Book-Water Supply and Sewerage-Dr Sajjad
Book-Water Supply and Sewerage-Dr Sajjad
Authors
Prof. Dr. Sajjad H. Sheikh
Prof. Dr Javed A. Aziz
Bushra Sajjad, the wife of the principal author, support and encouragement, is
worthy of special mention. She provided all the facilitation, help and environment conducive
to undertake this extensive task. The principal author is deeply indebted to his spouse.
Acknowledgement is due to all the senior colleagues of the principal author, during
his field job, who through discussions and by sharing their past experiences enriched the
knowledge of the principal author. Help of Mr. Mukhtar Ahmad, a senior sub engineer of
Public Health Engineering is also acknowledged.
Acknowledgement is due to Mr Mudasar Arbi, post graduate student of the principal
authors who meticulously reviewed the entire manuscript for improvements/corrections.
Help of Mr Amir Rizwan in preparing material on SCADA is also acknowledged. Gratitude
is due to Mr. Zahid Rafiq who developed the CAD version of all the hand drawn figures of
the authors, which are added in this book.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 2
1.1 General ................................................................................................................................ 2
1.2 Water Supply and Wastewater Engineering ....................................................................... 2
1.3 Components of water supply engineering ........................................................................... 3
1.4 Components of sewerage/wastewater engineering ............................................................ 4
REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................. 5
IMPORTANCE OF CLEAN WATER AND HISTORY OF WATER SUPPLY .............. 7
2.1 Clean water and public health ............................................................................................. 7
2.2 Water as a resource ............................................................................................................ 8
2.3 History of water supply ...................................................................................................... 11
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 11
WATER USES AND CONSUMPTION ......................................................................16
3.1 Average water consumption .............................................................................................. 16
3.2 Different Water Uses ......................................................................................................... 16
3.2.1 Domestic use ........................................................................................................................... 16
3.2.2 Commercial and industrial use ................................................................................................. 16
3.2.3 Public use ................................................................................................................................ 16
3.2.4 Unaccounted for water (Non revenue water) ........................................................................... 16
3.3 Factors affecting water consumption ................................................................................ 17
3.3.1 Climate ..................................................................................................................................... 17
3.3.2 Standard of living ..................................................................................................................... 17
3.3.3 Extent of sewerage .................................................................................................................. 17
3.3.4 Commercial/industrial activity................................................................................................... 17
3.3.5 Metering ................................................................................................................................... 17
3.3.6 Cost of water ............................................................................................................................ 17
3.3.7 Quality of water ........................................................................................................................ 17
3.3.8 Distribution system pressure .................................................................................................... 17
3.3.9 Size of city ............................................................................................................................... 18
3.3.10 Efficiency of the system ........................................................................................................... 18
3.3.11 Type of supply.......................................................................................................................... 18
3.3.12 Level of service ........................................................................................................................ 18
3.4 VARIATIONS IN WATER CONSUMPTION ...................................................................... 18
3.4.1 Monthly variations .................................................................................................................... 18
3.4.2 Daily variations......................................................................................................................... 19
3.4.3 Hourly variations ...................................................................................................................... 19
3.5 Some definitions ................................................................................................................ 19
3.5.1 Average daily consumption/demand ........................................................................................ 19
3.5.2 Maximum daily consumption/demand ...................................................................................... 20
3.5.3 Peak hourly consumption/demand ........................................................................................... 20
3.6 Design Period .................................................................................................................... 20
3.6.1 Life of structure ........................................................................................................................ 20
3.6.2 Ease of extension .................................................................................................................... 20
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3.6.3 First cost .................................................................................................................................. 20
3.6.4 Rate of interest......................................................................................................................... 20
3.6.5 Economy of scale..................................................................................................................... 21
3.6.6 Lead time (Gestation period) ................................................................................................... 21
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 21
WATER SUPPLY IN PAKISTAN ..............................................................................24
4.1 Coverage ........................................................................................................................... 24
4.2 Sustainable development goals (SDGs) ........................................................................... 24
4.3 Policy, legislative and regulator framework on water ........................................................ 25
4.4 Water operators in Pakistan .............................................................................................. 26
4.4.1 Construction ............................................................................................................................. 26
4.4.2 Operation and maintenance ..................................................................................................... 26
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 27
DESIGN CRITERIA FOR WATER SUPPLY .............................................................30
5.1 domestic water consumption ............................................................................................. 30
5.2 Institutional water consumption ......................................................................................... 31
5.3 Variations in water demands ............................................................................................. 31
5.4 Tube wells ......................................................................................................................... 32
5.5 Working hours for tube wells (rural; urban) ....................................................................... 32
5.6 chlorination ........................................................................................................................ 32
5.7 Tube well pump house ...................................................................................................... 32
5.8 Pumping machinery........................................................................................................... 32
5.9 Water transmission lines/Mains ........................................................................................ 32
5.10 Water distribution system .................................................................................................. 32
5.11 Terminal pressure in the distribution system .................................................................... 33
5.12 Velocity of flow in pipes ..................................................................................................... 33
5.13 Minimum pipe size............................................................................................................. 33
5.14 Cover over pipes ............................................................................................................... 33
5.15 Fire hydrants ..................................................................................................................... 33
5.16 Sluice values and non-return valves ................................................................................. 33
5.17 Air valves and washouts ................................................................................................... 34
5.18 Overhead reservoirs .......................................................................................................... 34
5.19 Ground storage tanks (GST) ............................................................................................. 34
5.20 Water metering .................................................................................................................. 34
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 35
POPULATION PROJECTIONS.................................................................................37
6.1 General .............................................................................................................................. 37
6.2 Demographic trends in Pakistan ....................................................................................... 37
6.3 Different methods of population projection........................................................................ 39
6.3.1 Arithmetic growth method ........................................................................................................ 39
6.3.2 Geometric growth method ........................................................................................................ 40
6.3.3 Logistic method ........................................................................................................................ 40
6.3.4 Graphical method..................................................................................................................... 41
6.3.5 Upsets in population estimates ................................................................................................ 43
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REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 46
WATER SOURCES...................................................................................................48
7.1 Significance ....................................................................................................................... 48
7.2 Investigations for suitable water source ............................................................................ 48
7.2.1 Groundwater source ................................................................................................................ 48
7.2.2 Surface water source ............................................................................................................... 49
7.3 Design discharge for water source.................................................................................... 49
7.4 Groundwater ...................................................................................................................... 50
7.4.1 Definitions of various terms related to groundwater ................................................................. 50
7.4.2 Types of wells (based upon flow conditions)............................................................................ 51
7.4.3 Types of wells (according to depth) ......................................................................................... 53
7.5 Tube wells ......................................................................................................................... 54
7.5.1 Components............................................................................................................................. 54
7.5.2 Construction ............................................................................................................................. 55
7.5.3 Major tests of tube well ............................................................................................................ 59
7.5.4 Strata chart (Well log) and conversion chart ............................................................................ 61
7.5.5 Design of tube well................................................................................................................... 61
7.5.6 Tube well troubles .................................................................................................................... 62
7.6 Pumps for water supply ..................................................................................................... 62
7.6.1 Pump head, system curve and pump performance curve ........................................................ 62
7.6.2 Pump selection process ........................................................................................................... 64
7.6.3 Vertical turbine pump ............................................................................................................... 64
7.6.4 Submersible pump: .................................................................................................................. 65
7.7 Springs .............................................................................................................................. 70
7.8 surface water sources ....................................................................................................... 71
7.8.1 Investigations for surface water sources .................................................................................. 71
7.8.2 Some definitions ...................................................................................................................... 71
7.8.3 Intake Structure........................................................................................................................ 72
7.8.4 Location of Intake..................................................................................................................... 72
7.8.5 Design Considerations for Intake ............................................................................................. 72
7.8.6 Typical inlets for surface water sources ................................................................................... 72
7.9 Water source protection .................................................................................................... 75
7.9.1 Localized measures ................................................................................................................. 75
7.9.2 Broader measures ................................................................................................................... 78
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 79
WATER TRANSMISSION MAINS OR RISING MAINS .............................................83
8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 83
8.2 Design equation ................................................................................................................ 83
8.3 Velocities in transmission mains ....................................................................................... 83
8.4 Accurate levels .................................................................................................................. 84
8.5 L-Section or Profile ............................................................................................................ 84
8.6 Head losses ....................................................................................................................... 85
8.7 Choice of pipe material for transmission mains ................................................................ 86
8.7.1 For larger diameter rising mains (16 inch (400 mm) and above).............................................. 86
8.7.2 For smaller diameter rising mains (below 16 inch) ................................................................... 86
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8.7.3 Merits and demerits of Steel and DI pipes ............................................................................... 87
8.8 Water Hammer .................................................................................................................. 87
8.8.1 Water hammer calculations ..................................................................................................... 87
8.9 Measures to control water hammer................................................................................... 88
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 89
WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM ...........................................................................92
9.1 Components of water distribution system ......................................................................... 92
9.2 Methods of Distribution --- Three Methods ....................................................................... 92
9.3 Layout of WDS .................................................................................................................. 93
9.4 Types of supply ................................................................................................................. 94
9.5 OHRs in distribution system .............................................................................................. 95
9.6 WATER SUPPLY PIPES .................................................................................................. 96
9.6.1 Cast Iron Pipes ........................................................................................................................ 96
9.6.2 Steel pipes ............................................................................................................................... 97
9.6.3 Asbestos cement (AC) pipe ..................................................................................................... 98
9.6.4 uPVC pipes .............................................................................................................................. 98
9.6.5 Galvanized iron (GI) pipes: ...................................................................................................... 99
9.6.6 Polyethylene (PE) pipes ........................................................................................................... 99
9.6.7 HDPE pipes (High density polyethylene) ................................................................................. 99
9.6.8 PPRC pipes (Polypropylene random co-poylmer).................................................................. 100
9.7 Nomenclature of pipes in WDS ....................................................................................... 100
9.8 Purpose and significance of valves in WDS ................................................................... 101
9.9 TYPES OF VALVES in WDS .......................................................................................... 101
9.9.1 Gate valves / Sluice valves .................................................................................................... 101
9.9.2 Check valve / Non-return valve .............................................................................................. 102
9.9.3 Butter fly valve ....................................................................................................................... 102
9.9.4 Pressure regulating valve (PRV) ............................................................................................ 103
9.9.5 Air valve ................................................................................................................................. 103
9.9.6 Wash outs .............................................................................................................................. 104
9.9.7 Altitude valve.......................................................................................................................... 104
9.9.8 Sluice gates/penstock ............................................................................................................ 104
9.9.9 Surge control valves .............................................................................................................. 105
9.9.10 Fire hydrants .......................................................................................................................... 105
9.10 Design of WDS ................................................................................................................ 105
9.10.1 Procedure of WDS design using simulation software ............................................................ 106
9.11 Laying of water distribution system ................................................................................. 108
9.12 Tests before commissioning of WDS .............................................................................. 109
9.12.1 Disinfection ............................................................................................................................ 109
9.12.2 Hydraulic Testing ................................................................................................................... 110
9.13 Leakage detection in distribution system ........................................................................ 112
9.14 House Connection ........................................................................................................... 112
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 113
WATER QUALITY, CRITERIA AND STANDARDS ................................................118
10.1 Potable water .................................................................................................................. 118
10.2 Water Quality................................................................................................................... 118
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10.3 Water related diseases.................................................................................................... 119
10.3.1 Water borne diseases ............................................................................................................ 119
10.3.2 Water washed diseases ......................................................................................................... 120
10.3.3 Water based diseases ........................................................................................................... 120
10.4 Protecting water quality-multi barrier approach .............................................................. 120
10.5 Common impurities in water and their effects ................................................................. 121
