Review On Different Trends in FSW
Review On Different Trends in FSW
Review On Different Trends in FSW
Abstract: Friction stir welding (FSW) is a solid-state welding process which is capable of joining materials which are relatively
difficult to be welded by fusion welding process. Further, this process is highly energy-efficient and environmental-friendly as
compared to the fusion welding. Despite several advantages of FSW over fusion welding, the thermal cycles involved in FSW cause
softening in joints generally in heat-treatable aluminum alloys (AAs) due to the dissolution or coarsening of the strengthening
precipitates leading to decrease in mechanical properties. Underwater friction stir welding (UFSW) can be a process of choice to
overcome these limitations. This process is suitable for alloys that are sensitive to heating during the welding and is widely used for
heat-treatable AAs. The purpose of this article is to provide comprehensive literature review on current status and development of
UFSW and its importance in comparison to FSW with an aim to discuss and summarize different aspects of UFSW. Specific attention
is given to basic principle including material flow, temperature generation, process parameters, microstructure and mechanical
properties. From the review, it is concluded that UFSW is an improved method compared with FSW for improving joint strength.
Academicians, researchers and practitioners would be benefitted from this article as it compiles significantly important knowledge
pertaining to UFSW.
Key words: aluminum; friction stir welding; fusion welding; mechanical properties; microstructure; underwater friction stir welding
Fig. 7 Peak temperature developed in AA 7055 during FSW (a) and UFSW (b) [69]
Mohd. Atif WAHID, et al/Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 28(2018) 193−219 201
Fig. 8 Temperature cycles showing thermal gradients in AA 7055 at nearest (A1, R1) and farthest (A4, R4) location from weld
centre [69]: (a) FSW, AS; (b) FSW, RS; (c) UFSW, AS; (d) UFSW, RS
higher temperature on AS. In UFSW, on AS, the boiled cooling environment were simulated by FRATINI
water near the weld is powered to move frontward et al [77] by modeling the coolant as water flux at the
confronting the cold water adjacent to the weld and chills back of the tool and reduced thermal flow was observed
down instantaneously and mandatorily while RS receives adjoining the tool due to external cooling. Heat transfer
the heated water coming from AS, and thus UFSWed model was developed by ZHANG et al [78] for modeling
joint shows high temperature on RS. temperature in UFSW in which modeling was done
The temperature profiles are also affected by the considering the temperature reliant properties of material.
welding parameters. In water surroundings, thermal The results indicated low peak temperature and high heat
cycles of the joints are more greatly influenced by flux of shoulder during UFSW in comparison to FSW.
changes in welding speed as compared to rotation speed Moreover, peak temperature distributed area is narrowed
but rotation speed can provide wider adjustment range and temperature profiles in different zones are also low
than welding speed for UFSW process [33]. Fast cooling in UFSW as compared to FSW. The model was validated
and high peak temperature are achieved with increasing experimentally and showed agreement with experimental
rotational speed. High welding speed and rotational values. For obtaining most favorable welding condition
speed are required for UFSW in comparison to FSW. for UFSW, AA 2219-T6 was UFSWed by ZHANG and
Forces occurring on the tool are also affected by the heat LIU [56] and mathematical modeling was done for
generation and accordingly the temperature distribution optimization of the process parameters for obtaining the
in UFSW/FSW [45]. Axial and translational forces are highest tensile strength. K-type thermocouples were
improved significantly in UFSW of AA 7075-T6 due to employed for temperature measurement. They found that
reduction in peak temperature. tensile strength of 360 MPa was obtained through UFSW
Due to difficulty in measuring temperature at highly which is 6% higher than the tensile strength obtained in
deformed zones experimentally, limited number of FSW. Low peak temperature and correspondingly
temperature modeling studies has been reported in changed microstructure due to water cooling resulted in
UFSW. Temperature profiles developed during FSW in strength improvement by UFSW.
202 Mohd. Atif WAHID, et al/Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 28(2018) 193−219
From several researches in UFSW, it is observed Effect of coolant (water and air) on the grain boundary
that UFSW is the suitable method for improving the phases, grains size, defects and growth of intermetallic
mechanical properties of the joint due to controlled compounds (IMCs) has also been discussed by various
temperature distribution. Low peak temperature and researchers [29,43,58,86].
reduced thermal gradient in UFSW lead to improvement 4.1.1 Stirred zone or nugget zone
in joint properties as compared to FSW. The thermal Elevated temperature and severe plastic deformation
cycles, material flow and various process parameters associated with FSW/UFSW lead to typical dynamically
discussed in the above sections lead to changes in recrystallized structure composed of significantly fine
microstructure and properties of the welds. and equiaxed grains in SZ [29,43,72,87]. Onion ring
patterns are also observed in the SZ directly reflecting
4 Macro/micro structural evolution the material flowing during FSW [43,73]. It is found that
water cooling can result in change of shape of the stirred
4.1 Characteristic zones of FSW/UFSW region. Onion ring structure was observed in the SZ of
FSW microstructure was first characterized by FSW which was changed to V-shape in the case of
THREADGILL [79]. This work was focused on AAs, UFSW in AA 7050, as shown in Fig. 10 [73]. Also,
and as the behavior of AAs is not the same as other different strengthening phases also exist in SZ depending
materials and alloys, this characterization was considered upon the temperature and material composition [29,43].
inadequate. Accordingly, changed terms were XRD patterns have shown strengthening θ (Al2Cu) phase
proposed [80] and subsequently modified [81] and detected in the SZ of FSW joint in 2xxx AA [29,30]. It is
implemented in American Welding Society Standard also observed that strengthening phase is sometimes
D17.3M [82]. The proposed terms are shown in Fig. 9, absent in SZ, indicating that precipitates are dissolved in
and are described as follows. the matrix. Several IMCs also exist in the SZ while
joining dissimilar materials such as Al−Cu and
Al−Mg [58,59]. In dissimilar welding of Al−Cu by
ZHANG et al [58], it was found that SZ consists of the
Al−Cu IMCs mainly CuAl2 and Cu9Al4 together with
some quantity of Al and Cu. S line feature is also
observed in the SZ of AA 7055 during FSW [38,69] and
Fig. 9 Different characteristic zones of FSW/UFSW
UFSW of AA 7050, as shown in Fig. 10(b) [73]. The ‘‘S
line’’ is a kind of weak connection defect which
1) Unaffected material or parent metal: No plastic
determines the characteristics of joints and is generally
deformation takes place in this zone but the material may
not present in UFSW. When welding is done in water, the
have or have not been affected by the heat of the welding.
atmospheric oxidation of the plate is prevented, leading
No noticeable variation in properties and microstructure
to elimination of S line defect. Another reason is that as
takes place.
heat is carried away by water in UFSW, high cooling rate
2) Heat affected zone (HAZ): This region is affected
and less thermal gradient are observed in comparison to
by the heat of the welding but no apparent plastic
FSW, leading to elimination of S line defect [38,69,88].
deformation takes places in this zone.
In comparison with FSW, UFSW results in additional
3) Thermomechanically affected zone (TMAZ): In
refinement of grain size in the SZ (see Fig. 11) due to
this region, the material is affected both by the plastic
low peak temperature and low duration at peak
deformation and thermal cycles. In AAs, deformed and
temperature [29,43,49,72,89]. This refined structure
recrystallized region of TMAZ is separated by a
distinctive and clear boundary (this region is frequently
termed as ‘nugget’. Other names such as SZ and
‘dynamically recrystallized region’ are also been
used [82]).
The changes in microstructure of different zones
directly affect the mechanical properties of the welds
produced. Due to large heat and intense deformation
experienced during FSW/UFSW, development of
different textures [29,30,83,84] and precipitate
dissolution and coarsening in different zones take
place [34,51,52,70,85]. Different microstructural changes Fig. 10 Macrostructures of SZ of AA 7050 during FSW (a) and
in FSW/UFSW have been analyzed by many researchers. UFSW (b )[73]
Mohd. Atif WAHID, et al/Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 28(2018) 193−219 203
flow in the SZ owing to high heat input. The size of the
grains also varies significantly with alteration in welding
speed, as shown in Fig. 12 [51]. In a study, it was
observed that grain size first increases with increase in
welding speed and then reduces significantly at higher
welding speed in AA 2219 [51]. This variation in grain
size can be explained as follows: with the increase in
welding speed, both heat input and plastic deformation of
material are reduced. The reduction in amount of
material deformation causes enlargement in size of the
grain [84,90], while the reduced heat input results in
refinement of the grain [52]. As a result, the difference in
sizes of the grain with welding speed depends upon the
factor which dominates [51]. With increase in welding
speed, the SZ size also gets reduced due to poorer
material flow around the probe as observed in AA 2219
[51] and AA 2519 [52]. Studies have also revealed
defects at too high welding speed in the SZ [33,51].
