Tomasi Full Reviewer PDF
Tomasi Full Reviewer PDF
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to express their deepest gratitude to the following persons who helped
First of all, to the Almighty God who gave the authors the knowledge and strength to finish this
book review.
To their friends and classmates for the help and encouragement imparted to them.
To their adviser Engr. Jaime P. Licuanan who assisted and taught them the necessary
Tomasi.
And to those whom they forgot to mention, their sincerest and deepest thanks to all of you.
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BOOK REVIEW IN COMMUNICATIONS Electronic Communications System By Wayne Tomasi
CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS
TERMS DEFINITIONS
Electronic The fundamental purpose of _______________ is to transfer
Communication information from one place to another.
System
It can be summarized as the transmission, reception, and processing
Electronic of information between two or more locations using electronic
Communication circuits.
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BOOK REVIEW IN COMMUNICATIONS Electronic Communications System By Wayne Tomasi
The Radio Act of 1912 in the United States brought order to the
radio bands by requiring station and operators licenses and
1912
assigning blocks of the frequency spectrum to the existing users.
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Quadrature Amplitude
A modulation technique where both the amplitude and the phase of
Modulation
the carrier are varied proportional to the information signal.
( QAM )
Modulation is performed in a transmitter by a circuit called?
Modulator
The reverse process of modulation and converts the modulated
carrier back to the original information.
Demodulation
Demodulation is performed in a receiver by a circuit called?
Demodulator
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Terrestrial Microwave
AM FM Satellite Gamma Cosmic
radio TV and radar Infrared Visible Ultraviolet X-ray ray ray
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (Hz)
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BOOK REVIEW IN COMMUNICATIONS Electronic Communications System By Wayne Tomasi
Are signals in the 3GHz to 30GHz range and include the majority
Super High
of the frequencies used for microwave and satellite radio
Frequencies
communications systems.
( SHF )
Are signals in the 30GHz to 300GHz range and are seldom used for
Extremely High
radio communications except in very sophisticated, expensive, and
Frequencies
specialized applications.
( EHF )
Are signals in the 0.3THz to 300THz range and are not generally
referred to as radio waves. Used in heat seeking guidance systems,
Infrared electronic photography, and astronomy.
The first symbol is a letter that designates the type of modulation of the main carrier.
The second symbol is a number that identifies the type of emission.
The third symbol is another letter that describes the type of information being
transmitted.
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BOOK REVIEW IN COMMUNICATIONS Electronic Communications System By Wayne Tomasi
N Unmodulated Carrier
Amplitude
Modulation
A Double-Sideband Full Carrier (DSBFC)
B Independent Sideband Full Carrier (ISBFC)
C Vestigial Sideband Full Carrier (VSB)
H Single-Sideband Full Carrier (SSBFC)
J Single-Sideband Suppressed Carrier (SSBSC)
R Single-Sideband Reduced Carrier (SSBRC)
Angle Modulation
F Frequency Modulation (Direct FM)
G Phase Modulation ( Indirect Modulation)
D AM and FM Simultaneously or Sequenced
Phase Modulation
K Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
L Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
M Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
P Unmodulated Pulses (Binary Data)
Q Angle Modulation During Pulses
V Any Combination of Pulse-Modulation Category
W Any Combination of two or more of the above
forms of modulation
X Cases Otherwise Covered
Second 0 No Modulating Signal
1 Digitally Keyed Carrier
2 Digitally Keyed Tone
3 Analog (sound or video)
7 Two or More Digital Channel
8 Two or More Analog Channel
9 Analog or Digital
Third A Telegraphy, Manual
B Telegraphy, Automatic (teletype)
C Facsimile
D Data, Telemetry
E Telephony (Sound Broadcasting)
F Television (Video Broadcasting)
N No Information Transmitted
W Any Combination of Second letter
The two most significant limitations on the performance of a
Noise and Bandwidth communications system are?
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BOOK REVIEW IN COMMUNICATIONS Electronic Communications System By Wayne Tomasi
or
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BOOK REVIEW IN COMMUNICATIONS Electronic Communications System By Wayne Tomasi
N = KTB
N = noise factor
B = bandwidth (Hz)
K = Boltzmann’s proportionality Johnson proved that thermal noise power is proportional to the
constant
T = absolute temp.(Kelvin) product of bandwidth and temperature.
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Signal-to-Noise Power
Ratio ( S/N )
The ratio of the signal power level to the noise power level.
NF (dB) = 10 log F
Friiss Formula
F2 1 F3 1 Fn 1
FT F1
A1 A1 A2 A1A2 An
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BOOK REVIEW IN COMMUNICATIONS Electronic Communications System By Wayne Tomasi
Note that to use the Friiss formula, the noise figure must be converted to noise factor. The total
noise figure is simply
N FT (dB) 10 log FT
Equivalent Noise
A convenient parameter often used rather than noise figure in low
Temperature
noise, sophisticated VHF, UHF, microwave, and satellite radio
( Te )
receivers. It indicates the reduction in the signal-to-noise ratio a
signal undergoes as it propagates through a receiver.
Te = T ( F – 1 )
CHAPTER 2:
SIGNAL ANALYSIS AND MIXING
TERMS DEFINITIONS
Quaternary Digital
A four-level digital signal.
Signals
Periodic Wave
A wave that repeats at a uniform rate.
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Duty Cycle Is the ratio of the active time pulse to the period of the waveform.
Fundamental
Is the first harmonic and equal to the frequency of the waveform.
Frequency
Wave Symmetry Describes the symmetry of the waveform in the time domain.
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Changing the signal’s frequency content and, thus, the shape of its
Bandlimiting
waveform.
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BOOK REVIEW IN COMMUNICATIONS Electronic Communications System By Wayne Tomasi
Where:
Single-Frequency v(t) = time-varying voltage sine wave
Voltage and Current i(t) = time-varying current sine wave
Waveform V = peak voltage (Volts)
f = frequency (Hertz)
θ = phase shift (Radians)
I = peak current (Amperes)
2πf = angular velocity (Radians per Second)
Even Symmetry
Even Functions : f(t) = f(-t)
Functions
Odd Symmetry
Odd Functions : f(t) = -f(-t)
Functions
Half-Wave Symmetry
Functions
Half-Wave Functions : f(t) = -f(T + t) / 2
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BOOK REVIEW IN COMMUNICATIONS Electronic Communications System By Wayne Tomasi
Duty Cycle DC = (Ƭ / T)
%DC = (Ƭ / T) x 100
V0 = ( V )(Ƭ / T)
V0 = ( V )(DC)
Rectangular
Waveform with
Where:
0 Hz (dc) Component
V0 = dc voltage (volts)
DC = duty cycle as a decimal
Ƭ = pulse of the rectangular wave (seconds)
T = period of the rectangular wave (seconds)
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Where:
Vn = peak amplitude of the nth harmonic (volts)
n = nth harmonic (any positive integer)
π = 3.14159 radians
V = peak amplitude of the rectangular wave (seconds)
Ƭ = pulse width of the wave (seconds)
T = period of the rectangular wave (seconds)
CHAPTER 3:
OSCILLATORS, PHASE-LOCKED LOOPS, AND FREQUENCY
SYNTHEZISERS
TERMS DEFINITIONS
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Regenerative Also called as positive feedback, where its phase aids the oscillation
Feedback process.
Degenerative Also called as negative feedback and supplies a feedback signal that
Feedback inhibits oscillations from occurring.
Open-loop Voltage Is the voltage gain of the amplifier with the feedback path open
Gain circuited.
Closed-loop Voltage Is the overall voltage gain of the complete circuit with the feedback
Gain loop closed and is always less than the open-loop voltage gain.
Wien-bridge
Oscillator Is an unturned RC phase shift oscillator that uses both positive and
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Crystal Oscillators Are feedback oscillator circuits in which the LC tank circuit is
replaced with a crystal for the frequency-determining component.
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Positive Temperature If the direction of the frequency change is the same as the
Coefficient temperature change.
Negative
If the change in frequency is in the direction opposite to the
Temperature
temperature change.
Coefficient
Ex: XR-2207
Monolithic Voltage-
controlled Oscillators
An integrated circuit featuring excellent frequency stability and a
wide tuning range.
Monolithic Precision
Oscillators Ex: XR-2209
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Free running
3 Operating States of
Capture
PLL
Lock
There must be an external input signal, and the feedback loop must
Capture State
be complete.
The VCO output frequency is locked onto (equal to) the frequency
Lock State
of the external input signal.
Acquisition Time or
The time required to achieve lock.