10.6 National Standards for Drinking Water Quality (NSDWQ) .............................................. 124
10.7 Water Quality monitoring (WQM) Framework ................................................................. 126
10.7.1 The arrows within the framework ........................................................................................... 127
10.7.2 Develop monitoring objectives ............................................................................................... 127
10.7.3 Design monitoring program .................................................................................................... 127
10.7.4 Collect field and laboratory data............................................................................................. 127
10.7.5 Compile and manage data ..................................................................................................... 127
10.7.6 Assess and interpret data ...................................................................................................... 127
10.7.7 Convey findings and evaluate program.................................................................................. 128
10.8 Implementation of WQM framewrok................................................................................ 128
10.8.1 Regulatory standards (NSDWQ) ............................................................................................ 128
10.8.2 Organizational setup/arrangement ......................................................................................... 129
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 129
INTRODUCTION TO WASTEWATER ENGINEERING...........................................138
11.1 Some basic terms............................................................................................................ 138
11.2 Sources of wastewater .................................................................................................... 138
11.3 Types of sewers .............................................................................................................. 139
11.4 Types of sewerage system ............................................................................................. 140
11.5 Infiltration ......................................................................................................................... 141
11.6 Per capita sewage flow ................................................................................................... 141
11.7 Variation in Wastewater Flow .......................................................................................... 141
11.8 Invert level ....................................................................................................................... 142
11.9 Minimum and maximum Velocities in sewers ................................................................. 143
11.10 Sewer slopes to maintain self-cleansing velocities ......................................................... 143
11.11 Minimum Sewer Size....................................................................................................... 144
11.12 Manholes ......................................................................................................................... 144
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 145
DESIGN CRITERIA FOR SEWERAGE (PHED & WASA) ......................................148
12.1 Location of disposal works .............................................................................................. 148
12.2 Design period .................................................................................................................. 148
12.3 average Sewage flow contribution .................................................................................. 149
12.4 Peak factor ...................................................................................................................... 149
12.5 Peak dry weather flow ..................................................................................................... 149
12.6 Storm water allowance (for partially combined sewers).................................................. 150
12.7 Infiltration ......................................................................................................................... 150
12.8 Design flow ...................................................................................................................... 150
12.9 Velocity at design flow ..................................................................................................... 151
12.10 Manhole spacing ............................................................................................................. 151
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12.11 Minimum pipe size........................................................................................................... 152
12.12 Cover over pipes ............................................................................................................. 152
12.13 Pipe roughness coefficient .............................................................................................. 152
12.14 Disposal works ................................................................................................................ 152
12.15 Sewer bedding ................................................................................................................ 153
12.16 Class of RCC pipes ......................................................................................................... 153
12.17 Pipe reinforcement .......................................................................................................... 153
12.18 Slope of sewers ............................................................................................................... 153
12.19 Design flow for storm water (drainage) ........................................................................... 154
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 155
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF SANITARY SEWER......................................157
13.1 Survey, mapping and data collection .............................................................................. 157
13.2 Design considerations ..................................................................................................... 158
13.3 Design ............................................................................................................................. 158
13.4 Study of sewers flowing partially full- its significance ...................................................... 161
13.5 Hydraulic statement......................................................................................................... 164
13.6 Carry over of invert levels ............................................................................................... 166
13.7 Preparation of drawings and BOQ .................................................................................. 168
13.8 Preparation of design report/feasiblity report .................................................................. 169
13.9 Subsequent modifications ............................................................................................... 169
13.10 Sewer profiles / L-sections .............................................................................................. 169
13.11 Sewer pipes ..................................................................................................................... 170
13.11.1 Un-plasticized polyvinyl chloride (uPVC) ............................................................................... 170
13.11.2 Asbestos Cement (AC) .......................................................................................................... 171
13.11.3 PCC (plain cement concrete) ................................................................................................. 171
13.11.4 Reinforced cement concrete (RCC) ....................................................................................... 171
13.11.5 HDPE pipes ........................................................................................................................... 171
13.11.6 CI (cast iron) and steel pipes ................................................................................................. 171
13.11.7 Spira pipe:.............................................................................................................................. 172
13.11.8 Manning’s co-efficient for different pipes ................................................................................ 172
13.11.9 Test for quality assurance of RCC pipes ................................................................................ 173
13.12 Load on pipes .................................................................................................................. 174
13.13 RCC sewer beddings ...................................................................................................... 176
13.14 Laying of Sewer under water .......................................................................................... 178
13.15 Sewer joints ..................................................................................................................... 178
13.16 Sewer construction .......................................................................................................... 180
13.16.1 Clearance of right of way ....................................................................................................... 180
13.16.2 Acquire construction drawings ............................................................................................... 180
13.16.3 Mark sewer lines at site ......................................................................................................... 180
13.16.4 Excavation of trenches........................................................................................................... 180
13.16.5 Dewatering for underwater sewers (optional) ........................................................................ 180
13.16.6 Shifting of levels ..................................................................................................................... 181
13.16.7 Laying and jointing of pipes ................................................................................................... 183
13.16.8 Backfilling ............................................................................................................................... 183
13.16.9 Construction of appurtenances .............................................................................................. 183
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13.17 Quality assurance............................................................................................................ 183
13.17.1 Possession of complete drawings .......................................................................................... 183
13.17.2 Due diligence during level transfer ......................................................................................... 184
13.17.3 Pipe quality ............................................................................................................................ 184
13.17.4 Special care for under water sewers ...................................................................................... 184
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 184
SEWER APPURTENENCES ..................................................................................187
14.1 Manholes ......................................................................................................................... 187
14.2 Street Inlets ..................................................................................................................... 190
14.3 Catch basins .................................................................................................................... 193
14.4 Oil and grease traps ........................................................................................................ 194
14.5 building connection with municipal sewer ....................................................................... 195
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 196
SEWAGE PUMPING STATIONS ............................................................................199
15.1 Components of Sewage Pumping Station ...................................................................... 199
15.2 General Design Considerations ...................................................................................... 200
15.3 Typical diagrams showing section of pumping station .................................................... 200
15.4 Screening chamber ......................................................................................................... 203
15.5 Design of wet well ........................................................................................................... 208
15.6 Pumps for Sewage .......................................................................................................... 212
15.7 Force main ...................................................................................................................... 213
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 216
DESIGN OF STORM SEWERS ..............................................................................219
16.1 Assumptions and limitations of Rational Method ............................................................ 219
16.2 Rational Method .............................................................................................................. 219
16.2.1 Drainage area (watershed area) ............................................................................................ 220
16.2.2 Runoff coefficient (C) ............................................................................................................. 220
16.2.3 Time of concentration (Tc) ..................................................................................................... 221
16.2.4 Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) Curves ........................................................................... 222
16.2.5 Return Period ......................................................................................................................... 223
16.2.6 Rainfall intensity ..................................................................................................................... 224
16.3 Summary of procedure to find the design flow for storm sewer ...................................... 224
16.3.1 Using IDF curves ................................................................................................................... 224
16.3.2 Using PHED Design Criteria .................................................................................................. 225
16.4 Software for storm water management ........................................................................... 226
16.4.1 Storm water management model (SWMM) ............................................................................ 226
16.4.2 HEC-HMS .............................................................................................................................. 227
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 227
WASTEWATER DISPOSAL AND REUSE .............................................................230
17.1 Disposal in surface waters .............................................................................................. 230
17.2 On-land disposal of wastewaters .................................................................................... 230
17.3 Reuse of treatment sewage for irrigation ........................................................................ 231
17.4 History of wastewater reuse ............................................................................................ 231
17.5 Public health risks associated with raw sewage ............................................................. 231
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17.6 Agronomic aspect of wastewater reuse .......................................................................... 232
17.7 WHO guidelines (1989) for reuse of treated wastewater in irrigation ............................. 232
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 233
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE (O&M) OF WATER SUPPLIES AND
SEWERAGE PROJECTS .......................................................................................235
18.1 O&M costs ....................................................................................................................... 235
18.1.1 Staff ....................................................................................................................................... 235
18.1.2 Energy bill .............................................................................................................................. 236
18.1.3 Repairs .................................................................................................................................. 236
18.2 Pumps ............................................................................................................................. 239
18.2.1 Water supply .......................................................................................................................... 239
18.2.2 Sewerage ............................................................................................................................... 239
18.3 Common maintenance issues ......................................................................................... 240
18.3.1 Water supply .......................................................................................................................... 240
18.3.2 Sewerage ............................................................................................................................... 240
18.4 SCADA ............................................................................................................................ 242
18.4.1 Components of SCADA system ............................................................................................. 242
18.4.2 Requirements of SCADA host software ................................................................................. 245
18.4.3 Security issues ....................................................................................................................... 245
18.4.4 Companies providing SCADA ................................................................................................ 246
18.5 occupational health and safety (OHS) issues ................................................................. 246
18.5.1 Water supply .......................................................................................................................... 246
18.5.2 Sewerage ............................................................................................................................... 247
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 248
ANNEX-1 .......................................................................................................................251
RCC sewer pipes reinforcement as per ASTM C-76 specifications ..................................................... 251
Subject Index ............................................................................................................................. 260
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Chapter-1
Introduction
1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
Life on earth cannot exist without water. Man needs water for his daily requirements. These
include: drinking, cooking, washing, bathing and other miscellaneous uses. Water for
human consumption must be free from contaminants (pathogens, harmful chemicals) that
may harm the human health. In addition, its aesthetic quality may also be such that it is
acceptable to consumers. Groundwater, in many cases, may be used for public water
supplies, without treatment except chlorination. However, surface waters are invariably
contaminated and need treatment before supply to the consumers. In addition to water
quality, the quantity of water must be sufficient to meet the domestic and other water uses
in the community. Water supply systems are, therefore, designed to meet both, the water
quantity and quality requirements. The overall performance parameters are: adequate
quantity meeting the standards, sufficient pressure, continuity, reliability and financial
viability.
Water after its use, originates as wastewater. It must be collected and disposed of
in a way that the environment is not adversely affected. Wastewater collection and
treatment systems are designed for this purpose. These consist of network of pipes that
collects and conveys the wastewater to the treatment facility, before its final release into the
environment.
Water supply engineering deals with the development of natural sources of water,
its transmission to treatment facility (if required) and subsequent distribution to the
community. Water treatment may be essential if the raw water source does not meet the
specified quality standards.
Wastewater engineering refers to the collection of wastewater generated within a
community, because of water use, its collection through a network of pipes called sewers,
and wastewater treatment before its disposal in the environment like a water body (river,
lake, canal, ocean etc.) or reuse.
In Pakistan, the term Water Supply and Sewerage is also used by various
departments like Public Health Engineering Department (PHED) and Water and Sanitation
Agencies (WASAs). This are synonymous to Water Supply and Wastewater Engineering.
International funding agencies like Asian Development Bank, World Bank, United States
Agency for International Development (USAID) use the term Water and Sanitation
(WATSAN) while referring to water supply and sewerage facilities. UNICEF used the term
2
WASH (Water, sanitation and Health). The students/readers must be aware of all the terms
used in the literature.
Water supply engineering (water supply system) consists of the following four
components.
1. Water source
2. Water treatment plant (WTP)
3. Transmission lines/rising mains
4. Distribution system
The water source provides water for further supply. The main sources of water are
(1) groundwater and (2) surface water. Groundwater may be high in dissolved solids, low
in suspended solids and has less chances of bacterial contamination. Good quality
groundwater sources require no elaborate treatment except disinfection. Groundwater
source is the first choice for water supply if it meets the chemical quality requirements,
especially in terms of dissolved solids. For example, municipal water supply for Lahore is
based on the groundwater source. It is extracted through tube wells. Similarly, a hand pump
may also be used to extract groundwater
The groundwater may be brackish (dissolved solids exceed drinking water quality
standards) or may not be available in many situations. Under these circumstances, the next
choice for the municipal water supply is surface water sources like reservoirs, rivers, canals,
lakes etc. Surface waters are high in suspended solids and bacterial contamination and
may contain less dissolved solids. Most often, these are situated at some distance from the
city. A part of water for Karachi is obtained from Kalari lake which is 122 Km away from
Karachi [1]. Similarly, a major part of water supply to Rawalpindi is taken from Rawal dam
reservoir, built on Korang river, through a 14 Km long transmission line [2]. The bulk of water
supply to Muree is from Haro river. Similarly, in southern Punjab, where underground water
is brackish, raw water is taken from nearby canal, treated and then supplied to the
community. Sometimes shallow tube wells of low discharge are installed along the canal to
intercept the seepage water from the canal. The water supply of Sargodha city is an
example, where shallow tube wells of 0.25 cusec (25 m3/hr) are installed along Lower
Jehlum canal passing near Sargodha city.
Transmission lines/mains deliver water from water source to the community, when
the water source is located at a distance from the community. For example, the water supply
pipe laid to convey water from Kalari lake to Karachi city is termed as transmission line/main.