Different probe profiles also lead to variation in the grain
size of the SZ [34]. The frictional area and heat
developed by the probe directly affect the grain size.
Less grain size was observed in the joint produced by
threaded taper profile tool in comparison to straight
threaded tool in both water and air cooling [34]. Further
defects are also associated with different probe profiles.
In both cooling medium (air and water), the tunnel
defects developed in the SZ of the joints were produced
Fig. 11 Microstructures of SZ of AA 2519 during FSW (a) and using straight and taper cylindrical tools due to
UFSW (b) [49] insufficient heat in AA 2519 T-87 [34]. Moreover, an
interesting result has also been reported in UFSW of
leads to improvement in mechanical properties of the SZ. accumulative roll bonding (ARB) strain hardenable
UFSW has been successfully used to reduce the amount AA 1050 [72]. The average grain size of 0.8 and 2.1 μm
of brittle IMCs in dissimilar materials such as Al−Cu and in UFSW and FSW respectively was found in the SZ.
Al−Mg due to low peak temperature and short incubation Furthermore, a study on identical alloy shows that by
time [58,59,75]. In UFSW, as the residual heat is carried increasing the tool revolutionary pitch (welding
away by the flowing water and the stirred region behind speed/rotation speed) up to 2.5 mm/r, the mean grain size
the advancing tool is cooled more rapidly, low peak in SZ was reduced to about 1.3 μm in FSW [91].
temperature and little dwell time are observed. As such, Therefore, from these results, it is obtained that
fine grains are observed in UFSW and the growth of immersion technique (water) with constant tool rotation
intermetallic compounds is suppressed. and welding speed is more effective method for the
Effect of various process parameters, i.e. welding refinement of grains in SZ.
speed [51], rotational speed [27,33] and probe 4.1.2 TMAZ
profile [34], on macro and micro features of SZ produced This zone is the transition zone between the parent
by FSW/UFSW has also been analysed by various metal zone and the SZ characterized by a highly
researchers. Size of the grains increases with increase in deformed structure [10,40]. In the TMAZ, grains do not
rotational speed [27,33,49]. At low rotation speed, fine recrystallize due to low heat input and little deformation.
equiaxed grains are observed but their size grows as the TMAZ region is characterized by highly extruded,
rotation speed increases due to increase in heat input in elongated and upward oriented grains, as shown in
AA 2219 [27] and AA 7075 [33]. Moreover, defects take Fig. 13 [34,51,52]. Precipitate evolution and dissolution
place in the SZ if welds are not performed at adequate and coarsening of precipitates are also observed
rotational speed [27,33]. At low rotation speed, furrow sometimes in the TMAZ of AA 2519 [34,52] and AA
defects take place due to insufficient material flow [33] 2219 [30,51]. With increase in temperature, the
and voids are formed in the SZ at too high rotation precipitates can get coarse, change to stable state or get
speed [27]. The voids develop due to turbulence material dissolved in the matrix during FSW/UFSW. It is found
204 Mohd. Atif WAHID, et al/Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 28(2018) 193−219
Fig. 12 Grain structures in SZ during UFSW at varying welding speeds [51]: (a) 50 mm/min; (b) 100 mm/min; (c) 150 mm/min;
(d) 200 mm/min
Fig. 13 Micrographs of TMAZ in AA 2519-T 87 at welding speed of 30 mm/min [52]: (a) FSW, AS; (b) FSW, RS; (c) UFSW, AS;
(d) UFSW, RS
Mohd. Atif WAHID, et al/Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 28(2018) 193−219 205
that due to low heat input (increased welding speed) size is not affected by cooling medium but precipitate
the precipitate deterioration is reduced in TMAZ of coarsening and width of the PFZ get reduced in UFSW
AA 2219 [51]. Furthermore, due to low temperature and leading to increased hardness in the HAZ as compared to
high cooling rate of water, coarsening of precipitates and FSW [70]. Furthermore, larger number of precipitates are
grain size in TMAZ (see Fig. 13) is also reduced observed in UFSW as compared to FSW due to reduced
significantly, leading to improved mechanical properties level of dissolution leading to improved mechanical
in AA 2519 [34,52]. Additionally, the width of the properties in UFSW [34,52].
TMAZ can also be minimized by restricting the heat and
plastic deformation by UFSW [51]. 4.2 Welding defects
4.1.3 HAZ Various imperfections (voids, grooves, tunnels,
Undeformed coarse grains exist in HAZ (see kissing bond, etc) are observed in FSW/UFSW [27,33,
Fig. 14(a)) as no deformation takes place in this 68,93]. Welding parameters along with the cooling
region [27,28,51,52]. Structure of the grain in HAZ medium govern the material flow in FSW/UFSW. Defects
remains the same as the structure of grains of the parent are formed in UFSW if the plasticized material is cooled
material but the temperature over 250 °C causes notable down prior to filling of the joint behind the tool. Defects
changes in precipitate structure. Many researchers have generally occur due to improper rate of heating if the
shown that FSW/UFSW results in coarsening of the welding parameters are not chosen properly.
precipitate [34,51,52,70,92] and evolution of precipitate- Furrow defects (see Fig. 15(a)) and voids (see
free zones (PFZ) in the HAZ (see Fig. 14(b)) [34,51,70]. Fig. 15(d)) are generally observed at too low and too
Recently, ZHANG et al [70] have examined the high rotational speed, respectively, in UFSW. These
microstructure of AA 2219-T6. It was observed that grain defects are caused by insufficient material flow and are
Fig. 14 Microstructures of HAZ of AA 2219 during UFSW [51]: (a) Grain structure of HAZ; (b) Precipitate distribution in HAZ
Fig. 15 Welding defects in UFSW: (a) Furrow defect in AA 7055 [33]; (b) Tunnel defect in AA 7055 [33]; (c) Groove defect in
AA 2219 [51]; (d) Voids in AA 2219 [27]
206 Mohd. Atif WAHID, et al/Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 28(2018) 193−219
seen on the surface of the weld or beneath it. At low that in the transverse direction [95]. Furthermore, some
rotation speed, furrow defect is observed in AA 7055 in studies also deal with the effect of water on the extent of
SZ [33] and voids are observed in the SZ at too high RSS encountered during the FSW as water (cooling
rotation speed in AA 2219 [27,68] during UFSW. medium) plays significant effect on RSS due to its deep
Increasing the rotational speed from lower value to effect on temperature cycles. UFSW can reduce the RSS
higher value decreases or eliminates these defects, but as compared to FSW [69,95]. Cooling with water can
the size of the voids gets increased if rotational speed is decrease the longitudinal RSS up to 82% in the SZ
increased from higher value to a further higher compared to air [95]. Water cooling can also reverse the
level [68]. nature of the RSS developed during the welding. In an
Studies have also revealed defects at too high investigation by ZHAO et al [69], FSW joint showed
welding speed in the SZ [33,51]. At high welding speed, tensile stress whereas compressive stress was found in
tunnel defect (see Fig. 15(b)) is observed in AA 7055 [33] the joint of UFSW. Residual compressive stress can
and grove defect (see Fig. 15(c)) is observed in AA 2219 improve the fatigue strength of the joints. UFSW creates
in UFSW [51]. Plasticized material gets cooled down mild and low thermal cycle and smooth temperature
rapidly at high welding speed in water before filling the gradient than FSW, thus reducing the RSS of the joint.
weld completely leading to tunnel defect. Tunnel defects
are also observed in the SZ of the joints at the AS 5.2 Distortion
produced using straight and taper cylindrical tools due to Being a solid-state welding process, low peak
insufficient frictional heat in AA 2519 T-87 [34]. temperature and temperature gradient are involved in
S line feature (see Fig. 10(b)) is also observed in the FSW process as compared to FW but still temperature
SZ of AA 7055 during FSW [38,69] and UFSW of increase at local area causes plastic strain in weld. The
AA 7050 [73]. The ‘‘S line’’ is a defect which is formed primary cause of distortion is the plastic strain that is not
due to breaking up of oxide layer due to insufficient fully recovered during FSW. Manufacturing, assembling
stirring of the material. When welding is done in water, and application of structure are affected greatly by the
the atmospheric oxidation of the plate is prevented welding distortion, so its examination is pivotal for FSW
leading to elimination of S line defect. technology. Earlier researchers used to denote FSW as a
non distortion method as the distortion was not
5 Properties significant in earlier studies [101]. Today, it is widely
believed that distortion occurs during FSW and AA
5.1 Residual stress sheets possess distortion if they are welded by
FSW involves complex clamping and high FSW [102,103]. Negligible studies have been reported
clamping force for holding the welding plates. The firm on distortion in UFSW. Distortion profiles of the S275
clamping in FSW/UFSW exerts large amount of restraint plates welded with FSW in air and water were analysed
upon the welding plates. During cooling, these restraints by BAILLIE et al [89]. A submerged arc welded (SAW)
hamper the contraction of the SZ and HAZ, thus DH36 steel plate was also analysed for highlighting the
resulting in residual stresses (RSS). Moreover, cooling variation in distortion profile. The results showed less
media (air, water) play a significant effect on RSS due to distortion in FSW plate in comparison to SAW plate.
