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A Tiger in The Heart The Javanese Rampok PDF
A Tiger in The Heart The Javanese Rampok PDF
A Tiger in The Heart The Javanese Rampok PDF
Wessing
A tiger in the heart: the Javanese rampok macan
In: Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 148 (1992), no: 2, Leiden, 287-308
Introduction
Over the years, mentions of a Javanese ceremony called rampok macan
have appeared occasionally in the literature, the most recent references
being those in Nieuwenhuys and Jaquet 1980 and Nieuwenhuys 1984 and
1988, and in a comment on these by Kousbroek (1984). These, however,
are only the latest in a long series of references to this ceremony, which
ceased to be performed in the early decades of the twentieth century.
As far as the details are concerned, the descriptions of this ceremony
- in which several tigers or panthers2 were killed in either of two ways -
are al1 very similar. Several writers (Pigeaud 1938:424; Nieuwenhuys
1984:9; Nieuwenhuys and Jaquet 1980:88) mention that this killing of
tigers had a more or less religious significante. Pigeaud (1938:424) inter-
prets it as the execution of an evil being on the orders of the ruler. This
execution was carried out by the community, he writes, in order to safe-
guard individuals from revenge by the tiger's soul. The death could even
be blamed on the tiger himself, because he himself jumped onto the spear
points in his attempt to escape, as wil1 be made clear below.
Nieuwenhuys and Jaquet (1980) closely echo this interpretation by
Pigeaud and add that the sacred aspects of the event are reflected in the
genera1 solemnity with which al1 the actions in the ritual were performed.
As Nieuwenhuys and Jaquet (1980:9) point out, the rampokan was part of
a series of ceremonies at the courts of the Centra1 Javanese rulers on the
occasion of the celebration of the end of the fast of Ramadan and the
beginning of the Muslim new year (cf. Ruzius 1905).
Aside from these mentions of the sacred nature of the event, the con-
sensus seems to have been that the tigers were killed in revenge for the
I An earlier version of this paper was presented at the Conference on Man and the Anirnal
World, Nijmegen, The Netherlands, 22 and 23 September 1988.1 would like to thank Huub
de Jonge for helpful cornrnents on this earlier draft.
2 The category macan includes both the tiger and the panther. Cornpare Wessing 1986.
ROBERT WESSING, presently a consultant with the Madura Research Center in Jernber,
Indonesia, is an anthropologist who obtained his Ph.D. at the University of Illinois in Urbana.
His publications include Cosmology and Social Behavior in a West Javanese Settlement and
The Soul of Ambiguity; The Tiger in Southeast Asia. Dr. Wessing's address is: c/o Prof.
Asselbergsstr. 4, 6524 RR Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
288 Robert Wessing
damage they had caused in killing livestock and people (Ruzius 1905:
3 1-32; Hope 1958:3). Hope sums it up by saying that the tiger was a feared
and hated animal, but that it was not permissible to kil1 him, except once
a year at Idul Fitri.
This view of the tiger as solely an evil being fit to be executed is
contradicted by other facts we know about attitudes towards tigers. As I
have shown elsewhere (1986), while the tiger is perceived as dangerous,
he is not considered evil per se. Aside from the occasional killing of
livestock, the nature of the tiger's evil or of the evil he represented (Pigeaud
1938:424-425; Reid 1989:38) is nowhere specified in the reports of the
killings.
In this article I will first of al1 look at the details of the ceremonies and
place them in the context both of what is known about the symbolic
meaning of tigers and of the courts at which these ceremonies took place.
In this way the meaning of the rituals and what the tigers represented may
become apparent. As time went by, the ritual value of the ceremonies
seems to have diminished. Rampokan tended to be 'put on', and even in
179 1 at the court in Yogyakarta had become a regular part of the enter-
tainment~held when receiving European guests (Ricklefs 1974:345-346;
Kern 194 1:29 1). Nieuwenhuys (1984:9- 10) dates the decline somewhat
later. He writes that the rampokan moved away from the courts to other
regencies around the 1860s - ostensibly because many tigers were found
there. I believe, given,'among others, Hogendorp's account, that Nieuwen-
huys' date is rather late.