Transmission lines have different types of valves located at appropriate points for its proper
functioning. Where the water source exists inside the city, transmission lines are not
required. Like in Lahore, since tube wells are installed in the city, therefore, no transmission
lines are required.
3
Water is distributed within a city through a network of pipes called the distribution
system. It is laid along the roads and streets in the city. The distribution system has pipes
of different sizes depending upon the quantity of water to be distributed. These are
commonly referred to as (a) primary pipes, (b) secondary pipes and (c) distribution pipes
depending upon their sizes. Consumers normally take water connections from the
distribution pipes. Overhead reservoirs (OHRs) are also provided in the distribution system
for balancing demand and supply and storing water for emergencies.
Different components of water supply engineering (water supply system), based on
surface water source, are shown in Fig. 1.1.
Sewerage system (wastewater engineering) is used to collect, treat and dispose the
wastewater generated, as a result of water use. It has the following three components (Fig.
1.2).
1. Collection system
2. Wastewater pumping station (WWPS)
3. Wastewater treatment plant (WWTP)
Collection system consists of a network of underground pipes called sewers. The
sewers collect the wastewater from the point of generation and transport it to a disposal
point or place of reuse after proper treatment. These are laid along roads and streets, and
4
generally the flow is under gravity. For the wastewater flow to take place under gravity,
without the deposition of solids, pipes are laid at a proper gradient (slope). Additional
structures like manholes, drop manholes, vent pipes etc. are also added for the proper
functioning of the collection system.
The function of a wastewater pumping station is to lift the wastewater so that it can
be introduced either into another sewer, or into the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) or
to dispose it of into the receiving water. In Pakistan, WWTPs are yet to be constructed at
many places. Hence pumping station normally discharges wastewater directly into receiving
waters (rivers, lakes, canals, seepage drains, sea etc.) or on land without any treatment.
Wastewater from domestic and industrial sources contains pathogens and high
concentration of pollutants in the form of organic and inorganic substances, heavy metals
and suspended impurities. These must be removed before the wastewater is released into
the environment (river, lake, canal, sea, drains, etc.). This is achieved through wastewater
treatment. Discharge of untreated wastewater may seriously affect the water quality of
receiving waters and impair their beneficial uses. These uses include municipal water
supply, industrial use, irrigation etc. In addition, the pollutants present in wastewater may
seriously affect the aquatic ecosystem.
REFERENCES
1. Indus Ecogreen Program (IEP), (2014). Accessed on: 20-07-2014, Available at:
[http://foreverindus.org/ie_protectedareas_ramsar.php]
5
Chapter-2
6
IMPORTANCE OF CLEAN WATER AND
HISTORY OF WATER SUPPLY
2.1 CLEAN WATER AND PUBLIC HEALTH
A person, on average, living in temperate climate and doing sedentary work requires
about 3 liters of water daily for drinking purposes [1]. Whereas in hot climate, the people at
work may require up to 4.5 liters of water [2]. There are 12 diseases which are water borne
i.e. transmitted due to the use of unsafe water [3]. Bacteriological contamination may cause
Typhoid, Cholera, Hepatitis A, Dysentery, Gastroenteritis, Giardiasis and Polio. Estimates
show that lack of safe drinking water takes a greater human toll than war, terrorism and
weapons of mass destruction, combined [4].
Due to rapid industrial development and agricultural activity, many new
contaminants are finding their way into the water. These include: (1) heavy metals; (2)
organic pollutants and (3) emerging pollutants. Heavy metals (lead, chromium, mercury,
cadmium, nickel, copper, zinc etc.) can be lethal to aquatic as well as human life even at
low concentrations. These may result in liver, kidney, heart and nervous system dysfunction
[5]. There are more than 40 organic pollutants that may enter water from industrial and
agricultural activities (pesticides; herbicides). These may result in liver, kidney, nervous
system, glands and immune system dysfunction and cancer [6].
Emerging pollutants are those which have been found in the aquatic environment,
however, currently no regulations are established for their environmental monitoring. Their
number is reported in thousands [7]. Some of these originate from pharmaceuticals and
personal care products (PPCPs), illicit drugs, hormones and steroids discharged in aquatic
environment [8]. These may result in endocrine disruption, hormonal changes and affect
immune system [9, 10].
Globally, more than 3.4 million people die each year from water, sanitation, and
hygiene-related causes. Ninety nine percent of these deaths occur in developing countries
[11]. Lack of access to safe drinking water, poor sanitation and hygiene practices are
considered key contributing factors to the high rate of water borne diseases in Pakistan.
Every fifth citizen suffers from illness and disease caused by the polluted water [12].
Outbreaks of gastroenteritis and other water borne diseases have become frequent [13].
Estimates signify that more than three million Pakistanis suffer from waterborne diseases
each year, of which 0.1 million die [14]. Around 40 percent of the hospital beds in Pakistan
are occupied by patients suffering from water-related diseases, such as typhoid, cholera,
dysentery and hepatitis, which are responsible for one third of all deaths [15]. It has been
7
estimated that water, sanitation and hygiene related diseases cost Pakistan economy about
Rs 112 billion per year in terms of health costs and lost earnings. Out of this, the cost
associated with diarrheal diseases alone is estimated to range from Rs. 55 to Rs. 80 billion
per year [16].
Unfortunately, little attention is being paid to drinking-water quality issues and
quantity remains the main concern of water supply agencies in Pakistan. There is a lack of
drinking-water quality monitoring and surveillance programs in the country. Weak
institutional arrangements, lack of well-equipped laboratories and the absence of a legal
framework for drinking-water quality issues have aggravated the situation. The public
awareness of the issue of water quality is dismally low [17].
During the last few decades, water has emerged as the most precious resource.
Two third of the earth sphere is covered with water. The global water classification is shown
in the Fig. 2.1(a) and 2.1(b) [18].
It can be seen in Fig. 2.1, that 97.2% of water on earth is salty and cannot be used
without elaborate and costly treatment. Only 2.8% is fresh water. Out of this 2.15% is
unavailable: locked up in glaciers and polar ice caps and therefore cannot be used. From
the leftover freshwater (i.e. 0.65%), 0.6% is groundwater and 0.05% is surface water. From
the 0.6% groundwater, only 0.3% is economically extractable, rest is not. Thus, the total
percentage of fresh water available is only 0.35% (0.05+0.3) serving most of humans' and
animals' water needs.
8
Figure 2.1(b): Classification of fresh water on the globe
Rapid population increase in the last 100 years has put stress on available water
resources. Their exploitation has increased manifold. The current world population stands
around 7.6 billion [19]. Around 1.2 billion people, or almost one-fifth of the world’s
population, live in areas of physical scarcity, and 500 million people are approaching this
situation. Another 1.6 billion people, or almost one quarter of the world’s population, face
economic water shortage (where countries lack the necessary infrastructure to take water
from rivers and aquifers) [20]. By 2025, two-thirds of the world’s population may be facing
water shortages- when waters run dry, people can’t get enough to drink, wash, or feed
crops, and economic decline may occur. [21].
Much of the water stressed population currently live in river basins where the usage
of water resources greatly exceeds the renewal of the water source [22]. In India there are
8000 villages that do not have their local water for use [23]. In Madras, due to acute water
shortage, water rationing has to be introduced i.e. measured amount of water is given to
the people [24]. In Beiging, one third of wells have gone dry due to over utilization to meet
increased water demands [25]. In Mexico city, groundwater table is going down by 3.5 meter
every year due to excessive abstraction [26]. The vice president of the World Bank, Ismail
Serageldin said in 1999 “ the wars of the next century will be on the possession of water
[27].
Per capita water availability in Pakistan has decreased from 5260 cubic meter per
year in 1951 to 1100 cubic meter in 2017. The minimum water requirement to avoid being
a “water short country” is 1,000 cubic meters per capita [28]. The above situation warrants
9
that water must be conserved. Its wasteful use must be discouraged. Community
awareness and willingness can play an important role in implementing water conservation
measures. There are many instances where an individual can conserve water by changing
habits. Table 2.1 suggests such measures. During bathing, water usage may be reduced
to one fifth if the method prescribed in the ‘conservative use’ column is adopted. Every toilet
flush uses around 20 liter of water. By avoiding frequent toilet flushing, water may be
conserved. Similarly, if the tap is kept running during brushing of teeth and shaving, water
usage increases manifold than if the tap is kept closed and opened only when required.
Bucket
Regular 8 minute shower
SHOWER Wet down,soap up,rinse
(165 liter)
(30 liter)
Tap running
WASHING HANDS 1 liters
(4 liters)
Tap running
SHAVING 4 liters
(12 liters)
Tap running
BRUSHING TEETH 2 liters
(20 liters)
Presently, water conservation sanitary fittings are also becoming popular. In flush
toilets, there are two modes of operations. Two different push buttons are provided; one to
be pushed after urination, and it uses around 3 liters water. Second button, for use after
defecation and it flushes 6 liters of water against 20 liters in normal flush toilets. Similarly,
water taps with sensor are now available; as soon as the hand is removed from below the
tap, water stops flowing. One does not have to open and close the tap; sensors do the
needful. Obviously, such fittings are costly.
In Australia, the flushing volume of water for toilet use is fixed at 3 and 6 liters for
use after urination and passing feces, respectively. Thus it is mandatory that flush tanks
should have two buttons, one for each discharge [30] . Sydney city fixed a target of using
10
80 billion liters rain and grey water (from bathing, washing etc.) for the year 2014 for non-
drinking uses (irrigation, watering lawns) [31]. In Pakistan, such practices may be adopted
to conserve drinking water.
In ancient cities, there was no concept of public water supplies. Most of the water
needs were met from shallow dug wells, ponds, rivers etc. Communities used to grow along
water sources like rivers. Many old civilizations are found along large rivers like Nile and
Indus.
People used to carry water in vessels to their homes. In the city of Rome and Athens,
open water channels (aqueducts) were built around 300 B.C [32]. It was the first planned
form of managing supply of water. Later clay and bamboo pipes were introduced. Clay pipes
may be seen in the Shalimar garden of Lahore, which was built in 1641 by Mughal emperor
Shah Jahan [33]. However, clay and bamboo pipes were not good in taking even moderate
pressures. In 18th century, caste iron pipes were used for the first time.
In 1855, Dr. John Snow proved that Cholera outbreak in London was due to
contaminated drinking water. Thus, need for water treatment was felt. In 1900, method of
chlorination was used to kill pathogens. It resulted in significant decrease in cholera in
England [34].
Water supply systems were improved with the passage of time. Now various new
pipe types are available. Software for the design and optimization of water distribution
networks are available, which significantly reduce the time utilized in the system design.
Use of plumbing systems (water supply and wastewater pipes inside houses) and
provisions of toilets inside houses have put an end to previous practice of open defecation,
to make life more comfortable.
Advancements in water treatment like reverse osmosis have made even the use of
sea water possible. New disinfection techniques like ultra violet radiations have also
emerged.
REFERENCES
1. National Academy of Sciences, (2005), Dietary intake for water, potassium, sodium,
chloride and sulfate, National Academies Press, Washington DC USA: p. 73.
11
4. J. Bartram, K. Lewish and R. Lenton, (2005), Focusing on improved water and
sanitation for health, Lancet, 365(9461): p. 810-812.
5. WHO, (2004), Guidelines for drinking water quality; 3rd Edition, Volume-1.
Accessed on: 7-07-2015, Available at:
[http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/gdwq05-6.pdf]
6. US EPA, (2009), National primary drinking water regulations, Report No. EPA 816-
F-09-004. Accessed on: 26-7-2014, Available at:
[www.epa.gov/safewater/consumer/pdf/mcl.pdf]
11. WHO, (2008), Safer water, better health: Costs, benefits, and sustainability of
interventions to protect and promote health, ISBN 978 92 4 159643 5, Geneva.
13. G. Bridges, (2007), Asian water development outlook 2007, country paper Pakistan,
Asian Development Bank, Manila.
