by the thermal and electrical output
heat pump system as shown in Fig. 40. The system simultaneously respectively, such that the latent and sensible loads of air condi-
converted solar energy into electricity and collected solar heat effi- tioning can be accommodated. The transient simulation results of
ciently to upgrade it for water heating. Refrigerant R134a flowed in the system in Abu Dhabi weather showed that the cooling COP is
the multi-port flat extruded aluminum tubes placed underneath increased. Compared with the standalone VCC, the electricity
the PV cells, absorbing solar heat and evaporating. The LCPVT- demand reduces by 50%. In addition, the decoupled latent and sen-
heat pump system achieved an average coefficient of performance sible load are found to be effective in meeting the humidity and
(COP) of 4.8 for heating water from 30 to 70 °C on a sunny summer temperature requirements of buildings in hot and humid climates.
day. The optimization of this system was carried out using the Pareto
front multi-objective genetic algorithm [213]. The system cost
2.4.3. Absorption cooling was estimated based on the desired system performance. For elec-
The solar thermal cooling systems are usually found to be more tricity price of 0.12 $/kWh, the cost of the proposed system will be
expensive than conventional cooling, but when combined with the less than that of the standard VCC after 17.5 years of operation. An
CPVT, the situation would be changed. Mittelman et al. [209] pro- experiment on desiccant based air conditioning [214] was carried
posed a CPVT system that can produce electricity and high temper- out to calibrate and validate the simulation.
ature thermal energy above 100 °C simultaneously. When coupled Calise et al. [215] simulated the operation of a CPVT coupled air
with a single-effect absorption chiller, it can be comparable or even handling unit. The CPVT system [152] is capable of producing hot
better in costs under a wide range of conditions. Using InGaP/ water at 80–100 °C, which is compatible with the 40–70 °C regen-
InGaAs/Ge solar cells as the PV receivers, and at the coolant outlet eration temperature of the silica-gel wheel for dehumidification.
temperature of 50–150 °C [210], the overall electrical and thermal The generated electricity is used to drive the auxiliary devices,
efficiencies are 20%–24% and 58%–59%, respectively. while the thermal energy is used to heat the regeneration air in
summer and heat the process air in winter. The excessive electric-
ity and heat are provided to the grid and to generate domestic hot
2.4.4. Air conditioning
water, respectively. The simulation was carried out in TRNSYS soft-
Latent loads (dehumidification) represent a significant portion
ware, and was partially validated by the experimental data from
of the air conditioning loads in hot and humid climates. Desiccant
the test facility in Benevento, Italy. The annual thermal and electri-
material based air conditioning is recognized to have significant
Fig. 40. (Color online) The CPC-LCPVT system with a heat pump. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [208]. Copyright Ó 2011 Elsevier.
X. Ju et al. / Science Bulletin 62 (2017) 1388–1426 1415
Fig. 41. (Color online) The air conditioning system based on a CPVT system. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [211]. Copyright Ó 2008 Elsevier.
cal efficiencies of the CPVT are 21.15% and 55.32%, respectively. It results, the system converted about 85% of the solar irradiation
covers over 70% electricity demand, 60% of the regeneration energy into electricity and potable water.
in summer, and 30% of the process air heating energy in winter. Hughes et al. [217] presented a CPVT system for MD. Seawater
Compared with a conventional air handling unit, the CPVT air con- was used to cool III-V junction solar cells, and then further heated
ditioning system obtains a Primary Energy Saving of 81%–89%. in an additional evacuated tube thermal collector. The MD module
was tested for a fluctuating inlet temperature ranging from 40 to
80 °C, as it would be in the real operating conditions. The transient
2.4.5. Desalination
performance of the MD module indicated that the effects of fluctu-
WHR CPVT desalination systems exploit the waste heat of PV
ations in solar radiations were not significant, and the integration
cells to desalinate water or use the generated electricity for desali-
of the MD with the CPVT system was feasible.
nation process. As thus, the combined plant can produce electricity
Mittleman et al. [218] combined a multi-effect evaporation
and desalinated water.
desalination (MEED) system with a CPVT system. A simulation
The parabolic dish CPVT systems were applied for solar desali-
was performed and showed that the overall plant efficiency is
nation. Ong et al. [216] developed a multi-effect membrane distil-
77%, with a high capacity factor (CF) of over 79%. At a good solar
lation (MEMD) system for isolated islands or coastal regions. Based
on the cooling systems developed by IBM Research Zurich [186],
the PV-receiver heat recovery at 75–80 °C was achieved for ther-
mal energy storage and desalination with the membrane distilla-
tion (MD) technique. According to the measured and simulated
Fig. 42. The PV-powered RO desalination system with boosters. Reprinted with Fig. 43. (Color online) The MD and RO desalination system based on a CVPT system.
permission from Ref. [219]. Copyright Ó 2012 ASME. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [220].