However that may be, we get the impression that the rampokan slowly
lost its royal and ritual character and that the emphasis shifted towards its
function as a public amusement. Junghuhn ( l 845:206ff) gives no particu-
lar reason for the event which he describes, except that the Susuhunan
(ruler of Surakarta) was having trouble finding enough dogs to feed the
captive tigers that he used to keep in cages on the northern alun-alun
(Zimmerman 1919:318). Other authors speak of an amusement (Raffles
18 17:347), an entertainment (Rigg 1850:79), a festivity (Gevers Deynoot
1864:104), and a sport (Feith 1941). Even Pigeaud, who emphasizes the
ritual nature of the killing, mentions that in the end it tended to turn into
a spectacle. Even with this increased emphasis on entertainment, the whole
performance, writes Nieuwenhuys (1984:9- 1O), remained rooted in the
traditional beliefs concerning the tiger, namely the possibility of purifi-
cation of evil through the killing of this animal.
Onginally the ceremonies seem to have been divided into two parts.3
The first was a fight between a water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) or a banteng
(Bos sondaicus; Simoons and Simoons '1968:15) and a tiger, while in the
second part individual tigers were confronted with thousands of men
3 Reid (1989:37) rnentions the senenan (tournament held on Monday), of which these fights
cometimes forrned part. These senenan also included jousts, which will not be discussed
here.
A Tiger in the Heart: The Javanese Rampok Macan 289
armed with spears. As time went by and this event moved to the regencies,
the first part seems to have been scrapped (Nieuwenhuys 1984:9).
Before going on to discuss these matters further, I will first give a
description of the two different parts of the tiger killing ceremonies on the
basis of the vanous reports. Since the majority of these reports come from
Surakarta, I will take Surakarta as a focus and speak of the role of the
Susuhunan rather than that of the Sultan. The actual events seem to have
been practically identical in both cities.
Diagram of the kraton of Yogyakarta. (From Stutterheim 1948:122- 123. Used withpermission)
A Tiger in the Heart: The Javanese Rampok Macan 29 1
which is hardly appropriate for tiger fights. It is likely that what Junghuhn
meant was the pagelaran, where in Surakarta a special area was resemed
for the throne when the Susuhunan wanted to watch a rampokan (Zimmer-
man 1919:310), and which in both Yogyakarta and Surakarta is a tran-
sitional space between the inner kraton and the alun-alun. Other writers
mention seats of some sort for honoured guests erected outside, on the
kraton side of the alun-alun. Underneath the royal platform (Hope 1958:3)
a gamelan (Nieuwenhuys and Jaquet (1980:88) cal1 it a 'sacred gamelan')
played.
The cages containing the tigers or panthers (Sibinga Mulder 1944) were
placed in the centre of the alun-alun, around the fenced waringin (banyan)
trees (Hope 1958:3). Junghuhn (1 845) writes that in Surakarta they stood
in a row facing the Susuhunan. None of the descriptions from Surakarta
mentions the waringin trees in the centre of the alun-alun, although these
trees certainly seem to have been there (Stibbe 192 1:36); Zimmerman
(19 19:308), in fact, informs US that they were named Dewadaru (Heavenly
Wood) and Jayadaru (Conquering Wood). The cages were variously con-
structed so that either they could fa11 apart at the tug of a rope (Ruzius
1905:29) or their door was removable. The cages might be covered with
dry grass, while other flammable material seems to have been kept nearby.
Also somewhere near the centre there were one or two large basket-like
constructions, shaped like turtle shells, underneath which several armed
men were concealed.
The alun-alun itself was surrounded by 2000 to 3000 people armed with
pikes, lances and spears, some of which had poisoned tips, standing three
to four rows deep (Hope 1958:3). Ruzius (1905:26) talks of some Dutch-
men among them, and Sibinga Mulder mentions Chinese participants. The
spears in the inner row were held horizontally, those in the second row at
an angle, and the ones in the outer row were held up straight. The circle
created by these rows of spear-men measured about 300 feet in diameter.