their intense effect on thermal cycle. Thus, distribution of Also, the distortion was the least in UFSW due to high
residual stress is related to thermal cycle and restraint heat dissipation capacity of water which reduces thermal
intensity. Both thermal and mechanical RSS are induced stresses in the material. The difference in distortion
in FSW/UFSW, which can be tensile or compressive between the SAW and FSW plates was due to large
[69,94,95]. As RSS causes significant effect on the post clamping forces and high degree of restraint involved
weld mechanical properties, various techniques [96−100] during FSW. These restraints avoid movement of the
have been acquired for measuring RSS in different plate during welding, reducing the distortion. Moreover,
processes. The RSS induced by FSW have been obtained low thermal stresses associated with FSW process in
by various destructive and non-destructive techniques comparison to the SAW also resulted in reduced
such as X-ray diffraction [96−98], hole-drilling [99], and distortion.
ultrasonic [100]. Ultrasonic technique offers rich
advantages over the other methods including non- 5.3 Hardness
destructive testing, cheap equipments, short acquisition AAs are divided into two categories, i.e. heat-
time and portable measurement setup. Generally, the treatable (precipitation hardened) AAs and non heat-
RSS is higher on the AS in comparison to the RS due to treatable (solid-solution hardened) AAs [104]. Numerous
high peak temperature and severe plastic deformation on investigations have shown that hardness distribution is
AS. RSS are also larger in the longitudinal direction than different for heat-treatable and non heat-treatable alloys
Mohd. Atif WAHID, et al/Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 28(2018) 193−219 207
in FSW.
In heat-treatable AAs, FSW/UFSW generally
creates a softened area in the weld region. This is due to
coarsening and dissolution of strengthening precipitates
during FSW/UFSW [30,43,70,92,105]. The micro-
hardness distributions of the joints of AA 2219 showed
that the softening region is created in both FSW and
UFSW joints [30]. AA 2017 with ultrafine grained
(UFG) structure was produced by using equal channel
angular processing (ECAP) after which they were joined
by means of UFSW by WANG et al [43]. The result
revealed softening of the UFSW joint compared with the
UFG based material. Similar softening behavior was also
observed in spray formed Al−Zn−Mg−Cu alloy in FSW
and UFSW joints [71].
Cooling media also affect the hardness distribution
across the weld. Large number of investigation has
shown strength improvement in minimum hardness
location using UFSW, leading to high hardness in UFSW
in comparison to FSW [26,30,73,71]. The micro-
hardness distributions of the joints of AA 2219 showed
“W-type” hardness profile and the minimum hardness in
the HAZ during FSW on the AS whereas in UFSW
softening area is diminished significantly and the
minimum hardness location (MHL) is changed lying on
the interface between WNZ and TMAZ on AS and RS,
as can be seen in Fig. 16(a) [30]. High dislocation
density, enhanced solid solution strengthening effect and Fig. 16 Microhardness distribution in different zones during
FSW and UFSW: (a) AA 2219 [30]; (b) AA 7055 [69]
grain refinement due to water cooling lead to the increase
of hardness of MHL. Identical results were said by
Hardness distribution is also affected by welding
WANG et al [71] in UFSW of spray formed
parameters, i.e. rotational speed, welding speed, and
Al−Zn−Mg−Cu alloy. Some researchers also suggested
probe profile. In UFSW of AA 2219, it was observed that
that the hardness improvement in HAZ is due to reducing
increasing tool rotation speed up to a certain limit
of precipitate coarsening and the narrowing of PFZ
improved the hardness of the joint due to increase in
induced by varying thermal cycles under water cooling
strain hardening effect (as shown in Fig. 17) [27]. When
effect [43,71]. “W-type” hardness profile was also
the rotation speed is too low or too high, the hardness
observed by ZHAO et al [69] in FSW of AA7055.
minimum is relatively low because of inadequate tool
Minimum hardness was observed in TMAZ of the FSW stirring or excess heat input, as observed in AA2219 [27].
joint but contrastingly minimum hardness was improved Moreover, with increasing rotational speed, softening
in UFSW eliminating the distinct low value area width increases and minimum hardness location (MHL)
showing uniform hardness profile, as can be seen in of the joint also moves outward from the weld centre, as
Fig. 16(b) [69]. Similar results were also observed in shown in Fig. 17(a). Generally, hardness in SZ also gets
AA 2519-T87 [26]. Thus, it is observed that in heat- increased with increase in rotational speed [27]. With
treatable AAs, generally minimum hardness is located in increasing welding speed, the softening region is
the HAZ or TMAZ of the AS in FSW, but contrary to this gradually narrowed and the MHL of the joint moves
in UFSW, the minimum hardness location gets shifted to in the direction of the weld centre, as observed in
SZ or SZ/TMAZ of AS/RS and softening region is also AA 2014 [87] and AA 2219 [51]. Also with increase in
narrowed showing strength improvement in minimum welding speed, hardness value in MHL is improved due
hardness location. This hardness/strength improvement to weakening of precipitate deterioration level as
in heat-treatable AAs depends on precipitate observed in AA 2014 [87] and AA2219 shown in Fig.
distribution, dislocation density, grain size and solid 17(b) [51] and solid solution strengthening as observed
solution [27,30,105,106], among which precipitate in AA 2519-T87 [52]. Different probe profile also leads
distribution has more effect than others [51,70,85,107]. to change in microhardness value. Increased hardness is
208 Mohd. Atif WAHID, et al/Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 28(2018) 193−219
obtained in threaded profile in comparison to featureless 5.4 Mechanical properties
(straight and taper cylindrical) probe profile [34]. Plain Due to intensive deformation of the material in
and featureless surface does not allow intensive FSW/UFSW, different microstructural changes occur in
deformation and thus proper stirring and mixing is not different regions of FSW. These microstructural changes
met in the welded region. The threaded profile offers lead to enormous alteration in post welding mechanical
more friction over the softened material and causes properties.
intensive deformation of material. Thus, proper mixing 5.4.1 Strength and ductility
and stirring is achieved, leading to refine grain structure The tensile behavior is significantly affected by the
and improvement in hardness. stirring, heating and cooling conditions in the FSW/
UFSW process [30,33,51,56,70]. It is also believed that
nonuniform microstructure across friction stir welds also
causes variations in yield and ultimate tensile strength
(UTS) and ductility [51,56,70]. Tensile strength is
directly related to the hardness of the joint.
It is widely reported that cooling media (air, water)
play significant role in improving the tensile properties
of the joint produced in FSW [30,33,70,110]. It is
observed that the tensile properties of underwater friction
stir welds (UFSWs) are higher than those of normal
friction stir welds (FSWs) [27,29,34,40,43,69]. Various
reasons lead to improvement in tensile properties of the
joints in UFSW. Tensile properties of the AA 2219 were
studied by LIU et al [30] and ZHANG et al [70] based on
cooling media, i.e. air and water. They reported increased
tensile strength in UFSW joint. The joint efficiency in
UFSW was 79% greater than that of base metal in FSW
(see Fig. 18(a)). The refined grain structure and high-
density dislocation lead to increase in tensile strength.