Pull-in Time
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fO = 1 / 2πRC
Frequency of
Oscillation (fO ) for Where:
RC Oscillators R = R1 = R2
C = C1 = C2
Frequency of fO = 1 / 2π√LC
Oscillation (fO ) for
Hartley Oscillators Where:
L = L1a + L1b
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C = C1
fO = 1 / 2π√LC
Frequency of
Oscillation (fO ) for Where:
Colpitts Oscillators L = L1
C = (C1aC1b) / (C1a + C1b)
Δf = k (fn ΔC)
Where:
Change of Frequency
Δf = change in frequency (Hertz)
in Crystal
k = temperature coeffiecient (Hz/MHz/°C)
fn = natural crystal frequency (Megahertz)
ΔC = change in temperature (degrees Celsius)
Frequency Operation
fO = fn + Δf
of Crystal
Series Resonant
Frequency of Quartz f1 = 1 / 2π√LC1
Crystal
Cd = C / √(1 + 2 l Vr l )
Capacitance of
Where:
Varactor Diode
C = diode capacitance with 0 V reverse bias (Farads)
l Vr l = magnitude of fiode reverse-bias voltage (Volts)
Cd = reverse-biased diode capacitance (Farads)
Formula for
Determining Two f1 = 1 / R1 C
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Frequencies of f2 = 1 / R2 C
Operation of a
Monolithic Function Where:
Generator R1 = resistor connected to pin 7
R2 = resistor connected to pin 8
Voltage-to-frequency
K = (Δf / ΔVC) = (-0.32 / RCC) (Hz / V)
Conversion Gain K
fO = fn ± Δf
Where:
Output Frequency of
fO = VCO output frequency (Hertz)
VCO
fn = VCO natural frequency (Hertz)
Δf = f1 – fn (Hertz)
f1 = external input frequency (Hertz)
Ko = Δf / ΔV
θe = θi – θo
Phase Difference or
Where:
Phase Error in Phase
θe = phase error (radians)
Comparator
θi = phase of the VCO output signal voltage (radians)
θo = phase of the external input signal voltage (radians)
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KL = KdKfK aKo
Where:
K L = PLL open-loop gain (Hertz per radian)
PLL Open-loop Gain
K d = phase comparator gain (volts per radian)
K f = low-pass filter gain
K a = amplifier gain
K o = VCO gain (Hertz per volt)
±Vd(max) = [θ e(max)](Kd)
= ± (π / 2)rad x (K d)
Maximum Phase
Comparator Output
Where:
Voltage
±Vd(max) = maximum peak change at the phase comparator output
voltage
K d = phase comparator transfer function
Maximum Change in
VCO Output ±Δfmax = ± (π / 2)rad x K dKfK aKo
Frequency
Where:
Lock Range
K L = K dKfKo for a simple loop with a PLF, phase comparator,
and VCO
= KdKfKaKo for a loop with an amplifier
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BOOK REVIEW IN COMMUNICATIONS Electronic Communications System By Wayne Tomasi
Where:
fn = VCO free-running frequency (Hertz)
f = VCO output frequency with pin 10 open circuited (Hertz)
Rx = external resistance (kiloohms)
Co = external timing capacitor (microfarads)
Ko = (700 / Co Ro ) (rad/s) / V
VCO Transfer
Where:
Function
K o = VCO conversion gain (radians per second per volt)
Co = capacitance (microfarads)
Ro = resistance (kiloohms)
Av = -Rf / (Rs + Rp )
Kv = (K dKaK o ) / n
Open-loop Gain for
the Frequency
Where:
Synthesizer
n = factor of open-loop gain reduced by frequency divider
CHAPTER 4:
AMPLITUDE MODULATION TRANSMISSION
TERMS DEFINITIONS
Demodulation The reverse process of modulation where the received signals are
transformed back to their original form.
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Lower Side
Any frequency within the lower sideband is called.
Frequency
Upper Side
Any frequency within the upper sideband is called?
Frequency
Low-Level
Modulation The modulation takes place prior to the output element of the final
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High-Level The modulation takes place in the final element of the final stage
Modulation where the carrier signal is at its maximum amplitude.
Nonsinusoidal
Complex waveforms comprised of two or more frequencies.
Signals
Complex Repetitive Are complex waves made up of two or more harmonically related
Waveforms sine waves and include square, rectangular, and triangular waves.
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CHAPTER 5:
AMPLITUDE MODULATION RECEPTION
TERMS DEFINITIONS
The ratio of the bandwidth 60dB below maximum signal level and
Shape Factor bandwidth 3dB below maximum signal level.
1-dB Compression Defined as the output power when the RF amplifier response is 1 dB
Point less than the ideal linear-gain response.
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Low-side Injection / When the local oscillator is tuned below the RF it is?
Low-beat Injection
The side frequencies undergo a sideband reversal during the
Sideband Inversion heterodyning process called?
Tracking Error The difference between the actual oscillator frequency and the
desired frequency.
Any frequency other than the selected radio frequency carrier that, if
Image Frequency allowed to enter a receiver and mix with the local oscillator, will
produce a cross-product frequency that is equal to the intermediate
frequency.
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MEsa Semiconductor A FET with a metal-semiconductor junction at the gate of the device,
FET Semiconductor called a Schottky barrier.
FET
( MESFET )
NE / SA5200 A wideband, unconditionally stable, low-power, dual-gain linear
integrated-circuit RF amplifier manufactured by Signetics
Corporation.
Conversion Gain The difference between the level of the IF output with an RF input
signal to the level of the IF output with an IF input signal.
Self-excited Mixer A configuration where the mixer excites itself by feeding energy
back to the local oscillator tank circuit to sustain oscillations noise
figure.
Inductive or The most common technique used for coupling where the voltage
Transformer that is applied to the primary windings of a transformer is transferred
Coupling to the secondary windings.
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Critical Coupling resistance an d the Q of the primary tank circuit is halved and the
bandwidth doubled.
Automatic Gain A circuit that compensates for minor variations in the received RF
Control signal.
( AGC )
It prevents the AGC feedback voltage from reaching the RF or IF
Delayed AGC amplifiers until the RF level exceeds a predetermined magnitude.
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The ratio of the demodulated signal level at the output of the receiver
Net Receiver Gain (audio) to the RF signal level at the input to the receiver, or the
difference between the audio signal level in dBm and the RF signal
level in dBm.
CHAPTER 6:
SINGLE – SIDEBAND COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS
TERM DESCRIPTION
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BOOK REVIEW IN COMMUNICATIONS Electronic Communications System By Wayne Tomasi
Destructive Reflected energy that cancels and attenuates the incident wave energy.
Interference
Constructive Reflected energy that aids the incident wave energy.
Interference
Unidirectional A transducer which launches the acoustic wave in only one direction.
Transducer
Any difference between the transmit and receive local oscillator
frequencies produces a _______ in the demodulated information
frequency offset error
signal.
An SSB receiver that uses a PLL carrier recovery circuit and a frequency
Multichannel Pilto synthesizer to produce coherent local and beat frequency oscillator
Carrier frequencies.
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CHAPTER 7:
ANGLE MODULATION TRANSMISSION
TERMS DEFINITION
FM and PM
Two forms of angle modulation.
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Instantaneous
Frequency The precise frequency of the carrier at a given instant of time and is
= rad/sec defined as the first time derivative of the instantaneous phase.
Phase modulation = =K
Frequency modulation = rad/sec
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Percent modulation is
modulation =
A circuit which the carrier is varied in such a way that its instantaneous
Frequency phase is proportional to the integral of the modulating signal.
Modulator
Frequency modulator is often called?
Frequency deviator
It is the first kind for several values of modulation index provides the
Bessel Function number of side frequency pairs and their corresponding magnitude.
Low-index Case
The modulation index is less than 1.
Medium Index
Modulation indices greater than 1 and less than 10.
Narrowband FM
Low-index FM systems are sometimes called?
Carson’s Rule
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= modulating signal that includes approximately 98% of the total power in the modulated
= peak frequency wave.
deviation
Deviation Ratio
DR =
DR = Deviation Ratio (unit less)
= maximum peak frequency deviation (hertz)
= maximum modulating signal frequency (hertz)
The 20–MHz band is divided into 100, ________ wide channels beginning at
200 kHz
88.1 MHz.
To provide high-quality, reliable music, the maximum frequency
75 kHz ; deviation allowed is _______ with a maximum modulating-signal
15 kHz
frequency of _______.
The highest side frequencies from one channel are allowed to spill over into
Adjacent Channel
adjacent channels, producing an interference known as?
Interference
Break Frequency
It occurs at the frequency where and equal R.
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Varactor Diode,
FM Reactance, Three common methods for producing direct frequency modulation.
Linear IC
Modulations
It is used to transform changes in the modulating signal amplitude to
changes in the frequency.
Varactor Diode
Varactor Diode Direct frequency modulator used for low-index Applications, such as
Direct FM two-way mobile radio.
Modulator
FM Reactance A direct FM modulator using a JFET as the active device.
Modulator
Linear IC VCO Can generate a direct FM output waveform that is relatively stable,
and Function accurate, and directly proportional to the input modulating signal.
Generators
Angle modulation in which the frequency of the carrier is deviated
Direct PM indirectly by the modulating signal.
Varactor Diode
and Transistor Two common methods for producing direct phase modulation.
Direct PM
Modulator
Frequency Up- The process of up-converting the frequency of the modulated carrier
Conversion after modulation has been performed.
Heterodyning and
Frequency Two basic methods of performing frequency up-conversion.
Multiplication
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CHAPTER 8:
ANGLE MODULATION RECEPTION AND FM STEREO
TERMS DEFINITIONS
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The section that establishes the signal-to- noise ratio and noise figure
RF Amplifier
in FM receivers.
IF Amplifiers The section that provide most of the gain and selectivity.
Detector The section that removes the information from the modulated wave.
Limiter,
Frequency The envelope (peak) detector common to AM receivers is replaced
Discriminator and in FM receivers by a ________, ________, and ________.
De-emphasis Network
Frequency
The circuit that extracts the information from the modulated wave.
Discriminator
Slope Detector,
Foster-Seely Circuits used for demodulating FM signals.
Discriminator,
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Ratio Detector,
PLL Demodulator,
and
Quadrature Detector
Tuned-Circuit
Circuits that convert FM to AM and then demodulate the AM
Frequency
envelope with conventional peak detectors.
Discriminators
Balanced Slope Is simply two single-ended slope detectors connected in parallel and
Detector fed 180 out of phase.
Threshold,
Quieting, or The limiter circuit produces a constant-amplitude output for all input
Capture Level signals above a prescribed minimum input level, which is often
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FM Thresholding, The improvement in the S/N ratio when the peaks of the signal have
FM Quieting, or the limiter so far into saturation that the weaker noise is totally
FM Capture Effect eliminated.
Frequency-Locked- A circuit that is used to reduce the total harmonic distortion (THD)
Loop by compressing the IF frequency swing (deviation).
Stereophonic
With this transmission, the information signal is spatially divided
Transmission
into two 50-Hz to 15-kHz audio channels (a left and a right).
Subsidiary
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Frequency Division The process of placing two or more independent channels next to
Multiplexing each other in the frequency domain (stacking the channels), and then
( FDM ) modulating a single high-frequency carrier with the combined signal.
Two-Way Mobile
Half-duplex, one-to-many radio communications with no dial tone.
Radio
Amateur ( HAM ) Cover a broad-frequency band from 1.8 MHz to above 300 MHz.
Radio Designed for personal use without pecuniary interest.
Aeronautical
Broadcasting Provides 2.8 MHz to 457 MHz. ABS disseminates information for
Service the purposes of air navigation and air-to-ground communications
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Mobile Telephone
Full-duplex, on-to-one radio telephone communications.
Service
Two-Way FM Radio Is used extensively for public safety mobile communications, such
Communications as police and fire departments and emergency medical services.
Electronic It was used rather than a simple mechanical switch to reduce the
Push-To-Talk static noise associated with contact bounce in mechanical switches.
CHAPTER 9:
DIGITAL MODULATION
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DEFINITIONS
TERMS
Is the transmission, reception, and processing of information with the
Electronic
use of electronic circuits.