The event began at a sign from the Susuhunan. As Rigg describes it:
hunan]. Two were squatted at the further end of the cage, each with
a wisp of lighted alang-alang. The third sat cross-legged, at the other
end of the cage, viz. that next to the . . . [Susuhunan], and close to
the door of the den. The . . . [Susuhunan] made a motion with his
hand, which No. 3. immediately perceiving, bowed his head in
reverence, lifted his hands above his head and arose, making obei-
sance before the . . . [Susuhunan]. Next he mounted upon the top of
the cage and stood there a moment upright. The three men were al1
dressed alike, were tal1 and handsome, in the prime of life. They were
in court dresses, and wore long close fitting white trousers. Round
their waists were wrapped batik kain panjangs of large white and
brown pattern; the ends of this article of dress hung in graceful folds
from their sides. The upper body was bare, on their head was a white
court cap, from under which the long black hair, in a twist, hung
down upon their backs. Each had a kris stuck in behind amongst the
folds of his dress. At his side was the court Wadung or chopper. The
man now standing upon the cage, slowly and gracefully drew his
Wadung and with its bright polished blade, after making a kind of
salute, cut the string which bound the door. The Wadung returned
to its sheath, he next grasped the door of the cage - this he drew up
and slapped down in its groove four or five times in quick succession,
and finally pulling it out, projected it upon the ground. Again making
obeisance he descended and reseated himself at the door of the cage,
now open; and in front of which merely a bunch of alang-alang was
hanging by way of a curtain. Here he sat for about a minute, while
the other two behind were arranging their burning wisps, in order
to communicate, after a while, with the grass which hung round the
cage. The dread suspense was at last terminated by the sign of the
. . . [Susuhunan's] hand; - gracefully, reverently and slowly, the man
at the mouth of the den, bowed himself in the dust, arose and joined
the two others; they al1 moved a few paces to the rear, when the
gamelan struck up, and the three together began a dance, one
leading, the other two abreast following. They moved as one man
- each inclination, each movement, each jump was in unison. True
to the tones of the gamelan, they slowly approached the ring of
spear-men, their progress was by a succession of long steps ofjumps,
with pauses between them. Their dresses floating in the air behind
them, they finally reached the circle.
The light did not at once communicate to the cage, and as soon
as the three men were out of the ring, one of the oval bamboo cages
was, al1 at once, seen in motion. Only the feet of the people within
could be seen, lifting it as a mighty shield they thus proceeded. They
poked bamboos through the interstices of their cel1 and pushed the
lighted alang-alang towards the cage, which now became speedily
enveloped in flames, and then returned to their former station. The
294 Robert Wessing
flames arose from al1 parts of the cage, but it was not til1 the door
way was in a blaze that any motion of the tiger could be perceived.
He came first half out but conscious of the company that surrounded
him, bolted back again. The smoke and flames, however, soon
forced him out, and the noble anima1 bounded forth on the open
space. The din of the gamelan was now redoubled, the tiger scowled
around him and prowling backwards and forwards in front of the
. . . [Susuhunan], appeared to be forming a plan of attack upon his
numerous enemies. He would approach the circle, and then as if his
heart failed, at the sight of the glittering spears bristling towards him,
would turn and retreat back to his blazing cage. Here was however,
no place of refuge - he stood stock still with his lower jaw hanging
down. If he communed with the outer world, the din of the gamelan
deprived US of his thoughts. Courage at last he summoned, and
doggedly galloped up to the circle. At the first prick of the spear
points, he partly flew off, but as quick as thought,rushed inwards and
at the circle again. But the sharp spears were too much for him, he
flung himself away, and then instantaneously tried those a-head. In
this way he ran round about one-third of the ring, but the men stood
firm and kept wounding him as he went; he at length rolled and got
up again, but his strength was fast failing, and he came down to rise
no more - a mass of spears being darted into every part of him, and
the stopping of the gamelan showed that he was dead.' (Rigg
1850:80-81.)
As before, other reports, varying in some of the details, are essentially the
same. Raffles (1 817:348) adds only that if the tiger did not attempt to
escape, six or eight men would approach him on the alun-alun and spear
him. As each tiger was killed, exactly the Same procedure was repeated
for each next one, until al1 the waiting tigers had been killed.
It sometimes happened that a tiger would manage to jump over the rows
of spear-men or somehow sneak through the lines. The reports vary on
how these animals were then treated. Gevers Deynoot (1864), Raffles
( l 8 17), Rigg (1 850), Ruzius (1905) and Sibinga Mulder (1944) state that
they were chased and killed, while Hope (1958) and Feith (1941) say that
they were let go because such tigers were sacred.
In order to understand the significance of these tiger killing ceremonies,
we must first look at the ecological and symbolic position of the tiger in
Java, as wel1 as at the nature of Javanese kingship and the symbolic
position of the kraton in the state. Much of what I will say about the tiger
is set forth in far greater detail in Wessing 1986. The tiger is a multi-vocal,
and thus very powerful symbol in Southeast Asia, whose relationship to
man is one as a shaman, ancestor, culture hero, royalty, and much more.