14. World Bank, (2005), Managing Karachi's water supply and sanitation services:
lessons from a workshop, Water and Sanitation Program. Available at: [http://www-
wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2005/11/28/000
160016_20051128162902/Rendered/PDF/344430PK0Karachi0water0supply.pdf]
15. Husnain Haider and Waris Ali, (2009), Sustainability of sanitation systems in
Pakistan, The Pakistan Engineer, Journal of the institution of Engineers, Pakistan,
Jan - Apr (1): p. 9-17
12
16. World Bank, (2006), Pakistan strategic country environmental assessment: p. 53.
Available at: [http://www.environment.gov.pk/NEW-PDF/PK-SCE-FText-Oct-
2006%20.pdf]
17. Javed Anwar Aziz, (2005), Management of source and drinking water quality in
Pakistan, Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal, 11: p. 1087-1098.
18. P. H. Gleick, (1993), Water in crisis: A guide to the world's fresh water resources,
Oxford University Press, New York.
19. http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/.
20. FAO, (2007), Coping with water scarcity. Challenge of the twenty-first century, UN
Waters.
21. WWF Pakistan, Water Scarcity: Threats. Accessed on: 21-07- 2014, Available at:
[http://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/water-scarcity]
22. United Nations Development Program (UNDP), (2006), Human development report,
New York, USA.
23. K. S. Valdiya, (2004), Geology, environment and society, Orient Blackswan Private
Limited, New Delhi
24. S. H. Venkataramani, Water crisis in Madras city, residents issued ration cards.
Accessed on: 24-07-2014, Available at:
[https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/misc.news.southasia/D64k_tSOz18/CgEg
Ihx0d28]
25. L. Lin. Beijing water shortage worse than the Middle East. 2013 [Accessed on: 25-
07-2015]]; Available from: Available at:
[https://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/6319-Beijing-water-shortage-
worse-than-the-Middle-East].
26. C. Hernández and S. J. Gaskin, (2007), The basin of Mexico aquifer system:
regional groundwater level dynamics and database development, Hydrogeology
Journal, 15(8): p. 1577-1590.
27. M. Barlow. Blue Gold. 2001 [Accessed on: 25-07-2015]]; Available from: Available
at:[ www.ratical.org/co-globalize/BlueGold.pdf.
28. World Bank, (2005), Pakistan country water resources assistance strategy water
economy: Running dry, Report No. 34081-PK. [Accessed on: 29-07-2017,
Available at:
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/PAKISTANEXTN/Resources/PWCAS-
Title&Intro.pdf]
13
29. US Department of Interior Buerau of Reclamation. Reclamation: Managing water in
the west. [Acessed on: 25-07-2015]]; Available from: Available at:
[http://usbr.gov./mp/arwec/news/water_facts_worldwide.html].
30. Council of Standards Australia. Australian and New Zealand standsrds for plumbing
and drainage. [Accessed on: 27-07-2015]]; Available from: Available at:
[https://law.resource.org/pub/nz/ibr/as-nzs.35001,1,2003.pdf].
31. Metropolitan Water Directorate Sydney, (2014), Water planning for Sydney.
Accessed on: 27-07-2015, Available at:
[http://www.metrowater.nsw.gov.au/planning-sydney/recycling/recycled-water-
targets]
32. M. C. Monteleone, H. Yeung and R. Smith, (2007), A review of ancient Roman water
supply exploring techniques of pressure reduction, Water Science & Technology:
Water Supply, 7(1).
33. S. Mubin, I. A. Gilani and W. Hassan, (2013), Mughal gardens in the city of Lahore-
A case study of Shalimar Garden, Pakistan Journal of Science, 65(4).
34. US Environmental Protection Agency, (2007), The history and drinking water
treatment, Office of the Water, Report No. EPA-816-F-00-006.
14
Chapter-3
15
WATER USES AND CONSUMPTION
3.1 AVERAGE WATER CONSUMPTION
Water supplied to a city can be classified according to its ultimate use. These may
be[1-3]:
This includes water furnished to houses, hotels etc. for sanitary, drinking, washing,
bathing and other purposes. Its quantity depends upon a number of factors, discussed
below. It normally varies in a range of 75 – 380 liters per person per day (LPCD).
Public places such as city clubs, jails, schools, public parks, colleges, street flushing,
fire fighting etc. require water. Such use is known as public use.
A portion of water is wasted due to leaks in the water mains and distribution system.
It is referred to as Unaccounted for Water (UFW) or Non-Revenue Water (NRW). NRW,
because no revenue is received against this water. It also includes un-authorized water
connections. It can be reduced by (1) careful maintenance of water supply systems and (2)
metering of all water services
In a system, 100% metered and moderately maintained, the NRW should not be
more than 10%. Studies show that NRW in Lahore is close to 40%. Same is the case for
Islamabad. This needs immediate attention of water operators in these cities.
16
3.3 FACTORS AFFECTING WATER CONSUMPTION
A number of factors affect the average water consumption. These are briefly
discussed as under [4-7]:
3.3.1 Climate
Where summers are hot and long, much water is used for watering lawns, bathing,
washing clothes etc. Use at public places also increases.
Water consumption will be more in high value residential areas and less in slums
[8].
Absence of sewerage facilities will reduce the per capita water consumption to as
low as 40 LPCD.
3.3.5 Metering
Metering tends to reduce water consumption because people avoid wasteful use of
water. Metering may reduce water consumption as much as 50%. Comparison between two
similar cities in USA was made. One was 90% metered and had a water consumption of
366 LPCD. Whereas, other city was 20% metered and its water consumption was 800
LPCD [9].
Higher water cost tends to reduce the water use and tendency of wasteful use,
thereby reducing the water consumption [10].
It has been observed that if the quality of water supplied is good, it tends to increase
water consumption.
If higher pressures are maintained in the distribution system, the water consumption
increases.
17
3.3.9 Size of city
It has been observed that bigger cities have more demand for public uses i.e. fire
fighting and gardens etc. Hence water consumption is higher for large urban centers.
Water consumption also depends upon the level of service. There could be different
service levels:
1. Stand posts (taps provided at selected places in a community)
2. Courtyard connections (water connection is provided at only one place in the
house e.g. in the courtyard)
3. Full plumbing system (water is available at multiple points in the house e.g. in all
bath rooms, kitchen, courtyard, laundry room etc.)
Stand posts are the lowest level of service and full plumbing is the highest level of
service. Water consumption is lowest in stand posts and increases as the level of service
increases.
Water consumption tends to increase during summer. People take bath more
frequently. Similarly clothes washing is also frequent in summer season. More water is
required for watering lawns in summer. In winters, these activities reduce.
June, July High consumption
Dec, Jan Low consumption
18
3.4.2 Daily variations
On holidays, like Sunday, most of the commercial areas and industries are closed.
Hence water consumption reduces on holidays as compared to a normal working day.
Water consumption keeps on changing thorough out the day. In the morning, when
the day’s activities start; when people go to offices and children go to schools, the water
consumption touches its peak. Thereafter, the consumption reduces. In the evening,
another peak is usually observed, however, it not so pronounced as it is in the morning. Fig.
3.1 shows this hourly variation during the day.
140
Water consumption (Liter/hour)
120
80
60
40
20
0
12 mid night 7:00 AM 4:00 PM 7:00 PM 12 mid night
Time of day
19
3.5.2 Maximum daily consumption/demand
It is the maximum water consumption during any one day in the year. It is about 150
to 180% of the average daily consumption.
Max daily consumption = 1.5 × Average daily consumption
It is the maximum consumption during any one hour of the year. It is around 150%
of the maximum daily consumption.
Peak Hourly = 1.5 ×Maximum daily consumption
= 1.5×1.5×Average daily consumption
= 2.25 × Average daily consumption
It is defined as the number of years, in future, for which a proposed facility would
meet the requirement of a community. Selection of an appropriate design period for a
facility/component of water supply and sewerage system is very important and depends
upon the following factors.
If a facility can be extended easily then a shorter design period may be used and
vice versa. For example, in case of groundwater it is easy to install a tube well. So the
design period may be 10-15 years. Whereas, in case of surface water requiring
impoundment (large storage structure) the design period would be longer perhaps as much
as 50 years. The reason being extension of such structure is not possible.
In case of high first cost for a facility (i.e. capital cost of the project), a shorter design
period may be adopted.
If the facility is to be developed from loan money which is borrowed on high interest
rate; the tendency is to take a shorter design period. In Pakistan many water supply and
sanitation projects are developed by taking loan from Asian Development Bank (ADB),
20
World Bank (WB) and other foreign donors/countries. ADB/WB normally provide softer
loans for water supply and sewerage projects. These are on a lower interest rate i.e. 1-
1.5%. However, some countries may provide loan money on higher interest rates.
Scale means size. Economy of scale means that the per unit production cost of a
facility (project) decreases with increase in scale (size). Consider Table 3.1 as an example.
Table 3.1: Example of economy of scale
Pipe Diameter Length People served Cost Cost/person
(mm) (Km) (Rs)
200 1 1200 300,000 250
400 1 4800 480,000 100
It may be observed that by using a larger diameter pipe, the cost/person of the
project reduces from Rs 250 to 100. Economy of scale sometimes attracts for longer design
periods. So one must be cautious in using this factor.
It is the time from start of the project up to its completion. It is also sometimes
referred to as gestation period. For example, if a large project would take 10 years to
complete then the design period must be more than 10 years.
REFERENCES
5. A. Gola, (2012), Water demand and factors affecting water demand. Accessed on:
18-06-2017, Available at: [https://www.slideshare.net/LUND456/water-demand-
and-factor-affecting-water-demand]
21
6. S. Verma, V. S. Kanwar and S. John, (2015), Water supply engineering, Vikas
Publishing, India.
9. T. J. McGhee, (1990), Water supply and sewerage, McGraw Hill Inc., USA.
10. C. W. Howe and F. P. Linaweaver, (1967), The impact of price on residential water
demand and its relation to system design and price structure, Water Resources
Research, 3(1): p. 13–32.
22
Chapter-4
23
WATER SUPPLY IN PAKISTAN
4.1 COVERAGE
The Millennium Summit was held in 2000 under the auspices of the United Nations
(UN). In this summit a declaration with the name of Millennium Development Goals (MDG)
was announced. MDG contain eight goals; (1) reduce poverty by half; (2) ensure universal
primary education; (3) eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education and
empower women; (4) reduce by two third under five child mortality rate; (5) reduce by three
quarters the maternal mortality rate; (6) halt HIV/AIDS; (7) halve proportion of population
having no access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation and (8) develop global
partnership for development; all eight by the target year of 2015 [6].
Thus Goal-7 of MDG fixes targets for water supply and sanitation. As per MDG, the
target for Pakistan is to increase access to improved water source to 93% by 2015 [2].
However, it could not be achieved.
World leader of 193 member states again rallied under the auspices of the United
Nations, in September 2015. Purpose was to review the progress and learn from the
experience of MDG. The outcome was 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of
the 2030. Development Agenda for 2030 is titled “Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda
for Sustainable Development”. The SDGs are a new, universal set of goals, targets and
indicators that the UN member states will be expected to use to frame their agendas and
political policies over the next 15 years.
6th SDG is “clean water and sanitation” to all till 2030. Experts have stated that
without progress on Goal 6, the other goals and targets cannot be achieved. Safe drinking
water and hygienic toilets protect people from disease and enable societies to be
productive. Attending school and work without disruption is a precursor to education and
employment, both of which are the foundation of alleviating poverty. A study undertaken in
24
2016 concluded that sanitation, when done with a resource recovery and reuse focus would
contribute towards achieving at least fourteen of the SDGs, especially in an urban context
[7, 8].
Policy is the first tier of any action by the government. It gives the vision of the
government and broad guidelines and direction in which the government wishes to move
on an issue. For effective implementation of a policy, legislation needs to be done. Law in
addition to its own provisions also gives powers to the relevant institutions to make
rules/regulations to effectively implement the purposes of the law. These institutions may
frame rules/regulations from time to time for implementation of the provisions of the law and
to cater for any new situation that may arise. The whole concept is shown in Fig. 3.1.
Policy
(Vision, priorities and direction of Govt.)
Legislation
(Laws enacted by Parliament)
Regulations
(Rules by concerned minstries/institutions)
On the policy level, National Drinking Water Policy was announced in 2009. It
recognizes provision of safe drinking water as a fundamental human right and the duty of
the state. It envisages to provide access to safe and sustainable drinking water supply to
the entire population of Pakistan by 2025 [9]. The policy lays emphasis on community
participation in planning, implementation and operation of water supply projects. In addition,
capacity building of water supply departments, public awareness on importance of clean
water, protection and conservation of water resources, research and development on
25
improved access, effectiveness and sustainability of water supply are also highlighted. It
also suggests establishing “surveillance agency” at national and provincial levels for
monitoring of water quality. It also targets to enact “Pakistan Safe Drinking Water Act” to
ensure compliance with the enforced drinking water quality standards[10].