Communication
Binary Digit / The most basic digital symbol used to represent information.
Bit
In 1928, _________ of Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a
useful relationship among bandwidth, transmission time, and
R. Hartley information capacity.
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The carrier is either “on” or “off” which is why amplitude- shift keying is
sometimes
On-Off Keying referred to as ________.
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Group of 3 bits.
Tribit
Also known as maximum distance code used to reduce the number of
transmission
Gray Code errors.
Converts the I/C and Q/C bit pairs to serial, Q, and C output data
Parallel-to-Serial
streams.
Logic Circuit
Group of 4 bits.
Quadbits
16-PSK can undergo only a _______ phase shift during transmission
and still retain its integrity.
11.25 .
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Is the ratio of the average carrier power (the combined power of the carrier
and its
Carrier-To-Noise
Associated sidebands) to the thermal noise power.
Power Ratio
Is simply the energy of a single bit of information.
Energy Per Bit
FCC approves FM stereo broadcasting, which spurs the development
of FM. Citizens band (CB) radio first used.
Antipodal Signaling
Noncoherent U.S. radio stations begin broadcasting stereophonic sound.
( Asynchronous )
And
Coherant
( Synchonous )
CHAPTER 10:
DIGITAL TRANSMISSION
TERMS DEFINITIONS
Multiplexing Digital signals are also better suited than analog signals for
processing and combining using a technique called _____.
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Digital Signal Is the processing of analog signals using digital methods and includes
Processing bandlimiting the signal with filters, amplitude equalization, and
( DSP ) phase shifting.
Pulse Position The position of a constant-width pulse within a prescribed time slot
Modulation is varied according to the amplitude of the sample of the analog
( PPM ) signal.
Pulse Code
The analog signal is sampled and then converted to a serial n-bit
Modulation
binary code for transmission.
( PCM )
__________ is credited with inventing PCM in 1937 while working for AT&T
Alex H. Reeves
at its Paris laboratories.
Sample-and-Hold
A circuit that periodically samples the analog input signal and
Circuit
converts those samples to a multilevel PAM signal.
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Codec An integrated circuit that performs the PCM encoding and decoding
( Coder / Decoder ) functions.
Aperture Distortion If the input to the ADC is changing while it is performing the
conversion, _______ results.
The binary codes used for PCM are _________, where n may be any
N-Bit Codes
positive integer greater than 1.
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A type of code where the codes on the bottom half of the table are a
mirror image of the codes on the top half, except for the sign bit.
Quantization
The magnitude difference between adjacent steps.
Interval or Quantum
Quantization Eror
Any round-off errors in the transmitted signal are reproduced when
(Qe )
the code is converted back to analog in the receiver.
Quantization Noise
(Qn )
During times when there is no analog input signal, the only input to
the PAM sampler is random, thermal noise also called as
Idle Channel Noise
__________, that is converted to a PAM sample just as if it were a
signal.
Midtread A way to reduce idle channel noise wherein the first quantization
Quantization interval is made larger in amplitude than the rest of the steps.
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Slope Overload and Two problems associated with delta modulations that do not occur
Granular Sudivision with conventional PCM.
Differential PCM With ________, the difference in the amplitude of two successive
( DPCM ) samples is transmitted rather than the actual sample.
Inter symbol
_________ causes crosstalk between channels that occupy adjacent
interference
time slots in a time-division- multiplexed carrier system.
( ISI )
CHAPTER 11:
DIGITAL T-CARRIERS AND MULTIPLEXING
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TERMS DEFINITION
Time-Division Multiplexing
Frequency-Division Multiplexing
Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
Time-Division Transmissions from multiple sources occur on the same but not on the
Multiplexing same time.
PCM Most prevalent encoding technique used for TDM digital signals.
Use an 8-kHz sample rate and an eight-bit PCM code, which produces a
DS-O Channel 64 kbps PCM line speed.
Multiplexer Simply an electronically controlled digital switch with two inputs and one
output.
TDM Frame One eight-bit PCM code from each channel (16 total bits).
T1 or Transmission Specifies a digital carrier system using PCM encoded analog signals.
One
T1 Lines Special conditioned cables.
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Extended Super Consist of 24 193 bit frames, totaling 4632 bits, of which 24 are framing bits.
Frame Format
CRC-6 ( Cyclic
Redundancy It is used for an error detection code.
Checking )
Signaling Channels These signaling bits streams are sometimes called A, B, C and D.
Fractional T Carrier It emerged because standard T1 carriers provide a higher capacity than most
user require.
384 kbps The minimum data rate necessary to propagate video information?
Provides frequency shifting for the master group signals and dc restoration for
Signal Processor the television signal.
Identify when transitions occur in the data and whether that transition is from a
Three-Bit Code 1 to a 0 or vice versa.
Three-Bit Code
st
1 bit = Address bit
nd st nd
2 bit = the transition occurred during 1 half (0) or during the 2 half (1)
rd
3 bit = indicates the sign or direction of the transition.
Digital Line Converting standard logic levels to a form more suitable to telephone line
Encoding transmission.
Six Primary Factors must be considered when selecting a line encoding format
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Bipolar Two nonzero voltages are involved (a positive voltage for a logic 1 and an
equal-magnitude negative voltage for a logic 0 or vice versa).
Duty Cycle It is a binary pulse can be used to categorize the type of transmission.
Nonreturn to Zero If the binary pulse is maintained the entire bit time, this is called?
Return to Zero If the active time of the binary pulse is less than 100% of the bit time, this is
called?
DC Wandering Produces a condition in which a receive may lose its amplitude reference for
optimum discrimination between received 1’s & 0’s.
Digital Biphase Popular type of line encoding that produces a strong timing component for
clock recovery and does not cause dc wandering.
Biphase M Used for encoding SMPTE(Society of Motion Picture and Tele vision
Engineers) time-code data for recording on videotapes.
Biphase L Commonly called the Manchester Code and specified in IEEE standard 802.3
for Ethernet local area networks.
Amplifier / Filters and shapes the incoming digital signal and raise its power level so that
Equalizer the regenerator circuit can make a pulse-no pulse decision.
This system is designed to combine PCM and TDM techniques for short -haul
T1 Carrier Systems transmission of 24 64-kbps channels with each capable of carrying digitally
encoded voice-band telephone signals or data.
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T1 Carrier It has a transmission bit rate of 1.544Mbps, including an 8-kbps framing bit.
And has a length of range from about 1 mile to over 5o miles.
Ones Density It ensured that sufficient transition occur in the data stream is sometimes
called?
Binary Eight Zero It ensures that sufficient transitions occur in the data to maintain clock
Substitution (B8ZS) synchronization.
The carrier time division multiplex 96 64 kbps voice or data channel into a
T2 carrier system single 6.312 Mbps data signal for transmission over twisted- pair copper wire
up to 500 miles over a special LOCAP ( Low Capacitance ) metallic cable.
Binary Six Zero T2 carrier system uses an alternative method of ensuring that amplitude
Substitution (B6ZS) transition occurs in the data.
The carrier time division multiplex 96 64 kbps voice or data channel for
T3 carrier system transmission over a single 3A-RDS coaxial cable and it has a bit rate of 44.736
Mbps.
Binary Three Zero The coding technique use in T3 carrier system is called?
Substitution (B3ZS)
E-Lines Different version of T carriers used in Europe.
Time Slot 0 Used for frame alignment pattern and for an alarm channel.
Added-Digit Framing
Robbed-digit framing
Added-channel framing
Statistical framing
Unique-line code framing
Bit Interleaving & The two methods of Interleaving PCM transmissions are?
Word Interleaving
Statistical Time- Used more often for the transmission of data when they are called
Division asynchronous TDM, intelligent TDM, or simply stat muxs.
Multiplexing
Large-scale integration (LSI) chip designed for use in the
CODEC telecommunications industry for private branch exchanges.
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Bandpass filtering of the analog signals prior to encoding and after decoding
Encoding and decoding of voice and call progress signal
Encoding and decoding of signaling and supervision information
Digital companding
Time Slot Strobe Used to gate the PCM word onto the PCM highway when an external
Buffer buffer is used to drive the line.
Burst Mode Data are input and output for a single channel in a short burst.
Variable-Data-Rate Allows for a flexible data input and output clock frequency .
Mode
Data from the PCM highway are clock into the codec on the next eight
Shift Register Mode consecutive negative transitions of DCLKR.
It is the next higher level in the FDM hierarchy above the basic message
Group channel and consequently, is the first multiplexing step for combining
messages channels.
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Quality Factor The guard band reduces the _________ which is required to perform the
necessary filtering.
Demultiplexers / Separate signals with different wavelengths in a manner similar to the way
Splitters filter separate electrical signals of different frequencies.
Add / Drop Similar to regular multiplexers and demultiplexers except they are
Multiplexers / located at intermediate points in the system.
Demultiplexers
Direct signals of a particular wavelength to a specific destination while not
WDM Routers separating all the wavelengths present on the cable.
Diffraction Grating
Prism
Dichroic Filter
Diffraction Gating The specific wavelength is separated from the other optical signal by reflecting
or Prism them at different angles.
It is a mirror with a surface that has been coated with a material that permits
Dichroic Filter the lights of only one wavelength to pass through while reflecting all other
wavelengths.
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CHAPTER 12:
METALLIC CABLE MEDIA TRANSMISSION
TERMS DEFINITIONS
Unguided
Emitted then radiated through air or a vacuum.
Transmission Media
longitudinal and
Two basic kinds of waves.
transverse
Longitudinal
Currents that flow in the same direction.
currents
Common mode
Cancellation of common mode signals.
rejection
Parallel-conductor
transmission lines Most common metallic cables used to interconnect data
and coaxial communications systems and computer networks.
transmission lines.
Unshielded twisted
pair and Shielded Types of twisted pair.
twisted pair
Pair 1: blue/white
stripe and blue
Pair 2:
orange/white Standard color code specified by the EI A for CAT-5
stripe and orange
cable.
Pair 3: green/white
strip[e and green
Pair 4: brown/white
stripe and brown
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Secondary
Transmission characteristics of a transmission line.
constants
Propagation Expressed the attenuation and the phase shift per unit
constants length of a transmission line.