Only a few aspects of this complex relationship are directly involved in the
ceremonies under discussion here, and the focus will therefore be on these.
A Tiger in the Heart: The Javanese Rampok Macan 295
The Tiger
While the tiger today is an endangered species that has almost disappeared
from Java (Tempo 197953; Wessing 1991), in the past it was a common
anima1 in Indonesia and in Southeast Asia as a whole (Van Balen
1914:384ff;Breeden 1984). The tiger, like man, evolved as a forest edge
anima1 (Sundquist and Sundquist 1983:50). As a consequence, the ecolo-
gical niches of the two are quite similar and they have a tendency to
interfere with each other. Archaeological evidence shows that, since
the lower Pleistocene, human and tiger remains are associated with
each other and with those of the animals that they both hunted, some of
which man later domesticated (Bellwood 1979:58-59; Denis 1964:51;
Cheng 1982:lO-11). This association continues until the present. As man
settled down and made clearings in the forest for his fields and homes,
he created tiger habitat in the resultant new forest edge. At the same
time, his fields attracted the pigs and deer that are a favourite prey of the
tiger's.
Thus tigers came to live near human settlements and were often useful
in eliminating the pests that interfered with man's crops, rarely bothering
humans and only occasionally killing livestock (Kreemer 1922:188; .
Schaller 1967:277; Perry 1965:170- 171). It is only when this balance is
disturbed through a decline in the tiger's ability to procure prey (for
instance, due to man's over-hunting) that the tiger is forced to hunt among
man's livestock, and occasionally among humans themselves (Corbett
1978; Kompas 1980).
In brief, then, the ecological niches of tiger and man overlap enough for
there to be partial competition between them. At the Same time, a partial
symbiosis exists between them, based on man's gardens and the tiger's
prey. It is this ambiguous material relationship between man and the tiger
that is the basis for a symbolic relationship between them. As Sperber
(1974: 129) has pointed out, when animals partially share the human niche,
they are often regarded as neighbouring peoples and become 'candidates
for symbolic elaboration'.
Such a symbolic elaboration of the tiger has taken place al1 over South-
east Asia. Elsewhere (Wessing 1986) I have brought together al1 kinds of
stories from al1 over the region relating the mostly human origin of the
tiger. This idea of common ancestry with man reflects once again the
ecological interference between the two, giving the tiger the status not just
of a neighbour, but of a relative.
Among the Javanese, some of whom als0 ascribe a human ancestry to
him (Wessing 199 l), he is known as nenek (grandparent) or datuk (grand-
father) (Neill 1973:84; Van Balen 1914:359), as wel1 as guda (Sanskrit
gudha: 'hidden, secret', Anonymous 1845:142;Mardiwarsito 1978). These
terms are used instead of the tiger's name so as not to attract him when
in the forest. The implication is that the tiger, because of his human
ancestry, can understand human language. These pseudonyms further-
296 Ro bert Wessing
more indicate his relatedness to man and his mysteriousness in the eyes
of the Javanese.
The tiger is also related to man metaphorically. Occasionally he is
associated with Javanese royalty (De Jonge 1990; Van der Kroef
1954:858), but this association seems to have been subject to change,
depending on the context. In any case, this shows that the tiger cannot have
been purely a symbol of evil and that there must have been something more
to it. At other times the tiger was symbolically associated with the Dutch,
while the buffalo opposing him in the first part of the rampokun ceremony
is said to have stood for the Javanese or Indonesian people (Ricklefs
1974:275; Nieuwenhuys 1984:9). When two tigers put into one cage to
fight a buffalo killed each other instead, the Mangkubumi of Yogyakarta
is said to have been greatly amused, since the 'Dutch' tigers had killed each
other while the 'Javanese' banteng stood by watching (McNeeley and
Wachtel 1988:198).6
This association with the Dutch cannot, of course, have been an original
one, but must be seen as an accretion resulting from colonial intervention
in Javanese society. It shows, however, that the Javanese perception of the
relationship between men and tigers was such that room could be found
in it for placing Javanese-Dutch relations. The question is, then, what was
this perception?