Table 4
1416
Details of the researches on CPVT system applications.
Year Author Method Type Details Co Cg (suns) Tracking Cells Package Structure HTF Tin Tout DT Application gE gT gO
(suns) (°C) (°C) (°C) (%) (%) (%)
2008 Kribus and TH / / / 50, 200, 1000 1-axis or InP/ / / / / 50–350 / PV/CSP; PV/AHP / / PV/CSP (power): 38
Mittelman 2-axis InGaAs/ (PV/CSP); (200x), 34 (50x); PV/
[198] Ge 25–250 AHP: 45 (200x), 39
(PV/AHP) (50x)
2013 Petrucci TH / / / / / / / / Water / 90 / Electricity, space heating, 18 62 /
et al. [199] domestic hot water, single-
effect absorption cooling
2014 Garcia- TH Parabolic / / 2000 (NM) 2-axis GaInP/ Dense Manifold Water 85 90 / Absorption cooling 25 62.5 87.5
Heller et al. dish GaAs/ array microchannel
[200] Ge
2013 Buonomano TH Parabolic / / 318 2-axis InGaP/ / Microchannel Diathermic 30– 40–210 / Electricity, space heating, 19–25 60 /
et al. [201] dish InGaAs/ oil 200 domestic hot water, two-
Ge effect absorption cooling
2014 Buonomano TH Parabolic / / 200 1-axis / / Channel Water / 70–90 / Electricity, space heating, 12.6– 32.7– /
et al. [203] trough domestic hot water, single- 20.5 53.1
effect absorption cooling
2013 Buonomano TH Dish / / 500 2-axis GaAs Dense Microchannel Water / 85 / Electricity, space heating, / / /
et al. [202] array domestic hot water, single-
effect absorption cooling
2013 Calise et al. TH Parabolic / / 318 2-axis 3- / Channel Pressurized / 130–170 / Electricity, space heating, 13.3 32 /
[204] dish Junction water domestic hot water, double-
a
EX: experimental, TH: theoretical, T&E, theoretical and experimental, PA: patent.
b
Co: optical CR, Cg: geometrical CR; NM: not mentioned, treated as the geometrical CR; Cg is considered as a primary factor on CPVT system classification if it is available in documents.
c
Tin: inlet temperature, Tout: outlet temperature; DT: temperature difference between the inlet and outlet of thermal system.
d
gO: overall efficiency, gE: electrical efficiency, gT: thermal efficiency. In case that both theoretical and experimental results are available in the literature, experimental results are adopted.
X. Ju et al. / Science Bulletin 62 (2017) 1388–1426 1417
site with around 2400 kWh/m2 year beam radiation, 17 €/Wp elec- Since the specific energy consumption of the RO process increases
tricity price, and less than 3 €/Wp collector cost, the 200x concen- with the water salinity rising, the MD process, of which the specific
trated CPVT system achieves the lowest water cost even compared energy consumption is less sensitive to the water salinity, is used
with the conventional reverse osmosis (RO) or PV + RO plant. to further concentrate the brine from the RO process. The calcula-
CPVT systems may also be combined with the reverse osmosis tions showed that the total recovery ratio (the ratio between pro-
(RO) desalination. Kelley et al. [219] presented and tested a LCPVT duct and feed water) is 92% for the complete system. They also
system for PV-powered RO desalination unit (Fig. 42). It also tested the thermal receiver of a parabolic dish CPVT, and the max-
exploited the complementary thermal energy of the solar panel imum thermal efficiency of the tested receiver achieved 79.2%.
and reverse osmosis unit. Using Mylar covered aluminum plates
as the boosters, the optical system provided approximately 50% 2.4.6. Summary of applications
additional illumination. The simulation results of this concept were Details of the researches on the applications of WHR CPVT sys-
experimentally validated in a prototype. An increase of 57% in fresh tem are listed in Table 4. As shown before, the produced energy of
water produced was achieved in the experiments using thermal WHR CPVT systems can be used for multiple purposes. The inves-
management and solar concentrators. tigations concerning applications of WHR CPVT focused on com-
Wiesenfarth et al. [220] combined the MD and RO water desali- plex thermal systems, such as desalination systems, absorption
nation to a CPVT system. As shown in Fig. 43, the thermal energy cooling systems, and air conditioning systems. As a contrast, the
absorbed by the CPVT is used to produce fresh water through the local/district heating, building, and agriculture applications require
MD process, and the generated electricity is partly used to run only a simple thermal system. On the other hand, parabolic troughs
the pumps to overcome the osmotic pressure in the RO process. and dishes are considered as the concentrators in many researches,
Fig. 44. (Color online) The count of WHR CPVT research documents according to research method and research field.