Conductor loss,
radiation loss,
dielectric heating Several ways in which signal power is lost.
loss, coupling loss
and corona
Flat or non
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Unmatched or
Incident power returned (reflected) to the source.
mismatched line
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CHAPTER 13:
OPTICAL FIBER TRANSMISSION MEDIA
TERMS DEFINITION
Fiber Optics A branch of optics that deals with communication by transmission of light
through ultrapure fibers of glass or plastic.
Fiber Optic System Is a communications system that carries information through a guided fiber
cable.
Optical Fiber Dielectric waveguide used for the propagation of electromagnetic energy at
optical frequencies.
MODULATOR
current to analog or
feber to ligh light voltage digital output
detector detector converter interface
DEMODULATOR
Source to Fiber A mechanical interface; couples light into the optic fiber cable.
Interface
Fiber-to-Light A mechanical coupler; couples as much light as possible from the fiber cable
Detector into the light detector.
Light Detector It’s either a PIN diode or an APD (Avalanche Photodiode); both convert light
energy to current.
Current to Voltage It transforms changes in detector current to changes in output signal voltage.
Converter
Analog or digital It is an electrical interface; matches impedance and signal levels to the output
Interface circuitry.
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Laser (light Invented in 1960, which relatively high output power, high frequency of
amplification by operation, and capability of carrying an extremely wide bandwidth signal make
stimulated emission it ideally suited for high-capacity communications system.
of radiation)
Karpon, Keck and In 1970, they developed an optical fiber with losses less than 2dB/km.
Maurer
2. Cladding – surrounds the core, has a different index of refraction; defines the optical boundary
of the core and makes sure that the total internal reflection occurs at the core outer skin.
3. Coating – specially formulated plastic coating that provides a first level shock and abrasion
resistance for the fiber; typical thickness is 250µm to 1000µm.
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Strength member Increases the tensile strength of the overall cable assembly.
It described the photoelectric effect, which state, “When visible lights or high
Plank’s Law frequency electromagnetic radiation illuminates a metallic surface, electrons
are emitted”.
mode (path) of A stable propagation state in an optical fiber. The number of modes a fiber can
propagation transmit depend on its numerical aperture as well as the wavelength.
cladding
core
2. Multimode Fibers
The light wave rays take many paths between the source and the far end of the fiber.
The fiber core diameter must be large enough to permit propagation in several modes.
Since some paths are longer than the others, the original sharp pulse at the source is spread
out in time at the receiver. This pulse spreading reduces the bandwidth and the maximum data
rate of the system.
Two Types:
a. Step Index
The core has a uniform index of refraction providing an abrupt change in refraction
index at the core-cladding interface.
These types of fibers have relatively high dispersion making it useful only at lower
rates and shorter distance.
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cladding
core
b. Graded Index
The core has index of refraction that changes continuously from the center to the
outside.
This core is made out of many thin layers, each with lower index of refraction than the
adjacent inner one. The effect of this grading is that light waves are propagated by
refraction so they are bent in a sinusoid like curve about the fiber.
cladding
core
Spontaneous decay
or spontaneous Process of decaying from one energy level to another energy level.
emission
Absorption The process of moving from one energy to another energy level is called?
Photometry Science of measuring only light waves that are visible to human eye.
Optical power Measures the rate at which electromagnetic waves transfer light energy.
It is the equivalent to joule per second and is the power that is measured
Radian Flux electrically or thermally in watts.
Simply the ratio of velocity of propagation of a light ray in free space to the
Refractive index velocity of propagation of a light ray in a given material.
c
v
MEDIUM η
Vacuum 1.0
Air 1.00029
Water 1.33
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Silicon 3.4
It explains how a light may react when it meets the interface of two
transmissive materials that have different indices of refraction using the law
which states that:
When a light travels from a less dense material into a more dense
material, the wave is refracted towards the normal.
When a light ray enters a less dense material, the ray bends away
from the normal.
Normal It is simply a line drawn perpendicular to the interface at the point where the
incident ray strikes the interface.
refracted ray;
toward normal
1 2
1 2
2 unrefracted ray
refracted ray;
2 away from normal
1 2
medium 2
medium 1
1
normal line
Angle of incidence Angle at which the propagating ray strikes the interface with respect to the
normal.
Angle of refraction Angle formed between the propagating ray and the normal after the ray has
entered the second medium.
It is defined as the minimum angle of incidence at which a light ray may strike
the interface of the two media and result in a angle of refraction of 90 degrees
or greater.
Critical Angle
c sin1 2
1
where: η2 < η1
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Acceptance Angle Maximum angle in which external light rays may strike the air/fiber interface
or Acceptance and still propagate down fiber.
Cone Half Angle
in sin1 12 2 2
( in )
A figure of merit used to measure the light gathering or light collecting ability of
the optical fiber.
Numerical aperture NA sin in
NA 12 2 2
It is a key parameter that describes the mode structure of a fiber.
2a 2
V 1 2 ; multimode V 2.405 1 ; single-mode
g
w here:
12 2 2 ; fractional change in the index of refraction of multimode-mode step index
212
V Parameter (V) 1 2
; fractional change in the index of refraction of multimode-mode graded index
1
a = radius of the core of the fiber
λ = w avelength
η1= index of refraction of core
η2 = index of refraction of cladding
g = gradient of graded fiber
= 2; parabolic profile
= 1; triangular profile
= ; step index profile
V2
Number of Modes N ; V >> 2.405 (for multimode step index)
2
(N)
g V 2
N ; for multimode graded index
g 2 2
This is due to imperfections in the fiber that are formed during manufacturing
Scattering Losses process. Cooling process of glass irregularities, imperfections such as tiny
bubbles, and imperfections in the internal uniformity causing light rays to be
diffracted (dispersed) or to escape.
Linear scattering The power transferred from a wave is proportional to the power of the wave.
Rayleigh Scattering The light interacting with inhomogeneities in the medium that are much smaller
than the wavelength of the light.
Raman Scattering The nonlinear interaction produces a high-frequency phonon and a scattered
photon.
Absorption Losses Impurities in the fiber absorb the light and convert it to heat.
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Ultraviolet Absorption – light ionizes the valence electrons into conduction; ionization is
equivalent to a loss in the light field.
Infrared Absorption – photons of light absorbed by atoms of the glass core are converted to
mechanical vibrations typical of heating.
-
Ion Resonance absorption – caused by OH ions from water molecules trapped in the glass
during manufacturing process.
Spreading of pulse out in the time domain, changing its shape so that it may
Dispersion merge into the previous and succeeding pulses. The pulses maybe separated
by spacing them out at the transmitter but this means reducing the maximum
bit rate.
Types of Dispersion
Material or Chromatic or Wavelength Dispersion – light sources emit light that contains a
combination of wavelengths. Therefore, different wavelengths do not arrive at the same.
Waveguide Dispersion – attributed to the dependence of the phase and group velocities on
the geometric characteristic of the waveguide.
Modal Dispersion – it is caused by the different path lengths associated with each of the
modes of a fiber. Caused by the difference in the propagation times of light rays that take
different path down a fiber; occur only in multimode fibers. A portion of the light energy
traveling in the cladding.
Coupling Losses
1. Lateral Misalignment
3. Angular Misalignment
Light Sources A light source is any material or device which gives off energy with a
wavelength from about 300 microns down to 0.5 microns.
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High intensity light output so that sufficient energy is transmitted to overcome the losses
encountered during transmission down the fiber.
Devices should be small, compact, and easily couple to the fibers so that excessive coupling
losses do not occur.
Non-coherent injection light sources which are low-cost, low heat light
sources and are the most promising light sources for optical
Light Emitting transmission.
Diodes (LED) LEDS have the necessary reliability, life expectancy, and simplicity for
optical transmission purposes.
It emits light over a rather large angle thus coupling less power into the
fiber.
LEDS are able to couple about 100uW of power with a coupling
efficiency of 2%.
Injection Laser ILDs make the most efficient use of electric energy. This coherent light source
Diodes (ILD) can couple a few milliwatts of light power into a fiber since it has a more direct
radiation pattern.
Disadvantages of ILD’s
Expensive
Shorter lifetime
Temperature dependence
Requires automatic level control circuit to protect the device from power Supply transients:
Homojunction A p-n junction made from two different mixtures of the same types of atoms is
LED’s called?
Planar diffused Homojunction LED’s output approximately 500 µ at a wavelength of 900 nm.
Heterojunction This are made from p-type semiconductor material of one set of atom and an
LED’s n-type semiconductor material from another set.
Edge Emitters The light emitted from the edge of the material is called?
Planar It is quite similar to the epitaxially grown LED except that the geometry is
Heterojunction LED designed such that the forward current is concentrated to a very small area of
the layer.
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Smaller emitting area makes it easier to couple its emitted light into a fiber.
Small effective area has a smaller capacitance, which allows the planar heterojunction LED to
be used at a higher speed.
PIN diode Depletion-layer photo diode and is probably the most common device used as
a light detector in fiber optic communications system.
Light Detectors
PIN (Positive Intrinsic Negative) diodes - When photons are absorbed by intrinsic layer’s
electrons in the valence band, they add sufficient energy to generate carriers in the depletion
region and allow current to flow thru the device.
APD (Avalanche Photo Diode) - Light enters diode and is absorbed by the thin, heavily
doped n-layer causing a high electric field intensity to be across i-p-n junction thus ionization
occur and continues like avalanche.
Disadvantages of APD
High bias requirement
Temperature dependence
Long transit time
Laser Technology deals with the connection of light into a very small, powerful beam.
Types of Laser
Gas Laser – use a mixture of helium and neon enclosed in a glass tube.
Liquid Laser – use organic dyes enclosed in a glass tube for an active medium.
Solid Laser – use a solid cylindrical crystal, such as ruby, for the an active medium.
Semiconductor Laser – are made from semiconductor p-n junction and are commonly called
ILDs.
Cable Losses – it depends on the cable length, material and material impurity.
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Connector Losses – if mechanical connection is not perfect, light energy can escape,
resulting in a reduction of optical power.
Source to Cable Interface Loss – the mechanical interface used to house the light source
and attach it to the cable is seldom perfect.
Cable to Light Detector Interface Loss - the mechanical interface used to house the light
source and attach it to the cable is also not perfect and therefore, prevent a small percentage
of power leaving the cable from the entering the light detector.
Splicing Loss – if more than one continuous section of cable is required, cable section can be
fused together.