On the legal side, the major piece of legation is “Pakistan Environmental Protection
Act, 1997 (PEPA, 1997)”. However, after 18th amendment in the Constitution of Pakistan in
2010, provincial governments have been given exclusive powers to legislate on the subject
of “environmental pollution and ecology [11]. Now each province would have its own
Environmental Protection Act. At the moment, most of the provinces have adopted PEPA,
1997 with minor modifications. Similarly, each province will now have its own environmental
quality standards as against National Environmental Quality Standards (NEQS), which were
enforced all over Pakistan, before the 18th amendment. Environmental Protection Acts
ensure the protection of water resources against contamination through the enforcement of
Environmental Quality Standards.
Major breakthrough on legal side would be the Safe Drinking Water Act. However,
it is yet awaited from the federal government. Punjab has drafted Punjab Municipal Water
Act in 2013, however, it needs ratification from the provincial assembly before it comes into
force.
National Standards for Drinking Water Quality (NSDWQ) were enforced in year
2010. However, after the 18th amendment, each province would have its own drinking water
quality standards. Without Water Act, and any punitive action on the violation of drinking
water standards, its implementation and compliance will remain a major issue. Punjab
Environmental Quality Standards for Drinking Water (PEQSDW) prescribe limits for 33
parameters. Complete details are given in Chapter-10.
4.4.1 Construction
26
CBOs are local Non Government Organizations (NGOs). Members belong to the
same village. These are usually involved from the start of the construction activity. Currently
many CBOs are operating water supply schemes in rural areas.
There are interesting examples of CBOs operating in semi urban areas. These may
be considered as the role models in Pakistan. One example is that of a locality named
Rehmatabad adjacent to Chaklala in Rawalpindi. CBO is operating the water supply
scheme since 2006. Total house connections are 5200. Total saving of the CBO is more
than Rs 10 million. It also has 4 diesel generator sets as alternate source of energy.
Community is satisfied with the service delivery and there are hardly any complaints as
against WASAs and Municipal Corporations (MCs). Water charges recovery is 100% due
to better service delivery and efficient complaint redressal system [12].
Second most successful example in private sector is that of Afzal Abad in
Rawalpindi. It is also a semi urban area adjacent to Chaklala. CBO is operating the water
supply scheme since 2006. Total house connections are 600.Total saving of the CBO is
more than two hundred thousand Rupees with 4 diesel generators [12].
REFERENCES
3. WHO and UNICEF, (2014), Refining the definitions: an ongoing process and the
ladder concept, Drinking Water and Basic Sanitation. Accessed on: 27-07-2014,
Available at: [http://www.wssinfo.org/definitions-methods]
4. Sajjad Haydar, Javed Anwar Aziz and Muhammad Arshad, (2009), Evaluation of
drinking water quality in urban areas of Pakistan: A case study of southern Lahore,
Pakistan Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, UET Lahore, 5(2): p. 16-23.
5. Sajjad Haydar and Muhammad Qasim, (2013), A study of water quality of Sargodha
city, Pakistan Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, UET Lahore, 13(2): p.
110-117.
6. United Nations, Millennium Development Goals and Beyond 2015. Available at:
[http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals]
7. G. R. Gupta, (2015), Opinion: “Sanitation, water & hygiene for all” cannot wait for
2030. Accessed on: 19-06-2016, Available at:
27
[http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-
6-clean-water-and-sanitation.htm]
8. M. Batty, (2015), Beyond the SDGs: How to deliver water and sanitation to
everyone, everywhere. Accessed on: 19-06-2017, Available at:
[https://www.devex.com/news/beyond-the-sdgs-how-to-deliver-water-and-
sanitation-to-everyone-everywhere-86975]
10. Government of Pakistan, (2010), National standards for drinking water quality,
Minstry of Environment, Statutory Notification 1062(I)/2010, The Gazette of
Pakistan, : p. 3207.
12. Waqar Ahmad (Community Development Specialist), (2014), Private sector in water
supply operation and maintenance, [Personal Communication].
28
Chapter-5
29
DESIGN CRITERIA FOR WATER SUPPLY
In most of the countries, laid down design criteria are available for the design of
public water supplies. The criteria usually specify different design parameters that must be
followed during the design process. The specified parameters are based upon scientific
knowledge and past experiences of the service providers (like PHED, WASA or any other
agency). Revisions are common in design criteria and may take place due to the changes
in consumer’s life styles, habits and new emerging ground realities. In Pakistan, local design
criteria for public water supply are available with most of the PHEDs and WASAs.
Design engineers are suggested to obtain and follow the locally available design
criteria. In the following sections, design criteria developed by Punjab PHED and followed
in Punjab are presented [1]. Other local/provincial design criteria are close to it with little
modifications.
30
based amenities like showers, wash basins, and other miscellaneous uses, per capita water
use is higher. In view of the growing water scarcity, the values above 225 LPCD (50 GPCD)
appear to be on higher side and perhaps need revision in future by PHED.
Punjab PHED criteria suggest that for hospitals, hostels, schools etc. an allowance
of 45 liters (10 gallons) per boarder per day and 22.5 liters (5 gallons) per day-scholar per
day is to be made.
Building code of Pakistan suggests the following water requirements for different
buildings as given in Table 5.2 [2].
Table 5.2: Guide for water requirements in buildings
Type of building Water requirements
LPCD GPCD
Assembly buildings
Cinemas, concert halls, theaters 10-23/Seat 2.2-5/Seat
Mosques 3-5/Nimazi/Prayer 0.7-1.1/Nimazi/Prayer
Restaurants 23-100/Seat 5-22/Seat
Railway stations 23-45 5-10
Domestic and international air ports 45-90 5-20
Institutional buildings
Schools 23-70 5-15
Hospitals 225-500/Bed 50-110/Bed
Residential buildings
Hotels 135-300 30-88
Apartment houses 135-225 30-50
Dwellings and lodging houses 135-400 30-88
Boarding schools and colleges 70-135 15-30
Mercantile and business buildings 23-45 5-10
In Table 5.2, range of water requirement is given. Thus, one can select a value
depending upon the water availability in that area. If water is abundantly available, one may
opt for the higher limit. In case of limited water availability, the lower limit may be opted.
31
5.4 TUBE WELLS
While designing tube well, the following pumping hours may be adopted;
Rural areas = 4-6 hours
Semi urban = 16 hours
Urban area = 18-20 hours
5.6 CHLORINATION
Design discharge= same as that for tube well mentioned in section 5.4.
Design period=10 years
32
Design period = 25 years
Terminal pressure is the control parameter for distribution system design. Velocity
lower than mentioned above may be used. Velocities higher than those aforementioned
should be avoided to prevent excessive internal wear of pipes.
Provide 3 ft (1 m) earth cover over pipes, except in hilly areas where soil is rocky
and pipe is to be laid in open. Road cuts are to be backfilled with pit/river sand.
Fire hydrants are to be provided in urban, semi urban and rural areas. The minimum
size of the fire hydrant should be 50 mm (2.5 inches). The location may be fixed as per site
conditions and requirements. Following factors be kept in mind for the location: (1) the type
of building construction, which influences the seriousness of the fire hazard and the chances
that fire may spread to adjoining premises; (2) the cost involved in providing and maintaining
fire hydrants and (3) sensitivity of the buildings in the area.
Sluice valves will be located at main control points for balancing and regulating the
flows. The exact location may be fixed by the design engineer as per layout of the
distribution system and requirements. It is purely on the judgment of the design engineer.
33
However, sufficient number of sluice valves should be provided to have flexibility of
operations and closure of supply to specific areas, if required. For water supply schemes
with design population of up to 10,000 persons the fire hydrants are to be located at every
waterworks locations, and for larger schemes at appropriate locations.
Non return value must be provided outside the delivery main of the tube well. It
should also be provided in the rising main after 2000 meters to reduce the water hammer.
Air valves must be provided at the summits and after 2000 m (6000 ft) intervals in
straight reaches to facilitate escape of the trapped air.
Washouts be provided at the lowest points to wash pipes from all kinds of debris
deposited, which normally occurs with the passage of time.
Overhead storage reservoirs should be essentially provided in all urban and rural
water supply schemes except in cases of such hilly / semi hilly areas where appropriately
located ground storage reservoirs can provide and maintain the requisite minimum terminal
pressure in the system.
Capacity of overhead reservoirs in case of communities having population more
than 10,000 persons should be based on 1/10th of average day demand. Minimum capacity
of overhead reservoir should not be less than 10,000 gallons.
When the length of the rising main is long, it may result in very high head losses. It
necessitates the use of a very high head pump. Sometimes it is not feasible. Thus,
intermediate pumping stations are advisable under such conditions. An intermediate
pumping station comprises of a ground storage tank and pumping machinery installed in a
pump house. The capacity of ground storage tank, at intermediate pumping station, is
recommended to be based on 6 hours storage of total average daily demand.
For ensuring sustainability of water supply schemes both in rural and urban areas
water metering is mandatory. Metering avoid wasteful use of water. It also facilitates
equitable levy of water charges i.e. one that uses more water have to pay more and vice
versa.
34
REFERENCES
35
Chapter-6
Population projection
36
POPULATION PROJECTIONS
6.1 GENERAL
As per 2017 census, the average annual growth rate of Pakistan is 2.4%. The
demographic trends vary in urban and rural areas. Variations in the urban population
growth rate, for Pakistan, is shown in Fig. 6.1 [4, 5]. The data have been adopted from the
World Bank website. The figure shows the average values. It can be seen in Fig. 6.1 that
urban population growth rate touched its peak in 1975 to a maximum of 4.5%. Thereafter,
it decreased gradually. The possible reasons of reduction in growth rate are: (1) economic
pressure in supporting large families; (2) rising levels of awareness in the public about family
planning and (3) better access to contraceptives [6].
37
Urban
5 4.5
Rural
3 2.7
Average annual growth rate (%)
2.6
2.4 2.4 2.35 2.33 2.32 2.3
2.5 2.28 2.26 2.23
1.5
0.5
0
1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2017
Year
38
6.3 DIFFERENT METHODS OF POPULATION PROJECTION
This method is based upon the hypothesis that “rate of growth is constant” i.e. a
constant number of people are added to the city/village population in a certain period of
time.
Mathematically
= Equation 6.1
Integrating the equation, results in
Where
Pf= Future population
Pi= Population of last census
Ka= Arithmetic growth rate constant/year
tf= Future year in which population is required
ti=Year in which last census was held
In this method, population data for at least two previous census are required. These
data are used for finding the value of Ka as shown below
−
=
−
Once value of Ka is known, it is used in equation 6.2 to find the future population Pf.
A plot between population and time will appear as a straight line on a simple graph paper.
The value of Ka is given by the slope of the line.
Suitability: This method is used for cities where there is limited industrial growth in
and around the city.
39
6.3.2 Geometric growth method
This method is based upon the hypothesis that “rate of growth is proportional to the
population.
Mathematically
= Equation 6.3
Integration of equation (3) results in:
Where:
Ln = natural logarithm
Kg = geometric growth rate constant/year. It can be calculated by using the following
equation.
"# $ %"# &
= Equation 6.5
$ %&
Geometric growth formula may also be expressed in the following form.
Where
Pf = Future population
Pi = initial population
X = Annual population growth rate
n = Number of years after which population is required
Suitability: Future population of a city with large resources of land, power, job
opportunities and good transportation may be the best predicted by geometric growth
method.
This method assumes that the population has an S shape. The population of a place
may initially increase at geometric growth rate. Afterwards, it may follow arithmetic growth.
As space constraints increase, growth rate may further decline till saturation population is
reached. After that the increase in population is either zero or very minimal and the
population is more or less stabilized.