Fig. 45. (Color online) The count of WHR CPVT research documents according to year and research field.
1418 X. Ju et al. / Science Bulletin 62 (2017) 1388–1426
but the using of simple 1-axis tracking CPVT systems is a cost- researches of WHR CPVT may be due to the following reasons:
effective solution for many scenes. (1) the fossil fuel price gradually increased after the Asian financial
crisis in 1997, and the PV cell price rapidly reduced after 2009; (2)
the maturity of related technologies, including optical concentra-
3. Current statues of WHR CPVT researches tors and PV cells; and (3) the public concerns of global warming
and environmental problems increasingly rose. It can also be
Fig. 44 shows the count of documents on WHR CPVT researches. observed that the research hotspot was gradually shifted from
The count of research is reversed to its difficulty level. There are 73, LCPVT to MCPVT and HCPVT. Studies on HCPVT rapidly increased
46, 31, and 19 researches for LCPVT, MCPVT, HCPVT, and Applica- in the 2013–2016 period.
tion, respectively. The count of research is doubled compared with The optics adopted in WHR CPVT researches are summarized in
the SBS CPVT researches [32]. The majority of researches on CPVT Fig. 46. LCPVT systems mainly use flat-plate reflectors and CPCs as
devices involve experiments, which is also different from the the- the concentrator. These systems can be stationary such that the
oretical research method of most SBS CPVT researches. Especially cost can be reduced. MCPVT systems adopt the linear concentra-
for the LCPVT and MCPVT, the concentrators are much easier to tors, including the linear Fresnel lens/reflectors and parabolic
be accessed or established, which facilitates experimental investi- troughs as the concentrator, and HCPVT systems mainly use the
gations. But for cogeneration CPVT applications, there are only sev- spot Fresnel lenses and parabolic dishes as the concentrator. The
eral researches, since the CPVT systems are not matured enough to count of theoretical research is nearly the same as that of the
be applied in these fields. experimental researches for each type of the concentrator. CPCs,
Fig. 45 depicts the development of WHR CPVT systems. In parabolic troughs and parabolic dishes, which respectively corre-
1981–1990, early studies showed the potentiality of WHR CPVT sponding to the LCPVT, MCPVT and HCPVT, are the top three optics
systems in energy saving, and several prototypes were tested. adopted in WHR CPVT studies.
However, as the price decline of fossil fuel in the 1990s, the Fig. 47 shows the comparison of the HTF outlet temperature of
researches reduced in 1991–2000. Thereafter, the WHR CPVT the WHR and SBS CPVT systems. The HTF outlet temperature of
regained the attention of researchers, and the count of research WHR CPVT systems generally increases with the CR. However, it
documents rapidly increased after 2009. The rapid increase in the is not a distinct increase. The HTF of WHR LCPVT is ranging from
Fig. 46. (Color online) The count of WHR CPVT research documents according to: (a) optical concentrators and research field, (b) optical concentrators and research method.
X. Ju et al. / Science Bulletin 62 (2017) 1388–1426 1419
20 to 190 °C, while that of WHR HCPVT is ranging from 25 to and so on. Whereas the generated electricity of PV cells can be used
250 °C. The operating temperature of the thermal subsystem in to drive the devices of a thermal system, supply power to the con-
WHR CPVT is restricted by PV cells. The high temperature will sumers, or directly connect to the grid. The essential thing is to
increase the intrinsic carrier concentration and reduce the bandgap seek out the consumers with combined electrical and thermal
of PV cells. The conversion efficiency would be suffered because of energy demand. The extracted thermal yield temperatures of the
the reduction in open-circuit voltage [221]. For commercially researches may be higher than the temperature range of its appli-
available solar cells, there exists a temperature limitation. The cation. It is usually because of the secondary heat exchange. A
crystalline silicon solar cell efficiency would drop to 0 at 270 °C higher thermal yield temperature means a better Carnot efficiency.
