Mine Geology

MINE GEOLOGY 557/S02

CONTENT

MODULE 1
MINING GEOLOGY

1.0 OVERVIEW OF MINE GEOLOGY............................................................1

1.1.0 IMPORTANCE OF MINE GEOLOGY.......................................................1
1.2 SAMPLING..................................................................................................9
1.2.1 UNDERGROUND DRILLING AS A SAMPLING METHOD..................11
1.2.2 CORE LOGGING........................................................................................11
1.3 GEOLOGIC MAPPING..............................................................................11
1.4 PLANS AND PROJECTIONS....................................................................16
1.5 MODELS.....................................................................................................20
1.6 MINERAL RESERVES AND MINERAL RESOURCES.........................20
1.7 GRADE CONTROL....................................................................................29
1.8 ACTIVITIES...............................................................................................30

MODULE 2
DIAMOND DRILLING

2.0 DIAMOND DRILLING …………………………………………………32

2.1 HISTORY OF DRILLING……………………………………………….35
2.2 MOBILE DRILLING RIGS……………………………………………...35
2.2.1 DRILLING RIG CLASSIFICATION…………………………………....36
2.3 DRILL TYPES……………………………………………………………37
2.3.1 DIAMOND CORE DRILL BITS………………………………………....42
Core logging
Geotechnical logging
Core handling and storage
2.4 SAFETY…………………………………………………………………..44
2.5 IMPREGNATED DRILL BITS…………………………………………..44
2.6 THE PROFESSIONAL DIAMOND DRILLER INTRODUCTION…….45
2.7 ROCK FORMATIONS…………………………………………………...45
2.8 BIT SELECTION………………….……………………………………...45
2.9 BIT PERFORMANCE………………………………………………........46
2.10 DRILLING TIPS………………………………………………………….49
2.10.1 THE BIT WEAR PATTERNS ……………………………………...........50
2.10.2 NOMINAL HOLE & CORE SIZES……………………………………...56
2.11 DIAMOND DRILLING ACCESSORIES/ PRODUCTS…………………56
2.12 TYPES OF DIAMOND CORE DRILLING……………………………....64
2.13 MACHINE RIGGING……………………………………………………..64
2.13.1 SUMPS……………………………………………………………………..64
2.13.2 DRILLING FLUIDS AND MUDS………………………………………...65
2.14 GENERAL MAINTENANCE (DAILY)…………………………………..65
2.15 MACHINE COMPONENTS………………………………………………65
2.15.1 HOISTING UNIT…………………………………………………………..65
2.15.2 WIRELINE CABLE/ROPE………………………………………………...65
2.15.3 ROPE UNIT………………………………………………………………...65
2.15.4 POWER UNIT……………………………………………………………...66
2.15.5 TRANSMISSION UNIT……………………………………………………66
2.15.6 DRILL HEAD ASSEMBLY (SWIVEL HEAD)……………………...........66

1|Page
 Mine Geology

2.15.7 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM…………………………………………….......66

2.15.8 WATER AND MUD PUMPS……………………………………….......67
2.15.9 CASINGS……………………………………………………………......67
2.16 FISHING OPERATION……………………………………………........67
2.17 HOUSE KEEPING…………………………………………………........68
2.18 HOLE DEVIATION…………………………………………………......69
2.19 ACTIVITY……………………………………………………………....70
2.20 CONVERSION TABLES…………………………………………….....71

2|Page
 Mine Geology

MODULE 1

MINE GEOLOGY

1.0 OVERVIEW OF MINE GEOLOGY

1.1.0 Importance of mine geology
Geology provides technical service to the production and recovery team in a mining operation. It
is said to be the ‘light and compass’ of mining- giving direction so as to optimise mineral
reserves exploration and exploitation. Mine geology department is responsible for generation of
mineral reserves and resources, grade control to ensure viability and sustainability of a mining
operation, crucial part of the planning and scheduling team, mineral reserves management and ,
quality control and quality analyses.

Roles of a mine geologist

 Producing a mine geology model and ore body model
 Mapping and core logging
 Grade control
 Production planning and scheduling
 Exploration in and around the mine/ mining leases
 Rock mechanics and ground control
 Database creation and management
 Supervision of sampling activities
 Supervision of diamond drilling
 Producing technical reports
 Advising management on production/ ore deposit issues
 Ore reserves/resources estimation
 Attend to exploratory and operation problems

Underground operation roles

 Grade control through development control and monitoring of stopes and tramming
 Dilution determination
 Rock mechanics and ground control
 Underground mapping
 Core logging
 Orebody modelling
 Database creation and management
 Rock mechanics and ground control
 hydrogeology

Surface mining roles

 Wall and bench mapping

3|Page
 Mine Geology

 Pit wall stability

 Supervision of RC drilling
 Digital terrain modelling
 Grade control through waste movement monitoring and ore paddocking, and bench levels
monitoring
 Exploration and evaluation
 Monitoring rehabilitation work

What is a Geologist

A geologist is a scientist who studies the solid and liquid matter that constitutes the Earth as well
as the processes and history that has shaped it. Geologists usually engage in studying geology.
Geologists, studying more of an applied science than a theoretical one, must approach Geology
using physics, chemistry and biology as well as other sciences. Geologists, compared to
scientists engaged in other fields, are generally more exposed to the outdoors than staying in
laboratories; although some geologists prefer to perform most of their studies in the lab.

Geologists are engaged in exploration for mining companies in search of metals, oils, and other
Earth resources. They are also in the forefront of natural hazards and disasters warning and
mitigation, studying earthquakes, volcanic activity, tsunamis, weather storms, and the like; their
studies are used to warn the general public of the occurrence of these events. Currently, geologists
are also the scientists most engaged in the discussion of climate change, being the ones who hold
the history and evidence for this Earth process.

Training / Schooling

Their undergraduate training typically includes significant coursework in physics, mathematics,

chemistry and possibly biology, in addition to classes offered through the geology department;
historical and physical geology, igneous and metamorphic petrology and petrography,
hydrogeology, sedimentology, stratigraphy, mineralogy, palaeontology, geostatistics,
geochemistry, geophysics and structural geology are among the many required areas of study.
Most geologists also need skills in GIS and other mapping techniques. Geology students often
spend portions of the year, living and working under field conditions with faculty members
(often referred to as "field camp"). Many non-geologists often take geology courses or have
expertise in geology that they find valuable to their fields; this is common in the fields of
geography, engineering, chemistry, urban planning, and environmental studies, among others.

Areas of specialization

Geologists may concentrate their studies or research in one or more of the following disciplines:

4|Page
 Mine Geology

 Economic geology: the study of ore genesis, and the mechanisms of ore creation,
geostatistics.

 Engineering geology: application of the geologic sciences to engineering practice for the
purpose of assuring that the geologic factors affecting the location, design, construction,
operation and maintenance of engineering works are recognized and adequately provided
for;

 Geophysics: the applied branch deals with the application of physical methods such as
gravity, seismicity, electricity, magnetic properties to study the earth.

 Geochemistry: the applied branch deals with the study of the chemical makeup and
behaviour of rocks, and the study of the behaviour of their minerals.

 Geochronology: the study of isotope geology specifically toward determining the date
within the past of rock formation, metamorphism, mineralization and geological events
(notably, meteorite impacts).

 Geomorphology: the study of landforms and the processes that create them

 Hydrogeology: the study of the origin, occurrence and movement of groundwater water
in a subsurface geological system.

 Igneous petrology: the study of igneous processes such as igneous differentiation,

fractional crystallization, intrusive and volcanological phenomena .

 Isotope geology: the study of the isotopic composition of rocks to determine the
processes of rock and planetary formation.

 Metamorphic petrology: the study of the effects of metamorphism on minerals and rocks.

 Marine geology: the study of the seafloor; involves geophysical, geochemical,

sedimentological and paleontological investigations of the ocean floor and coastal
margins. Marine geology has strong ties to physical oceanography and plate tectonics.

 Palaeoclimatology: the application of geological science to determine the climatic

conditions present in the Earth's atmosphere within the Earth's history.

 Palaeontology: the classification and taxonomy of fossils within the geological record
and the construction of a palaeontological history of the Earth.

 Pedology: the study of soil, soil formation, and regolith formation.

 Petroleum geology: the study of sedimentary basins applied to the search for
hydrocarbons (oil exploration).

5|Page
 Mine Geology

 Sedimentology: the study of sedimentary rocks, strata, formations, eustasy and the
processes of modern day sedimentary and erosive systems.

 Structural geology: the study of folds, faults, foliation and rock microstructure to
determine the deformational history of rocks and regions.

 Volcanology: the study of volcanoes, their eruptions, lavas, magma processes and
hazards.

Employment opportunities

Diagram above: The rock hammer and hand lens (or loupe) are two of the most characteristic
tools carried by geologists in the field.

Professional geologists work for a wide range of government agencies, private firms, and non-
profit and academic institutions. Local, state, and national governments hire geologists to help
plan and evaluate excavations, construction sites, environmental remediation projects, and
natural disaster preparedness, as well as to investigate natural resources. Sometimes they are
hired on a contract basis, and other times, they can be permanent staff of an official agency or
survey, like the ZGS and USGS. An engineering geologist (a geologist trained, experienced and
certified in the field of engineering geology) is called upon to investigate geologic hazards and
geologic constraints for the planning, design and construction of public and private engineering
projects, forensic and post-mortem studies, and environmental impact analysis. Exploration
geologists utilize all aspects of geology and geophysics to locate and study natural resources. In
many countries or US states without specialized environmental remediation licensure programs,
such as Rhode Island and North Carolina, the environmental remediation field is often dominated
by professional geologists, particularly hydrogeologists, with professional concentrations in this
aspect of the field. Petroleum and mining companies use mudloggers (or wellsite geologists) and

6|Page
 Mine Geology

large-scale land developers use geologists' and engineering geologists' skills to help them locate
oil and minerals, adapt to local features such as karst deposits or the risk of earthquakes, and
comply with environmental regulations. Geologists in academia usually hold an advanced degree
in a specialized area within the discipline. Banks and financial institutions hire geologist to
advice on investments related to the mineral industry, geologists work as economic mining or
mineral analyst, resource geologist, stock brokers, etc.

Geology

Geology is the study of the earth's crust and its rock formations, and includes classifying and
mapping of the composition and distribution of mineral deposits contained in the earth's
formations. In the mining industry, this knowledge is applied to find additional mineral resources
and to upgrade existing resources.

Geologists operate in wide areas. Two of these, mining geology and exploration geology, are
vital to the mining industry.

 Mining geologists ensure that the minerals are efficiently extracted from the deposit for
maximum profit.
 Exploration geologists locate deposits of important minerals and determine whether the
quantities are large enough to make mining economically viable.

Most of the geologists employed by Impala are mining geologists although there are a number of
exploration geologists. Mining and exploration geologists have different responsibilities and are
involved in different job activities.

Mining geology

A mining geologist's activities include mapping, recording and compiling geological data in and
around the mine. This provides the mining engineer with details of the location, structure and
distribution of ore in a deposit. Furthermore, the mining geologist delineates the ore reserves on
which the mine's life depends, using geoscientific techniques to predict the grade and structure of
ore bodies in unknown areas. The mine geologist plays a crucial role in the optimisation of the
ore body and is intimately involved in the mine planning process.

What you should study

Those of you who are more academically inclined and want to study at university, can study
towards a BSc (Hons) in geology, a full time course. This will enable you to work as a geologist
and to register as a professional scientist or engineers with various professional bodies like
SACNASP or ECSA.

7|Page
 Mine Geology

Graduate career

Graduates with degrees in geology join a mine or exploration office as geologists-in-training, and
are placed on a training programme designed to suit the requirements of the individual mine or
exploration office. Once this has been completed, you may be appointed as a mine or project
geologist. From then on you will follow these promotional routes:

 Mine/Project Geologist
 Senior Geologist
 Geology Manager
 Ore Resource Manager
 Consulting geologist

The career paths vary from one organisation to another. The above has been adopted from Impala
platinum mining company structure.

We are looking for

Someone who is highly motivated and a self-starter should consider geology. The ability to
distill the essence of a situation from large amounts of information, an eye for detail and the
ability to see in 3-D are essential. These attributes, combined with an overall aptitude for
mathematics, science and computer literacy, are the basic qualities in the sort of person who will
find this career challenging. In addition, the following are also important in a geologist:

 Leadership qualities
 Physical fitness
 Strong communication skills
 The ability to work in a team
 Self-assurance
 An interest in mining
 An ability to keep abreast of developments in the field

Mine geologist: Job description and activities

Mine geologists provide advice and expertise on the geological aspects of development and
production in mine, pit and quarry sites. In overseeing drilling and surface exploration
programmes, they help to determine likely directions for future development.