Equivalent outcome had been additionally observed by
WANG et al [38] in UFSW of AA7055. They reported
15% increase in tensile strength in water cooling
environment as compared to air due to improved thermal
cycle resulting in solid solution strengthening (see
Fig. 18(b)). KISHTA and DARRAS [57] studied the
tensile properties of non heat-treatable AA 5083 in air
and water cooling environment. They also reported an
increase in tensile strength in UFSW with strength
reaching nearly that of the base material. The
Fig. 17 Variation in hardness of UFSW joints of AA 2219:
improvement in tensile strength was attributed to
(a) At different rotational speeds [27]; (b) At different welding
microstructural changes (size of the grain, orientation,
speeds [51]
void formation, etc) resulting from low peak thermal
The hardness profile in non heat-treatable alloys is boundaries. Thickness level also affects the tensile
generally related to the grain size in FSW/UFSW [57,72, properties of the material. Tensile specimens cut normal
108,109]. These AAs generally do not result in softening to the direction of the welding and segmented into three
in the welds [57,107]. It is also observed that hardness portions (top, middle and bottom) in the thickness
tends to increase as the distance from the top surface direction were investigated for tensile strength in
increases. This is due to large heat at the top surface AA 2219 in air cooling and water cooling [110]. The
leading to more grain growth [108,109]. It is also highest strength exhibited at the top surface and the
reported that water as a cooling medium leads to lowest strength was observed at the bottom surface with
improvement in the minimum hardness of the joint in the middle surface lying in-between these values in FSW
non heat-treatable AAs also as compared to air and UFSW. Additional strength was also found in UFSW
cooling [57,72]. As the cooling rate of water is very high, due to reduction of the precipitate coarsening level and
refined grains are formed due to low peak temperature widening of PFZ due to low peak temperature.
resulting in higher hardness in UFSW samples. Furthermore, different results are obtained depending on
Mohd. Atif WAHID, et al/Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 28(2018) 193−219 209
Fig. 19(a). The tensile strength tends to be low at less
rotational speed owing to inadequate tool stirring
action [56]. Too high rotational speed decreases the
tensile strength due to turbulent metal flow owing to high
heat input resulting in void formations [27]. Tensile
strength also increases with increase in welding speed
due to adequate heat and stirring of the material [51,52].
Too low welding speed increases the amount of heat into
the weld causing decrease in tensile strength. Too high
welding speed leads to insufficient heat and stirring of
the material resulting in deterioration in tensile strength
leading to defects [51,52]. The variation of tensile
properties with welding speed is shown in Fig. 19(b).
Fig. 22 Microstructures of Al 5083−Mg AZ31 [75,76]: (a) SZ during FSW; (b) SZ during UFSW; (c) IM layer during FSW; (d) IM
layer during UFSW
7.2 Aluminum−copper the brittle IMCs. This problem can be solved if the
Copper has been extensively used for producing process is conducted in water, because the water cooling
engineering parts such as electrical elements, and enhances the heat dissipation affecting temperature
switchgear due to its excellent features like high distribution in the weld. ZHANG et al [58] through XRD
corrosion resistance, thermal and electrical conductivity analysis mentioned IMCs such as CuAl2, Cu9Al4 along
[140]. Aluminum and its alloys are lighter in weight with some quantity of Al and Cu in FSW/UFSW.
having high strength, and can easily be fabricated. However, for UFSW, the amount of IMCs was limited.
Bimetallic joints of Al/Cu are used in a number of The melting point of Al−Cu eutectic or some of the
electrical and thermal applications [141]. To meet the Al–Cu hypo-eutectic and hyper-eutectic alloys is
demands from the electric power industry, the bolted 825 K [145]. In FSW, due to high plastic deformation
Al−Cu joints have been substituted by welds [142]. and high frictional heat, the peak temperature of Al/Cu
Because of the presence of large variation in melting interface reaches more than the melting point of the
points, brittle IMCs and crack formation, it is difficult to Al−Cu eutectic, leading to the growth and formation of
produce high quality Al−Cu dissimilar joint by FW IMCs. However, for the UFSW, the water cooling
techniques [143]. Due to these reasons, the solid-state significantly reduces the peak temperature and also
joining methods, such as FSW, become more popular. In speeds up the cooling rate leading to limitation of IMCs.
FSW, the peak temperature is lower than the melting Moreover, UFSW can prevent the thickening of the
point of the material, so it offers outstanding ability to Al−Cu diffusion interlayer. Thin diffusion layer indicates
weld dissimilar metals [143−146]. Despite this, it is that the amount of brittle IMCs has been decreased
found that IMCs at the interface cause major problem in leading to effective joining.
FSW of dissimilar Al−Cu metals [147−149]. These IMCs
reduce the strength, toughness and increase the electrical 8 Conclusions and future suggestions
resistivity in Al−Cu joints. Peak temperature and
incubation time are the factors that determine the growth This review article outlines the current status and
and development of IMCs. Controlled peak temperature understanding of the UFSW mostly in AAs and
and small incubation time could reduce the quantity of consequently improvement of UFSW over FSW in terms
214 Mohd. Atif WAHID, et al/Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 28(2018) 193−219
of joint quality, microstructure evolved and mechanical forces.
properties. On the basis of the comprehensive literature 4) Welding of dissimilar materials in UFSW is
review, following conclusions are drawn: limited and requires detailed and methodical
1) UFSW uses water as a cooling medium which investigation.
reduces temperature and restricts the coarsening or 5) Considerable scope exists for analyzing heat
dissolution of the precipitates leading to enhanced input, heat balance, flow stress on both sides, i.e.
mechanical properties of the joint. advancing/retreating and top/bottom sides.
2) For producing sound and defect-free welds, 6) Surprisingly, no examination on fracture
proper tool geometry and welding parameters are toughness has been reported in literature pertaining to
required. It is observed that threaded pin and concave UFSW. By taking into account the wide application of
shoulder with groove bottom yield a defect-free joint in UFSW, there is a need for suitable assessment of the
UFSW. Due to high plastic deformation and shearing of fracture behavior of the UFSW joints.
material, threaded probe profile yields sound joints. 7) No systematic information on the tool material is
Concave shoulder due to its design helps in directing the available. Studies should be incorporated for selection of
material flow to the centre near the probe providing cost effective FSW/UFSW tools for improving
advantage in its use over flat shoulder. performance of the joints generally in dissimilar welding.
3) Rotational speed and welding speed are the 8) Negligible information on fatigue deformation
dominating factors influencing the weld formation. At and corrosion properties of UFSW is available. These
too low or too high rotational speed and welding speed properties need deep and careful assessment.
can result in poor joint properties. As compared to FSW,
UFSW requires higher rotational speed and welding References
speed for producing sound joints.
4) Material flow and temperature generation are [1] PRAVEEN P, YARLAGADDA P K D V. Meeting challenges in
governed by tool geometry and welding parameters. In welding of aluminum alloys through pulse gas metal arc welding [J].
Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2005, 164−165:
UFSW, material flow within the weld is very complex
1106−1112.
and poorly understood.
[2] LIU P, LI Y, GENG H, WANG J. Microstructure characteristics in
5) The temperature distribution in FSW/UFSW TIG welded joint of Mg/Al dissimilar materials [J]. Materials Letters,
directly influences the mechanical properties and 2007, 61(6): 1288−1291.
microstructure (grain size, coarsening of precipitates) of [3] THOMAS W M, NICHOLAS E D, NEEDHAM J C, MURCH M G,
the joints. Low temperature, less temperature gradient SMITH P T, DAWES C J. Friction stir butt welding: UK9125978 [P].
and high cooling rate associated with the UFSW resulted 1991-12-06.
in fine grains, high dislocation density and limited [4] GUERRA M, SCHMIDT C, MCCLURE L C, MURR L E, NUNES
A C. Flow patterns during friction stir welding [J]. Materials
precipitate dissolution and coarsening leading to
Characterization, 2003, 49: 95−101.
improved mechanical properties as compared to FSW.
[5] RHODES C G, MAHONEY M W, BINGEL W H, SPURLING R A,
6) In addition to AAs, UFSW has been effectively BAMPTON C C. Effects of friction stir welding on microstructure of
used to join dissimilar materials like Al−Cu and Al−Mg 7075 aluminum [J]. Scripta Materialia, 1997, 36(1): 69−75.
as decreased amount of brittle IMCs are formed due to [6] ZHAO J, JIANG F, JIAN H G, WEN K, JIANG L, CHEN X B.
low peak temperature and small incubation time in Comparative investigation of tungsten inert gas and friction stir
UFSW. welding characteristics of Al−Mg−Sc alloy plates [J]. Materials and
Despite numerous advantages of UFSW over FSW, Design, 2010, 31: 306−311.
[7] CAVALIERE P, CABIBBO M, PANELLA F, SQUILLACE A. 2198
considerable interest has not been shown in UFSW.
Al−Li plates jointed by friction stir welding: Mechanical and
Some of the future research works which can be carried microstructural behaviour [J]. Materials and Design, 2009, 30:
out are suggested below: 3622−3631.