Cable Bend – when an optical cable is bend at too large an angle, the characteristics of the
cable can change dramatically.
CHAPTER 14:
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE PROPAGATION
Horizontal
Polarization and Forms of Linear polarization
Vertical Polarization
Polarization vector rotates 360◦ as the wave moves one wave-length
through the space and the field strength is equal at all angles of
Circular Polarization
polarization.
Formed when two points of equal phase on rays propagated from the
Wavefront same source are joined together.
Magnetic Field Invisible force field produced by a magnet, such as a conductor when
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Strength of a H
magnetic field (H)
Invisible force fields produced by a difference in voltage potential between
Electric fields two conductors.
The rate at which energy passes through a given surface area in free
Power density space.
Propagation medium.
Isotropic medium
Reduction of Power.
Absorption Loss
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Refractive index; n = Square root of the dielectric constant and is expressed in:
(k)
Relative to free space (vacuum).
Equivalent dielectric
K = (1- 81N/f2 )1/2
constant
Power transmission Portion of the total incident power that is not reflected.
coefficient
Fraction of power that penetrates medium 2.
Absorption coefficient
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Relative Conductivity
Good
Surface
Fair
Seawater Fair
Flat, loamy soil
Poor
Large bodies of freshwater Poor
Unusable
Rocky terrain
Desert
Jungle
Relative
Conductivity of
Earth Surfaces
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conditions.
Height above the Earth’s surface from which a refracted wave appears
Virtual Height to have been reflected.
Highest frequency that can be used for sky wave propagation between
Maximum Usable
Frequency (MUF)
two specific points on Earth’s surface.
The area between where the surface waves are completely dissipated
Quiet, or skip, zone
and the point where the first sky wave returns to Earth.
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CHAPTER 15:
ANTENNAS AND WAVEGUIDES
TERMS DEFINITION
A metallic conductor system capable of radiating and capturing
Antenna electromagnetic energy.
Electrical energy that has escaped into free space in the form of transverse
Radio Waves electromagnetic waves
The plane parallel to the mutually perpendicular lines of the electric and
Wavefront magnetic fields.
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Absolute Radiation
Radiation pattern plotted in terms of electric field strength or power density.
Pattern
Radiation pattern plots field strength or power density with respect to the
Relative Radiation value at a reference
The line bisecting the major lobe, or pointing from the center of the antenna
Line of Shoot or Point
in the direction of maximum radiation.
of Shoot
Omni-directional Antenna that radiates energy equally in all directions.
Antenna
Radiates power at a constant rate uniformly in all directions.
Isotropic Radiator
The direction in which an antenna is always pointing.
Maximum Radiation
It is defined as an equivalent transmits power. It stands for Effective Isotropic
EIRP Radiated Power.
It refers to the orientation of the electric field radiated from the antenna.
Polarization
The angular separation between the two half-power(-3dB) points on the
Antenna Bandwidth major lobe of an antenna's plane radiation pattern.
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A single pole antenna one quarter wavelength long, mounted vertically with
the lower end either connected directly to ground or grounded through the
Marconi Antenna
antenna coupling network.
Its purpose is to increase the directivity and concentrate the radiated power
Array within a smaller geographic area.
Elements that are directly connected to the transmission line and receive
Driven power from the source.
Elements are not connected to the transmission line; they receive energy
Parasitic only through mutual induction with a driven element.
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A widely used antenna commonly uses a folded dipole as the driven element
Yagi Uda and named after two Japanese scientists.
A broadband VHF or UHF antenna that is ideally suited for applications for
which radiating circular rather than horizontal or vertical polarized
electromagnetic waves are required.
Helical Antenna
Modes of propagation:
Normal
Axial
o
Antennas having half power beamwidths on the order of 1 or less.
Three important characteristics:
Front-to Back Ratio,
Side-toSide Coupling
Microwave Antenna
Back-to-Back Coupling
Antenna that provides extremely high gain and directivity and are very
popular for microwave and satellite communications link.
Parabolic Reflector Two main part
Antenna
Parabolic Reflector
Feed Mechanism
The effective area in a receiving parabolic antenna and is always less than
Capture Area the actual mouth area.
CHAPTER 16:
TELEPHONE INSTRUMENTS AND SIGNALS
TERMS DEFINITIONS
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CHAPTER 17:
TELEPHONE CIRCUIT
TERMS DEFINITIONS
Two components
found on local loops: The primary cause of attenuation and phase distortion on a telephone
circuit.
Loading Coils
Bridge Taps
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Serving Area A cross-connect point used to distribute the larger feeder cable into
Interface smaller distribution cables.
Distribution Cable A smaller version of a feeder cable containing less wire pairs.
Subscriber or
A device that serves as the demarcation point between local telephone
Standard
company responsibility and subscriber responsibility for telephone
Network Interface
service.
(SNI)
Drop Wire The final length of cable pair that terminates at the SNI.
Aerial
That portion of the local loop that is strung between poles.
Distribution Cable
and Drop The location where individual cable pairs within a distribution cable
Wire Cross Connect are separated and extended to the subscriber's location on a drop wire.
Point
Bridging Loss A loss that allows signals to split and propagation down more than
one wire introduced by bridge taps.
1000 Hz
The most annoying frequency to human (i.e. the best frequency
response).
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Decibel (dB) The basic yardstick used for making power measurements in
communications.
Transmission Level The ratio in dB of the power of a signal at that point to the power the
(TL) same signal would be at 0 dBm transmission level point.
Data Level Pint A parameter equivalent to TLP except it is used as a reference for data
(DLP) transmission.
Noise readings taken with a filter that has a flat frequency response
dBrn 3 kHz Flat
from 30 Hz to 3 kHz
Facility Parameters
Transmission parameters which includes noise measurements,
frequency distortion, phase distortion, amplitude distortion and non
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linear distortion.
C3 C-type conditioning used for access lines and trunk circuits associated
with private switched networks.
C-type conditioning pertains to two point and multi point circuits with
C4
a maximum of four stations
Attenuation
The frequency response of a transmission medium referenced to 1004
Distortion
Hz test tone.
Propagation Time The time delay encountered by a signal as it propagates from source to
a destination.
Absolute Phase The actual time required for a particular frequency to propagate from
Delay a source to a destination through a communications channel.
Envelope Delay
The phase difference at the different carrier frequencies.
Distortion
D-Type Line It sets the minimum requirements for signal to noise ratio and
Conditioning nonlinear distortion.
9600 bps The data transmission rate when D type conditioning is mandatory.
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Single Frequency The presence of one or more continuous, unwanted tones within a
Interference message channel.
Phase Intercept It occurs in coherent SSBSC systems when the received carrier is not
Distortion reinserted with the exact phase relationship to the received signal as
the transmit carrier possessed.
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Unintelligible
It does not violate privacy, although it can still be annoying.
crosstalk
CHAPTER 18:
PUBLIC TELEPHONE NETWORK
TERMS DEFINITIONS
It uses the largest computer network in the world to interconnect
Public Telephone
millions of subscribers in such a way that the myriad of companies
Network (PTN)
function as a single entity.
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Instrument Any device used to originate and terminate calls and to transmit and
receive signals into and out of the telephone network.
Trunk Circuits Similar to local loop except trunk circuits are used to interconnect
two telephone offices.
Switching Machines Programmable matrices that provide temporary signal paths between
two subscribers.
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Circuit Simply the path over which voice, data, or video signals propagate.
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Tandem Trunk or
Trunk circuits that terminates in tandem switches.
Intermediate Trunk
North American
Telephone Provides telephone numbering system for the United States, Mexico
Numbering Plan and Canada.
(NANP)
Class 5 End
A local exchange where subscriber loops terminated and received
Switching
dial tone.
Office
Class 4P Switching
Class 4 office having only outward and inward calling service.
Office
Class 3 Primary
Center Switching office that provides service to small groups of class 4
offices within a small area of a state.
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Regional centers were the highest ranking office in the DDD network
Class 1 Regional
in terms of the size of the geographical are served and the trunking
Center
options available.
Intermediate Links Toll trunks in tandem, excluding the two terminating links at the ends
of the connection.
Common Channel
Signaling System No. A global standard for telecommunications defined by the ITU.
7 (SS7 or C7)
Point of Presence
Long distance access is now accomplished through an access point.
(POP)
Service Switching
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Signal Transfer
The packet switches of the SS7 network.
Points
Service Control
It serves as an interface to telephone company databases.
Points
CHAPTER 19:
CELLULAR TELEPHONE CONCEPTS
TERMS DEFINITIONS
Mobile Telephone
The term for mobile telephone services which began in 1940s and are
Manual System
sometimes called Manual telephone systems.
(MTSs)
Push-to-Talk (PTT) Switch that was used by MTS to activate the transceiver.
Improved Mobile It was introduced in 1964 which used several carrier frequencies and
Telephone System could, therefore, handle several simultaneous mobile conversations at
(IMTS) the same time.
Mobile The term suggested any radio transmitter, receiver, or transceiver that
could be moved while operation.
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The term that described a relatively small radio unit that was
Portable
handled, battery powered, and easily carried by a person moving at
walking speed.
AT&T and
On June 17, 1946, they introduced the first American commercial
Southwestern
mobile radio-telephone service to private customers.
Bell
Unveiled the most famous mobile telephone to date: the fully mobile
Don Adams shoe phone in 1966 in a television show called Get Smart
The year when FCC granted AT&T the first license to operate a
1975
developmental cellular telephone service in Chicago.
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The shape that was used because it provides the most effective
Honeycomb transmission by approximating a circular pattern while eliminating
the gaps present between adjacent circles.
Large cells that typically has 1 mile and 15 miles radius with base
Macrocells
station transmit power 1W and 6 W.
Microcells The smallest cells that typically has radius of 1500 feet or less with
base station transmit powers between 0.1 W and 1 W.
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Maximum Traffic Occurs when number of the number of subscriber wishing to place a
Load call at any given time equals the number of channels in the cell.
Blocking A condition occurs when a new call is initiated in an area where all
the channels are in use.
Space Diversity Placing two receive antennas one above the other.
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Four stages:
Handoff (Handover)
Initiation
Resource reservation
execution
completion
Either the mobile unit or the network determines the need for a
Initiation
handoff and initiates the necessary network procedures.