Working as part of a multidisciplinary team, mine geologists help to assure the quality of the
minerals, rocks and gems extracted, as well as ensuring the safety of the extraction process. As

8|Page
 Mine Geology

mine geologists are often responsible for estimating the mine reserve, numeracy and computer
literacy usually form a key part of the job role. Mine geologists working in hard rock mining are
likely to work overseas, in underground sites.

Typical work activities include:

 exploring, dating and sampling mineral deposits;

 interpreting and mapping the geology of a mine;
 preparing and presenting data;
 checking the quality levels of materials produced for reserve assessment;
 classifying resources;
 assessing geotechnics and aquifer drainage;
 undertaking environmental impact studies;
 updating detailed databases;
 creating mine models using CAD (computer-aided design) software, such as SURPAC,
Vulcan, etc.

1.2 SAMPLING
Sampling is a process of obtaining a small representative part of a whole rock mass to represent
the whole. The sample is taken for analysis of assay values, mineral composition, texture or a
field specimen.

Methods of sampling
1. Channel sampling: a groove is cut across the strike of the rock formation or ore body/reef
using a diamond saw-cutter. A chisel is then used to chip out the rock material in between
the groove. The samples are collected at standard sample length as governed by the mine
standard (classical geostatistics or geological).This sampling method is most preferred for
evaluation and mineral reserves/resources estimations to chip sampling because is more
effective and is auditable.
2. Chip sampling: this sampling is done by a hammer and a chisel. No groove is cut, it is
superficial. This is mainly used were quick results are needed e.g. in guiding
developments and quick grade evaluations.
3. Grab sampling: broken muck samples are collected by shovel or hand at certain time
intervals, or sampling intervals, or randomly so as to get the indication of the mineral
value of the respective ground. This method is applied on stockpiles, tramming,
drawpoints, hoists, trucks and conveyors. Grab sampling is often done for grade control
purposes.
4. Core sampling: these are samples obtained from diamond drilling. The sample is
measured along the core run and is split or not split(depending on QAQC standards and

9|Page
 Mine Geology

purpose) before being sent to assay laboratory. Core samples are crucial for exploration
and evaluation exercises and are reliable.
5. Sludge sampling: sludge or pulp from jackhammer drilling is collected during drilling at
known sample intervals as the hole deepens. The pulp is assayed and results are used to
roughly indicate/delineate the ore body limits on stopes. These results are not used for
mineral reserves/resources estimation due to high possible contamination levels- not
reliable.
6. Bulk sampling: large quantities than normal are collected for analyses, mainly for
metallurgical investigation or evaluation(e.g. in alluvial deposits were mineral
distribution are random). Bulk sampling is an essential part of exploration and evaluation
of ores. Large samples are required to check the accuracy of the drill samples and to
obtain the needed information on the crushing and grinding characteristics of the ore as
well as for use in detailed and large-scale metallurgical tests. In natural ores, bulk
samples give information regarding the nature and quantities of various sized ore
products that can be shipped

Activity : Discuss advantages and disadvantages of each method above?

General sampling procedure

Equipment
Base map/ survey plan with pegs, pan,clinorule, chisel, diamond saw cutter (if channel
sampling), 4lb hammer, sample bags, tickets, strings, crayon, paint and brush, canvas bag,
notebook, pen and pencil

Protective clothing
Overall/ worksuit, goggles, gloves, hardhat, gumboots, caplamp belt

General procedure
 Having identified the area to be sampled on plan in the office, gather the necessary
equipment and PPE. Inform the Miner in charge of the section when you get into the
section of your intention. This is done so that the area is made safe and resources made
available for sampling to proceed e.g. compressed air/ water.
 Inspect the area to make sure the workplace is safe, bad hangings are barred down with
help of mining official (if any)
 Identify the area to be sampled using the reference pegs
 Mark out the sampling position and sample lengths using the crayon noting the strike of
the shear/ reef. Samples are taken at right-angle to the strike
 Cut the groves and chip out the fragments with a chisel
 Bag the samples and ticket them
 Sketch the sampled area and record the ticket numbers
 Securely tie the sample bags and put into the canvas bag and transport to the laboratory
 Fill the sample register in duplicate and submit together with samples at the laboratory
and keep one for records

10 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

Quality Control
In order to control the quality of the assay results several practices are done which include but
not limited to the following:
 Include assaying blanks on the batches
 Standard samples, the low and high grade samples at known intervals
 Repeats
 Check assaying
 Statistical Data analyses and recommendations
 Core Sample splitting
 Sampling standard procedure enforcement and supervision
 Training

After assaying the values are plotted on the assay level plan on their rightful positions on space.
Hence x,y,z of the sample must be known. It is this assay information together with geology
model that are used for ore reserves estimations and ,mine planning and scheduling.

Sources of sampling errors

1. Contamination- either during sampling, transportation or assaying.
2. Fatigue
3. Human error
4. Laboratory- mix up or machine calibration
5. Bias toward softer material during chipping or fine material during grab sampling
6. Salting

Errors in sampling mislead judgement of the information end user, the geologist, and hence the
entire management (mining/ exploration).Hence quality control and quality analyses measures
should be crafted , implemented and enforced to guard against making catastrophic decisions.

1.2.1 UNDERGROUND DRILLING AS A SAMPLING METHOD

 Done to evaluate the orebodies /reefs through grid drilling, thus drilling at specified
regular intervals
 To check the influence of geological structures that may affect mining progress or
mineralization
 Exploration tool – down dip continuity
- Strike continuity
- Parallels
- New mineralization as per geology model
- Neutralizing the ground in the orebody vicinity
Many drilling methods are used that suit the geology any data quality e.g. diamond drilling.
Reverse circulation, percussion, churn, etc

1.2.2 Core logging

11 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

This is a process of mapping all the geological information on the core run before sampling is
carried out. Comprehensive geology maps are produced from core logging exercise. More and
quality information is obtained from core logging than any other sampling tool. RC chips
normally show mineralization and little information on the structural geology.

1.3 GEOLOGIC MAPPING

Map is a record of geological facts in their correct space relations and not theories. A geology
map includes geological structures, mineralogy, alteration levels, lithology and texture.
Structures are: faults, bedding, joints, dykes, veins, shears, etc.

12 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

13 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

 For underground mapping, the geology information is projected from the roof of a
development to middle-level development plane and plotted on the survey plan. Survey
measurements for developments are done at mid –level hence the projections to that
level. The pegs and tape measure are used to locate and plot the geological features on
plan.

 The information is taken to office where it is synthesised onto the main geology plan and
also computer database
 Interpretations and decisions are then made based on the available information
 Geology models are created from this geology data

Surface mapping:
 firstly identify the general strike of the region
 using a base map, draw the gridlines across the strike and at reasonable mapping intervals
 walk along the grid line picking all the geology information as much as possible
 the geology information is plotted on the base map with help of topography, GPS,
infrastructure, and relief
 record orientation of features-strike/dip/ dip direction, name, etc
 collect specimen of interest in the field for further detailed analyses and rock naming

14 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

15 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

Cross-sections and long-sections are drawn to interpret and understand the geology of the
mapped area(s).Stereo-plots may also be plotted for same purpose.

MAPPING TECHNIQUES
All details capable of being mapped should be picked or recorded, including those which at first
appear to be of remote significance. They normally become significant when integrated and
plotted on the plans or maps. Sometimes, however the mapping can be constrained to a certain
features for certain reasons e.g.
1. Mapping of structures: picking of geological structures mainly for geotechnical
purposes and mine planning, e.g. faults, joints, folds, strike and other orientations.
2. Mapping for alteration: type and intensity of alteration. Useful for locating the
mineralized zones during evaluation, exploration or grade control .Examples of alteration
types are, carbonization, epidotization, sericitization, silicification, etc
3. Lithological mapping: mapping of rock types, this is useful for production of geological
maps and geology modelling
4. Mapping for ore: picking ore and waste only. Mainly done for grade control purposes
only.

General Mapping equipment:

 Compass
 Base map/ survey plan
 Rule
 Tape measure
 GPS (surface mapping)
 Crayon
 Notebook
 Pens and pencil
 Eraser
 Clip-board

Properties to be measured in the field:

1. Strike - compass bearing of a long axis of the feature
2. Dip – angle of inclination of the geological feature
 True dip: dip measured at right angle to the strike
 Apparent dip: dip measured at any other angle which is not at right angle to the strike
3. Dip direction – bearing of the inclination direction

Underground mapping involves mapping of developments and stopes

Surface mapping: mapping of pit walls and bench floors

16 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

1.4 PLANS AND PROJECTIONS

Plans are layouts drawn to scale. They show the surveyed infrastructure and features drawn to
scale in their actual positions in space.

Types of mine plans

1. Assay plans: show assay values in their respective locations. Used for production
planning, ore reserves and life of mine estimation, grade control

2. Geology plans: show geological information of production and development area. Used
for geology modelling, reef interpretation, decision making and grade control.

3. Ore reserves plans: shows distribution and quantity of mineral reserves and resources.
Used for life of mine estimations, reconciliations, planning and scheduling

4. Exploration plans: show exploration information e.g. exploration targets, geophysical

data, geochemical data, trenches, drill holes, mining leases and claims

5. Surface plans: show general surface infrastructure like offices, shafts, workshops, roads
etc

6. Geotechnical plans: show geotechnical data which has a bearing on rock mechanics and
ground control. Some mines would plot this together with geology plans, some have
special geotechnical plans especially where ground conditions are a cause for concern.

17 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

Projection
Drawing, done to scale, that has been mirrored on certain plane to depict some chosen
information. The developments, ore-bodies and geology can be projected to certain levels to plan
and guide developments. In projecting the down-dip planar information, the dip and the
pitch/rake of the structure is taken into consideration. Examples are the longitudinal sections and
the cross sections.

Longitudinal sections:
Projection along a datum line parallel to the general regional strike of the hosting structure or the
ore body.

18 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

Cross section:
Projections normally at chosen intervals made across the strike. These can be true or apparent.
True sections are cut at right angles to strike while apparent are taken at any other angle.

19 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

Applications/uses

Long-sections:
 Depicts the distribution of mineral reserves and resources for the mine
 Useful tool for planning and scheduling
 Can be used to show the mine ventilation system
 Can be used in ore reserves estimation in narrow reefs
 Can also be used together with cross sections for orebody and geology modelling

Cross-sections:
 Show the vertical extents of the reef and geological features as well as width variations
along strike if more sections are cut , hence useful for modelling
 Used to guide developments into ore, thus a grade control tool
 Useful for planning of stoping e.g. ring design
 Used to design down dip/ up dip evaluation or exploration drilling (target generation)

20 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

1.5 MODELS

Models are smaller versions of the bigger picture. They are also a way of trying to portray the
structure and spatial distributions of a phenomenon e.g. assay values, geology, mine design, etc.
Models can be used to reconstruct the geological events, so as to understand the mode or style of
mineralization. The Geological are useful for exploration target generation, evaluation and help
to come up with best geostatistical mineral reserves estimations.

 Numerical Modelling e.g. in geostatistics, geophysics, mathematical, financial and

hydrological,etc
 Physical/ Structural Modelling e.g. mine design,3D geological and orebody models,
architectural, contouring, etc.
In geology we are interested in 3D and 2D mine models: orebody model, geology model, mine
design model and stockpiles.
Computer generated models are very useful to a geologist as it is used to estimate the mineral
reserves. It is quick to generate and edit through triangulation or solid modelling. It can be
rotated and viewed at any angle of interest, making it a more effective tool for exploration,
evaluation and reserves estimation. Softwares such as SURPAC, Vulcan and ArcView are used
for this purpose by geologists and mining engineers.
Solid Polystyrenes are also used for physical modelling to scale, usually used to show mine
design: developments and stoping that has been done. It is a useful tool for presentations,
planning and illustrations. This modelling has been used for a long time now in the mining
industry, and is being slowly replaced buy computers, but it has its advantages making it hard to
abolish it completely by some mining operations.
Long sections and cross sections are examples of 2D models used to depict mine and /or
geological data on a mine/ exploration.

1.6 MINERAL RESERVES AND MINERAL RESOURCES

Ore resource is defined as naturally occurring solid, liquid or gas in or on the Earth’s crust which
can be useful or valuable. Ore reserve is that part of the measured or indicated resource which is
economically viable at present time under conditions realistically assumed at that time.