1) Material flow pattern is not understood properly [8] THOMAS W M, NICHOLAS E D. Friction stir welding for the
in UFSW. Various new analytical methods and transportation industries [J]. Materials and Design, 1997, 18:
computational models should be incorporated for 269−273.
understanding the flow of material properly in UFSW. [9] SIDDIQUEE A N, PANDEY S. Experimental investigation on
deformation and wear of WC tool during friction stir welding (FSW)
2) Geometry and wear behavior of the tool are very
of stainless steel [J]. International Journal of Advanced
important aspects and need deep understanding and
Manufacturing Technology, 2014, 73: 479−486.
therefore computational procedure can be used to [10] MISHRA R S, MA Z Y. Friction stir welding and processing [J].
optimize the tool geometry. Mater Science and Engineering A, 2005, 50: 1−78.
3) Very few holistic studies on different forces [11] CHO J H, HAN S H, LEE C G. Cooling effect on microstructure and
encountered during the UFSW are reported in the mechanical properties during friction stir welding of Al−Mg−Si
literature. Attempts need to be made to measure these aluminum alloys [J]. Materials Letters, 2016, 180: 157−161.
Mohd. Atif WAHID, et al/Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 28(2018) 193−219 215
[12] SIDDIQUEE A N, PANDEY S, KHAN N Z. Friction stir welding of rapid cooling during friction stir welding [J]. Materials Science and
austenitic stainless steel: A study on microstructure and effect of Engineering A, 2012, 548: 89−98.
parameters on tensile strength [J]. Materials Today: Proceedings, [30] LIU Hui-jie, ZHANG Hui-jie, HUANG Yong-xian, LEI Y.
2015, 2(4−5): 1388−1397. Mechanical properties of underwater friction stir welded 2219
[13] SIDHAR H, MARTINEZ N Y, MISHRA R S, SILVANUS J. Friction aluminum alloy [J]. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of
stir welding of Al−Mg−Li 1424 alloy [J]. Materials & Design, 2016, China, 2010, 20: 1387−1391.
106: 146−152. [31] LORRAIN O, FAVIER V, ZAHROUNI H, LAWRJANIEC D.
[14] WOO W, BALOGH L, UNGÁR T, CHOO H, FENG Z. Grain Understanding the material flow path of friction stir welding process
structure and dislocation density measurements in a friction-stir using unthreaded tool [J]. Journal of Material Processing Technology,
welded aluminum alloy using X-ray peak profile analysis [J]. 2010, 210: 603−609.
Material Science and Engineering A, 2008, 498(1−2): 308−313. [32] HIRASAWA S, BADARINARAYAN H, OKAMOTO K,
[15] LIU G, MURR L E, NIOU C S, MCCLURE J C, VEGA F R. Micro TOMIMURA T, KAWANAMI T. Analysis of effect of tool geometry
structural aspects of the friction-stir welding of 6061-T6 aluminum on plastic flow during friction stir spot welding using particle using
[J]. Scripta Materialia, 1997, 37: 355−361. particle method [J]. Journal of Materials Processing Technology,
[16] JATA K V, SEMIATIN S L. Continuous dynamic recrystallization 2010, 210(11): 1455−1463.
during friction stir welding of high strength aluminum alloys [J]. [33] WANG Q, ZHAO Z, ZHAO Y, YAN K, ZHANG H. The adjustment
Scripta Materialia, 2000, 43: 743−749. strategy of welding parameters for spray formed 7055 aluminum
[17] BENAVIDES S, LI Y, MURR L E, BROWN D, MCCLURE J C. alloy underwater friction stir welding joint [J]. Materials and Design,
Low-temperature friction-stir welding of 2024 aluminum [J]. Scripta 2015, 88: 1366−1376.
Materialia, 1999, 41: 809−815. [34] SABARI S S, MALARVIZHI S, BALASUBRAMANIAN V,
[18] LIU H J, FUJII H, MAEDA M, NOGI K. Tensile properties and REDDY G. The effect of pin profiles on the microstructure and
fracture locations of friction stir welded joints of 6061-T6 aluminum mechanical properties of underwater friction stir welded
alloy [J]. Materials Science Letters, 2003, 22: 1061−1063. AA2519-T87 aluminium alloy [J]. International Journal of
[19] BAESLACK W A, JATA K V, LIENERT T J. Structure, properties Mechanical and Materials Engineering, 2016, 11(5): 1−14.
and fracture of friction stir welds in a high-temperature [35] ELANGOVAN K, BALASUBRAMANIAN V. Influences of tool pin
Al−8.5Fe−1.3V−1.7Si alloy [J]. Materials Science, 2006, 41: profile and tool shoulder diameter on the formation of friction stir
2939−2951. processing zone in AA6061 aluminium alloy [J]. Materials and
[20] CABIBBO M, MCQUEEN H J, EVANGELISTA E, SPIGARELLI S, Design, 2008, 29(2): 362−373.
PAOLA M D, FALCHERO A. Microstructure and mechanical [36] ARORA A, DE A, DEBROY T. Toward optimum friction stir
property studies of AA6056 friction stir welded plate [J]. Materials welding tool shoulder diameter [J]. Scripta Materialia, 2011, 64(1):
Science and Engineering A, 2007, 460−461: 86−94. 9−12.
[21] FRATINI L, BUFFA G, SHIVPURI R. In-process heat treatments to [37] KHAN N Z, KHAN Z A, SIDDIQUEE A N. Effect of shoulder
improve FS-welded butt joints [J]. International Journal of Advanced diameter to pin diameter (D/d) ratio on tensile strength of friction stir
Manufacturing Technology, 2009, 43: 664−70. welded 6063 aluminium alloy [J]. Material Today Proceedings, 2015,
[22] SAKURADA D, KATOH K, TOKISUE H. Underwater friction 2(4−5): 1450−1457.
welding of 6061 aluminum alloy [J]. Journal of Japan Institute of [38] WANG Q, ZHAO Y, YAN K, LU S. Corrosion behaviour of spray
Light Metals, 2002, 52(1): 2−6. formed 7055 aluminum alloy joint welded by underwater friction stir
[23] CLARK T D. An analysis of microstructure and corrosion resistance welding [J]. Materials and Design, 2015, 68: 97−103.
in underwater friction stir welded 304L stainless steel [D]. Provo: [39] DAWES C J, THOMAS W M. Development of improved tool design
Brigham Young University, 2005. for friction stir welding of aluminium [C]//Proceeding of
[24] UPADHYAY P, REYNOLDS A P. Effects of thermal boundary International Conference on FSW. Thousand Oaks: TWI, 1999.
conditions in friction stir welded AA7050-T7 sheets [J]. Materials [40] BRINCKMANN S, STROMEBECK A, SCHILLING C, SANTOS J
Science and Engineering A, 2010, 527: 1537−1543. F, LOHWASSER D, KOCAK M. Mechanical and toughness
[25] MOFID M A, ABDOLLAH-ZADEH A, GHAINI F M, GUR C H. properties of robotic-FSW repair welds in 6061-T6 aluminum alloy
Submerged friction-stir welding (SFSW) underwater and under liquid [C]//Proceeding 2nd International Conference on FSW. Gothenburg:
nitrogen: An improved method to join Al alloys to Mg alloys [J]. TWI, 2000: 26−28.
Metallurgical And Materials Transactions A, 2012, 43: 5106−5114. [41] CEDERQVIST L, SORENSEN C D, REYNOLDS A P, OBERG T.
[26] SABARI S S, MALARVIZHI S, BALASUBRAMANIAN V, Improved process stability during friction stir welding of 5 cm thick
REDDY G M. Experimental and numerical investigation on copper canisters through shoulder geometry and parameter studies [J].
under-water friction stir welding of armour grade AA2519-T87 Science and Technology of Welding and Joining, 2009, 14(2):
aluminium alloy [J]. Defence Technology, 2016 12: 324−333. 178−184.
[27] ZHANG H J, LIU H J, YU L. Microstructure and mechanical [42] COLLIGAN K J, PICKENS J R. Friction stir welding of aluminium
properties as a function of rotation speed in underwater friction stir using a tapered shoulder tool [C]//Frictions Stir Welding and
welded aluminum alloy joints [J]. Materials and Design, 2011, 32: Processing III. San Francisco, California: TMS, 2005: 161−170.
4402−4407. [43] WANG Kuai-she, WU Jia-lei, WANG W, ZHOU Long-hai, LIN
[28] NELSON T W, STEEL R J, ARBEGAST W J. In situ thermal studies Zhao-xia, KONG Liang. Underwater friction stir welding of ultrafine
and post-weld mechanical properties of friction stir welds [J]. grained 2017 aluminum alloy [J]. Journal of Central South University,
Science and Technology of Welding and Joining, 2003, 8(4): 2012, 19: 2081−2085.