Resources
Reservation Appropriate network procedures reserve the resources needed to
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The actual transfer of control from one base station to another base
Execution
station takes place.
Interoperator Roaming from one company’s calling area into another company’s
Roaming calling area.
It aligns with a sub protocol of the SS7 protocol stack that facilitates
IS-41
communications among database other network entities.
Electronic Switching A digital telephone exchange located in the MTSO that is the heart of
Center a cellular telephone system.
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Controller
Receiver Diversity The radio receiver that detects the strongest signal.
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types of calls:
Mobile to wireline
mobile to mobile
wireline to mobile
CHAPTER 20:
CELLULAR TELEPHONE SYSTEM
DEFINITIONS
TERMS
Stands for Standard Cellular Telephone Service
CTS
An acronym for Personal Communications System.
PCS
Stands for Personal Communications Satellite System.
PCSS
An acronym for Advanced Mobile Telephone System.
AMPS
Bell Telephone
Proposed the cellular telephone concept in 1971.
Laboratories
A standard cellular telephone service (CTS) initially placed into operation on
AMPS Oct. 13, 1983.
Narrowband It was used by AMPS cellular telephones with usable audio-frequency band
Frequency from 300 Hz to 3 KHz and a maximum frequency deviation of + 12 KHz for
Modulation 100% modulation.
(NBFM)
Correspond to an approximate bandwidth of 30 KHz.
Carson’s Rule
Full Duplex A transmission with simultaneous transmission in both direction.
(FDX)or Duplexing
It is used in AMPS and occurs when two distinct frequency bands are provided
Frequency-
to each user.
division Duplexing
A special device used in each mobile unit to allow simultaneous transmission
Duplexer
and reception on duplex channels.
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Cellular
Geographic
Serving Areas Specified frequencies in a small geographic area.
(CGSA)
Standard
Metropolitan Defines geographic areas used by marketing agencies.
Statistical Area
A technique used by standard telephone subscriber to access the AMPS
Frequency system.
Division
Multiple Access
Mobile
A 34 bit binary code which in the U.S. represents the standard 10-digit
Identification
telephone number.
Number (MIN)
Electronic Serial
Number (ESN) A 34 bit binary code permanently assigned to each mobile unit.
Synchronization A unique sequence of 1s and 0s that enables the receiver to instantly acquire
Word synchronization.
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Equipment A database that stores information pertaining to the identification and type
Identification of equipment that exists in the mobile unit.
Registry (EIR)
It allows all calls to pass through the network to the subscriber except for a minimal
number
Available Mode
of telephone numbers that can be blocked.
All calls except those specified by the subscriber are automatically forwarded to a
Private Mode forwarding destination without ringing the subscriber’s handset.
A narrowband AMPS system that increased the capacity of the AMPS system in large
N-AMPS
cellular market.
United States It is developed with the intent of supporting a higher user density within a
Digital Cellular fixed bandwidth frequency spectrum.
It specifies that a mobile station complying with the IS-54 standard must be capable of
Dual Mode operating in either the analog AMPS or the digital (USDC) mode for voice transmissions.
Allows for brief paging-type messages and Short e-mail messages that can be read on
Short Message
the mobile phone’s display and entered using the keypad.
Service
It was developed to provide a host of new features and services, positioning itself in a
IS-136 competitive within the newer PCS systems.
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SMS Channel It is used to deliver short point-to-point messages to a specific mobile station.
(SMSCH)
It refers to: F-BCCH, E-BCCH and S-BCCH logical sub channels.
Channel (BCCH)
Fast Broadcasts
Broadcasts digital control channel structure parameters.
Control channel
(F-BBCH)
Extended
Broadcasts Carries less critical broadcast information than F-BCCH intended for mobile
Control Channel units.
(E-BBCH)
SMS Broadcasts
Control channel Individual mobile units. A logical channels used for sending short messages.
(F-BBCH)
Stands for Digital speech interpolation.
DSI
Digital Traffic
Channel
Carries digital voice information and consists of RDTC and FDTC
(DTC)
Coded Digital
Verification It consists of an eight bit digital voice color code number between 1 and 255
Color Code appended with four
Mobile-assisted handoff
MAHO
A blank-and burst type of transmission that replaces digitized speech
Fast Associated
information with control and supervision messages with in a subscriber’s time
Control
slot.
Channel (FACCH)
Vector sum exciter
linear A special speech coder.
predictive (VSLP)
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An access method used with standard analog AMPS which use frequency
FDMA
channelization approach to frequency spectrum management.
Code Division It allows users to differentiate from one another by a unique code rather than a
Multiple frequency or time assignment.
Accessing (CDMA)
Stands for Qualcom 9600bps Code-Excited Linear Predictive coder.
QCELP
The concept is to break the message into fixed sized blocks of data with each
Frequency
block transmitted in sequence except on a different carrier.
Hopping
high bit pseudorandom code is added to a low-bit rate information signal to
generate a high bit rate pseudorandom signal closely resembling noise that
contains both the original data signal and the pseudo random code must be
Direct-Sequence known.
Communications.
Classification of GSM telephone services:
Bearer Services
Groupe Special teleservices
Mobile (GSM) supplementary services
Integrated
Services
All-digital data Network.
Digital Network
(ISDN
Sometimes known as radio subsystem, provides and manages radio frequency
Base Station transmission paths between mobile units and the mobile switching center
Subsystem (BSS) (MSC)
It manages switching functions for the system and allows MSCs to communicate
Network Switching
with other telephone networks.
Subsystem (NSS)
Absolute Radio-
Frequency The available forward and reverse frequency bands are subdivided into 200
Channel Numbers KHz wide voice channels.
(ARFCN)
Mobile Satellite It provides the vehicle for a new generation of wireless telephone services
Systems called Personal Communications Satellite System (PCSS)
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(MSS)
It uses low earth-orbit (LEO) and medium earth orbit and MEO thar
communicates diretly with small, low-powered mobile telephone units.
key providers in PCSS market:
American Mobile Satellite
Communications (AMSC)
Celsat
Personal Comsat
Communications Constellation Communications (ARIES)
Satellite System Ellipsat (Ellipso)
(PCSS) INMARSAT
LEOSAT
Loral/qualcomm (global star)
TMI communications
TWR (Odysse)
Iridium LLC
FCC issued a report and order Dockett # 92-166 defining L band frequency
October 14, 1994
sharing for subscriber units in the 1616 MHZ to 1626.5 MHz band.
CHAPTER 21:
INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING
Knowledge or intelligence.
Information
The transmission, reception, and processing of digital information.
Data Communications
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Circuit
A set of devices interconnected by media links.
Network
Data Systems of interrelated computers and computer equipment and can be as
Communications simple as a personal computer connected together through the PTN
Networks
Automatic teller machine
ATM
One of the earliest means of communicating electrically coded information
1753 occurred
He invented the first practical data communications code which is called Morse
Samuel F.B. Morse Code.
Telegraph The only means of sending information across large spans of water until 1920.
A public data communications network used by millions of people all over t he world
Internet to exchange business and personal information.
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Data Sets of rules governing the orderly exchange of data within the
Communications network or a portion of the network.
Protocols
A connection process that occurs between two stations before any data are
actually transmitted.
Another terms:
Handshake Sessions
Virtual circuits
logical connections
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Standard
International The international organization for standardization on a wide range of
Standards subjects.
Organization (ISO)
American National The member of ISO from the United States.
Standard
Institute (ANSI)
Electronics Industry A non-profit U.S. trade association that establishes and recommends
Association (EIA) industrial standards.
Internet Research It promotes research of importance to the evolution of the future Internet by
Task creating focused, long term and small research groups working on topics
related to internet protocols.
Force (IRTF)
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Transmitter Encodes a wireless radio system without being converted to analog first .
Transmission Carries the encoded signals from the transmitter to the receiver.
Medium
Converts the encoded signals received from the transmission medium back
Receiver to their original form.
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Parallel by Bit or A type of transmission where all four bits can be transmitted simultaneously
Serial by Character during the time of a single clock pulse.
Transmission where four clock pulses are required to transmit the entire
Serial by Bit four-bit code.
Data transmission is possible in both directions but not at the same time.
Another term:
Half Duplex two way alternate lines
either way lines
Transmission is possible in both directions at the same time but not between
Full/Full Duplex the same two stations. It is possible only on multipoint circuits.
Client Computers that access and use the network and shared network resources.
Shared Printers and Hardware resources provided to the users of the network by servers.
other
peripherals
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Network Interface An expansion card and prepares and sends data, receives data and controls
Card data flow between the computer and the network.
(NIC)
Local Operating Allows personal computers to access files, print to a local printer and have
System and use one or more disk and CD drives that are located on the computer.
(LOS)
Network Operating A program that runs on computers and servers that allows the computers to
System (NOS) communicate over a network.
Star Topology A multipoint data communications network where remote stations are
connected by cable segments directly to a central located computer.
Hybrid Topology Combining two or more of the traditional topologies to form a larger, more
complex topology.
Local Area Privately own networks in which 10 to 40 compute share data resources with
Networks one or more file server.
(LANs)
Metropolitan Area A high-speed network similar to a LAN except the are designed to
Networks (MANs) encompass larger areas, usually that of an entire city.
Wide Area Network Provides low-speed, long distance transmission of data voice, and video
information over large and widely dispersed geographical areas such as
WAN) country or an entire continent. It interconnects cities or states.
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Services the process and internet layers to handle the reliability and session
Host-to-Host Layer aspects of data transmission.
Cisco Three-Layer
Model Three layers:
Core layer
Distribution layer
access layer
The core of the network as it resides at the top of the hierarchy and is
Core Layer responsible for transporting large amounts of data traffic reliably and quickly.
The communications point between the access and the core layers that
Distribution Layer provide routing, filtering, WAN access and how data packets are allowed to
access the core layer.
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CHAPTER 22:
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF DATA COMMUNICATIONS
TERMS DEFINITIONS
Sometimes called the Telex Code was the first fixed length character
Baudot Code
developed for machines rather than for people.
A French postal engineer who developed the baudot code in 1875 and
Thomas Murray
named after Emile Baudot, an early pioneer in telegraph printing.
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Fixed Length
Fixed-length source code.
Block Code
Universal Product A continuous code since there are no interchangeable spaces. Each
Code UPC label contains a 12-digit number.
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Single Bit Errors Errors with only one bit within a given a given string is in error.