The classification of both the reserves and resources is determined by level of confidence in the
data at hand, knowledge and geological data. When looking at reserves the modifying factors are
considered in the classification process. The modifying factors include; commodity price, state
laws, market conditions, cost, social, environmental, metallurgical, geographical, political, etc.
Conditions change in any of the modifying factors may lead to down grading or upgrading of the
reserve to resource or vice versa, or change in material content of resource/reserve (e.g. change
in commodity price or paylimit)

Ore deposit is the concentration of minerals at a given location and recoverable at a profit after
considering various factors as listed above.

21 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

Resource classification
 Inferred: no drilling or development has been done. A geological model is used to infer/
predict the existence of an orebody. For models with vertical continuity, an inferred block
can be said to exist below a drill indicated block
 Indicated: drill holes or sampling points are widely spaced, but indicate existence of
mineralization. Continuity of the mineralization between the sampling points is not
ascertained
 Measured: sufficient sampling and geological data has been acquired and the 3D
exposure of the resource has been done by developments and ore limits are defined with
confidence. High level of geological knowledge, but modifying factors are not yet
considered.

Reserve classification
 Proven: being mined or ready for mining at profit.3D exposure by developments has been
done. Modifying factors have been considered and no material change is expected on this
block. Highest confidence level.
 Probable: high confidence level , but lower than proved. May be due to insufficient
drilling as per reporting standard or lagging development.

Reserves/Resource estimation
It is a calculation meant to quantify the mineral reserve/resource as accurate as possible. It is
from the reserve and resource base estimation from which the life of mine is determined. The
reconciliations and short to long term production plans are derived from reserve estimations.
The ore reserve document is bankable, meaning it can be used as collateral for seeking
debentures, loans and luring shareholders, hence the importance is attached to quality control and
quality analyses in acquiring data, storage and geologist’s competence in reporting the ore
reserves. Reporting standards have been set by various professional institutions to this effect, in
order to align reporting of reserves with financial and investment ethics, e.g. SAMREC ,JORC
Code , etc.

Ore Reserves
General Historically, mineral properties were simply classified into three reserve categories:
Proven, Probable and Possible. In 1980, the USBM and USGS jointly introduced an expanded
system that separated the geological analysis (resource determination) from the subsequent
mineable analysis (reserve determination). In 1989, the AIMM of Australia expanded definitions
and introduced the concept that a reserve analysis should be carried out under the direction of
and certified by an “expert,” who is a qualified professional. Since that time, more work has been
accomplished to further refine the classification system. Most recently, the Canadian government
published “Standards for Disclosure” (National Instrument 43-101) that provides further
interpretation. Unfortunately, there is not yet an international standard that defines the terms
used, let alone a common code for the determination of the separate categories of certainty. The

22 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

good news is that an effort is underway to set international standards that will satisfy the
securities commissions of the stock exchanges that provide the great majority of equity financing
for the world’s mining industry (Johannesburg, London, New York, Sydney, and Toronto).

These new standards are more restrictive (more conservative) than the traditional standards.
In the mean time, major mining companies (who often finance new projects internally without
resorting to the equity markets) developed their own systems. These are generally similar to the
mainstream standards. One significant exception is that normally a qualified team of
professionals is responsible for determining and certifying ore reserves rather than an individual
“Expert,” “Accredited Senior Appraiser,” or “Qualified Person.” The professional team concept
appears wiser than the individual concept promoted by the published guidelines and standards,
since few, if any, individuals are expert in four disciplines (geological interpretation, statistical
analysis, mining methods, and mineral economics).

Definitions
The following are unofficial definitions intended to meet the expectations of a handbook. They
are generally representative of current industry standards.

A discovered mineralization zone will undergo three phases of identification before it is ready for
mining.

A Deposit is a mineralized zone that is examined to the extent that the mineral constituents are
identified. The examination may reveal some geological continuity and approximate grade
(tenor), but there is insufficient information to class it as a Resource.

A Resource is a mineralized zone that is sampled and studied to the extent that a credible
estimate of tonnage and grade can be made. This estimate is sufficiently definitive to divide it
into three levels of certainty: Measured, Indicated, and Inferred.

A Measured Resource is the highest order and implies that the measurements are made in three
dimensions at intervals close enough to be used as a basis for detailed mine planning, as would
be the case for stope development in an operating mine. In the instance of a new project being
contemplated, it is typical that there will be little or no measured resources.

An Indicated Resource is one that the estimate of tonnage and grade is trustworthy to the extent
that it may serve as a basis for major expenditures.

An Inferred Resource is a potential resource that is assumed to exist, by reason of logical

extrapolation or interpolation.
A Reserve is the portion of a mineral resource that may be extracted at a profit. While a resource
is based upon geological interpretation, a reserve has been analyzed further to take actual mining
into account. A more precise definition is, “That part of a mineral resource that has been
analytically demonstrated to justify mining, taking into account, at the time of determination,
mining, metallurgical, marketing, legal, environmental, social, economic and other applicable

23 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

conditions.” (Extracted from the Johannesburg Stock Exchange listing requirements: Mineral
Companies)

A Reserve may be divided into two categories of certainty: Proven and Probable.

Table below: Categories of Certainty

Category Mineral Resource Mineral Reserve

1 Measured Proven 2P
(Proven + Probable)
2 Indicated Probable
3 Inferred

A Proven Reserve is derived only from a measured resource. This category is generally limited to
a mining zone being mined or one that is already prepared for mining, to include preproduction
stope development. Typically, for most new mining projects, there will be little or no proven
reserves.

A Probable Reserve is that part of an Indicated Resource subjected to the scrutiny required of a
Detailed Feasibility Study and thereby may be found to justify the expenditure required for
mining. In a formal economic analysis, only probable and proven reserves are employed. The
sum of these two categories may be referred to as “2P.”

A Possible Reserve is an obsolete category since by current standards it may not be used in any
formal economic analysis. When reporting on a mineral property, a potential or possible zone of
mineralization best remains identified as an Inferred Resource. For purposes of a preliminary
study, a “possible reserve” may be calculated to perform an analysis only when desired to justify
additional exploration work.

Evaluating Exploration Properties

Properties with fully developed ore reserves are evaluated for potential as a profitable mining
enterprise by formal procedures. Frequently, properties are required to be evaluated (for sale,
joint ventures, or other transactions) with only drill indicated or inferred reserves. In many cases,
the value depends only upon exploration data that is favourable to an anticipated discovery
based on hypothetical interpretation of geology. Sometimes, untouched exploration properties are
valuable simply because they occur in a fashionable area, such as near a recent spectacular
discovery. If exploration expenditures are incurred on the property, expenses not resulting in
condemnation enhance property value. If no indication of mineral resource is identified and the
property is idle, the value must be limited to no more than half of the spent costs. When results
are positive, exploration is ongoing, and work to date has been completed with diligence and
efficiency, 100% of the funds already expended can be added to the property value.

24 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

A different approach was originally developed to assist with properties submitted for approval by
the Toronto Stock Exchange. The method assumes that a property is first acquired by staking
claims, the cost of which is known. The first cost is multiplied by weighed factors for items of
value (such as regional geology, proximity to infrastructure, geological data quality, executive
integrity or field manager reputation) to obtain valuation. Other approaches exist to evaluate
mineral properties, including so many dollars per ounce of “gold in the ground,” but these
methods are no longer popular.

Liabilities must be subtracted from the positive values of an exploration property. For example,
the purchaser or partner may become responsible for the cost of clean-up and restoration if the
property is later abandoned. Liabilities are not normally significant for a green field play, but if
the property is environmentally sensitive; subject to native land claims; or contains old
dumps, tailings, or mine workings, it is prudent to assess the liabilities.

Estimating Ore Reserves

Estimation includes determining tons, grade, and degree of certainty (proven or probable). Tons
Resource tonnage is obtained by multiplying ore volume by its density. For example, 1,000 cubic
meters of ore with an SG of 3.0 weighs 3,000 metric tons (tonnes). The volume is computed
from ore outlines and the SG determined by weighing a sample in air and suspended in water.
The calculation of volume is not complicated and may be determined with confidence,
provided the ore outlines are accurate. Unfortunately, less attention is given to the accuracy of
specific gravity. Sources of the figure(s) provided should be questioned.

A wrong value is obtained from slurry analysis carried out in a metallurgical testing laboratory.
The reason is that ore is porous and when finely ground; the density of individual particles is
approximately 20% higher than the density of a block of ore. In a Reserve calculation, resource
tons are “reduced” to account for the fact that not all the ore will be mined. Conversely, resource
tons are “increased” to account for dilution with waste rock in a contact orebody or with low-
grade material in a cut-off orebody. Nineteen different contributing factors are considered in a
comprehensive estimate of the amount of dilution

Grade
Proper grade determination for an orebody is difficult and time consuming. “The arithmetic
mean is a very inadequate axiom. Instead of adding up a series of observations and then dividing
the sum by the total number of observations, equal suppositions would have equal consideration
if the estimates were multiplied together instead of added. Mother Nature is not troubled by
difficulties of analysis, nor should we.”Lord Keynes

Elementary components (observations) consist of orebody sample grades and location. In hard
rock formations, these typically consist of assay results from diamond drill cuttings (sludge),
split drill core, and channel samples. Sometimes these are augmented by bulk sample assays or
cuttings from inclined percussion drilling into the walls of exploration headings. For the sample
assay grade to be correct, they must be collected properly and protected from contamination (or
salting) in transit. Except for a major mining company with in-house expertise, a recognized
independent laboratory should perform the assays. The best-recognized laboratory available

25 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

should be selected to perform periodic check assays. For foreign projects, all assays, or at least
check assays, should be performed domestically.

Note
Problems may arise when shipping sample bags to the home country unless they are double
tagged (one may be torn off by baggage handlers) and clearly labelled, “Pure mineral rock
samples” to avoid detainment in customs. Once samples are taken, ore reserves are divided into
blocks of convenient size. A grade for each block is determined from samples in and near the
block. Each sample assay used for the block grade determination is assigned a weight. The sum
of the weights is one (or 100%). Weights are dependent on the degree of variation between the
samples employed; grade resolution is determined by the application of statistical analysis to the
variations. A geostatical tool, “Variogram,” is typically used to represent the variance of samples
with respect to the distance separating them. The block grade is determined by summing the
products obtained from multiplying each sample grade by its assigned weight.

Blocks not meeting the cut-off grade are removed from the reserve ton calculation. The cut-off
grade is traditionally the breakeven point (neither profit nor loss). Recently, cut-off grade is
chosen to ensure a low cost product compared with the cost incurred at competing mines around
the world. When the mine is in production, the cut-off grade may be lowered after the pre-
production capital cost is retired. Cut-off grade may be raised or lowered at any time during mine
life depending on prevailing metal prices.

Underground Exploration Entries

The nature and circumstance of the typical hard rock ore deposit is such that the exploration
program may not properly be completed without including exploration work from an
underground entry. This concerns open pit projects where a representative bulk sample is
required (Twin Buttes, Tyrone, Brenda, Endako, Marcopper, Palabora, Escondida); and
especially pertains to underground deposits. Numerous instances have occurred where
underground mines developed without such a program, encountered significant problems due to
unforeseen circumstances.

Those mines successfully brought into production without an exploration entry typically
involved ore bodies clearly defined from surface drilling because of the nature of the
mineralization and/or the proximity of very similar deposits already mined. Even these
circumstances are not foolproof. For example, the Randfontein mine (where the ore is
exceptionally uniform and continuous) encountered an unexpected barren area that interrupted
the ore throughout a horizontal length of over 8,000 feet along the reef.

Industry standards and good engineering practice normally require that a hard rock mining
project begin with an underground exploration program before proceeding with a definitive
(bankable) feasibility study.
‘Below ground only can the miner ‘shake hands with the ore.’ Arnold Hoffman, 1947

Listed below are the specific reasons for completing an underground exploration program.
• Confirm existing ore reserves
• Define the orebody

26 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

• Obtain geotechnical data

• Obtain a bulk sample
• Test mining methods
• Measure ground water flows
• Further exploration

Confirm Existing Ore Reserves

Surface drilling permits measurement of the ore reserves from only two dimensions. Hence, none
of the underground mineral deposit can be officially classified as “proven.” Three-dimensional
measurement may be only undertaken from underground to confirm continuity of ore outlines
between drill holes. “When it comes to measuring ore reserves accurately, the key is a proper
mix of sampling theory (statistics) and geology. Geostatical methods depend heavily on large
sample numbers and extensive close-spaced sampling, including heavily drilling local areas to
estimate mining selectivity. Extensive drilling may not be economical in a small orebody. Even
in a large orebody, going underground may ultimately be the only way to determine how well
the ore can be followed.”Gary Raymond, Canadian Mining Journal, August, 1985

Define the Orebody

Most surface drilling requires substantial distance to reach the underground ore deposits. The
distance and length of drill string required can result in considerable hole deviation. The
deviations can be determined and considered, but the measurement is not always accurate.
Inaccuracy can result in a distorted interpretation (whether by computer or manual means) of the
actual ore configurations, outlines, continuity, fault lines, and grade distribution. For mining
engineers to select the appropriate mining methods to permit the safe and economical extraction
of the largest possible percentage of identified reserves, reliable and definitive information on
grades and widths is required. This requirement can only be met by going underground.