283−288. [44] SURESHA C N, RAJAPRAKASH B M, UPADHYA S. A study of
[29] XUA W F, LIU J H, CHEN D L, LUAN G H, YAO J S. the effect of tool pin profiles on tensile strength of welded joints
Improvements of strength and ductility in aluminum alloy joints via produced using friction stir welding process [J]. Materials and
216 Mohd. Atif WAHID, et al/Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 28(2018) 193−219
Manufacturing Processes, 2011, 26: 1111−1116. [61] OUYANG J H, KOVACEVIC R. Material flow and microstructure in
[45] PAPAHN H, BAHEMMAT P, HAGHPANAHI M, SOMMITSCH C. the friction stir butt welds of the same and dissimilar aluminum
Study on governing parameters of thermal history during underwater alloys [J]. Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, 2002,
friction stir welding [J]. International Journal of Advanced 11: 51−63.
Manufacturing Technology, 2015, 78: 1101−1111. [62] CHEN Z W, PASANG T, QI Y. Shear flow and formation of nugget
[46] THOMAS W M, NICHLOAS E D, SMITH S D, Friction stir zone during friction stir welding of aluminium alloy 5083-O [J].
welding tool developments [C]//Proceeding Aluminum Automotive Materials Science and Engineering A, 2008, 474: 312−316.
and Joining Sessions. Warrendale, Pennsylvania: TMS, 2001: [63] CHOWDHURY S M, CHEN D L, BHOLE S D, CAO X. Tensile
213−224. properties of a friction stir welded magnesium alloy: Effect of pin
[47] THOMAS W M, JOHNSON K I, WIESNER C S. Friction stir tool thread orientation and weld pitch [J]. Materials Science and
welding recent development in tool and process technologies [J]. Engineering A, 2010, 527(21−22): 6064−6075.
Advanced Engineering Materials, 2003, 5(7): 485−490. [64] COLEGROVE P, SHERCLIFF H. Two-dimensional CFD modeling
[48] SATO Y, URATA M, KOKAWA H. Parameters controlling of flow round profiled FSW tooling [J]. Science and Technology of
microstructure and hardness during friction-stir welding of Welding and Joining, 2004, 9(6): 483−492.
precipitation-hardenable aluminum alloy 6063 [J]. Metallurgical [65] NUNES A C Jr. Aluminum 2001 [C]//DAS S K, KAUFMAN J G,
Materials Transaction A, 2002, 33(3): 625−635. LIENERT T J. Proc Aluminum Automotive and Joining Symposia.
[49] SABARI S S, MALARVIZHI S, BALASUBRAMANIAN V. Warrendale, PA: TMS, 2001, 235.
Characteristics of FSW and UWFSW joints of AA2519-T87 [66] KE L, XING L, INDACOCHEA J E. Joining of advanced and
aluminium alloy: Effect of tool rotation speed [J]. Journal of specialty materials IV [C]//Materials Solution. Indiana: ASM
Manufacturing Processes, 2016, 22: 278−289. International, 2002: 125−134.
[50] SELLARS C M, MCTEGART W J. On the mechanism of hot [67] ARBEGAST W, JIN Z. Modeling friction stir joining as a
deformation [J]. Acta Metallurgica, 1966, 14: 1136−1138. metalworking process [C]//Hot Deformation of Aluminum Alloys III.
[51] LIU Hui-jie, ZHANG Hui-jie, YU L. Effect of welding speed on San Diego, California: TMS, 2003.
microstructures and mechanical properties of underwater friction stir [68] ZHANG H, LIU H. Characteristics and formation mechanisms of
welded 2219 aluminum alloy [J]. Materials and Design, 2011, 32(3): welding defects in underwater friction stir welded aluminum alloy [J]
1548−1553. Metallography, Microstructure and Analysis, 2012, 1: 269−281.
[52] SABARI S S, MALARVIZHI S, BALASUBRAMANIAN V. [69] ZHAO Y, WANG Q, CHEN H, YAN K. Microstructure and
Influences of tool traverse speed on tensile properties of air cooled mechanical properties of spray formed 7055 aluminum alloy by
and water cooled friction stir welded AA2519-T87 aluminium alloy underwater friction stir welding [J]. Materials and Design, 2014, 56:
joints [J]. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2016, 237: 725−730.
286−300. [70] ZHANG H J, LIU H J, YU L. Effect of water cooling on the
[53] PAYGANEH G H, MOSTAFA N B A, DADGAR ASL Y, GHASEMI performances of friction stir welding heat-affected zone [J]. Journal
F A, BOROUJENI M S. Effects of friction stir welding process of Materials Engineering and Performance, 2012, 21(7): 1182−1187.
parameters on appearance and strength of polypropylene composite [71] WANG Q, ZHAO Z, ZHAO Y, YAN K, LIU C, ZHANG H. The
welds [J]. International Journal of the Physical Sciences, 2011, 6(19): strengthening mechanism of spray forming Al−Zn−Mg−Cu alloy by
4595−4601. underwater friction stir welding [J]. Materials and Design, 2016, 102:
[54] HASSAN K A A, PRAGNELL P B, NORMAN A F, PRICE D A, 91−99.
WILLIAMS S W. Effect of welding parameters on nugget zone [72] HOSSEINI M, MANESH H D. Immersed friction stir welding of
microstructure and properties in high-strength aluminium alloy ultrafine grained accumulative roll-bonded al alloy [J]. Materials and
friction stir welds [J]. Science and Technology of Welding and Design, 2010, 31: 4786−4791.
Joining, 2003, 8: 257−268. [73] FU R D, SUN Z Q, SUN R C, LI Y, LIU H J, LIU L. Improvement of
[55] WAHID M A, SIDDIQUEE A N, KHAN Z A, ASJAD M. Friction weld temperature distribution and mechanical properties of 7050
stir welds of Al−Cu alloy: An investigation on effect of plunge depth aluminum alloy butt joints by submerged friction stir welding [J].
[J]. Archive of Mechanical Engineering, 2016, 63(4): 619−634. Materials and Design, 2011, 32: 4825−4831.
[56] ZHANG H, LIU H. Mathematical model and optimization for [74] XUE P, XIAO B L, ZHANG Q, MA Z Y. Achieving friction stir
underwater friction stir welding of a heat-treatable aluminum alloy welded pure copper joints with nearly equal strength to the parent
[J]. Materials and Design, 2013, 45: 206−211. metal via additional rapid cooling [J]. Scripta Materialia, 2011, 64:
[57] KISHTA E E, DARRAS B. Experimental investigation of underwater 1051−1054.
friction-stir welding of 5083 marine-grade aluminum alloy [J]. [75] MOFID M A, ABDOLLAH-ZADEH A, GHAINI F M. The effects of
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part B: water cooling during dissimilar friction stir welding of Al alloy to
Journal of Engineering Manufacture, 2014, 230(3): 458−465. Mg alloy [J]. Materials And Design, 2012, 36: 161−167.
[58] ZHANG J, SHEN Y, YAO X, XU H, LI B. Investigation on [76] ZHAO Y, LU Z, YAN K, HUANG L. Microstructural
dissimilar underwater friction stir lap welding of 6061-T6 aluminum characterizations and mechanical properties in underwater friction
alloy to pure copper [J]. Materials and Design, 2014, 64: 74−80. stir welding of aluminum and magnesium dissimilar alloys [J].
[59] ZHAO Y, JIANG S, YANG S, LU Z, YAN K. Influence of cooling Materials and Design, 2014, 65: 675−681.
conditions on joint properties and microstructures of aluminum and [77] FRATINI L, BUFFA G, SHIVPURI R. Mechanical and metallurgical
magnesium dissimilar alloys by friction stir welding [J]. International effects of in process cooling during friction stir welding of
Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2016, 83: 673−679. AA7075-T6 butt joints [J]. Acta Materialia, 2010, 58(6): 2056−2067.
[60] SEIDEL T U, REYNOLDS A P. Visualization of the material flow in [78] ZHANG Hui-jie, LIU Hui-jie, YU L. Thermal modeling of
AA2195 friction-stir welds using a marker insert technique [J]. underwater friction stir welding of high strength aluminum alloy [J].
Metallurgical and Materials Transaction, 2001, 32: 2879−2884. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China, 2013, 23:
Mohd. Atif WAHID, et al/Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 28(2018) 193−219 217
1114−1122. [97] HATAMLEH O, RIVERO R V, MAREDIA A. Residual stresses in
[79] THREADGILL P L. Friction stir welds in aluminium alloys – friction-stir-welded 2195 and 7075 aluminum alloys [J].
Preliminary microstructural assessment [J]. TWI Bulletin, 1997, 28: Metallurgical and Material Transactions A, 2008, 39: 2867−2874.