Multiple-bit error Errors with two or more non-consecutive bits within a message.
Burst Error Errors when to or more consecutive bits within a given data string are
in error. It can affect one or more characters within a message.
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Redundancy A form of error detection by duplicating each data unit for the
purpose of detecting errors.
Longitudinal
Redundancy A redundancy error detection scheme that uses parity to determine if
Checking a transmission error has occurred with n a message.
(LRC)
Block Check
Sequence (BCS) or
The bit sequence for the LRC.
Frame Check
Sequence (FCS)
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Lost Message
Damaged Message
Lost message One that never arrives at the destination or one that is damaged to the
extent that it is unrecognizable.
Damaged Message One that is recognized at the destination but contains one or more
transmission errors.
Error-Detecting
Codes
Examples:
Parity bits
block and frame check characters
cyclic redundancy characters
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It can be used when messages are divided into smaller lock or frames
Continuous ARQ that are sequentially numbered and transmitted in succession, without
waiting for acknowledgments between blocks.
Forward Error
The error-correction scheme that detects and corrects transmission
Correction
errors when they are received without requiring a retransmission.
(FEC)
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Hamming Code The combination of the data bits and the hamming bits.
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Data Terminal It can be virtually any binary digital device that generates transmits,
Equipment (DTE) receives, or interprets data messages. It is where information
originates or terminates.
Data Circuit-
Terminating EquipmentAnother term for DCE.
(DCTE)
Data Modem
A DCE used to interface a DTE to an analog telephone circuit
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It controls data flow between several terminal devices and the data
Cluster Controller
communications channel.
Station Controllers
Line control units at secondary stations.
(STACOs)
Asynchronous
A special purpose UART chip manufactured by
Communications
Motorola.
Interface Adapter
(ACIA)
Asynchronous Data It means that an asynchronous data format is used and no clocking
Transmission information transferred between the DTE and the DCE.
Status Word An n-bit data register that keeps track of the status of the UART’s
transmits and receive buffer registers.
Receive Framing
Set when a character is received without any or with improper
Error
number of stop bits.
(RFE)
Receiver Overrun Set when a character in the receive buffer register is written over by
(ROR) another receive character.
Receive Data A data character has been received and loaded into the receive data
Available register.
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(RDA)
Detection Error The difference in time between the beginning of a start bit and when
it is detected.
Electronics Industries
In 1962, standardized the interface equipment between data terminal
Association (EIA)
equipment and data communications equipment.
Interface Between
Data Terminal
Equipment and The official name of the RS-232 interface
Data Communications
Equipment Employing
Data Communications
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Equipment Employing
Serial Binary
Interchange
In, 1969, the third revision which was published and remained the
RS-232C
industrial standard until 1987.
Voltage-Leveling It converts the internal voltage levels from the DTE and DCE to RS-
Circuits 232 values.
Driver A voltage leveler wherein its output signals onto the cable.
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FUNCTIONS OF
RS-232 PINS Protective ground, frame ground, or chassis ground.
Pin 1
Receive line signal detect, carrier detect or data carrier detect (RLSD,
Pin 9
CD or DCD)
Pin 10 Unassigned and often held at -12 Vdc for test purposes
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Two categories:
Category I
Category II
10 CIRCUITS IN RS-449
Used by the DTE to request a local loopback from the DCE.
1.Local Loopback
2.Remote Loopback Used by the DTE to request a remote loopback from the distant DCE.
3. Select frequency Allows the DTE to select the DCE’s transmit and receive
frequencies.
4.Test Mode Used by DTE to signal the DCE that a test is in progress.
RS-530 Serial Interface It was intended to operate at data rates between 20 kbps and 2 Mbps
using the same DB25 connector
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Bit Rate
Refers to the rate of change of a digital information signal.
Asynchronous
It is classified as low-speed voice-band modems
Modems
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Adaptive Equalizer Located in the receiver section of a modem where they provide post-
equalization to the received signals
Echo Cancellation A technique for full-duplex operation over two wire switched
telephone lines.
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CHAPTER 23:
DATA-LINK PROTOCOLS AND DATA COMMUNICATIONS NETWORKS
TERMS DEFINITIONS
Network The primary goal of __________ is to give users of a network the tools
necessary for setting up the network and performing data flow control.
Architecture
A set of rules implementing and governing an orderly exchange of data
Data-Link Protocol between two layer devices.
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Coordinates the rate which data are transported over a link and generally
Flow Control provides an acknowledgement mechanism.
A set of procedures that tells the transmitting station how much data it can
send before it must stop transmitting and wait for an acknowledgment from
Flow Control the destination station
Stop-and Wait Flow The transmitting station sends one message frame and then waits for an
Control acknowledgement before sending the next message frame.
Sliding Window A source station can transmit several frames in succession before receiving
an acknowledgement.
Flow Control
It refers to imaginary receptacles at the source and destination stations with
Sliding Window the capacity of holding several frames of data.
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Protocol
Asynchronous Data A character-oriented protocols generally used on two point networks using
asynchronous data and asynchronous modems.
link Protocols
Developed the first file transfer protocol designed to facilitate transferring
Ward Christiansen data between two personal computers in 1979.
Synchronous Data- Remote stations can have more than one PC or printer.
Link Protocols
A group of computers, printers, and other digital devices.
Cluster
Binary Synchronous A synchronous character-oriented data link protocol developed by IBM.
Communications
(BSC)
Another name for BSC.
Bisync
Format or line turn Another name for enquiry (ENQ) character.
around
The __________ uses longitudinal redundancy checking (LRC) with ASCII-
Block Check
coded messages and cyclic redundancy checking.
Character (BCC)
Synchronous Data- A synchronous bit oriented protocol developed in the 1970's by IBM for use
Link Control in system network architecture environment.
(SDLC)
Transient, Idle and Three transmission states.
Active
Flag Fields, Address Field, Control Field, Information and Frame Check
SDLC Frame Fields Sequence Field are __________.
It is used for the delimiting sequence for the frame and to achieve frame and
Flags character synchronization.
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(SNRM)
A response transmitted from a secondary station if the primary attempts to
Disconnect Mode send numbered information frames to it when the secondary is in the normal
(DM) disconnect mode.
Request Disconnect A response sent by a secondary when it wants the primary to place it in the
disconnect mode.
(RD)
An affirmative response that indicates compliance to SIM, SNRM or DISC
Unnumbered
commands
Acknowledgement
An exchange of frames between the primary station and a secondary
TEST station.
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A 12 bit binary number that identifies the source and destination users for a
Logical Channel
given virtual call.
Identifier
This four bit gives the number of digits that appear in the calling address
Calling Address filed.
Field
Called Address This field is the same as the calling address field except that it identifies the
number of digits that appear in the called address field
Length
This field contains the destination address.
Called Address
This field is the same as the called address field except that it contains up to
Calling Address 15 BCD.
This field identifies the number of eight bit octets present in the facilities
Facilities Length
field.
Field
This 32 bit field is reserved for the subscriber to insert user level protocol.
Protocol Identifier
Integrated Services A proposed network designed by the major telephone companies in
Digital Network conjunction with the ITU-T.
(ISDN)
Customers gain access to the ISDN system through a local interface
Digital Pipe connected to a digital transmission medium.
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companies.
Network A boundary to the network and may be controlled by the ISDN provider.
Termination 1
Refers to interfaces between the common carrier subscriber loop and the
U-Reference Point central office switch
The media interface point between an NT1 and the central office.
U Loop
It is defined by ITU-T as a service that provides transmission channels
Broadband ISDN capable of supporting transmission rates greater than the primary data rate.
Once data have entered the ATM network, they transferred into fixed time
Cells slots called ________.
Generic Flow Controls the flow of traffic across the user network interface (UNI) and into
the network.
Control Field (GFC)
Payload Type The first three bits of the second half of byte 4 specify the type of message
in cell.
Identifier
Information fields that are designed to accommodate PCM-TDM traffic,
Constant Bit Rate which allows the ATM, network to emulate voice or DSN services.
Public ATM A portion of a public service provider's switching system where the service
provider could be a local telephone company or a long-distance carrier.
Switches
Local Area Provides the most effective and economical means of handling local data
communications field.
Networks (LAN)
A communications system that allows users to send messages to each other
E-Mails through their computers.
Propagation Delay The time it takes a signal to travel from a source to a destination.
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CHAPTER 24:
MICROWAVE RADIO COMMUNICATIONS AND SYSTEM GAIN
Microwaves Electromagnetic waves with frequencies that range from approximately 500
MHz to 300 GHz or more.
1 cm and 60 cm The wavelengths for microwave frequencies, which is than infrared energy.
slightly longer
“Microwave” The name given to microwave signals, because of their inherently high
waves frequencies, has short wavelengths.
Full-Duplex Each frequency is divided in half with the lower half identified as the low
(Two-way) band and the upper half as narrow band.
Short Haul Communications system used to carry information for relatively short
distances such as between cities with the same state.
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Narrowband FM FM signal that is produces at the output of the deviator with a low-index
frequency modulation.
Microwave A receiver and a transmitter placed back to back or in tandem with the
Repeaters system.
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It receives a signal, amplifies and reshapes it, and then retransmit the signal
to the next repeater or terminal station down line from it.
Types of Microwave repeaters:
Repeater Station IF
Baseband
RF
Line-of Site Transmission used by microwave systems wherein a direct signal path must
exist between the transmitter receiver .
Transmission
Radio Fade A temporary reduction in signal strength which last in milliseconds for
several hours or even days.
Diversity It suggests that there is more than one transmission path or method of
transmission available a transmitter and a receiver.
The output of a transmitter is fed to two or more antennas that are physically
Space Diversity separated by an appreciable number of wavelengths.
Receiver It is more than one receiver for a single radio-frequency channel. With
frequency diversity, it is necessary to also use receiver diversity because
Diversity each transmitted frequency requires its own receiver
Another form of Hybrid diversity and undoubtly provides the most reliable
transmission but most expensive. It combines frequency, space, and
Quad Diversity polarization and receiver diversity into one system.
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diversity
Hot Standby Each working radio channel has a dedicated backup or spare channel.
Protection
A single backup channel is made available to as many as 11 working
Diversity
channels.
Protection
Head-End In hotstandby protection, it splits the signal power and directs it to the
Bridge working and the spare (standby) microwave channels simultaneously.