Obtain Geotechnical Data

Ordinarily, geotechnical/rock mechanics data can be obtained from the drill core and logs
gathered during surface drilling; however, early drilling is often completed to identify ore and
mineralization grades to confirm the general project direction and/or “sell” the project. Typically,
little or no consideration is given to geotechnical properties, some of which can only be
measured accurately from freshly extracted core. Core that could provide geotechnical data often
is consumed for assay and bench testing purposes or is kept for verification purposes. Some
required geotechnical information (measuring the direction and magnitude of the ground stress
regime) can only be completed underground. An underground exploration development program
should provide reliable values for ground stress as well as unconfined compressive strength
(UCS), modulus of elasticity (E), SG, work index (Wi), internal angle of friction (φ), and bulk
density of the broken ore. Together with values for rock quality designation (RQD), joint indices
(J), and stress reduction factor (SRF) obtained from proper drill core logs, this data describes the
engineering properties of rocks to be developed, supported, built against, and mined. The
resulting array of geotechnical criteria is essential for sound underground mine design.

Obtain a Bulk Sample

27 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

For proper metallurgical testing, large sized samples are required (much larger than can be
obtained from drill core). Only from underground can representative ore samples be obtained in
the quantities required. Bulk samples are especially important when bench testing (on drill core)
indicates a complex metallurgy requiring significant testing and analysis to obtain a high
percentage of mineral recovery in the process plants (i.e. mill, smelter, and refinery).

In addition, bulk sampling enables advance determination of whether preventive measures are
desired to reduce detrimental oxidation of wall rock and/or broken ore resulting from an
undesirable mineral component such as pyrrhotite. The bulk sample will also enable further
confirmation of ore distribution and grades.

Test Mining Methods

Conventional practice requires excavating test stopes underground to obtain the bulk samples
described above. Examining these larger sized openings is valuable in evaluating mining
methods for the orebody. Ground reinforcement required to maintain the structural integrity of
the excavations (rock bolts, screen, etc.) can be monitored for long-term stability. The results
may be later applied to establish safe ground support criteria and standards for underground
operations.

Measure Ground Water Flows

The methods used to predict water inflows underground from surface drill holes (packer tests)
are inadequate for the accurate measurements required to determine the underground pumping
and dewatering requirements of a hard rock mine. Only by going underground can the
requirements for grouting and dewatering be reliably determined in advance

Further Exploration
An underground exploration program is typically designed to uncover additional ore extensions
and satellite zones of mineralization that may have been missed by surface drilling.

Methods:

1. Polygonal estimation:
2. Sectional area estimation:
3. Inverse distance squared:
4. Ordinary krigging:

Polygonal estimation: based on the concept that the value of material at an unknown location is
equal to the value of the sample located closest to the location. Maximum radius used as
influence of sample.
Characteristics of the Polygonal Method: The polygonal method of ore reserve estimation has
been in use since the early 1900s (Popoff, 1966), and is still used by some companies, especially
when manually preparing ore reserve estimates.
The polygonal method is unique among the estimators discussed in this section, because the
polygons drawn around each drill hole define both the volume of ore and its grade. This aspect of
the polygonal method means that it can be used both to estimate grades and to estimate the

28 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

boundary of the mineral deposit. As an estimator of the boundary of a deposit, the polygon is
unbiased and gives sharp boundaries rather than the smooth gradational boundaries an
interpolation method such as inverse distance method would give.

Diagram above: Polygonal method

Sectional area estimation: based on defining the area and length weighted grade for specific cross
section \level plan. The area is projected half way to the next section of mineralisation.

Inverse distance squared (ID2)

Characteristics of Distance Weighting Method
Distance weighting interpolation methods have been widely used by the mining industry,
especially for ore-body modelling of open pit mines. Whereas the distance weighting
interpolators largely replaced the traditional methods of estimation in the late 1960s the distance
weighting interpolators are now being rapidly replaced by the geostatistical technique of kriging.
 used where there is insufficient data to achieve variograms.
 it is an improvement on polygonal method
 weighing of the surrounding samples is calculated based on the inverse of their distance
to the block control ID, raised to a specific power, normally two
 weighting factors therefore give greater importance to the samples closest to the block
centroid.

Ordinary krigging;
 widely accepted method for achieving the best possible estimate
 the method assigns weights such that they reflect the spatial variability of the grades
themselves.
 Applies complex geostatistics to estimate the reserves/ resources

29 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

Diagram
 Fast and accurate method of estimation is achieved by use of computer software
applications namely Vulcan, Surpac, Datamine, ArcView, etc
 softwares are used for mine and ore body modelling in addition to the above listed, we
also have AutoCAD, stopeCAD, Didger, MapInfo etc which are mainly for 2D and 3D
modelling.

Tonnage estimation

1 ton = 1000kg
Tonnage = volume x Sg
Volume = area x height
Sg is the specific gravity

Grade estimation

Average grade =

1.7 Grade control

It is the management of mineral reserves and resources to enable sustainability and viability of
the mining operation. It involves quality control measures for the ore and waste blasting and
movement, and development and stopes monitoring. Grade control starts from planning and
scheduling and taken all the way from directing development and stoping to the plant head grade.

Dilution is ‘the number one enemy’ hence is avoided as much as possible

Ways of Grade Control

1. Grab sampling at tramming levels, hoist and conveyor belts and stock piles
2. Management of stock piles (blending and the consumption/depletion rate)
3. Planting of washers in waste material to track waste going into the plant.
4. Monitor the developments and guide into ore
5. Monitor slypings on stopes and benches.
4. Monitoring drilling i.e. whole lengths and inclinations to avoid over breaks, insufficient
breaking and dilution.
7. Consider rock mechanics and geological structures in your planning e.g. effects of faults
to grade and safety.
8. Draw point control
9. Sorting (normally small scale operations or where ore and waste are distinct).
10. Level controls for open pit

30 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

Dilution can be estimated using:

 stoping areas
 tonnages
 width (stope / development)
i.e. broken tonnage or area or width versus orebody size as percentage.

Mine call factor (M.C.F)

M.C.F = Mineral Accounted for x 100%

Mineral called for

Mineral accounted for is also expressed as the recovered mineral + the residues
Residues are sometimes referred to as the tailings.

MCF gives the indication of how effective mining and recovery systems are, it shows how
efficient the sampling systems, grade control, transportation, survey and recovery systems are.

A Mine call factor of 100% is ideal, but which is very anomalous and unacceptable MCF must be
investigated. Some of the areas to check include:

 sampling standards and procedures

 mineral loss in transit during tramming and hoisting
 mineral loss in crevices
 survey procedures on the stopes
 availability of stockpiles, on drawpoints “are we milling what we are intending to”.
 Recovery and reduction procedures
 Security at the plant, theft of amalgam and at various milling stages

Tonnage Block Call Factor (BCF) = tons broken x 100%

tons estimated

1.8 Activities

Practical : Educational Mine Visits

The students will go on field trips and technical reports on student’s own words will be produced
and contribute towards the practical course work. Attention must be paid to the geological
aspects, students are expected to visit the gold, platinum, coal and diamond mines among
others, and all the situations students will be expected to know among other things:

31 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

 the geological occurrence of minerals concerned in Zimbabwe and the region, the
regional geology and mine geology including local controls of mineralization.
 The sampling and diamond drilling procedures for that mine
 Grade control procedures
 Mining method
 Hoisting and tramming system
 Core logging
 Data capturing and processing
 Mineral reserves/resources estimation procedure

Typical essay questions

1. Describe the following types of mine sections and the information they contain and also
site their importance with respect to the differing attitudes and configurations of ore
deposits

(i) Longitudinal sections

(ii) Transverse sections (20
marks)

2. Describe bias in mine sampling pointing out the remedies to reduce each particular
element of bias (25 marks)

3. Describe responsibilities of mine geologist during life cycle of mine.

(a) youthful stage
(b) mature stage
(c) old stage
(30 marks)

32 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

MODULE 2

DIAMOND DRILLING
2.0 DIAMOND DRILLING

Mining is the foundation of industry and exploration drilling is the foundation of mining. History
owes a great debt to the men and women who have gone into remote places and worked under
difficult conditions to “look into the earth” and find the minerals to sustain industries and build
nations.

This is a section of geology team which is in charge of extracting rock core. This can be done
from surface or underground. Diamond drilling is a very powerful tool for mineral evaluation
and exploration today for geologists and engineers. It is used from exploration stage right
through to mine closure. It is from this core that we get to know and analyse the hidden
structures and mineralization. Diamond drill holes are drilled at various inclinations depending
on the purpose of the hole and habit of the target zone. Core obtained from the diamond drill
process is used for:
 geological analysis,
 mapping,
 sampling,
 geotechnical logging and site investigation.

Diamond drilling is used in:

 mine evaluation,
 advanced stage mineral exploration,
 sampling,
 civil / geological engineering,
 aiding mine drainage,
 aiding ventilation,
 construction to provide conduits for pipes and cables

Data from diamond drilling together with channel sampling are very useful for ore reserve/ ore
resource estimation, mine planning, geological modelling, orebody modelling and rock
mechanics determination.

33 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

Drilling rig: Reverse circulation

A drilling rig is a machine which creates holes (usually called boreholes) and/or shafts in the
ground. Drilling rigs can be massive structures housing equipment used to drill water wells, oil
wells, or natural gas extraction wells, or they can be small enough to be moved manually by one
person. They sample sub-surface mineral deposits, test rock, soil and groundwater physical
properties, and also can be used to install sub-surface fabrications, such as underground utilities,
instrumentation, tunnels or wells. Drilling rigs can be mobile equipment mounted on trucks,
tracks or trailers, or more permanent land or marine-based structures (such as oil platforms,
commonly called 'offshore oil rigs' even if they don't contain a drilling rig). The term "rig"
therefore generally refers to the complex of equipment that is used to penetrate the surface of the
earth's crust.

Drilling rigs can be:

 Small and portable, such as those used in mineral exploration drilling, water wells and
environmental investigations.
 Huge, capable of drilling through thousands of meters of the Earth's crust. Large "mud
pumps" circulate drilling mud (slurry) through the drill bit and up the casing annulus, for
cooling and removing the "cuttings" while a well is drilled. Hoists in the rig can lift

34 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

hundreds of tons of pipe. Other equipment can force acid or sand into reservoirs to
facilitate extraction of the oil or natural gas; and in remote locations there can be
permanent living accommodation and catering for crews (which may be more than a
hundred). Marine rigs may operate many hundreds of miles or kilometres distant from the
supply base with infrequent crew rotation.

Petroleum drilling industry

Petroleum drilling rig. Capable of drilling thousands of metres

Modern Oil Driller La Pampa Argentina

Oil and Natural Gas drilling rigs can be used not only to identify geologic reservoirs but also to
create holes that allow the extraction of oil or natural gas from those reservoirs. Primarily in
onshore oil and gas fields once a well has been drilled, the drilling rig will be moved off of the
well and a service rig (a smaller rig) that is purpose-built for completions will be moved on to the
well to get the well on line. This frees up the drilling rig to drill another hole and streamlines the
operation as well as allowing for specialization of certain services, i.e., completions vs. drilling.

35 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

2.1 History of Drilling

Antique drilling rig now on display at Western History Museum in Lingle, Wyoming. It was used
to drill many water wells in that area -- many of those wells are still in use.

Antique Drilling Rigs in Zigong, China

Until internal combustion engines came in the late 19th century, the main method for drilling
rock was muscle power of man or animal. Rods were turned by hand, using clamps attached to
the rod. The rope and drop method invented in Zigong, China used a steel rod or piston raised
and dropped vertically via a rope. Mechanized versions of this persisted until about 1970, using a
cam to rapidly raise and drop what, by then, was a steel cable.

In the 1970s, outside of the oil and gas industry, roller bits using mud circulation were replaced
by the first efficient pneumatic reciprocating piston Reverse Circulation RC drills, and became
essentially obsolete for most shallow drilling, and are now only used in certain situations where
rocks preclude other methods. RC drilling proved much faster and more efficient, and continues
to improve with better metallurgy, deriving harder, more durable bits, and compressors
delivering higher air pressures at higher volumes, enabling deeper and faster penetration.
Diamond drilling has remained essentially unchanged since its inception.