40
Mathematically
= ./+,-
,01∆- Equation 6.7
Where
P=Future population
Psat=Saturation population
Now
34 5 6 %56 (4 /6 )
= 4 6 %56
Equation 6.8
+,- %4
7 = 8 9 : Equation 6.9
4
. 4 (+,- %5 )
; = < 8 9 : Equation 6.10
5 (+,- %4 )
This is another method of population forecasting. It may be used in two cases: first
one is the graphical method based on single city and second one is the graphical method
based on cities having similar growth conditions. The latter is also known as Curvilinear
Method.
41
Graphical method based on a single city
In this method, the population of the last few decades of an existing city are plotted
to a suitable scale as shown in a Fig. 6.3. The population curve is smoothly extended for
estimating the future population. This extension should be done very carefully by
considering all factors which affect population growth in that area. It also requires proper
experience and judgment. This method is very simple but may not be accurate method for
estimating the future population [9].
0.6
0.5
Population in million
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 2021 2031 2041 2051
Year
In this method, the population of similar cities, developed under similar conditions,
are plotted. These cities should have similar conditions of growth, geographical proximity,
likeness of economic base, access to similar transportation systems and other such factors
[8]. Afterwards, the curve of past population of the city, in focus, is plotted on the same
graph [1]. The curve is extended carefully by comparing it with the population curves of
similar cities.
The advantage of this method is that the future population can be predicted from the
present population even in the absence of some of the past census reports. The following
example will make it clear.
The population of a city X is given for census year 1970, 1980, 1990 and 2000 and
is 32000, 38000, 43000 and 50000, respectively. The cities A, B, C and D were developed
in similar conditions as that of city X. It is required to estimate the population of the city X in
the year 2020. The population of cities A, B, C and D, for different census years, is given
below in Table 6.1.
42
Table 6.1: Population data of city A, B, C and D
City A City B City C City D
Year Population Year Population Year Population Year Population
1960 50,000 1962 50,000 1964 50,000 1961 50,000
1972 62,000 1970 58,000 1970 56,500 1973 54,000
1980 72,000 1981 69,000 1980 64,000 1982 58,,000
1990 87,000 1988 76,000 1988 70,000 1989 62000
.
Population curves for the cities A, B, C, D and X are plotted (Fig. 6.4). Then an
average mean curve is also plotted by dotted line as shown in the figure below. The
population curve X is extended beyond 50,000 matching with the dotted mean curve. From
the curve, the population obtained for city X is 68,000 in year 2020.
100
80 B
C
Population in thousands
X
D
60
40
20
0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
Year
Figure 6.4: Graphical method of population forecasting based on similar cities having similar growth
pattern and local conditions [9]
43
of future population and necessitate early extension of existing water and sewerage
facilities.
Solved example
The population data of a city are given below. Find the projected population for the
year 2025 using (1) arithmetic and (2) geometric methods.
Solution
Arithmetic method
$ %&
Ka=
$ %&
3.=,===%.,===
Ka=
3=.?%.@@A
Ka=3947 per year
=
+ −
3=3 = 3=.? + (3=3 − 3=.? )
3=3 = 210,000 + 3947(2025 − 2017)
3=3 = 241,576 persons
Geometric method
!
− !
=
−
! 3=.? − ! .@@A
=
3=.? − .@@A
! (210,000) − ! (135,000)
=
2017 − 1998
44
! − !
= −
It can be seen that geometric method gives the maximum population when
compared with other methods. Hence it may be used for fast growing cities.
Solved example
The population of a city, in Pakistan, as per 2017 census was 350,000 persons. The
city has well developed industrial area having abundant job opportunities. An oil field also
exists near the city. All basic amenities of life are available. Find the population of the city
in 2037.
Solution
Geometric growth method will be used to find out the future population of the city in
the year 2037, because the city has well developed industrial area, having abundant job
opportunities. In addition, all basic amenities of life are available.
= (1 + ))
Where;
Pf = Future population=P 2037 = ?
Pi = Population from the last census=P2017=350,000 persons
X = Per annum population growth rate
n = number of year from census year to the future year in which population is
required= 2037-2017=20 years.
45
As per 2017 census, the average growth rate for urban areas is 2.7%.
∴ = 3=.? (1 + ))
3=? = 350,000(1 + 0.027)3=
3=? = STU, VWU persons.
REFERENCES
1. Government of Punjab, (2008), Technical and service delivery standards for water
supply and sanitation sectors.
6. S. E. Barkan, (2012), Sociology ; Population growth and decline, USA. Available at:
[https://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/sociology-comprehensive-edition]
8. T. J. McGhee, (1991), Water supply and sewrage (6th Edition), McGraw Hill Inc.,
USA.
46
Chapter-7
Water sources
47
WATER SOURCES
7.1 SIGNIFICANCE
48
and quantity, the trial bore is converted into tube well. However, if none of the ERS site is
prospective, new ERS probes are made in the surrounding area.
Electric Well Logging (EWL): It is always preferable to run electric well logging
before developing conversion plan (location of strainer and blind pipes) for the tube well [6-
8]. It is a technique that determines exact locations of different type of strata encountered
in the bore hole; driller manual record may be in error and hence not reliable to take a final
decision on conversion. Electric well logs are run and interpreted by hydrogeologists. They
also provide proposed conversion chart for the tube well and estimated yield.
Surface water sources (dams, lakes, rivers, canals) have different investigation
requirements. Normally, following data are collected [9-13].
1. Yield of a stream/river
2. Maximum flood levels (to locate water supply structure at places that are safe
from flood damage)
3. Maximum and minimum flow levels in a stream/river
4. If source is to be based on canal, canal closure time and duration be known.
5. Dead storage levels in case of dams/lakes
6. Quality of water (for details on water quality, see chapter 10)
The above data help in estimating total quantity of water available from surface
water source, finalize location of water supply installations and type of treatment to be
provided.
As discussed in Chapter-5, the design discharge adopted for water source depends
whether water storage in the form of overhead reservoirs (OHRs) is provided in the water
supply system or not. Thus, there could be two choices to fix design discharge of a water
source [14]:
(a) Design discharge = maximum day demand (with OHR)
(b) Design discharge = peak hourly demand (without OHR)
When OHRs are provided, water during off-peak hours (during night time when
water demand touches its lowest) pumped water goes to OHR. Thus, it is filled during the
off-peak hours. Therefore, when the peak demand comes, water is being pumped, both
from water source and is drawn from OHR. In this way, peak demand is met. Hence there
is no need to design the source on peak demand. However, when no OHRs are provided
in the system, the withdrawal from source must be based on peak demand.
49
In the following sections, first, the groundwater will be discussed. Various terms
related to groundwater, different methods for the extraction of groundwater and the design
of tube wells will be discussed in detail. Later, surface water source will be reviewed.
7.4 GROUNDWATER
Few terms that relate to the water source need to be defined for better
understanding of the reader. These terms are defined with reference to Fig. 7.1.
Aquifer (zone of saturation) is the portion of earth in which all the pores are filled
with water. Upper surface of the aquifer is called water table. Aquiclude is the impervious
stratum through which water cannot pass. Stratum is a layer or set of successive layers of
any deposited substance. Perched Water Table is a small pocket of water in a basin of
impermeable material above the zone of saturation. Porosity is the ratio of total pore
volume to the volume of stratum. Porosity alone is not sufficient to evaluate stratum. If
porosity is high but pores are small, then water is not easily transmitted through such
stratum e.g. clay. Permeability is the capacity of a stratum to transmit water. Porosity and
permeability are two fundamental properties of a stratum that decide its suitability. Sand,
50
gravel and sandstone are considered the best aquifers to draw water for public water
supplies.
Figure 7.2 shows a typical well installed in an aquifer. Terms used in the figure are
defined here. Cone of Depression is the space in the aquifer from where water has been
removed by pumping. Radius of Circle of Influence is the radius of the base of the cone
of depression. Draw Down is the distance from the original water surface to the lowered
surface of water in the well, because of pumping. Draw down depends upon the robustness
of aquifer and rate of water drawn. It may range from 10 ft to 30 ft under normal conditions.
In extreme cases, it may go up to 70 to 80 ft. Hydraulic grade line (HGL) is the line joining
the piezometer levels in the direction of flow and the slope of the line is called hydraulic
gradient.
Gravity well
In this case the water surface is at atmospheric pressure and well is vertical. It is
also known as water table well (Fig. 7.3(a)).
Pressure Well
51
(a) Gravity Well (b) Pressure Well
Figure 7.3: Gravity and pressure wells
Horizontal Wells
They are also known as “infiltration galleries” and are usually installed in the bed
of nullah having perennial flow (Fig. 7.4). Normally, PVC pipes with perforations in upper
half of pipe are laid by excavating trench in nullah bed. It is then filled with filter material,
normally rounded gravel over pipe overlain by sand. Water flowing in nullah enters trench
and subsequently perforated PVC pipe. Pipe is laid in slope to a sump well along the bank
of nullah. Water collected in sump well is then pumped to the community, after disinfection.
Fig. 7.4(a) shows the plan of a typical infiltration gallery; it is meant to explain the layout of
the gallery, which of course depends upon the site conditions. While Fig. 7.4 (b) shows the
typical sectional details.
52
Figure 7.4: Horizontal wells or infiltration galleries
Shallow wells
Wells less than 100 ft (30m) in depth are called shallow wells. These are normally
used in rural areas where water table is high. They are easy to dig and involve little cost but
have some draw backs [15-17].
(a) Water table of shallow wells is likely to fluctuate thus quantity of water from such
wells is not certain.
(b) Sanitary quality of water is likely to be poor if open. Hence shallow wells must be
covered.
53
Deep wells (Tube
(Tube wells)
These are wells with depth greater than 100 ft (30 m)). Cities with good quality
groundwater depend upon deep wells.
These have certain advantages [15].
(a) These tap water from extensive aquifers, thus no quick fluctuation in water table
takes place.
(b) Such wells result in large uniform yield.
(c) The water obtained usually needs no treatment except chlorination.
Yield: It is defined as safe amount of water that can be drawn from an aquifer, using
a tube well, without excessive drawdown.
Tube wells (also called deep wells) are normally used for public water supplies,
provided a good aquifer with acceptable water quality is available.
7.5.1 Components
Figure 7.5 shows different components of a tube well. On the top is Electric motor.
It rotates the shaft that spans from electric motor to the pump. When pump rotates, the
impellers, inside the pump, suck the surrounding groundwater and push it up, through
column pipe. The water from column pipe passes through the Discharge Head (shown in
Fig. 7.15), and enters into the water pipes laid in the water supply system.
Discharge head is designed to support the weight of the pump and column pipe
along with the shafting. It connects the pump column to the discharge piping and
contains the stuffing box that allows the pump shaft to pass into the column pipe.
Water transmission pipe, connected to the discharge head, is provided with
pressure gauge, non-return valve and an air valve. Pressure gauge gives the pressure
in the pipes. Non-return valve avoids reverse flow in the tube well, which may damage the
pumping machinery. Air valve is provided to entrap and release any air in water pipes. If not
released, it results in air lock and hinders free flow of water in the transmission line.
Strainer is perforated pipe used to draw water from the aquifer. Usually corrosion
resistant material like brass, PVC, or fiber glass is used. Diameter of strainer is normally
8 inch (200 mm) or 10 inch (250 mm). Shape of opening should always be flared towards
the inside to prevent packing of fine particles in them. Area of opening in the strainer is
normally 10-12 % of area of the strainer. Net total area of the strainer openings should be
such that the entrance velocity of water should not exceed 1 to 8 inch/sec (20-200 mm/sec)
[15]. Low velocities will tend to prevent clogging of the strainer by sand which would be
carried by great velocities. Blind pipe is mild steel pipe used to support the bore.
54
Bail plug is at the bottom of the tube well and used to store sand particles that enter
in the initial running of the tube well and later bailed out before the tube well is put to its
normal operation. It is a mild steel pipe piece. Pumping chamber is a masonry room to
house the tube well and other electrical installations associated with it. Usually a square
room of 10 ft x 10 ft (3 m x 3m) is sufficient.
7.5.2 Construction
Drilling rigs are used to bore tube wells for water supplies. Different methods used
for the purpose include: (1) percussion method; (2) reverse rotary and (3) straight rotary.