Tigers properly make their home in the forest, a place of mystery (guda)
and danger. Men, on the other hand, live in villages and towns, safe places
of civilization and the known (cf. Lombard 1974).The tiger, however, due
to his ecological relationship with man, has a tendency to invade man's
villages and towns. He comes where he does not belong, to places from
which he has, in fact, according to some stories, been expelled (Wessing
1986:lO-12).The Dutch may be seen in a similar light. They, too, were
symbolically related to the Javanese, at least earlier on, as 'younger broth-
ers' (Ricklefs 1974:374ff), and they, too, were a foreign, disturbing
element in Javanese society. A characteristic of the tiger, then, is that he
is intrusive - a dangerous, unpredictable foreign element in the (at least
theoretically) ordered whole of Javanese society.
6 In the context of a conflict with the Minangkabau, the intrusive Javanese were said to be
represented by a tiger, which was defeated by the Minangkabau buffalo.
A Tiger in the Heart: The Javanese Rampok Macan 297
'Dalang: This is a kingdom with mountains behind, wet rice fields to the
right, dry fields to the left, and a great port in front. It is fertile and al1 prices
are inexpensive. Peaceful are the journeys of its merchants who enter the
port unceasingly by day and night experiencing no difficulties on their
voyages. Many people have moved here and neighboring houses are so
close that their roofs touch. A place which is broad seems narrow because
of the wealth of the kingdom . . . The ministers and governors and officials
are honest and intelligent as should be in a rich kingdom.'
For the fusion of Siva and Vishnu, see Dowson (1972: 1 17, 297).
298 Robert Wessing
Thus, one measure of the suitability of a ruler is the genera1 welfare, peace
and tranquility of the realm. Psychological tranquility, or quietness of the
heart, was another measure of this. In fact, as Moertono (1981:3) writes,
'The Javanese . . . would not consider the state to have fulfilled its obli-
gations if it did not encourage an inner psychological order (tentrem, peace
and tranquility of heart) as wel1 as enforcing the forma1 order (tata). Only
then is the state of perfect balance, of perfect harmony achieved.'
Such psychological harmony (tentrem) ideally existed in its purest form
in the centre of the realm. There the most refined (halus) behaviour had
to be in evidence, the most halus of al1 being, in theory, that of the ruler.
In fact, theoretically the presence of an appropriate ruler, a reflection of
the deity, in the centre should in itself be enough for the system to work
properly. This is especially true since kesakten, or cosmic power, is mani-
fested on the individual level as semangat, or soul (Wessing 1986:104ff).
In other words, the individual soul (semangat) is the animating cosmic
kesakten uniquely manifested in the individual. Thus, tentrem is at the Same
time an individual psychological tranquility and a harmonious reflection
of kesakten, the universa1 animating force. In the person of the ruler, whose
position at the centre makes him especially vital, this tranquility translates
itself int0 a national, if not cosmic, harmony.
Thus we read that at the beginning of a rampokan the Susuhunan of
Surakarta 'sat staring right before him, towards the north, without moving
a muscle . . .' (Rigg 1850:78) and that 'the Susuhunan resembles a dol1 and
does not show any expression: Javanese etiquette considers it unseemly to
let oneself be moved by passions. Al1 outbursts of feeling are improper
[kasar] and the "Spike of the World" may not let himself be moved out
of his exalted repose by anything' (Junghuhn 1845:208; cf. Anderson
1972:42-43).
According to the ideal model, then, as long as the appropriate ruler, a
reflection of the deity, ruled properly at the centre, welfare, harmony and
tranquility would ensue. That this was so was evidenced by the welfare,
harmony and tranquility at the centre, especially in the person of the ruler.
Yet reality does not always exactly come up to the ideal. Quite often
politica1 and military power struggles violently disturbed the harmony and
tranquility of the centre (cf. Schulte Nordholt 1983:665), while even an
accumulation of smaller disharmonies can pull the system out of align-
ment. If the state was to continue to prosper, however, this disarrangement
had to be redressed, if it was not eventually to cause greater disharmony
and thus put an end to prosperity and an end to the realm. It was necessary,
therefore, to eliminate disruptive disharmony from the system.
One symbol of this force threatening order and life itself is the tiger. As
is demonstrated in Wessing 1986, the relations between men and tigers,
as among men themselves, are ambiguous. Sometimes an ally, at other
times the tiger may suddenly turn and bring on disaster, and in this respect
it seems to have an affinity with men. Unintended slights and perceived
A Tiger in the Heart: The Javanese Rampok Macan 299
Analysis
Although at a later date the rampokan seems to have been staged on
various occasions, it is clear that in the old days at least at the courts of
Yogyakarta and Surakarta it used to be an event associated with the end
of the fast. Al1 the descriptions date from the 19th century, and there is
surprisingly no textual evidence for its pre-Islamic occurrence in Java.