2.2 Mobile drilling rigs

In early oil exploration, drilling rigs were semi-permanent in nature and the derricks were often
built on site and left in place after the completion of the well. In more recent times drilling rigs
are expensive custom-built machines that can be moved from well to well. Some light duty
drilling rigs are like a mobile crane and are more usually used to drill water wells. Larger land
rigs must be broken apart into sections and loads to move to a new place, a process which can
often take weeks.

36 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

Small mobile drilling rigs are also used to drill or bore piles. Rigs can range from 100 ton
continuous flight auger (CFA) rigs to small air powered rigs used to drill holes in quarries, etc.
These rigs use the same technology and equipment as the oil drilling rigs, just on a smaller scale.

The drilling mechanisms outlined below differ mechanically in terms of the machinery used, but
also in terms of the method by which drill cuttings are removed from the cutting face of the drill
and returned to surface. Its always use in hilly areas.

2.2.1 Drilling rig classification

There are many types and designs of drilling rigs, with many drilling rigs capable of switching or
combining different drilling technologies as needed. Drilling rigs can be described using any of
the following attributes:

by power used

 mechanical - the rig uses torque converters, clutches, and transmissions powered by its
own engines, often diesel
 electric - the major items of machinery are driven by electric motors, usually with power
generated on-site using internal combustion engines
 hydraulic - the rig primarily uses hydraulic power
 pneumatic - the rig is primarily powered by pressurized air
 steam - the rig uses steam-powered engines and pumps (obsolescent after middle of 20th
Century)

by pipe used

 cable - a cable is used to raise and drop the drill bit

 conventional - uses metal or plastic drill pipe of varying types
 coil tubing - uses a giant coil of tube and a downhole drilling motor

by height

 Single - can drill only single drill pipes. The presence or absence of vertical pipe racking
"fingers" varies from rig to rig.
 Double - can hold a stand of pipe in the derrick consisting of two connected drill pipes,
called a "double stand".
 Triple - can hold a stand of pipe in the derrick consisting of three connected drill pipes,
called a "triple stand".

by method of rotation or drilling method

37 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

no rotation includes direct push rigs and most service rigs

 rotary table - rotation is achieved by turning a square or hexagonal pipe (the kelly) at drill
floor level.
 top drive - rotation and circulation is done at the top of the drill string, on a motor that
moves in a track along the derrick.
 sonic - uses primarily vibratory energy to advance the drill string
 hammer - uses rotation and percussive force

by position of derrick

 conventional - derrick is vertical

 slant - derrick is slanted at a 45 degree angle to facilitate horizontal drilling

2.3 Drill types

There are a variety of drill mechanisms which can be used to sink a borehole into the ground.
Each has its advantages and disadvantages, in terms of the depth to which it can drill, the type of
sample returned, the costs involved and penetration rates achieved. There are two basic types of
drills: drills which produce rock chips, and drills which produce core samples.

Auger drilling

Auger drilling is done with a helical screw which is driven into the ground with rotation; the
earth is lifted up the borehole by the blade of the screw. Hollow stem Auger drilling is used for
environmental drilling, geotechnical drilling, soil engineering and geochemistry reconnaissance
work in exploration for mineral deposits. Solid flight augers/bucket augers are used in
construction drilling. In some cases, mine shafts are dug with auger drills. Small augers can be
mounted on the back of a utility truck, with large augers used for sinking piles for bridge
foundations.

Auger drilling is restricted to generally soft unconsolidated material or weak weathered rock. It
is cheap and fast.

38 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

Cable tool water well drilling rig. These slow rigs have mostly been replaced by rotary drilling
rigs

Percussion rotary air blast drilling (RAB)

RAB drilling is used most frequently in the mineral exploration industry. (This tool is also
known as a Down-The-Hole Drill.) The drill uses a pneumatic reciprocating piston-driven
'hammer' to energetically drive a heavy drill bit into the rock. The drill bit is hollow, solid steel
and has ~20 mm thick tungsten rods protruding from the steel matrix as 'buttons'. The tungsten
buttons are the cutting face of the bit.

The cuttings are blown up the outside of the rods and collected at surface. Air or a combination
of air and foam lift the cuttings.

RAB drilling is used primarily for mineral exploration; water bore drilling and blast-hole drilling
in mines, as well as for other applications such as engineering, etc. RAB produces lower quality
samples because the cuttings are blown up the outside of the rods and can be contaminated from
contact with other rocks. RAB drilling at extreme depth, if it encounters water, may rapidly clog
the outside of the hole with debris, precluding removal of drill cuttings from the hole.

This can be counteracted, however, with the use of 'stabilisers' also known as 'reamers', which are
large cylindrical pieces of steel attached to the drill string, and made to perfectly fit the size of
the hole being drilled. These have sets of rollers on the side, usually with tungsten buttons, that
constantly break down cuttings being pushed upwards.

The use of high-powered air compressors, which push 900-1150cfm of air at 300-350psi down
the hole also ensures drilling of a deeper hole up to ~1250m due to higher air pressure which
pushes all rock cuttings and any water to the surface. This, of course, is all dependent on the
density and weight of the rock being drilled, and on how worn the drill bit is.

Air core drilling

39 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

Air core drilling and related methods use hardened steel or tungsten blades to bore a hole into
unconsolidated ground. The drill bit has three blades arranged around the bit head, which cut the
unconsolidated ground. The rods are hollow and contain an inner tube which sits inside the
hollow outer rod barrel. The drill cuttings are removed by injection of compressed air into the
hole via the annular area between the inner tube and the drill rod. The cuttings are then blown
back to surface up the inner tube where they pass through the sample separating system and are
collected if needed. Drilling continues with the addition of rods to the top of the drill string. Air
core drilling can occasionally produce small chunks of cored rock.

This method of drilling is used to drill the weathered regolith, as the drill rig and steel or
tungsten blades cannot penetrate fresh rock. Where possible, air core drilling is preferred over
RAB drilling as it provides a more representative sample. Air core drilling can achieve depths
approaching 300 meters in good conditions. As the cuttings are removed inside the rods and are
less prone to contamination compared to conventional drilling where the cuttings pass to the
surface via outside return between the outside of the drill rob and the walls of the hole. This
method is more costly and slower than RAB.

Cable tool drilling

SpeedStar Cable Tool Drilling Rig

Cable tool rigs are a traditional way of drilling water wells internationally and in the United
States. The majority of large diameter water supply wells, especially deep wells completed in
bedrock aquifers, were completed using this drilling method. Although this drilling method has
largely been supplanted in recent years by other, faster drilling techniques, it is still the most
practicable drilling method for large diameter, deep bedrock wells, and in widespread use for
small rural water supply wells. The impact of the drill bit fractures the rock and in many shale
rock situations increases the water flow into a well over rotary.

Also known as ballistic well drilling and sometimes called "spudders", these rigs raise and drop a
drill string with a heavy carbide tipped drilling bit that chisels through the rock by finely
pulverizing the subsurface materials. The drill string is composed of the upper drill rods, a set of
"jars" (inter-locking "sliders" that help transmit additional energy to the drill bit and assist in
removing the bit if it is stuck) and the drill bit. During the drilling process, the drill string is
periodically removed from the borehole and a bailer is lowered to collect the drill cuttings (rock
fragments, soil, etc.). The bailer is a bucket-like tool with a trapdoor in the base. If the borehole
is dry, water is added so that the drill cuttings will flow into the bailer. When lifted, the bailer
closes and the cuttings are then raised and removed. Since the drill string must be raised and

40 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

lowered to advance the boring, casing (larger diameter outer piping) is typically used to hold
back upper soil materials and stabilize the borehole.

Cable tool rigs are simpler and cheaper than similarly sized rotary rigs, although loud and very
slow to operate. The world record cable tool well was drilled in New York to a depth of almost
12,000 feet. The common Bucyrus Erie 22 can drill down to about 1,100 feet. Since cable tool
drilling does not use air to eject the drilling chips like a rotary, instead using a cable strung bailer,
technically there is no limitation on depth.

Reverse circulation (RC) drilling

Reverse Circulation (RC) rig,

Track mounted Reverse Circulation rig (side view).

RC drilling is similar to air core drilling, in that the drill cuttings are returned to surface inside
the rods. The drilling mechanism is a pneumatic reciprocating piston known as a hammer driving
a tungsten-steel drill bit. RC drilling utilizes much larger rigs and machinery and depths of up to
500 metres are routinely achieved. RC drilling ideally produces dry rock chips, as large air
compressors dry the rock out ahead of the advancing drill bit. RC drilling is slower and costlier
but achieves better penetration than RAB or air core drilling; it is cheaper than diamond coring
and is thus preferred for most mineral exploration work.

41 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

Reverse circulation is achieved by blowing air down the rods, the differential pressure creating
air lift of the water and cuttings up the inner tube which is inside each rod. It reaches the bell at
the top of the hole, then moves through a sample hose which is attached to the top of the cyclone.
The drill cuttings travel around the inside of the cyclone until they fall through an opening at the
bottom and are collected in a sample bag.

The most commonly used RC drill bits are 5-8 inches (12.7–20.32 cm) in diameter and have
round metal 'buttons' that protrude from the bit, which are required to drill through shale and
abrasive rock. As the buttons wear down, drilling becomes slower and the rod string can
potentially become bogged in the hole. This is a problem as trying to recover the rods may take
hours and in some cases weeks. The rods and drill bits themselves are very expensive, often
resulting in great cost to drilling companies when equipment is lost down the bore hole. Most
companies will regularly re-grind the buttons on their drill bits in order to prevent this, and to
speed up progress. Usually, when something is lost (breaks off) in the hole, it is not the drill
string, but rather from the bit, hammer, or stabilizer to the bottom of the drill string (bit). This is
usually caused by a blunt bit getting stuck in fresh rock, over-stressed metal, or a fresh drill bit
getting stuck in a part of the hole that is too small, owing to having used a bit that has worn to
smaller than the desired hole diameter.

Although RC drilling is air-powered, water is also used, to reduce dust, keep the drill bit cool,
and assist in pushing cutting back upwards, but also when collaring a new hole. A mud called
liqui-pol is mixed with water and pumped into the rod string, down the hole. This helps to bring
up the sample to the surface by making the sand stick together. Occasionally, 'super-foam' (AKA
'quik-foam') is also used, to bring all the very fine cuttings to the surface, and to clean the hole.
When the drill reaches hard rock, a collar is put down the hole around the rods which is normally
PVC piping. Occasionally the collar may be made from metal casing. Collaring a hole is needed
to stop the walls from caving in and bogging the rod string at the top of the hole. Collars may be
up to 60 metres deep, depending on the ground, although if drilling through hard rock a collar
may not be necessary.

Reverse circulation rig setups usually consist of a support vehicle, an auxiliary vehicle, as well as
the rig itself. The support vehicle, normally a truck, holds diesel and water tanks for resupplying
the rig. It also holds other supplies needed for maintenance on the rig. The auxiliary is a vehicle,
carrying an auxiliary engine and a booster engine. These engines are connected to the rig by high
pressure air hoses. Although RC rigs have their own booster and compressor to generate air
pressure, extra power is needed which usually isn't supplied by the rig due to lack of space for
these large engines. Instead, the engines are mounted on the auxiliary vehicle. Compressors on
an RC rig have an output of around 1000 cfm at 500 psi (500 L·s−1 at 3.4 MPa). Alternatively,
stand-alone air compressors which have an output of 900-1150cfm at 300-350 psi each are used
in sets of 2, 3, or 4, which are all routed to the rig through a multi-valve manifold.

Diamond core drilling

Diamond drilling is most commonly used for coring. Core drilling is expensive but it is the only
method by which good, undisturbed samples can be obtained for assaying, structural geology
studies, stratigraphical analysis, and geotechnical testing.

42 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

Multi-combination drilling rig (capable of both diamond and reverse circulation drilling). Rig is
currently set up for diamond drilling.

Diamond core drilling (Exploration diamond drilling) utilizes an annular diamond-impregnated

drill bit attached to the end of hollow drill rods to cut a cylindrical core of solid rock. The
diamonds used are fine to micro-fine industrial grade diamonds. They are set within a matrix of
varying hardness, from brass to high-grade steel. Matrix hardness, diamond size and dosing can
be varied according to the rock which must be cut. Holes within the bit allow water to be
delivered to the cutting face. This provides three essential functions; lubrication, cooling, and
removal of drill cuttings from the hole.endevour Diamond drilling is much slower than reverse
circulation (RC) drilling due to the hardness of the ground being drilled. Drilling of 1200 to 1800
metres is common and at these depths, ground is mainly hard rock. Diamond rigs need to drill
slowly to lengthen the life of drill bits and rods, which are very expensive.