30−33. [98] ALTENKIRCH J, STEUWER A, PEEL M, RICHARDS D G,
[80] THREADGILL P L, LEONARD A J. Macro and microstructural WITHERS P J. The effect of tensioning and sectioning on residual
features of friction stir welds in various materials [R]. TWI members stresses in aluminium AA7749 friction stir welds [J]. Materials
Report No. 693/1999. Abington, TWI, 1999. Science and Engineering A, 2008, 488: 16−24.
[81] THREADGILL P L. Terminology in friction stir welding [J]. Science [99] XU W, LIU J, ZHU H. Analysis of residual stresses in thick
and Technology of Welding and Joining, 2007, 12: 357−360. aluminum friction stir welded butt joints [J]. Materials and Design,
[82] American Welding Society, USA. Specifications for friction stir 2011, 32: 2000−2005.
welding of aluminum alloys for aerospace applications. Standard [100] GACHI S, BOUBENIDER F, BELAHCENE F. Residual stress,
D17.3: 200X [S]. 2006. microstructure and microhardness measurements in AA7075-T6
[83] KWON Y J, SHIGEMATSU I, SAITO N. Dissimilar friction stir FSW welded sheets [J]. Nondestructive Testing and Evaluation, 2011,
welding between magnesium and aluminum alloys [J]. Materials 26(1): 1−11.
Letters, 2008, 62: 3827−3829. [101] AHMAD Z, ABDUL ALEEM B J. Corrosion resistance of a new Al
[84] PRANGNELL P B, HEASON C P. Grain structure formation during 6013−20SiC (P) in salt spray chamber [J]. Journal of Materials
friction stir welding observed by the stop action technique [J]. Acta Engineering and Performance, 2000, 9(3): 338−343.
Materialia, 2005, 53: 3179−3192. [102] YAN Dong-yang, WUA Ai-ping, SILVANUS J, SHI Qing-yu.
[85] LI B, SHEN Y. The investigation of abnormal particle-coarsening Predicting residual distortion of aluminum alloy stiffened sheet after
phenomena in friction stir repair weld of 2219-T6 aluminum alloy [J]. friction stir welding by numerical simulation [J]. Materials and
Materials and Design, 2011, 32: 3796−3802. Design, 2011, 32: 2284−2291.
[86] ZHAO Y, ZHOU L, WANG Q, YAN K, ZOU J. Defects and tensile [103] RICHTER-TRUMMER V, SUZANO E, BELTRÃO M, ROOS A,
properties of 6013 aluminum alloy T-joints by friction stir welding DOS SANTOS J F B, de CASTRO P M S T. Influence of the FSW
[J]. Materials and Design, 2014, 57: 146−155. clamping force on the final distortion and residual stress field [J].
[87] ZHANG Z, XIAO B L, MA Z Y. Influence of water cooling on Materials Science and Engineering A, 2012, 538: 81−88.
microstructure and mechanical properties of friction stir welded [104] MONDOLFO L F, Aluminium alloys: Structure and properties [M].
2014Al-T6 joints [J]. Materials Science and Engineering A, 2014, London: Butterworths, 1976: 842−60.
614: 6−15. [105] GALLAIS C, DENQUIN A, BRÉCHET Y, LAPASSET G.
[88] ZHANG Z, ZHANG H W. Numerical studies on the effect of Precipitation microstructures in an AA6056 aluminium alloy after
transverse speed in friction stir welding [J]. Materials and Design, friction stir welding: Characterisation and modelling [J]. Materials
2009, 30: 900−907. Science and Engineering A, 2008, 496(1−2): 77−89.
[89] BAILLIE P, CAMPBELL S W, GALLOWAY A M, CATER S R, [106] ATTALLAH M M, DAVIS C L, STRANGWOOD M.
MCPHERSON N A. A comparison of double sided friction stir Microstructure-microhardness relationships in friction stir welded
welding in air and underwater for 6 mm S275 steel plate [J]. AA5251 [J]. Journal of Materials Science, 2007, 42(17): 7299−7306.
International Journal of Chemical, Nuclear, Metallurgical and [107] SATO Y, PARK S H C, KOKAWA H. Microstructural factors
Materials Engineering, 2014, 8(8): 643−647. governing hardness in friction-stir welds of solid-solution-hardened
[90] SAKAI T, MIURA H, YANG X. Ultrafine grain formation in face Al alloys [J]. Metallurgical Materials Transaction A, 2001, 32(12):
centered cubic metals during severe plastic deformation [J]. Materials 3033−3042.
Science and Engineering A, 2009, 499: 2−6. [108] KLOBC A R D, KOSEC L, PIETRAS A, SMOLEJ A. Friction-stir
[91] SUN Y, FUJII H, TAKADA Y, TSUJI N, NAKATA K, NOGI K. welding of aluminium alloy 5083 [J]. Mater Technol, 2012, 46:
Effect of initial grain size on the joint properties of friction stir 483−488.
welded aluminium [J]. Materials Science and Engineering A, 2009, [109] DARRAS B, KHRAISHEH M, ABU-FARHA F. Friction stir
527: 317−321. processing of AZ31 commercial magnesium alloy [J]. Journal of
[92] DE P S, MISHRA R S. Friction stir welding of precipitation Material Processing and Technology, 2007, 191: 77−81.
strengthened aluminium alloys: Scope and challenges [J]. Science [110] LIU Hui-jie, ZHANG Hui-jie, YU L. Homogeneity of mechanical
and Technology of Welding and Joining, 2011, 16: 343−347. properties of underwater friction stir welded 2219-T6 aluminum
[93] KHAN N Z, SIDDIQUEE A N, KHAN Z A, SIHAB S K. alloy [J]. Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, 2011,
Investigations on tunneling and kissing bond defects in FSW joints 20(8): 1419−1422.
for dissimilar aluminum alloys [J]. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, [111] LIU Hui-jie, FUJII H, MAEDA M, NOGI K. Tensile properties and
2015, 648: 360−367. fracture locations of friction-stir-welded joints of 2017-T351
[94] KUMAR N, MISHRA R S, BAUMANN J A. Residual stresses in aluminum alloy [J]. Journal of Materials Processing Technology,
friction stir welding [M]. United Kingdom: Butterworth-Heinemann 2003, 142(3): 692−696.
Ltd, 2013. [112] STARINK M J, SESCHAMPS A, WANG S C. The strength of
[95] PAPAHN H, BAHEMMAT P, HAGHPANAHI M. Effect of cooling friction stir welded and friction stir processed aluminium alloys [J].
media on residual stresses induced by a solid-state welding: Scripta Materialia, 2008, 58(5): 377−382.
underwater FSW [J]. International Journal of Advanced [113] GORDON J R. Fitness-for-service assessment of welded structures
Manufacturing Technology, 2016, 83: 1003−1012. [M]. 10th ed. Materials Park Campus, Ohio: ASM, 1993: 1108−1116.
[96] PEEL M, STEUWER A, PREUSS M, WITHERS P J. Microstructure, [114] MOCHIZUK M, INUZUKA M, NISHIDA H, NAKATA K,
mechanical properties and residual stresses as a function of welding TOYODA M. Fracture toughness of structural aluminium alloy thick
speed in aluminium AA5083 friction stir welds [J] Acta Materialia, plate joints by friction stir welding [J]. Science and Technology of
2003, 51: 4791−4801. Welding and Joining, 2006, 11(3): 366−370.
218 Mohd. Atif WAHID, et al/Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 28(2018) 193−219
[115] ÁVILA J A, RUCHERT C O F T, MEI P R, MARINHO R R, PAES [132] SUREKHA K, MURTY B S, PRASAD K R. Effect of processing
M T P, RAMIREZA J. Fracture toughness assessment at different parameters on the corrosion behaviour of friction stir processed AA
temperatures and regions within a friction stirred API 5L X80 steel 2219 aluminium alloy [J]. Solid State Sciences, 2009, 11(4):
welded plates [J]. Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 2015, 147: 907−917.
176−186. [133] GHARAVI F, MATORI K A, FADAEIFARD F. Corrosion
[116] CHEN T. Process parameter study on FSW joint of dissimilar metals evaluation of friction stir welded lap joints of AA6061-T6 aluminum
for aluminum steel [J]. Journal of Material Science, 2009, 4(10): alloy [J]. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China, 2016,
2573−2580. 26(3): 684−696.