Pigeaud (19625 18-5 19) believed that the ritual probably did occur ear-
lier, and had expected to have found mention of it in the Nägarakërtägama
or other contemporary texts. He attributes this gap in the literature to
difficulties in catching and transporting tigers in the Majapahit period
owing to a scarcity of people and to bad roads.
Staged fights between tigers and other animals seem to have been a
regular feature in 16th- and 17th-century Southeast Asia. Reid (1989:3,
37) mentions weekly anima1 fights in Aceh during the reign of Sultan
Iskandar Muda (r. 1607- 1636), while there are reports from 17th-century
Thailand and Laos of frequent fights between elephants and tigers. Reid
further mentions contests between elephants and buffaloes and tigers in
Southern Vietnam and Malaysia. Further afield, from Mysore, we have a
report of a fight between a buffalo and a tiger (Henty 1895:2 10), and on
a Mohenjo Daro seal the symbolic representation of a buffalo and a tiger
in opposition (Hiltebeitel 1978:774, n. 20), al1 of which indicates that the
ideas behind the ceremony are probably older and more widespread than
Islamic Java.8
Volchok (Hiltebeitel 1978:774, n.20) connects buffalo sacrifices to
Durga in ancient India with the end of the rainy season, which is the time
of the harvest and renewed prosperity. However, the tiger and the buffalo
seem to be the Same to the goddess, who is the source of wealth and
fertility. The blood of either, reports Blaquiere, wil1 satisfy her for 100
8 In Islam there are actually associations with the lion, an animal that is not found in
Southeast Asia, where its functions are superimposed on the tiger. In East Java, in fact, the
tiger is sometimes popularly known as singa (lit. 'lion'). In Middle Eastem lore the lion (Ar.
asad) is associated with Sayyidina Ali (Our Lord Ali), which association is transferred to
the tiger as well. Thus in Cirebon the tiger, 'macan Ali', figures on the flag and on the coat
of arms of the kraton (Martin van Bruinessen, personal communication).
3O0 Robert Wessing
9 Hefner (1985:46-47) rnentions the sacnfice of the 'fruits of the past year's labors', such
as 'food, crops, money, and smal1 live-stock', during the annual Kasada feast at Mt. Bromo,
which marks the end of the Tengger calendar year.
'0 This arena is reminiscent of the ring used for cock-fights, described as follows by Geertz
(1973a:425): '. . .the cock ring stood in the center of the village near those other rnonuments
of Balinese civility - the council house, the origin temple, the market place, the signa1
tower, and the banyan tree'.
A Tiger in the Heart: The Javanese Rampok Macan 30 1
11 O'Flaherty (1988:86) points out that wild animals, because they are divine, may only be
sacrificed by the god, who himself participates in wildness. Since the ruler is in a sense
identical with the god, the role of the Susuhunan in the ritual descnbed in this paper
becomes much clearer.
302 Robert Wessing
in this case the alun-alun with the banyans. The kraton is slightly to the
south of the centre, appropriate to the buffalo.
The buffalo, however, like the tiger, is ambiguous. As was evident from
the Manikmaya story, the buffalo is a 'wild' beast from 'outside' which was
brought int0 the community, as opposed to the tiger, which, according to
some stories, was an insider who was cast out (Wessing 1986). The tiger
and the buffalo, then, both belong to the inside and the outside, and thus
both are ambiguous. They also both reside in the human soul and in the
Dewi, who is the sakti (divine power or cosmic energy; Stutley and Stutley
1977:74) of SivaIVishnu.
The ruler of the realm is associated wiih SivaIVishnu, and Siva again
is connected with the bull (Nandin) and with the tiger, like his sakti, the
Dewi (Dowson 1972:217,299). As Hiltebeitel (1978:778) observes, fur-
thermore, Vishnu is always associated with the centre, whereas Siva may
be characterized as an outsider. Yet Siva, in his manifestation as ruler of
human realms, belongs to the centre, and so we see the ambiguity of the
bull and the tiger once again.
This exteriority of both is also clear from the kayon or gunungan, the
centra1 prop in the wayang (shadow play) performance (cf. Wessing 1988;
Rassers 1959). This mountain- or tree-shaped object, symbolizing Mt.