Core samples are retrieved via the use of a lifter tube, a hollow tube lowered inside the rod
string by a winch cable until it stops inside the core barrel. As the core is drilled, the core lifter
slides over the core as it is cut. An overshot attached to the end of the winch cable is lowered
inside the rod string and locks on to the backend, located on the top end of the lifter tube. The
winch is retracted, pulling the lifter tube to the surface. The core does not drop out the inside of
the lifter tube when lifted because a "core lifter spring," located at the bottom of the tube allows
the core to move inside the tube but not fall out.

43 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

2.3.1 Diamond core drill bits

Once a rod is removed from the hole, the core sample is then removed from the rod and
catalogued. The Driller's offsider screws the rod apart using tube clamps, then each part of the
rod is taken and the core is shaken out into core trays. The core is washed, measured and broken
into smaller pieces using a hammer or sawn through to make it fit into the sample trays. Once
catalogued, the core trays are retrieved by geologists who then analyse the core and determine if
the drill site is a good location to expand future mining operations.

Diamond rigs can also be part of a multi-combination rig. Multi-combination rigs are a dual
setup rig capable of operating in either a reverse circulation (RC) and diamond drilling role
(though not at the same time). This is a common scenario where exploration drilling is being
performed in a very isolated location. The rig is first set up to drill as an RC rig and once the
desired metres are drilled, the rig is set up for diamond drilling. This way the deeper metres of
the hole can be drilled without moving the rig and waiting for a diamond rig to set up on the pad.

CORE LOGGING
Once the core has been obtained, the geologist will analyse the core paying attention to the
intersected structures, lithology, alteration, mineralisation, bedding, etc, and record all this. The
promising mineralized areas are sampled and sent to the assay laboratory for determination of the
intersected mineral grade.
The sampled core run can be split or not depending on the importance. If core is split, the
remaining core is used for reconciliation or auditing purposes.

Geotechnical logging
Here the geologist concentrates on geological structures like joints, faults, oxidation levels,
weathering intensity and rock types. The sole purpose of geotechnical logging is to determine the
rock stability/mechanics of the drilled area. This comes in handy for mine design, mining method
determination, support recommendation, civil engineering and construction and, etc,
Rock mass rating is done from geotechnical logging data:

44 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

Rock quality designation, RQD, = Core pieces ≤10cm x 100%

Measured core run

Core recovery = actual core measured x 100%

Drilled depth

CORE HANDLING AND STORAGE

Core is transported in secured core boxes to avoid spillages and mix ups either from underground
or from the field. Core must be kept clean, no grease or oils, as this will cover some useful
information leading to poor geological core logging, hence defeating the purpose of drilling.
Core is arranged in a core box normally from left to right ‘reading a book fashion’. The blocks
indicating hole depth and the respective recovered core are put. The boxes are numbered and
arranged in order of the hole depth. After logging, the boxes are then catalogued and stacked in
the coreshed.

2.4 SAFETY

AN ACCIDENT IS AN UNPLANNED EVENT CAUSED BY AN UNSAFE ACT OR

CONDITION.

Most accidents can be prevented through:

• Proper training.
• Proper supervision.
• Correct use of tools and equipment.
• Safe working practices.

Some safety rules:

• Wear well fitting protective clothing.
• Wear your hard hat, eye protection and safety boots.
• Use your safety belt and life line.
• Don’t wear rings and jewellery at work.
• Use the right tool for the job and use it correctly.
• Don’t try to repair moving machinery.
• Store your tools properly.
• Don’t rush.
• Keep your work place neat and safe.
• Lift heavy objects properly.

45 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

• Know and respect fire hazards.

• Check wire rope and other equipment regularly.
• Replace worn equipment.
• Know your equipment. Study the operation manuals and follow the suppliers safety
recommendations

2.4.1 MINING INDUSTRY 5-POINT SAFETY SYSTEM

1. check entrance to place of work
2. check equipment and surroundings are in right order
3. do an act of safety
4. are the men working properly and correctly
5. will men continue to work safely and correctly

2.5 IMPREGNATED BITS DRILL BITS

To accommodate these geological conditions, bit manufacturers have created a bewildering array
of products and numbering systems that make it difficult to match bits to rock types.
The Atlas Copco system of numbering diamond bits has been developed to simplify the process.
In this booklet common rock formations have been grouped into five categories based on the
similarity of their drillability. The most coarse grained, fractured and abrasive formations are
classified as the first group. The correct bit for drilling these rock types would be from Hobic-
Craelius Group 100. The correct bit for the fifth group, which includes competent, fine grained
non-abrasive formations, would be from Hobic-Craelius Group 500 etc.
Coarser grained, fractured rock requires a slower wearing matrix or lower Group number as it
tends to wear the matrix more quickly. Fine grained, competent rock requires a softer matrix or
higher group number to fully utilize the diamonds.

2.6 THE PROFESSIONAL DIAMOND DRILLER INTRODUCTION

Successful exploration drilling results from a clear understanding and cooperation between two
professionals, the Diamond Driller and the Geologist. Drilling operations are controlled by
geologists but they lack the knowledge and experience to optimize the operation of the drill. The
Professional Diamond Driller should not hesitate to share his knowledge to improve the
operation.

2.7 ROCK FORMATIONS

The geological classifications of rock types are based on chemistry and structure. The hardness
classification is a relative scale. So called soft rocks can prove more difficult to drill than hard
rock and the same formations, in separate locations, can drill very differently. A specific rock
type can change drastically, even in the same drill hole, requiring another choice of drill bit. Each
rock type must be considered as a range with a number of variables affecting its drillability.
The factors most affecting the drillability of rock are: grain size, rock hardness, weathering and
fracturing. Larger grain size and fracturing make the rock more abrasive, while fine grained, hard
rock is less abrasive. Weathering reduces rock strength.

2.8 BIT SELECTION BIT SELECTION

46 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

Professional Diamond Drillers have chosen and depended on both Hobic and Craelius bits for
many years and are familiar with the numbering systems used. Atlas Copco will continue to use
those numbering systems by including them in the new groups, as seen on the following
chapters.
Group Rock properties Typical formations
100 Badly fractured, very Shales, argillites,
abrasive limestones
200 Fractured or abrasive Sandstones, dolomite,
rocks tuffs, schists
300 Moderately abrasive Andesite, gabbro,
pegmatite, basalt,
diabase, diorite
400 Competent, slightly Gneiss, granite,
abrasive rock quartzite, porphyry,
diorite
500 Very competent, non- Quartz, jasper, chert,
abrasive rock ironstone, rhyolite ,
taconite

WHEN CHOOSING A BIT THE FOLLOWING CROWN DESIGN FEATURES ARE

CONSIDERED.

 MATRIX - The matrix is a mixture of synthetic diamonds and various metals. Each of the
matrices has a different resistance to abrasion and consequently a different rate of wear. A
balanced rate of wear between the matrix material and the diamonds ensures a high rate
of penetration and optimum bit life.

 GAUGE - This refers to the outer and inner diameters of the bit that are in direct contact
with the rock. These can be reinforced if required.

 WATERWAYS - There are different waterway configurations available depending on the

drilling conditions.

 CROWN HEIGHT - Craelius bits are manufactured with standard crown heights of 6, 9
and12 mm and Hobic with 6, 8 and10mm. Other crown heights are available on request.
The height of crown chosen is a cost decision based on hole depth and wear rate.

2.9 BIT PERFORMANCE

Sharp diamonds cut rock, as they become dull they do so less effectively. The bit matrix should
wear at a rate that continually exposes sharp diamonds and releases the worn ones. Flushing fluid
should be pumped across the bit at a rate that removes each tiny rock chip as it is loosened by the
diamonds. Failure to do this results in the chip being reground, and the ROP and bit life are
adversely affected. The WOB is required to make the diamonds bite into the rock. The RPM

47 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

determines the rate at which the chips are being gouged from the rock. Through his knowledge
and experience the Professional Diamond Driller balances all these parameters to achieve the
best economic performance from the drill and drilling tools. While the manufacturer does his
best to make drill setting recommendations, he cannot know what rock type or conditions the bit
will eventually be used in.

Other factors affecting drill settings are:

• The size and power of the diamond drill.
• The type and size of the core barrel used.
• The flushing media.

INITIAL DRILL SETTINGS

Having chosen the right bit for the rock type and conditions, based on the information at hand,
the correct drill settings must be used to get the best performance. The bit label has
recommendations printed on it and these are a useful guide to begin drilling. However, it is likely
that some adjustments to these values will be required to get optimum performance from the bit.

READING THE BIT LABEL

Bit O.D. S
Matrix KS++
Formation Hard – Very Hard
RPM 400 - 600
Penetration Rate 8 - 12 cm/min (3-5 in/min)
Water Flow Minimum 60 l/min (15.9 gpm)

RPM - The RPM is given as a fairly broad range.

A number in the middle of the range should be used when starting and adjusted as required.

ROP - Again this is given as a range and will have to be adjusted as the WOB and RPM are
varied.
GPM - The water flow is given as a minimum and the actual pump setting should be well above
this.
WOB - The weight on bit given is the maximum advisable. The initial drill setting should be
below this.

WOB
The weight placed on the bit depends on the Rock Type and condition, bit type, RPM, ROP and
water flow. The WOB is a very important indicator of the actual drilling conditions.

Excessive WOB can result in:

48 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

• Abnormal bit wear.

• Hole deviation.
• Core barrel and rod damage.

Too little WOB will also result in a loss of productivity as the bit will lose its ability to self-
sharpen and could become polished (see the page on bit sharpening). Try to maintain a constant
penetration rate by increasing the WOB if the ROP falls.
ALERT!
The maximum permitted WOB shown on the bit label is based on the structural integrity of the
bit and may result in damage to the rods and core barrel if exceeded. Excessive WOB can also
lead to hole deviation.

ROP
The rate of penetration is the key parameter when drilling with impregnated bits. Finding the
optimum ROP for a given Rock Type, rock condition, bit and model of diamond drill is the goal
of the Professional Diamond Driller. Once found, this ideal ROP is maintained by adjusting the
WOB and RPM. A high water flow across the bit face should always be maintained at high rates
of penetration.

Optimum ROP ensures:

• The best overall economy of the operation.
• The least work and highest rewards for the drill crew.
• That the bit remains sharp and does not polish.
• The best bit life.

Use the recommended ROP on the bit label as a starting point and then vary the WOB and RPM
in small increments until the optimum ROP is found.
ALERT!
An excessive ROP will result in a high rate of matrix wear and diamonds will be expelled while
they are still sharp. In this case any gain in ROP may be offset by more frequent bit changes,
more work for the drill crew and an overall reduction in the economy of the operation.

FLUSHING
Drilling performance is directly related to the fluid flow over the bit. Water flushing fills the
following functions.
• Removal of cuttings.
• Cooling the bit.
• Lubricating the bit and rods.
Annular fluid velocity must be sufficient to keep the cuttings suspended. Annular velocity can be
calculated using the chart below.

RPM
Rotation of the drill bit causes the diamonds to tear chips from the rock. Therefore, generally
speaking, the more rotations per minute the higher the ROP. The rotation speed also serves to
work the matrix to achieve a constant rate of exposure of new sharp diamonds and release of the
worn ones.

49 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

ALERT!
Excessive RPM without matching penetration rate can result in polishing the bit and negatively
affect the overall drilling economy.

VIBRATION
Excessive drill rod vibrations result in:
• Impact loads on the bit resulting in early failure.
• Loss of core.
• Stress fatigue and premature failure of drill rods
and core barrel.
• Higher fuel costs.
• Premature machine failure.

Excessive vibration can be the result of:

• Misaligned in-the-hole equipment.
• Undersize, worn, bent or oval rods.
• Vibration induced from the chuck or drill head.
• Incorrect pressure and volume of fluid.
• Loose rods not properly torqued.
• Drilling over core.
• Incorrect bit.
• Improper use of rod grease.

Some vibration is inevitable in rotating equipment. It can become excessive and destructive
when a number of factors such as RPM, WOB, rock type, bit type, etc are accidently combined
in proportions that set up large vibrations. After eliminating any cause related to the above list,
The Professional Diamond Driller can usually find a combination of WOB and RPM that
eliminates the excessive vibration and gives a good ROP.

RPI / RPC 2
Revolutions per inch (or centimeter) of advance has been used in the past as an index to maintain
the correct relationship between RPM and ROP, e.g. for a rotation speed of 1200 RPM and a
penetration rate of 6 in (15 cm) per minute:
• RPI = 1200/6 = 200
• RPC= 1200/15=80
The common recommendation of 200 - 250 RPI (80 - 100 RPC) can only be considered as a
starting point: in modern drilling practices much higher penetration rates are often expected for a
given rotation speed, resulting in a lower RPI value. Most bits have been developed to
accommodate these conditions.