[222], and the multi-junction GaAs solar cells cannot operate at If the thermal energy is appropriately used according to its temper-
over 400 °C [37]. Moreover, the melting point of the solder alloy ature, the exergy efficiency will be higher, which will also help to
of PV module is usually ranging from 130 to 300 °C [223], and thus reduce the costs.
the PV modules are usually claimed to be operated below 120 °C. For the thermal applications, there are several points to be
On the contrary, the thermally decoupled SBS CPVT systems have explained. To be able to use water for hot tap water or heating,
no such limitation as for the thermally coupled WHR CPVT. The the temperature must be at least 40 °C. Local heating systems are
HTF outlet temperature of SBS CPVT systems [32] could be much operated at a quite low temperature, below 70 °C, to avoid salt
higher, reaching over 500 °C at CR over 100 suns. A linear regres- crystallization in pipes or heat exchangers. In a district heating sys-
sion of the outlet temperature also shows that the regressed HTF tem, the hot water is distributed to the customer via a heat-supply
temperature in SBS CPVT systems increases more rapidly than network. A higher water temperature is necessary, but it is usually
WHR CPVT systems. below 100 °C, because the pressurized hot water or steam would
The applications of thermal energy according to the tempera- increase the complexity and costs. Various approaches can be used
ture are shown in Fig. 48. As WHR CPVT systems can provide ther- for water desalination, and the temperature ranges are listed as fol-
mal energy ranging from 20 to 250 °C, several thermal energy lows: for reversed osmosis, 25–45 °C; for multi-effect membrane
applications were discussed in researches, including the absorption distillation, 50–90 °C; for multi-stage evaporation or flash distilla-
cooling, desalination, local or district heating, Desiccant based air tion, 80–120 °C. The solar thermal energy can also be used to drive
conditioning, crop drying, organic Rankine cycle (ORC) power, an absorptive cooling process, producing chilled water for space
Fig. 47. (Color online) Comparison of the WHR CPVT and SBS CPVT: the HTF outlet temperature according to the concentration ratio and research field.
1420 X. Ju et al. / Science Bulletin 62 (2017) 1388–1426
Fig. 48. (Color online) The Carnot efficiency according to different applications and temperature of the recovered thermal energy.
cooling: for single-effect absorptive cooling, 50–150 °C; and for showed that the average efficiencies of LCPVT, MCPVT and HCPVT
double-effect absorptive cooling, 120–185 °C. If the thermal yield systems are respectively 49.3%, 53.9% and 67.2%, while that of the
temperature is much higher, an ORC (100–250 °C) or Rankine cycle theoretical results are respectively 70.0%, 75.3% and 75%. The effi-
(370–600 °C) would be a possible choice. ciencies of experimental results are much lower than the theoret-
Fig. 49 shows the application fields of WHR CPVT systems ical ones, especially for the systems with lower CRs. That is
studied in the documents. As mentioned before, the outlet tem- possible because the systems with lower CRs were not elaborately
perature of WHR CPVT systems is limited by PV cells, and thus designed and tested. High concentrated systems, which use high
providing high-temperature thermal energy would sacrifice the efficiency PV cells, 1-axis or 2-axis tracking systems, good thermal
PV efficiency. Therefore, most of the WHR CPVT systems are isolation, and precise control, would benefit the conversion effi-
explored for low temperature applications. Except for the 47% ciencies in real systems. It can also be observed from Fig. 50 that
application-not-specified researches, 55% (29% of the rest 53%) the systems with multi-junction solar cells will achieve better elec-
of the researches are concerned with the electricity supply, trical efficiencies. The 3-junction (3J) solar cells are more accepted
domestic hot water supply, and space heating of residential and in researches of HCPVT devices and researches aimed for applica-
commercial buildings. Combining with illumination for the build- tions. In researches regarding LCPVT and MCPVT devices, silicon
ings or greenhouses is also an optimal option, as different types of solar cells (a-Si, pc-Si and c-Si) are more commonly used.
energy can be provided by a single WHR CPVT system. Other
important application fields include the absorption cooling and
water desalination. These researches require higher operating 4. Conclusions
temperatures and more complex system configuration, but still
keep a reasonable economic value [197] since the final product WHR, SBS, EDF are research trends which are commonly uti-
prices also increase. lized to refine the conversion efficiency of CPVT systems. Although
A larger gap can be observed between the experimental and the majority of these investigations focus on WHR CPVT
theoretical efficiencies in Fig. 50a and b. The experimental results approaches, there is still no detailed review on this topic. The
X. Ju et al. / Science Bulletin 62 (2017) 1388–1426 1421
researches and developments of WHR CPVT systems, including systems are still far from the practical applications, and even pro-
the feasibility analyses, conceptual designs, testing fabrications, totypes are rarely tested.
theoretical and experimental performance evaluations, and the The WHR CPVT systems are still not mature and successful in
applied studies, are comprehensively reviewed in this paper. the market yet. There are several issues worth paying attention
The WHR CPVT systems with low, medium and high CRs show to in the future research and development.