The bore diameter normally lies in a range of 15 to 26 inch (375 to 650 mm). Percussion
method is mostly used for sandy soils. The speed of boring is slow. A tripod is used to lift
up and lower down a plunger with a cutting edge and tied with a steel rope (Fig. 7.6). The
strata keep filling in the plunger, fixed with a one way flap. After the plunger is filled, it is
emptied and the process is resumed. As the borehole proceeds, a mild steel casing is also
lowered to stop the hole to cave in. The process is repeated till the required depth is
achieved. Afterwards, the bail plug, strainer and blind pipe is lowered in the dug bore.
Conversion of a bore hole into a tube well means installing blind pipe and strainer in the
55
bore hole. The annular space between the bore and lowering (bail plug, strainer and blind
pipe) is filled with pea gravel and the mild steel casing is pulled out.
Reverse rotary method can be used both for sandy strata and sandstone. A boring
rig with diamond bit is used (Fig. 7.7). It can cut even the hard rocks. Bentonite mud slurry
is used to keep the bore sides intact. As the bore proceeds, the drilled material is collected
in a dug ditch. After the bore reaches its required depth, the lowering (bail plug, strainer and
blind pipe) is placed in the bore. Afterwards washing is done with clean water and pea gravel
is filled among the annular space between lowering and the bore, simultaneously with
washing process.
56
Figure 7.7: Reverse rotary method
Straight rotary is suitable for sandy strata only. Bore could be drilled and put to
operation in less time as compared to percussion and reverse rotary. The process is just
opposite to reverse rotary. The diamond bit cuts the soil, water present at a higher elevation
is used to apply hydrostatic pressure to sustain the hole (Fig. 7.8). Once required depth is
achieved, the lowering is placed in the hole and pea gravel is filled in the annular space
between the lowering and the bore.
57
Figure 7.8: Straight rotary method
Pea gravels packing is filled in the annular space between bore hole and lowering
(Fig. 7.9) and has the following advantages: (1) increase yield of tube well and (2) eliminate
sand pumping.
58
Figure 7.9: Pea gravel packing in tube well
59
Figure 7.10: Verticality check of tube well
60
7.5.4 Strata chart (Well log) and conversion chart
During drilling of tube well, samples of strata encountered are taken and preserved
in a wooden box. A record of the strata is kept and called well log or strata chart (Fig. 7.11
(a)). The driller’s record is likely to be inaccurate and should be checked by an “electric log”.
It is carried out through an electric well log machine, which is lowered in the bore up to its
bottom. It identifies the strata layer with exact depth at which it is encountered and the type
of the strata. Electric log helps in correct placement of strainer and is essential to conduct.
It is done by the firms which specialize in this work. Hydrogeologists usually carry out both,
the electric resistivity survey and electric well logs.
Conversion chart (Fig. 7.11(b)) shows the location of strainer and blind pipes. It is
based upon information obtained from electric well log and as proposed by hydrogeologist.
Both strata and conversion chart must be placed in the pump house as an important record.
(a) (b)
Figure 7.11: Typical strata chart and conversion chart
Design of tube well refers to: (1) discharge of the tube well; (2) finding the length of
strainer to give design discharge: (3) find the head of the pump to deliver the water at the
required height or place and (4) Break horse power (BHP) of the motor to drive the pump.
Design is further explained in the solved example.
61
7.5.6 Tube well troubles
Sometimes tube wells fail due to great reduction in their yield. It is not uncommon.
The main cause may be prolonged over-pumping i.e. more than the safe pumping rates
depending upon the health of aquifer. Sometimes another tube well installed in close
vicinity, of an already installed tube well, may profoundly affect its yield.
Casing or screen may cave or collapse, partially or completely. Once it happens in
an installed tube well, there is no remedy but to install a new tube well.
The casing or screen may corrode or leak at some point of time during the service
life of the tube well. If the tube well is of large diameter, a smaller casing and screen may
be placed inside the larger one, if possible. This could avoid installing a new tube well.
However, it must be ensured first, that this change would meet the water requirements. In
case of corrosion and subsequent collapse of strainer/well screen, there is no remedy, but
to install a new tube well in place of the old one [15].
The normal life of tube well ranges from 15 to 20 years [14]. With the passage of
time, the screens corrode or clog and the yield is significantly reduced.
A pump is used to transfer water from source to destination. This may be for filling
a reservoir at a higher elevation or pumping the water in the laid piping system. In either
case, some pressure is required to make this happen. This is generally referred to as Head.
Head may be of two types; (1) the static head and (2) friction (or dynamic) head.
Static head is the vertical distance to which the water must be lifted. The friction head
depends upon (1) inner pipe roughness; (2) pipe length; (3) pipe diameter and (4) fittings
and valves employed. The friction head increases approximately as a square of the increase
in flow. When static head and friction (or dynamic) head are added, these end up in the
form of a system curve (Fig. 7.12). This is primarily a graph between two parameters viz.
pump head and discharge. The system curve starts from static head; it rises and reaches
the friction/ dynamic head point. That point is known as the duty point (head and discharge
needed for the water supply system to run)
62
System Curve
System Head (ft or m) Duty point
Dynamic Head
Static Head
Performance Curve
63
Performance Curve
Normally, an environmental engineer finds out the required discharge and head of
the pump. This data are provided to the pump manufacturer (KSB pumps, Grundfos pumps
or equivalent). A suitable pump is selected by the manufacturer using software, and pump
curves.
Best efficiency point of a pump is the operating region or point along
the pump performance curve [22, 23]. It is the region at which the pump operates at the
highest or optimum efficiency for a given impeller diameter.
In the pump selection process, the best one is that whose curve lies close to the
duty point in its maximum efficiency range. For more information, watch videos on YouTube.
Different types of pumps are used to pump water in water supply projects. A very
brief overview of these pumps is discussed in the following sections.
In case of vertical turbine pump, the motor is installed on the ground and the pump
is submerged in the water. A shaft from motor goes down to the pump and rotates the
impellers in the bowel assembly of the pump (Fig. 7.15). This rotation pushes the water up
from the pump into the water supply system. Vertical turbine pumps are water lubricated.
Before starting, water is poured into the column pipe. The rubber bushes supporting the
shaft are wetted with water. It is done through a drum attached to the discharge head. It
reduces friction when the pump initially starts and pump shaft rub against the rubber
bushes. Rubber bushes are used to keep the pump shaft in the center of column pipe.
64
When the pump impellers are rotated through the pump shaft, water rises in the
column pipe and comes out through the discharge head. A pipe is connected with the
discharge head to supply water to the water distribution system.
In it, motor is coupled with the pump and both pump and motor are submerged in
water (Fig. 7.16). These pumps are used when water table is quite deep; greater than 100
ft. Under such circumstances, if a vertical turbine pump is installed, the shaft length
becomes quite long. This significantly add to the operational and maintenance cost of the
pump.
65
Figure 7.16: Details of a submersible pump
Solved Example
Solution
It is better to draw a hand sketch for such problems. It helps in carrying out the
design. A hand sketch for this problem is shown in Fig. 7.17.
66
Figure 7.17: A hand sketch of the field situation
(a) Design flow of tube well
First, find out the design population of the village. The average rural population
growth rates of 2.23% as per 2017 census may be adopted (Figure 6.2). A design period of
15 years (year 2032)may be adopted for the tube well.. Equation-6.6 (Chapter-6) is used
for projection.
= × (1 + ))
Pf = Population in 2032
Pi = Population in 2017
X = 2.23% per annum
n = 15
substituting values
3=3 = 4000 × (1 + 0.023).
3=3 = 5,625
Average water consumption value could be adopted from Table 5.1 (Chapter
5) and it comes out to be 70 LPCD. Since OHR is present, therefore, the design
discharge of tube well will be equal to the maximum day demand.
Average water demand = 5,625 x 70=393,750 L/day=16.4 m3/hr
67
Maximum day demand = 1.5x16.4=24.6 m3/hr
Pumping hours = 8 hr (PHED design criteria; Chapter-5 section 5.5)
∴ Total flow in 24 hour = 24.6 x 24 = 590.4 m3
Flow rate of the pump that delivers above volume of water in 8 hours
= 590.4/8 = 73.8 m3/hr
Therefore, design flow of pump = 73.8 m3/hr
=0.0205 m3/sec
= 0.73 cusec (100 m3/hr = 1 cusec)
Q = Aslots x V
Where
Q= discharge of tube well (cusec)
Aslots= area of slots in the strainer pipe (normally 12% of area of pipe)
V= velocity of entrance of water into strainer=0.06 ft/sec (0.02 m/sec); Since strata
to be encountered in not know before hand, therefore, design it is always better to be on a
safer side. Hence lower entrance velocity is adopted as it gives strainer length on a higher
side.
Q = A x V
(0.73) (0.12xπ x D x L) (0.06)
Where
Q = 0.73 cusec
D=dia of strainer; 10 inch (0.83 ft),
68
L=length of strainer, ft
Substituting values in the above equation, we get
L= 39.3 ft
Add 20% as factor of safety
∴L = 1.2 x 39.3
= 47 ft (14.4 m)
(c) Design of pump head
] ..A "
\ = 10.68 9 : ×
_.`a
Equation 7.1 (SI version of equation)
^
Where:
H= head loss, m
Q=Discharge, m3/sec
C= Hazen William Constant (140 for PVC pipes)
d= Diameter of pipe, m
L= Length of pipe, m
] ..A "
\ = 4.73 9 : ×
_.`a
Equation 7.2 (FPS version of equation)
^
Where:
H= head loss, ft
Q=Discharge, Cusec(ft3/sec)
C= Hazen William Constant (140 for PVC pipes)
d= Diameter of pipe, ft
L= Length of pipe, ft
69
Substituting values in FPS version,
=.? ..A .===
\ = 4.73 9 : × -----------------(FPS version of equation)
.Z= =._.`a
= 8.3 ft
Add 10% for specials in the rising main (valves, bends etc). Therefore, total head
losses in rising main
= 8.3x1.1 = 9.1 ft
= (60+20+20+60) + (9.1+5) + 10
= 184 ft
γ ×Q×Η
BHP = Equation 7.3
550×η
where γ = density of water = 62.4 Ib/ft3
Q= discharge of tube well, cusec
H= head of pump, ft
η = efficiency of motor ( 60% for electric motor, 40% for diesal engine)
62.4 × 0.73 × 184
b\ =
550 × 0.6
= 25.3
Rounding to higher side = 30
Electric motors are normally available in market with BHP of 5, 10, 15, 20 i.e. with
an increment of 5. Therefore, BHP is always rounded to the higher value, which is available
in the market.
7.7 SPRINGS
They appear at places where groundwater table crosses the surface of the earth or
from a fissure (Fig. 7.18)
70
Figure 7.18: Springs
Some preliminary investigations must be carried out before the site for a surface
water source is made final. These are:
1. Take flow data for at least last 20 years. It may be obtained from Irrigation
Department if surface water source is a canal, river or dam.
2. Minimum yearly flow may be determined from the data
3. Site of the surface water source may be selected in such a way that it is not
affected by the flood.
Yield of a Stream: It is the flow in a stream that can be collected for use. Yield is
time specific and keeps on changing with time. Safe Yield: It refers to the flow in the stream,
71
that is always available for use. Theoretically, safe yield is equal to the minimum flow during
the year. Flow data for streams (rivers, canals) are available with the Irrigation and Power
Department. Similarly, data on dam volume, maximum and minimum dam levels are also
available with Irrigation Department.
Draft: It is the actual quantity of water drawn from a stream for use. If draft is less
than safe yield of a stream, then a storage reservoir is not needed. However, if draft is more
than safe yield, a storage/impounded reservoir is to be constructed.
It is used to withdraw water from a surface water source (e.g. river, dam, lake etc.).
Intake structure consists of three parts
1. An opening, strainer or grating through which the water is taken from a surface
water source.
2. A conduit or channel, which is used to convey water to a sump/well by gravity.
3. A sump or well from where water is pumped to the treatment plant and
subsequently to the community.
Following points should be kept in mind, while fixing the site of an intake structure.
1. Location should be away from the wind currents.
2. Location should be safe from flood damage. Above the highest flood level
with 50 years frequency.
3. Should be located on up-stream side of the community.
Two different types of inlet, for streams (rivers, canals), are shown in Fig. 7.19. It
may be seen that either multiple ports to draw water may be provided (Type-1) or a floating
inlet that rises or lowers with water level (Type-2), may be used. Sometimes, a weir structure
72
is also constructed, across the channel, to raise the water levels and create ponded area
with sufficient water depth, at intake site. This is shown in Fig. 7.20. This type of intake has
been used at many surface water sources in Azad Jammu and Kashmir [25].