SHARPENING A BIT
Impregnated bits are self sharpening. As the matrix wears away new sharp diamonds are exposed
at a constant rate. However, sometimes the diamonds on the face of the bit can become worn
without the matrix abrading away. The bit will stop cutting. Generally this occurs when:

50 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

• The drill settings do not suit the conditions.

• The bit does not suit the rock.
This often results from rapid formation change. The bit can be sharpened in the hole and drilling
continued but this a tricky operation and may consume a lot of matrix.
To sharpen the bit increase the WOB by 15 to 20 percent momentarily at the same time reducing
the water flow to near the minimum indicated on the bit label. When the bit begins to cut,
immediately lower the WOB and increase the water flow. Try different drill settings than used
previously to prevent reoccurrence of the problem.

2.10 DRILLING TIPS

ALWAYS
• Treat diamond bits with care and store properly.
• Start fluid circulation before running the bit to bottom.
• Start a new bit several centimeters above bottom
and spin into the formation. Do not go to full ROP
until you have drilled 10-20 centimeters (4-8inches).
• Check all rod joints for leaks.
• Check the rods and core barrel for alignment.
• Keep the inside of rods and core barrel free from
scale and dirt.
• Make sure the reaming shell is within gauge and out
lasts the bit.
• Call service providers like Atlas Copco, Bort Longyear, etc when you need assistance.

NEVER
• Drop the bit onto the hole bottom.
• Start the bit turning with weight on it.
• Collar a hole with a new bit.
• Contact the bit matrix with a pipe wrench.
• Grind the core.
• Allow vibration to occur.
• Force the bit, if it will not drill with normal pressure.

2.10.1 BIT WEAR PATTERNS

OPTIMUM BIT WEAR ANALYSIS

51 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

• Bit feels sharp to the touch

• Good comet tails
• The wear is even
• OD and ID within gauge

WHY? POSSIBLE REASONS

Rock related: This bit was well suited to the rock formation and conditions.
Drilling related: Drill settings and flushing provided optimum drilling.
Bit related: The diamond and matrix wear are balanced to provide optimum performance.

WHAT TO DO? POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

Drilling related: Continue to use the same drill settings unless the conditions change.
Bit related: Continue to drill with this bit type unless the rock formation and conditions change.

ALERT! Continue to watch for changes in the rock conditions and the performance of the drill.

MATRIX EROSION ANALYSIS

MATRIX EROSION ANALYSIS

• Very rough to the touch
• Rapid crown wear
• Diamonds overexposed
• Gauges eroded

WHY? POSSIBLE REASONS

Rock related: Formation may have changed and is too coarse grained, fractured or abrasive for
the bit used.
Drilling related: The fluid volume or solids content may be too high. Excessive ROP is causing a
high rate of matrix wear and premature diamond release.
Bit related: Matrix too fast wearing (soft), or waterway design unsuitable.

52 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

WHAT TO DO? POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

Drilling related: Improve drilling fluid control.
Bit related: Change bit to slower wearing matrix or different waterway design. Reduce ROP if
optimum bit life is to be achieved.

ALERT! Advance carefully when reentering the hole if there has been a lot of gauge wear.

POLISHED CROWN FAILURE ANALYSIS

• Smooth to the touch

• Matrix smeared, glazed appearance
• No comet tails
• Waterways restricted

WHY? POSSIBLE REASONS

Rock related: Formation has changed to harder, fine grained and less abrasive conditions.

53 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

Drilling related: ROP may be too low for the rpm used or flushing inadequate.
Bit related: Matrix may be too slow wearing (hard) or waterway design unsuitable.

WHAT TO DO? POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

Drilling related: Increase ROP or decrease the rpm.
Bit related: Strip or dress the bit before starting to drill. Try a bit with a softer matrix or different
waterway design if the problem persists.

ALERT! Watch the pump pressure and ROP carefully when starting to drill.

CONCAVE FACE WEAR FAILURE ANALYSIS

• Bit wear uneven

• Face wear angled to ID
• Diamonds poorly supported
• ID gauge loss

WHY? POSSIBLE REASONS

Rock related: Formation may have changed to a coarser grained, abrasive or fractured rock type.

54 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

Drilling related: The solids content of the drilling fluid may be too high. May be core grinding.
Rpm too low or ROP too high.
Bit related: Matrix too soft or unsuitable waterway design.

WHAT TO DO? POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

Drilling related: Lower solids in the drill fluid. Check the pump and drills string for leaks,
increase pump output. Check and adjust length of the inner tube. Increase rpm.
Bit related: Try harder matrix bit or one with a different waterway configuration.

ALERT! Continued drilling with concave face wear will cause the bit ID to ring-out.

CONVEX FACE WEAR FAILURE ANALYSIS

• Outer edge of the face rounded

• OD gauge wear

WHY? POSSIBLE REASONS

Rock related: Fractured formation.

55 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

Drilling related: Poor core barrel stabilization or rod vibration, insufficient fluid flow. Reaming
down undersize hole.
Bit related: Probably not bit related. Reaming shell may be worn and undersize.

WHAT TO DO? POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

Drilling related: Check for vibration, stabilize rods and core barrel, try a different rpm. Check the
stability of the drill. Check the pump and drill string for leaks, increase pump output.
Bit related: Change the reaming shell.

ALERT! Continued drilling with concave face wear will cause the bit OD to ring-out.

BURNT BIT FAILURE ANALYSIS

• Blackened areas
• Smeared or broken out matrix
• Closed waterways

WHY? POSSIBLE REASONS

Rock related: Formation may have changed to very fractured rock.
Drilling related: Poor bit cooling, pump failure, low flushing water, leaking drill string, plugged
bit or lost circulation.
Bit related: Problem not likely bit related.

56 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

WHAT TO DO? POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

Drilling related: Check the pump and drill string for leaks. Check the inner tube adjustment.
Check the fluid circulation. Cement the hole.
Bit related: No change required if the bit is suited to the formation.

ALERT! Be very careful when restarting to drill. Watch for pump pressure cut-off, loss of ROP,
loss of circulation.

2.10.2 NOMINAL HOLE & CORE SIZES NOMINAL HOLE & CORE SIZES

57 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

NAME HOLE SIZE (mm) CORE SIZE (mm)

BQ 60.0 36.4
NQ 75.7 50.6

2.11 DRILLING ACCESSORIES/ SPARES

DIAMOND DRILLS
Boyles surface drills are available in light duty (fly-in), medium duty and deep hole models.
Diamec underground drills are also available for three duty ranges.
Metereaters for underground drills

DRILL RODS
popular sizes of drill rods are 1.5m, 3.0m, 6.0m

CORE BARREL

58 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

A cylindrical chamber for receiving and retaining core as drilling progress. One end is attached
to the string of rods and the other to the bit. It has a double tube to protect washing out core. The
inner tube contains core and protects it from the friction and twisting action. Water is forced to
pass through the space between the inner and outer tube.

Core recovery is the ratio of core recovered to drilled depth expressed as a percentage.

Core recovery = actual core measured x 100

Drilled depth

PDC/TSP BITS
There are full range of PDC (Polycrystalline Diamond Compact) and TSP (Thermally Stable
Polycrystalline) bits. These bits are a high performance alternative to TC and surface set bits for
soft to medium-hard formations.

SURFACE SET BITS

There are full line of Surface Set Bits for use in very soft, soft and medium hard rock conditions.
Surface set bits are available in a number of profiles for different rock types and conditions.

SEMI-ROUND PROFILE
Standard profile for thin kerf bits

FACE DICHARGE PROFILE

For soft formations

59 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

MULTI STEP PROFILE

Higher penetration rate than semi-round

CONCAVE PROFILE
Only in non-coring bits

60 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

DIAPAX
Diapax bits have PDC elements set with a large exposure, resulting in very high rates of
penetration in soft formations.

TRIPAX

61 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

Tripax bits are set with TSP cutting elements, which are capable of productively handling soft to
medium hard formations.

CASING SHOES
These are impregnated and surface set casing shoes.

REAMING SHELLS
The products range of reaming shells in diamond impregnated, surface set and tungsten carbide
styles. Reaming shells are essential for maintaining proper hole size and stabilizing the core
barrel.

SURFACE SET REAMING SHELLS

Standard surface set reaming shells are set with specially chosen diamonds. The spiral ribs are
both longer lasting and provide better stabilization.

62 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

TUNGSTEN CARBIDE REAMING SHELLS

TC reaming shells are used mainly in non-consolidated formations where they will perform more
economically than surface set shells.

63 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

IMPREGNATED CASING SHOES

These are the most commonly used economical shoes and are available in all popular sizes.

64 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

SURFACE SET CASING SHOES

These shoes are an alternative to the impregnated style and are available in most sizes.

65 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

2.12 TYPES OF DIAMOND CORE DRILLING

There are two types namely wireline and convectional drilling methods.

Table of similarities and differences

Wireline Convectional
No pulling out of rods to recover core Rods have to be pulled out to recover core
Rods are flush jointed and no couplings Couplings are used to join rods
required
Can be diesel/ electric powered Compressed air powered
Uses hydraulics in almost everything Can do without sumps
Casings are always needed Holes can be drilled without casing
A rig tower is available No rig tower
Very fast method Slower due to pulling of rods
Low labour required Labour intensive
Double tube core barrel Single tube core barrel

Continuous coring method

Is the method meant for underground drilling set-up. It uses water pressure to flash out the core.
The rods are same as wireline drilling. The method is relatively faster

2.13 MACHINE RIGGING

Rigging is aimed at aligning the machine to the exact position of the intended drilling position
and direction. Poor rigging results in:
 Slow rate of penetration
 Serious hole deviation
 Caving in of rods, leading to lose of rods due to damage
 Polishing up of bits

2.13.1 SUMPS
Sumps are also called small reservoirs, are always constructed once the rigging process has been
completed. Sumps can be dug at the earliest completion of the rigging process on surface using
the front end loader (for speed)

Water is then poured into the sump, and salt and mud are spread on the bed and banks of the
sump. The salt mud will melt and form a fake membrane that would avoid a high rate of water
percolating into ground. Cement can also be used for the same purpose. Water is poured into
sump, proper mixing of liquid mud is done with water in the water/liquid tank before drilling
commences. Water circulation should be checked before starting to drill.
Once the holes are finished the sump is rehabilitated. Fill the sump with soil and trees planted for
environmental protection.

66 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

2.13.2 DRILLING FLUIDS AND MUDS

It is the duty of a driller to monitor proper mixing of drilling mud. The mixing ingredients are the
liquid mud, soft soap, and the water. Soft soap is for removing grease and other oily substance on
the core. If poorly mixed can lead to, burning of bit, blockages due to high thickness ,and poor
water circulation.
Liquid mud is used for:
 To close fissures encountered in drill hole
 To highlight the formation type that is being intersected
 Prevent the core blocking in the core barrel
 Reduce friction
 Flush out the cuttings from the bottom of the hole

2.14 GENERAL MAINTENANCE (DAILY)

The driller must know the following information about the hole:
 Problems encountered on the previous shift and make sure have been solved
 Depth of the hole
 Number of rods in the hole
 Approximate length of the core in the core barrel
This above information is valid only if the rods are left in the hole
 General type of formation being drilled
 Change of bits, if any
 Check hydraulic oil and diesel for the pump levels
 Grease nipples and rods that had been lowered
 Check availability of all spanners
 Water circulation

2.15 MACHINE COMPONENTS

2.15.1 HOISTING UNIT

The hoisting unit consists of two important sections called the wireline cable and the rope for
hoisting the drilling rods. These two units have got a different and separate drums for coiling the
ropes

2.15.2 WIRELINE CABLE/ROPE

The wireline rope is for hoisting the inner tube from the core barrel (outer tube) once it is full
with core or when blocked. The wireline has no other function besides hoisting and lowering of
the inner tube.

2.15.3 ROPE UNIT

The principle is the same as wireline rope ,but have different functions. Used to lower and pull
rods only and has no connection with inner tube. It has the following properties/ applications
 Thicker than the wireline
 Pulls and lowers rods only and does so only to the collar

67 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

 Used to hold the rods when drilling- it is connected to water swivel which is screwed to
the rods
 Approximately 30m in length
 Should be greased with black axle grease

During the short breaks the rope won’t be in use so it is advisable to grease it with axle grease
during that time.