different system configurations, characteristics, and research (1) System designs and optimizations based on dynamic simu-
trends. In addition, the results extracted from the documents lation and tests
are also beneficial to understand the current technical improve- Most of the researches on WHR CPVT design and optimization
ment of the WHR CPVT approach, and identify the potential diffi- are based on steady-state models. However, the system design
culties and barriers. and optimization highly depends on the time-related external con-
Nearly all kinds of concentrators are explored to be integrated ditions of a specified scene, such as the solar resource, meteorol-
into WHR CPVT systems. Development of LCPVT systems usually ogy, consumer demands, policy, and economy. Dynamic
aims to reduce the cost by combining with stationary, robust, simulation and tests are essential for the design and optimization
and low maintenance concentrators, while HCPVT systems aim to processes.
improve the conversion efficiencies as much as possible. This ten- (2) Reliability and robustness research
dency can be observed especially in the use of solar cells and heat Although there are many types of research which were con-
exchangers. From LCPVT to HCPVT, solar cells shift from silicon to ducted to verify the reliability and robustness of concentrators or
III-V multijunction, and the microchannels are used as heat flat-plate PVT receivers [224,225], investigations on this field of
exchangers rather than conventional tubes. Moreover, various WHR CPVT system rarely appeared in the documents. The reason
HTFs are tested, including ordinary fluids of air, water, and glycol, for this difference is supposed to be the difficulty in developing
and non-traditional fluids of refrigerant, oil, molten salt, and PCM reliable and robust CPVT receiver. The operating conditions of
materials. Generally, the investigations conducted on WHR CPVT the CVPT receiver are much tougher, especially under high concen-
have covered a wide range of system configurations. trated and non-uniform illuminations. However, the long-term test
The WHR CPVT systems are investigated in order to be used in on this research field is still necessary to prove that the WHR CPVT
numerous applications. The generated electricity can be used off- would be commercially available.
grid or on-grid, and the thermal energy can be utilized for residen- (3) CPVT receivers operating under high concentrated and non-
tial, commercial, and industrial purposes. For traditional or unpre- uniform illumination
tentious utilizations, including the domestic hot water, local As mentioned before, the WHR CPVT systems usually operate
heating. The WHR CPVT systems do not have to achieve a relatively under a deteriorated condition. The researches on high heat flux
high temperature, but must take the customer’s energy demand heat exchange technologies, including impinging jet flow,
into consideration. On the contrary, the applications combining microchannel, phase change [226] would be helpful for the tem-
complex auxiliaries or systems, including district heating, steam perature control of the receiver. Whereas, the non-uniform illumi-
cooking, crop drying, air conditioning, absorption cooling, desali- nation on PV module needs to be further investigated to reduce
nation and organic Rankine cycle, require significantly for high energy losses and alleviate the danger of potential damage. The
temperatures. Hence, such systems can be introduced in the man- researches on PV module’s connection methods [196,227,228],
ufacturing of various products, which helps to broaden the market heteromorphous PV modules, secondary optical elements and
for diverse energy demands. However, these complex WHR CPVT packaging [229] are significant in solving this problem.
Fig. 49. (Color online) WHR CPVT researches concerned for different applications.
1422 X. Ju et al. / Science Bulletin 62 (2017) 1388–1426
Fig. 50. (Color online) Electrical, thermal and overall efficiencies of WHR CPVT systems: (a) experimental results (b) theoretical results.
(4) Proper application area based on the energy demand and confusion of consumers. Thus, the development of other related
economic analysis. standards is critical for the WHR CPVT systems. The standards on
Since situations of the market diverse greatly in different areas PVT, CSP, CPV, PV, and solar thermal systems [225,232,233] would
and applications, it’s necessary to extract proper application area of be helpful for the initial standardization and commercialization of
WHR CPVT from the basic data of the potential market. The appli- the WHR CPVT systems.
cation area and designs of a WHR CPVT system should take more (6) Novel WHR CPVT development
influencing factors and constraints into consideration. Develop- As mentioned before, the WHR CPVT concept can be combined
ment of decision-making methodologies [230,231] for the system with SBS or EDF concepts to develop novel high efficiency ploygen-
application would accelerate the commercialization process. eration systems. Beside that there are also many other technologies
(5) Commercialization and standardization can be combined with the WHR CPVT, such as TPV, thermoelectrics,
A variety of different WHR CPVT systems have appeared in the photocatalytic process, etc. These inspired novel designs may lead
market, but the lack of standard would lead to uncertainty and to a new regime for the development of WHR CPVT approach.
X. Ju et al. / Science Bulletin 62 (2017) 1388–1426 1423
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