Diversity Protection It has two working channels, one spare channel, and an auxiliary channel.
WLEL Stands for WireLine Entrance Link, it serves as the interface between t he
multiplex terminal equipment and the FM_IF equipment.
A balanced modulator that, when used in conjunction with a microwave
Transmod generator, power amplifier, and band-pass filter, up-converts the IF carrier to
an RF carrier and amplifies the RF to the desired output power.
Crystal- It operates in the range 5 MHz to 25 MHz, used to provide a base frequency
controlled that is multiplied up to the desired RF carrier frequency.
Oscillator
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It occurs only when three stations are placed in a geographical straight line
Multi-hop in the system.
Interference
High/Low- It prevents the power that “leaks” out the back and sides of a transmit
Frequency antenna from interfering with the
signal entering the input of a nearby receive antenna.
Scheme
Ring around The signal entering the input of a nearby receive antenna.
The line-of-sight directly between the transmit and receive antenna. Also
Free-Space Path called as the Direct Wave.
Surface Wave It consists of the electric and magnetic fields associated with the currents
induced in earth’s surface.
The portion of the transmit signal that is reflected off Earth’s surface and
Ground-
captured by the receive antenna.
Reflected Wave
The portion of the transmit signal that is returned back to Earth’s surface by
Sky Wave the ionized layers of earth’s atmosphere.
The difference between the nominal output power of a transmitter and the
System Gain minimum input power to a receiver necessary to achieve satisfactory
performance.
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Carrier-to-Noise The ratio of the wideband “carrier” to the wideband noise power.
Ratio (C/N)
Receiver Also called Receiver Sensitivity, is the minimum wide band carrier power at
Threshold the input to a receiver that will provide a usable baseband output.
Noise Figure The noise factor stated in dB and is a parameter commonly used to indicate
the quality of a receiver.
CHAPTER 25:
SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS
TERMS DEFINITION
Passive Reflector A type of satellite wherein it simply “bounces” signals from one place to
another.
Radio Beacon Used by passive satellites for tracking and ranging purposes.
Transmitters
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The score is type of satellite were in the received transmission from earth
Delayed Repeater station, stored them on a magnetic tape, and then rebroadcast them later to
Satellite ground station farther along in its orbit.
Launched by the NASA in junction with Bell Telephone Laboratories and the
jet Propolusion Laboratory. It is passively reflected radio signal it received from
Echo large earth station antennas and it was simple and reliable radio signal but
required extremely high power transmitter at the earth station.
In 1960 the Department of Defense launched a satellite which was the first
Courier transponder type satellite and has transmitted 3W of power and lasted only 17
days.
Telstar I The first active satellite to simultaneously receive and transmit radio signals.
Launched in 1963, and was used for telephone, television, facsimile and data
Telstar II transmission and accomplished the first successful transatlantic video
transmission.
Syncom III The satellite used to broadcast the 1964 Olympic Games from Tokyo Japan.
Syncom The satellite that demonstrate the feasibility of using geosynchronous satellite.
Johannes Kepler A German astronomer who discovered the laws that governs satellite motion.
Kepler’s Law
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BOOK REVIEW IN COMMUNICATIONS Electronic Communications System By Wayne Tomasi
Enunciated with the first law in 1609, is known as law of area, this law states
Kepler’s Second that for equal intervals of time a satellite will sweep out equal area in the orbital
Law plane, focused at the barycenter.
Harmonic Law or It states that the square of the periodic time of orbit is proportional to the cube
Kepler’s Third Law of the mean distance between the primary and the satellite.
2/3
a = AP
a = semimajor axis
P = mean solar earth
station
A = constant
Geosynchronous High-altitude earth-orbit satellites operating primarily in the 2-GHz to 18 GHz
Satellite frequency spectrum with orbits Satellite 22,300 miles above earth’s surface.
It requires sophisticated and heavy propulsion device onboard to keep them in a fixed orbit
Much longer propagation delays
Requires higher transmit power and more sensitive receivers because of the longer distances
and greater path loss.
High precision spacemanship is required.
Nonsynchronous Satellite that rotates around the earth in an elliptical or circular patterns .
Progeade or If the satellite is orbiting in the same direction as earth’s rotation and at the
Posigrade angular velocity greater than the earth that orbit is called?
Retrograde If the satellite is orbiting in the same direction as earth’s rotation and at the
angular velocity less than the earth that orbit is called?
The satellite operates in the 1.0GHz to 2.5GHz frequency range and utilizing a
Low Earth Orbit 66-satelite constellation orbiting approximately 48 miles above the earth’s
(LEO) surface.
Medium Earth Orbit The satellite operates in the 1.2GHz to 1.66GHz frequency band and orbit
(MEO) between 6000 miles and 12000 miles above the earth.
Geosynchronous The satellite are high altitude earth orbit satellite operating primary in the 2GHz
Earth Orbit (GEO) to 18 GHz frequency spectrum with orbits 22,300 miles above the earth’s
surface.
Geostationary Those that orbit in a circular pattern with a angular velocity equal to the earth.
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BOOK REVIEW IN COMMUNICATIONS Electronic Communications System By Wayne Tomasi
Near-Synchronous It is slightly lower than 22,300 miles above earth, the satellite orbit time is
lower than earth’s rotational period.
Major Axis The line joining the perigee and apogee through the center of the earth and
sometimes called line of apsides.
Minor Axis The line perpendicular to the major axis and halfway between the perigee and
apogee it is sometimes called semiminor axis.
All satellite rotate around the earth in an orbit that from a plane that passes
Geocenter through the center of the gravity of earth is called?
Are virtually all orbits except those that travel directly above the equator or
Inclined Orbits directly over the north and south poles?
The angle between the earth’s equatorial plane and the orbital plane of a
Angle of Inclination satellite measured counter clockwise at the point in the orbit where it crosses
the equatorial plane traveling from south to north called the ascending node.
The point where a polar or inclined orbit crosses the equatorial plane traveling
Descending Node from north to south is called?
Line of Nodes The line joining the ascending and descending nodes through the center of the
earth is called?
When the satellite rotates in an orbits directly above the equator, usually in a
Equatorial Orbit circular path.
When the satellite rotates in a path that takes it over the north and south poles
Polar Orbit in an orbit perpendicular to the equatorial plane.
Station Keeping The process of maneuvering a satellite within a preassigned window is called?
Arthur C. Clarke He first suggested its existence in 1945 and proposed its use for
communication satellite.
Antenna Look Azimuth angle and elevation angle are jointly referred to as the?
Angles
The location that is identified by a point on the surface of the earth, it has no
Subsatellite Point latitude and longitude is called?
Azimuth Angle Is defined as the horizontal pointing angle of an earth station antenna.
Which determine the fastest satellite away that can be seen looking east or
Limit of Visibility west of the earth station longitude?
It uses the angular momentum of its spinning body to provide roll and yaw
Spinner stabilization.
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BOOK REVIEW IN COMMUNICATIONS Electronic Communications System By Wayne Tomasi
Three-axis The body remains fixed relative to earth’s surface, while an internal subsystem
Stabilizer provides roll and yaw stabilization.
Beamwidths and side lobe radiation of both earth station and satellite antenna.
RF carrier frequency
Encoding or modulating technique used
Acceptance limits of interference
Transmit carrier power
Effective Isotropic
Radiated Power The effective power transmitted is called?
(EIRP)
They concentrate their power to very small geographic areas and therefore
Spot beam typically have proportionately higher ERIP than those targeting much larger
area because a given output power can be more concentrated.
Hemispherical An antenna typically target up to 20% of the earth’s surface and therefore,
Downlink have EIRP that are 3dB or 50% lower than those transmitted by spot beams
that typically cover only 10% of the earth’s surface.
Frequency Reuse The different beams of the same frequency can be directed to different
geographical area of the earth.
High-Power It is used in earth station transmitters and the traveling-wave tubes typically
Amplifiers used in satellite transponders.
Back-off loss The amount the output level is backed off from rated level is equivalent to a
loss and is appropriately called?
Saturated output The output power of a typical satellite earth station transmitter is much higher
power than the output power from terrestrial microwave power amplifiers.
CHAPTER 26:
SATELLITE MULTIPLE ACCESSING ARRANGEMENTS
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BOOK REVIEW IN COMMUNICATIONS Electronic Communications System By Wayne Tomasi
TERMS DEFINITIONS
Anik-E
communications Domestic Satellites operated by Telsat Canada.
Satellite
Fixed-Assignment,
Multiple channels per carrier formats assigned and remain fixed
Multiple
for a long Period of time.
Access (FAMA)
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BOOK REVIEW IN COMMUNICATIONS Electronic Communications System By Wayne Tomasi
Common Signaling
A time division-multiplexed transmission that is frequency
Channel
division multiplexed.
(CSC)
Reference Burst
It is where transmissions from all earth stations are synchronized.
Carrier Recovery
It is where all receiving stations recover a frequency and phase
Sequence
coherent carrier for PSK demodulation
(CRS)
Chip Code A unique binary word that each earth station’s transmissions are
encoded.
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BOOK REVIEW IN COMMUNICATIONS Electronic Communications System By Wayne Tomasi
Correlator
It compares two signals and recovers the original data.
Time-Assignment A form of analog channel compression that has been used for sub
Speech Interpolation oceanic cables for many years.
(TASI)
The term derived from the word “deduced” and not necessarily
Dead
from the fate of the people who used the technique.
Charles Lindbergh
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BOOK REVIEW IN COMMUNICATIONS Electronic Communications System By Wayne Tomasi
Navstar
An acronym for Navigation System with Time and Ranging.
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BOOK REVIEW IN COMMUNICATIONS Electronic Communications System By Wayne Tomasi
a space segment
a ground control segment
user segment
April 27, 1995 It is when the Navstar was declared as fully operational by the U.S.
Air Force Space Command.
Navstar Satellite
It was completed in 1994 and is maintained by the United States
System
Air Force.
Standard Positioning
A positioning and timing service that is available to all GPS users
Service
on a continuous, worldwide basis with no direct change.
Cesium Atomic Clock It produces highly accurate timing signals for satellites.
Pseudorandom Noise A unique integer number that is used to encrypt the signal from
(PRN) Code Number that satellite.
Clock Bias Error Error in the receiver’s clock which affects the accuracy of the
time-difference measurement.
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