2.15.4 POWER UNIT

This is the machine engine. A drilling machine can be diesel powered though can be converted to
electric. Diesel machines have following advantages:
 Diesel is cheap
 Diesel engines are reliable
 Easy to maintain
 Long lasting
 Uses air for cooling system

Disadvantages:
 Losses power due to many rods at depths of about 450m, hole deviation, or poor rigging

Engine size determines the power and hence hole depth it can drill. To increase power the diesel
machines are super charged and should be sent for regular maintenance by the drilling Foreman
and if not in use, the engine overhaul should be done.

2.15.5 TRANSMISSION UNIT

Transmission unit is a unit which converts the chemical energy (diesel) to mechanical energy,
rotary motion. Transmission unit and hoisting unit are closely linked. The transmission unit
comprises of the gearbox, automotive clutch and the motor.

2.15.6 DRILL HEAD ASSEMBLY (SWIVEL HEAD)

The head assembly consists of the hydraulic cylinders and the chuck which are mechanically
supported. The hydraulic cylinders transform the load to the Kelly lift which the supports the
weight of the rod string. The cylinders can also be used to support the rig tower.
The chuck is also mechanically operated and is attacheqwd to the lower end of the Kelly to grip
the rods. The hydraulic chuck is different from the manual one in the sense that gripping and
releasing of the rods does not need a chuck spanner and hence faster.

2.15.7 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

This facilitates the swift operation of the hydraulic feed cylinders, the rack back cylinder and the
hydraulic chuck. The hydraulic pump is normally located near the diesel tank and the wireline
winch drum. Check hydraulic oil before drilling commences to avoid starting drilling with low
level oil, which will cause the damage or burning of machine parts.

68 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

2.15.8 WATER AND MUD PUMPS

 Pumps are used to pump water from the sump into the hole
 To facilitate the mixing of the liquid mud and the water
 Traps unwanted material that can cause core blockages

Check oil and diesel levels from the pumps before drilling to enhance smooth and efficient
operation of the pumps.

2.15.9 CASINGS
These are delicate equipment; they are of larger diameter and encase the rods. They are used to
reduce chances of the walls falling into the hole during drilling. They are used on bad ground and
on interface of soft and hard rock formations.

2.16 FISHING OPERATION

Fishing is basically trying to retrieve anything from the hole that cannot be retrieved by
ordinary means. Fishing can be divided into the following:
 Fishing of rods when stuck or broken in hole
 Inner tube when it gets stuck in the outer tube or when the wireline cable holding the
overshot breaks
 Core that may be incidentally left in the hole
 Spanners or anything that may fall in the hole

Fishing out the inner tube assembly

The inner tube assembly usually gets stuck in the rods or in the outer tube (core barrel) due to the
following:
 When the driller fails to notice the water cut off signal on the gauge. This results in the
tightening of the latches against the locking couplings.
 Jamming effect creates a condition where the latches are held sufficiently tight so they
will not release with the first effort of the overshot
 Breaking of the wireline cable leaving the overshot latched onto the inner tube.
 Rarely so, due to inner tube failing to pass through the female threads which might have
curved in due to improperly engaged threads.

Different ways are applied to retrieve the inner tube, but the common one is to pull out the rods.
This is tiresome and reduces productivity per shift. It is preferred because:
 The main reason for the sticking of the inner tube can be discovered and possible
remedies applied
 Condition of the bit can be known
 Nature of rods, threading and any leakage can be identified
 Cup grease and copper base grease are able to be applied when lowering the drill string
 Effectiveness of the core lifter can be ascertained
 Helps to have a good knowledge of the metreage and an appropriate stick up can be
taken.

69 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

Fishing of core
It is rare with wireline drilling, but if it happens is usually due to loose coreliner. The core is
retrieved by first pulling out the inner tube together with rods and by means of a conventional
single tube core barrel and core is recovered. If the single core barrel is not available, the inner
tube should be pulled out and by using the outer tube at slow speed and closely monitoring the
gauge for any blockages the core can be fished out.

Fishing out wireline rods

Rods can get stuck due to:
 Loss of water in the hole due to either blockages in the water hose or due to burnt up bit
in the hole
 Accumulation of mud in the hole
 Carelessness on the part of a driller
 Abnormal pressure being applied on the bit during drilling and during the breaking up of
core
Fishing tools used are normally, the water tool and the inner tap. The water tool has the
expansion rubbers which work like the rubber shut off valves towards the sidewalls of the rods.
The inner tap uses the threads, it works like an adaptor as it can be screwed into female threads
and rods pulled out using the power of the machine. Fishing can either be successful or a failure
due to any of the following factors:
 Nature of the sticking rods
 Method used to fish rods
 inadequate information about how the equipment got stuck
 availability of resources and the personnel with know how

Economics of fishing
Fishing is totally avoided and unacceptable in a drilling operation due to:
 loss of time
 expensive to carry out
 if fail to retrieve the stuck material, then have to be replaced
 rods are normally damaged by this process hence need to be replaced
 hole may be abolished hence becomes useless to the geologist

2.17 HOUSE KEEPING

Drilling site MUST be smart, the following must be practiced all the time:
 machine must be cleaned at completion of hole and when awaiting transportation
 rods should be neatly stacked on a stand, no rods should lie haphazardly as this may leads
to accidents
 mutton cloth and rags should be piled at one point and be disposed of
 spanners must always be clean
 fuel and oils drums must be kept at one point
 core must be covered with clean core box, free of oils and grease

70 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

 water must not spill to the environment but be channeled accordingly

 rehabilitate the sumps upon finishing the hole

2.18 HOLE DEVIATION

It is the tendency of a hole to change direction during drilling. This can be caused by any of the
following:
 torque of the turning bit working against the cutting face
 flexibility of the steel rods and especially the screw joints
 reaction to foliation and structure within the rock
 Refraction as the bit moves into different rock types/ layers of varying resistance.

Careful drilling minimizes crooked holes but even with best technique some curvature is
unavoidable. It is hard to straighten a hole that has curved, curving must be anticipated and target
is hit through a curved trajectory. Holes must therefore be surveyed to get actual route,
Un-surveyed long holes will give poor interpretations hence misleading decisions from a
management and technical point of view.

Drill Hole Surveys

Surveying drill holes should be considered an essential part of an exploration drilling program
whenever accurate knowledge of the position of the hole from top to bottom is important to the
evaluation of the deposit and to its eventual development. Deviation of drill holes from the
planned direction and angle is common in holes that are over a few hundred metres in depth and
should be expected. The severity of the vertical and horizontal changes ranges considerably.
Deviations of from 5° to over 20° in inclination and up to 20° in horizontal direction have been
observed in drill holes less than 245 m deep that were drilled in steeply dipping cherty iron-
formation. Thus the change in bottom hole location can be substantial. Deviations in holes drilled
in dipping, bedded, cherty iron-formation with alternating harder and softer layers can be
remarkably rapid.
In iron ore exploration sufficient magnetite is commonly present to make magnetic borehole
survey methods unreliable, so the use of a gyroscopic survey system is recommended. The first
use of a gyroscopic system in a small diameter diamond drill hole was done at the Atlantic City
taconite mine near Lander, WY, in 1966. Drilling was performed to obtain detailed information
to permit the development of final open pit mine plans. This required that stripping be carried to
the ultimate pit limit during mining. A substantial deviation in the inclination of drill holes was
observed so horizontal deviation was suspected. Sperry Sun was encouraged to complete
construction of a partly designed, small hole gyroscopic survey system that could enter a BX
diameter hole. The resulting survey showed a substantial horizontal deviation in the exploration
drill holes, requiring a relocation of the stripping limits. Mining has since shown that the
gyroscopic survey results were accurate.
Gyroscopic drill hole surveys can be made on a contractual basis with well service companies.
These surveys produce records that show the hole inclination and direction with a relatively
small possible error. Well service company personnel are also available to assist with cost
estimates and to assist in planning a drill hole survey program.

71 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

Surfaces collar position of the hole is picked by GPS, and Total Stations, but cannot survey the
hole path .The hole path is surveyed by the following instruments:
 Tro-pari method
 Acid bottle test method
 Sperry sun test method
 Carlson compass method

Acid bottle test method

 Glass tube partly filled with hydrofluoric acid is used. This is enclosed in a steel or
bronze case which for purposes of survey is substituted for the core barrel of the drill and
lowered into the hole.
 The acid etches a line on the glass in the position at which the liquid stands and thus
gives a record of inclination of the tube
 The tube is emptied of acid as soon as it comes from the hole and the angle of inclination
is measured by filling the tube with proper amount of water or colored liquid and tilting
in a clinometers until the liquid coincides with the etched line.
 Correction for small errors introduced by capillarity is made with the aid of a chart
provided for the purpose.
 The procedure is repeated over reasonable intervals until the end of hole.
 Using the inclination information the whole hole trajectory is plotted on the plan and all
the geology and assay values are plotted on their actual positions in space.

2.19 Activity

1. Discuss causes of hole deviation and how they can be overcome (20marks)
2. Discuss the uses of drilling fluids (10 marks)
3. You have been assigned to be in charge of a massive exploration drilling project, explain how
you would effectively and efficiently plan to carry out the project. (20 marks)

2.20 CONVERSION TABLES

72 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

THIS UNIT TIMES EQUALS VOLUME

l (liters) x 0.001 = m3
ml (milliliters) x 0.001 = l
dm3 (cubic decimeters) x 1.0 = l
cm3 (cubic centimeters) x 1.0 = ml
mm3 (cubic millimeters) x 0.001 = ml
in3 (cubic inches) x 16.39 = ml
ft3 (cubic feet) x 28.316 = l
Imperial gallon x 4.546 = l
U.S. gallon x 3.785 = l
Ounces (Imp. fluid oz) x 28.41 = ml
Ounces (U.S. fluid oz) x 29.57 = ml
Pints (U.S. liq) x 0.4732 = l
Quarts (U.S. liq) x 0.9463 = l
yd3 (cubic yards) x 0.7646 = m3

THIS UNIT TIMES EQUALS MASS (WEIGHT)

g (grams) x 0.001 = kg
t (tonnes, metric) x 1000 = kg
grains x 0.0648 = g
oz (ounce) x 28.35 = g
lb (pounds) x 0.4536 = kg
tons (long, US) x 1016 = kg
tons (U.K.) x 1016 = kg
tons (short) x 907 = kg

THIS UNIT TIMES EQUALS LENGTH

mm (millimeters) x 0.001 = m
cm (centimeters) x 0.01 = m
dm (decimeters) x 0.1 = m
km (kilometers) x 1000 = m
in (inches) x 25.4 = mm
ft (feet) x 0.305 = m
yd (yard) x 0.914 = m
miles x 1609 = m

THIS UNIT TIMES EQUALS AREA

mm2 (square mm) x 0.000001 = m2
cm2 (square cm) x 0.0001 = m2
in2 (square inches) x 645 = mm2
ft2 (square feet) x 0.929 = m2
yd2 (square yards) x 0.8361 = m2
Acres x 4047 = m2
Square miles x 2.590 = km2

THIS UNIT TIMES EQUALS PRESSURE

73 | P a g e
 Mine Geology

bar x 100 = kPa

bar x 100 000 =Pa
kp/cm2 x 0.98 =bar
atm (atmospheres) x 1.01 = bar
psi (pounds/in2) x 6.895 = kPa
psi x 0.06895 = bar

THIS UNIT TIMES EQUALS FORCE

kN (kilonewton) x 1000 = N
kp (kilopond) x 9.81 = N
kgf (kilogram force) x 9.81 = N
lbf (pound force) x 4.45 = N

THIS UNIT TIMES EQUALS TORQUE

kpm (kilopondmetres) x 9.81 = Nm
lbf in (pound force inch) x 0.11 = Nm
lbf ft (pound force foot) x 1.36 = Nm

THIS UNIT TIMES EQUALS POWER

kW (kilowatts) x 1000 = W
Horsepower, metric x 735.5 = W
Horsepower, U.K. x 745.7 = W
ft.lbf/sec x 1.36 = W
Btu/h x 0.29 = W

THIS UNIT TIMES EQUALS SPEED

km/h (kilometers/hour) x 0.2777 = m/s
m/s x 3.6 = km/h
mph (miles/hour) x 0.45 = m/s
mph x 1.61 = km/h
ft/s (foot/second) x 0.3048 = m/s
ft/s (foot/second) x 18.29 = ft/min
ft/min (foot/minute) x 0.3048 = m/min

THIS UNIT TIMES EQUALS FREQUENCY

blows/minute x 0.017 = Hz
kHz (kiloHertz) x 1000 = Hz
r/min (rev./minute) x 0.01667 = r/s
degrees/second x 0.1667 = r/min
radians/second x 0.1592 = r/s

74 | P a g e