Meru, often displays the buffalo confronting the tiger. On a Mohenjo Daro
seal the Same scene is depicted, but here there is a mediatior in the form
of a horned centra1 figure (Siva; Dowson 1972:298) - the outsider who has
penetrated to the centre.12
Rassers (1959: 184) has described the opposition between the buffalo
and the tiger as 'the emblem of the two sides of the [sacred] men's house
and thus, as it were, the totems of the rival phratries of this community
. . .', which view is shared by Van der Kroef (1954:858) and Pigeaud
(1938:435). This interpretation may be too concrete, however, and what
is expressed here may be something far more subtle.
Since both the buffalo and the tiger are associated with the human soul,
it may perhaps be fruitful to view their opposition as a confrontation
between different, ambiguous aspects of this soul. After all, the tiger
belongs to the wild, chaotic and dangerous outside, although it also brings
health and salvation (Hiltebeitel 1978:783; Wessing 1986:51-63). The
buffalo, being of the south, is associated with death and disease, but also
with rebirth and continuity (Hiltebeitel 1978:783) and, having been do-
mesticated, with the social order. This then may be what is expressed by
the confrontation on the alun-alun - a confrontation between order and
chaos, between the known and safe world and the dangerous forces
threatening to take it apart.
This Same conflict must also have been perceived as existing in the ruler,
l2 In a sense, this would imply that the tiger, an outsider, has grown (buffalo) horns. This is
evocative of thejenggiri, an animal with the body of a tiger and the head of a bovine, which
served a prince as vehicle (R. Ng. Yasadipura I 1982:16 1).
A Tiger in the Heart: The Javanese Rampok Macan 303
who, as we have seen, possesses the qualities both of the buffalo (fertility
and domesticity) and of the tiger (wildness, slyness and danger), leading
US to conclude that both sets of qualities, although in opposition to each
other, were considered desirable for the ruler - those of the buffalo for the
promotion of internal welfare, and those of the tiger as evidence of his
power, authority and ability to face external danger. This way, both inside
and outside, civilized culture and wild nature, were combined in the person
of the ruler, making him the summation of all. The tigrine qualities,
however, useful though they may be in situations of conflict, may have
been viewed as a disturbing influence in times of peace, as an influence
to be controlled if not eliminated.
And so the buffalo and the lance-men indeed represented the com-
munity, as was observed in some of the descriptions of the ceremony. But
the tiger was not just some evil being that had to be dispatched. He was
the spiritual antithesis to civilized life and tenfrem, the intrusion of chaos
into the heart of the realm as wel1 as that of men. He was an intrusive
presence that had to be destroyed, over and over again, because, in the
Same way as in the wayang (shadow play) the two sides never defeat each
other once and for al1 (Anderson 1965), the chaos, too, continually reap-
pears and thus must be defeated over and over again. It was for this reason
that so much emphasis was placed on the defeat of the tiger (Pigeaud
1938:424, 434; Crawfurd 1967:116; Ricklefs 1974:275; Reid 1989:38).
As the tiger is killed, at the beginning of the new year (itself a boundary
and the mark of a new beginning), the centre is once more purified, and
thus welfare and harmony are ensured and, metaphorically, the hearts of
the realm and the ruler are cleansed.
Conclusion
It remains for US now to look at the changes that occurred in the ceremo-
nies with time and to see how this whole discussion fits in with recent
models of. state ceremonies in Indonesia. Earlier-I noted that changes
began to occur in the ceremonies around the early 18th century. This was
a gradual process and represented not so much a sudden change as a slow
shift in the way the ceremonies were perceived. The exact dates are of
course difficult, if not impossible, to trace. However, if these events, in
Geertz' (1973a:448) words, are local readings of local experiences, 'a story
they tel1 themselves about themselves', then a change in the way the story
is told must indicate something about changes in local experience. In any
case, at about this time the ceremonies moved away from the courts of
Centra1 Java to areas like Tumapel, Blitar and (Kediri, where tigers were
more plentiful. About this Same time, the confrontation between the buf-
fa10 and the tiger seems mostly to have been dropped, and what was left
of the rampokan more and more took on the appearance of a public show,
an entertainment for visiting Dutch dignitaries, or a fun way to dispatch
excess tigers. The participation of Dutch and Chinese pike-men seems to
304 Robert Wessing
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