[117] DHANCHOLIA D D, SHARMA A, VYAS C. Optimisation of [134] CHEN Y C, NAKATA K. Friction stir lap joining aluminium and
friction stir welding parameters for AA 6061 and AA 7039 magnesium alloys [J]. Scripta Materialia, 2007, 58: 433−436.
aluminium alloys by response surface methodology (RSM) [J]. [135] QI Xiao-dong, LIU Li-ming. Fusion welding of Fe-added lap joints
International Journal of Advanced Mechanical Engineering, 2014, between AZ31B magnesium alloy and 6061 aluminum alloy by
4(5): 565−571. hybrid laser–tungsten inert gas welding technique [J]. Materials and
[118] OOSTERKAMP A, OOSTERKAMP D L, NORDEIDE A. Kissing Design, 2012; 33: 436−443.
bond phenomena in solid-state welds of aluminum alloys [J]. [136] JARIYABOON M, DAVENPORT A J. The effect of welding
Welding Journal, 2004, 83(S): 225−231. parameters on the corrosion behavior of friction stir welded AA2040-
[119] LAKSHMINARAYANAN A K, BALASUBRAMANIAN V. An T351 [J]. Corrosion Science, 2002, 49: 877−909.
assessment of microstructure, hardness, tensile and impact strength [137] HIRANO S, OKAMOTO K, DOI M, OKAMURA H, INAGAKI M,
of friction stir welded ferritic stainless steel joints [J]. Materials and AONO Y. Dissimilar friction stir welded joints between 2024-T3
Design, 2010, 31: 4592−4600. aluminum alloy and AZ31 magnesium alloy [J]. Quarterly Journal of
[120] JANA S, MISHRA R S, BAUMANN J B, GRANT G. Effect of the Japan Welding Society, 2003, 21: 539−545.
friction stir processing on fatigue behavior of an investment cast [138] MASOUDIAN A, TAHAEI A, SHAKIBA A, SHARIFIANJAZI F,
Al−7Si−06 Mg alloy [J]. Acta Materialia, 2010, 58: 989−1003. MOHANDESI J A. Microstructure and mechanical properties of
[121] NI D R, WANG D, FENG A H, YAO G, MA Z Y. Enhancing the friction stir weld of dissimilar AZ31-O magnesium alloy to 6061-T6
high-cycle fatigue strength of Mg−9Al−1Zn casting by friction stir aluminum alloy [J]. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of
processing [J]. Scripta Mater, 2009, 61: 568−571. China, 2014, 24(5): 1317−1322.
[122] DE P S, MISHRA R S, SMITH C B. Effect of microstructure on [139] MOFID M A, ABDOLLAH-ZADEH A, GHAINI F M, GUR C H.
fatigue life and fracture morphology in an aluminum alloy [J]. Submerged friction-stir welding (SFSW) underwater and under liquid
Scripta Materialia, 2009, 60: 500−503. nitrogen: An improved method to join Al alloys to Mg alloys [J]. The
[123] SHARMA S R, MISHRA R S. Fatigue crack growth behavior of Minerals, Metals & Materials Society and ASM International A,
friction stir processed aluminum alloy [J]. Scripta Mater, 2008, 59: 2012, 43: 5106−5114.
395−398. [140] KUMAR D, VERMA A, KULSHRESTHA S, SINGH P.
[124] HATAMLEH O, HILL M, FORTH S, GARCIA D. Fatigue crack Microstructure and mechanical properties of mild steel copper joined
growth performance of peened friction stir welded 2195 aluminum by friction welding [J]. International Journal of Mechanical
alloy joints at elevated and cryogenic temperatures [J]. Materials Engineering and Technology, 2013, 4(5): 295−300.
Science and Engineering A, 2009, 519: 61−69. [141] PAUL G. Slade electrical contacts principles and applications [M].
[125] TAKAO O, MASAKO S, HARUKA M, TOSHIYA N, SHIGERU M, Second Edition. Boca Raton, Florida, USA: CRC Press, 2013, 287.
MOTOO A. Evaluation of crack nucleation site and mechanical [142] WEIGL M, ALBERT F, SCHMIDT M. Enhancing the ductility of
properties for friction stir welded butt joint in 2024-T3 aluminum laser-welded copper-aluminium connections by using adapted filler
alloy [J]. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing and materials [J]. Physics Procedia, 2011, 12: 335−341.
Technology, 2010, 50: 127−135. [143] LI X W, ZHANG D T, QIU C, ZHANG W. Microstructure and
[126] FENG A H, CHEN D L, MA Z Y. Microstructure and cyclic mechanical properties of dissimilar pure copper/1350 aluminium
deformation behavior of a friction-stir-welded 7075 Al alloy [J]. alloy butt joints by friction stir welding [J]. Transactions of
Metallurgical and Materials Transaction A, 2010, 41: 957−971. Nonferrous Meals Society of China, 2012, 22: 1298−1306.
[127] FENG A H, CHEN D L, MA Z Y. Microstructure and low-cycle [144] XUE P, NI D R, WANG D, XIAO B L, MA Z Y. Effect of friction stir
fatigue of a friction-stir-welded 6061 aluminum alloy [J]. welding parameters on the microstructure and mechanical properties
Metallurgical and Materials Transaction A, 2010, 41: 2626−2641. of the dissimilar Al−Cu joints [J]. Materials Science and Engineering
[128] XU W F, LIU J H, CHEN D L, LUAN G H. Low-cycle fatigue of a A, 2011, 528: 4683−4689.
friction stir welded 2219-T62 aluminum alloy at different welding [145] SINGH S, KHAN Z A, SIDDIQUEE A N. Study On the effect of
parameters and cooling conditions [J]. International Journal of FSW process parameters on joint quality of dissimilar materials [J].
Advanced Manufacturing and Technology, 2014, 72(1): 209−218. International Journal of Research in Engineering & Advanced
[129] ANDREATTA F, TERRYN H, de WIT J H W. Corrosion behaviour Technology, 2015, 3(2): 282−298.
of different tempers of AA7075 aluminium alloy [J]. Electrochimica [146] KUSH P M, VISHVESH J B. Influence of tool pin design on
Acta, 2004, 49: 2851−2862. properties of dissimilar copper to aluminum friction stir welding [J].
[130] HUANG L, CHEN K, LI S, SONG M. Influence of high temperature Transactions of Nonferrous Meals Society of China, 2017, 27(1):
pre-precipitation on local corrosion behaviors and ageing harden of 36−54.
7055 aluminum alloy [J]. Rare Metal Materials and Engineering, [147] BHATTACHARYA T K, DAS H, PAL T K. Influence of welding
2007, 36: 1628−1633. parameters on material flow, mechanical property and intermetallic
[131] MAGGIOLINO S, SCHMID C. Corrosion resistance in FSW and in characterization of friction stir welded AA6063 to HCP copper
MIG welding techniques of AA 6XXX [J]. Journal of Materials dissimilar butt joint without offset [J]. Transactions of Nonferrous
Processing Technology, 2008, 197: 237−240. Metals Society of China, 2015, 25(9): 2833−2846.
Mohd. Atif WAHID, et al/Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 28(2018) 193−219 219
[148] AGARWAL P, NAGESWARAN P, ARIVAZHAGAN N, [149] OUYANG J, YARRAPAREDDY E, KOVACEVIC R.
RAJKUMAR K D. Development of friction stir welded butt joints of Microstructural evolution in the friction stir welded 6061 aluminum
AA 6063 aluminium alloy and pure copper [C]//International alloy (T6-temper condition) to copper [J]. Journal of Materials
Conference on Advanced Research in Mechanical Engineering. Processing Technology, 2006, 172: 110−122.
Nainital, Uttarakhand, India, 2012, 978-93-81693-59-9.
水下搅拌摩擦焊接:一种具有改善接头性能
巨大潜力的搅拌摩擦焊接新方法
Mohd. Atif WAHID, Zahid A. KHAN, Arshad Noor SIDDIQUEE
摘 要:搅拌摩擦焊接(FSW)是一种固态焊接方法,它能够焊接普通熔焊过程难以焊接的材料;且与熔焊相比,
具有高效节能和环境友好的特点。尽管 FSW 与熔焊相比有更多的优点,但是 FSW 过程中的热循环会溶解或者粗
化热处理铝合金中的沉淀强化相,使接头软化,从而导致其力学性能下降。水下搅拌摩擦焊接(UFSW)是一种可
以克服这些缺陷的方法。这种方法适合于在焊接过程中对热敏感的合金,且已广泛用于热处理铝合金。本文对
UFSW 的研究现状和发展提供了全面的文献综述。与 FSW 进行对比,从不同角度讨论和总结 UFSW 的重要性;
并对材料流动、温度变化、工艺参数、显微组织和力学性能等基本原理进行详细阐述。结果表明,与 FSW 相比,
UFSW 是一种可以改善接头强度的新方法。
关键词:铝;搅拌摩擦焊;熔焊;力学性能;显微组织;水下搅拌摩擦焊接
(Edited by Bing YANG)