73
Figure 7.20: Protected side intake[26]
In case of Dams, irrigations channels are made for watering crops. Water, for
community supplies, may be drawn from them. For this purpose, an additional channel
termed as escape channel is made from irrigation channel up to the location where water
treatment plant is built.
For a natural lake, a floating platform with pumps may be placed in the lake to take
water.
In summary, the type of inlet may vary considerably from one surface water source
to the other and from one location to the other for the same type of surface water source.
Engineering judgement and previous experiences play important role in the suitable design
of an intake. Hence, it is suggested to carefully survey the area, select different options and
weigh their merits and demerits and also gather data on already in use successful intake
structures, before taking a final decision.
74
7.9 WATER SOURCE PROTECTION
75
Figure 7.22: Aerial view of diversion ditch and hedge [31]
Hand Pumps/Shallow Wells: Localized protection on the first instance includes
careful location of these sources away from the sources of contamination such as pit-
latrines and soakage pits. Secondly, a proper well-head protection be provided at the top of
boreholes to avoid the entry of contaminated surface water and water spills [31]. Shallow
well should be properly covered and provided with a concrete or brick apron slopping away
from the well (Fig. 7.23 & 7.24).
76
(a) Well-head protection arrangements (b) Safe withdrawal method from shallow well
77
Figure 7.24: Tube well protection with sanitary seal [31]
Once a groundwater aquifer is contaminated, as the movement of water through
sub-surface systems relative to their volume is slow and residence times are lengthy, the
natural processes of contaminants removal by dilution and discharge to surface waters may
be extremely long (decades, centuries or millennium).
Localized measures for the protection of surface water sources include proper
design and siting of intake structures away from potential sources of pollution.
Broader measures generally focus on surface water sources. However, these may
also be applied to groundwater. Surface waters are particularly vulnerable to contamination
from agricultural, industrial and municipal sources. Surface water bodies receive
wastewater from industrial and municipal sources, agro-chemicals may leach into them and
air-borne pollutants may also get dissolved in surface waters. These also receive overland
run-off that washes surface debris. Thus, all surface waters require elaborate treatment
before they are supplied for any municipal/industrial use.
There are a number of interventions which could help to protect the quality of
surface-waters, principal amongst these are [32-34]:
(a) land-use control within the catchments;
(b) proper siting of intake structures away from potential sources of pollution and
preferably upstream of them;
78
(c) treatment of effluent from industrial plants and the municipal wastewater.
(d) the establishment and enforcement of effluent quality standards.
REFERENCES
3. E. Otobo and S. O. Ifedili, (2005), The vertical electrical sounding: A viable tool for
the investigation of fresh grormdwater in the saline water environment with
particular reference to the commmrities along Warri river, J. Nig. Assoc. Math. Phys
5: p. 437-442.
5. D. K. Todd, (2004), Groundwater Hydrology, John Wiley and Sons, New York.
6. C. Lao, F. L. Peterson and D. C. Cox, (1969), Application of electric well logging and
other well logging methods in hawaii, , Technical Report No. 21. Accessed on: 18-
06-2017, Available at:
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9. CH2M Hill, Water supply needs and sources assessment alternative water supply
strategies investigation surface water availability and yield analysis; Special
Publication SJ97-SP7 Accessed on: 17-06-2017, Available at:
[www.sjrwmd.com/technicalreports/pdfs/SP/SJ97-SP7.pdf]
10. B. Vergara, (1994), Water supply needs and sources assessment, Technical
Publication SJ94-7. Palatka, St. Johns River Water Management District, Flourida,
USA.
79
11. CH2M HILL, (1996), Water supply needs and sources assessment, an alternative
water supply strategies investigation surface water withdrawal sites, Special
Publication SJ96-SP4, Flourida, USA. Accessed on: 17-06-2017, Available at:
[www.sjrwmd.com/technicalreports/pdfs/SP/SJ96-SP4.pdf]
12. CH2M Hill, Water supply needs and sources assessment alternative water supply
strategies investigation surface water data acquisition and evaluation methodology;
Special Publication SJ96-SP1. 1996: Flourida, USA.
13. The Oklahoma Water Resources Board, (2017), Surface water studies; hydrologic
investigations. Accessed on: 17-06-2017, Available at:
[https://www.owrb.ok.gov/studies/surface/investigations.php]
14. Punjab Public Health Engineering Department, (2008), Technical and service
delivery standards for water supply and sanitation sectors: p. 44.
15. T. J. McGhee, (1990), Water supply and sewerage, McGraw Hill Inc., USA.
16. National Center for Environmental Health-Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, (1998), A Survey of the quality of water drawn from domestic wells in
nine midwest states. Accessed on: 18-06-217, Available at:
[https://www.cdc.gov/.../A%20Survey%20of%20the%20Quality%20ofWater%20Dr
aw..]
17. J. Okotto, H. Price, S. Pedley and J. Wright, (2015), A longitudinal study of long-
term change in contamination hazards and shallow well quality in two
neighbourhoods of Kisumu, Kenya, International Journal of Environmental
Research and Public Health 12: p. 4275-4291.
18. Madhya Pardesh Water Resources Department, India, (2010), Drilling of tube wells.
Accessed on: 18-06-2017, Available at:
[www.mpwrd.gov.in/documents/18/06516554-5071-45db-acea-de266ca25fff]
19. Bureau of Indian Standards, (1999), Code of practice for construction and testing of
tubewells. Accessed on: 17-06-2017, Available at:
[https://xa.yimg.com/kq/groups/nN6sHyXuedZOCIfIKQ--/...AGKVFp/.../2800_2.pdf]
20. American Water Works Association, Standards for water wells (AA100-060).
22. DAB water technologies, Quick guide for pump selection. Accessed on: 18-06-
2017, Available at:
[https://www.dabpumps.com/.../60118741_QUICK%20GUIDE%20FOR%20PUMP
%2...]
80
23. D. Ramaswamy, M. A. Suryawanshi and R. Bhasha, (2010), Principles of pumps
and pumping installation, Indian Institution of Railway Electrical Engineers,
Maharashtra, India. Accessed on: 18-06-2017, Available at:
[www.irieen.indianrailways.gov.in/.../1302522604445-
Principles%20of%20Pumps%2]
24. Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment, (2013), Design criteria for
potable water system. Accessed on: 22-06-2017, Available at:
[https://www.colorado.gov/.../WQ-ENG-
POL%20Design%20Criteria%20for%20Potabl...]
25. Syed Tassaduq Hussain-Chief Engineer Central Design Office, (2015), Surface
water sources in Azad Jammu and Kashmir, [Personal communication].
26. World Health Organization (WHO), (2010), Water sanitation and health. Accessed
on: 22-08-2015, Available at:
http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/hygiene/om/linkingchap3.pdf
27. Sajjad Haydar, (2004), Source protection for water supplies, Engineering News:
Quarterly Journal of Pakistan Engineering Congress, 42(2): p. 5-12.
29. M. Tamas, T. E. Man, G. N. Pelea and R. Beilicci, (2016), Study on water source
protection - Case study of Lake Buhui – Anina City, Caras – Severin County,
Romania, Procedia Engineering, 161: p. 2203-2208.
30. F. Folifac, L. Lifongo, G. Nkeng and S. Gaskin, (2009), Municipal drinking water
source protection in low income countries: Case of Buea municipality-Cameroon,
Journal of Ecology and Natural Environment 1(4): p. 73-84.
31. S. Cairncross and R. Feachem, (1978), Small water supplies-Ross Bulletin No. 10,
The Ross Institute Information and Advisory Service, London School of Hygiene and
Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London.
32. R. J. Burby and E. J. Kaiser, (1983), Drinking water supplies, protection through
watershed management, Ann Arbor Science Publishers, USA.
34. J. Chilton, (1996), Water Quality Assessments (in) Groundwater; D. Chapman (ed),
Chapman and Hall, London.
81
Chapter-8
82
WATER TRANSMISSION MAINS OR
RISING MAINS
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Sometimes, water source is located away from the community (point of distribution).
Pipeline laid, to convey water from water source to point of distribution, is referred to as
transmission main/rising main. As discussed in Chapter-1, a portion of total water, supplied
to Karachi, is obtained from Kalari Lake, situated 122 Km away from Karachi. Water from
the lake is thus transmitted through a transmission main/rising main [1]. Similarly, a major
part of water supply to Rawalpindi is obtained from Rawal Dam, built on Korang river,
through a 14 Km long transmission main [2].
Where
Q = flow (cusec, ft3/sec)
A = Area of pipe (ft2, m2)
V = Velocity of water (ft/sec; m/sec)
Above equation may be used for manual design. Alternately, computer simulation
software may also be used for the design of the transmission mains/rising mains. Use of
computer software is discussed in detail in Chapter-9.
As per PHED Punjab, WASA Lahore and other international design guidelines, the
velocity in transmission mains/rising mains is normally maintained in a range between 2-7
ft/sec (0.6-2 m/sec) [3-7].
The value of velocity is initially adopted from the above limit. Equation-8.1 is used
to find out the area of pipe required for a given flow and adopted velocity. Once area is
determined, the pipe diameter can be determined using the following equation.
83
X 6
d= Equation 8.2
Z
Where, “d” is the diameter of the transmission main/rising main. Adoption of a lower
velocity results in larger diameter pipe. Larger diameter pipes, obviously, would be costly.
However, friction loses in the pipe would be lower due to large diameter and less resistance
to water flow. Consequently, pump head required would also be less. This, in turn, would
result in lower energy costs in pumping and lower energy bills.
If higher velocities are adopted, pipe diameter would be smaller. This reduces
capital cost. But on the other hand, friction losses would be more due to greater resistance
to water flow in smaller diameter pipes. Thus, higher head pumps would be needed. This
would increase energy bills to run the system. Thus, there is always a tradeoff between
capital cost and operation cost while selecting a suitable velocity in transmission
mains/rising mains.
Generally, velocities up to 5 ft/sec may be selected. Velocities, higher than this may
result in wear and tear of the internal pipe surface and hence are not advisable.
It is a vertical profile of the route of rising main. It is a graph with distance along x-
axis and levels along y-axis. An accurate L-Section is possible only when accurate levels
of the exact route of rising main are known. It is used for the placement of air valves (AV)
and wash outs (WO), which play a key role in trouble free operation of long rising mains.
Air valves are placed at summits and washouts at the lowest points. Air valves
release the air entrapped in the pipes and thus avoid air locking. Air enters pipes during: (1)
pump startups; (2) during low flow conditions when pipe may be flowing partially full. Air is
usually accumulated in downward sloping pipe, downstream of a high point (Fig. 8.1).
84
Figure 8.1: Air entrapment in downward sloping pipe [8]
Wash outs are used to drain sediments during routine cleaning and flushing of lines.
Valves are discussed in detail in Chapter-9. A typical L-Section of a transmission main/rising
main is shown in Fig. 8.2.
AV
AV
Level (ft)
AV
WO
WO
Head losses in transmission main/rising main are evaluated using Hazen William
equation. Both SI and FPS versions are given in Chapter-7. These are reproduced again.
] ..A "
H=4.73 9 : ×
_.`a
(FPS Version) Equation 8.3
^
] ..A "
H=10.68 9 : ×
_.`a
(SI Version) Equation 8.4
^
Different terms have already been defined in Chapter-7. The value of ‘C’ varies with
pipe material. Normally, value of ‘C’ for new pipe is higher than as reported in Table 8.1. As
pipe grows old, the value of ‘C’ reduces and thus friction losses increase. It is evident from
85
the above equations that C is inversely proportional to head loss. Given values may be
adopted for different pipe materials. These values are for 20 year old pipes, and used for
design purpose.
Table 8.1: Hazen William Coefficient for different pipe materials[9, 10]
Type of pipe Value of C
Galvanized Iron (GI) 100
Steel and Ductile Iron 100
Mild steel 100
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) 140
Asbestos Cement (AC) 120
Polypropylene Random Copoylmer 140
(PPRC)
Polyethylene (PE) 140
High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) 140
Choice of pipe material for transmission main/rising main depends upon: (1) the size
of the pipe and (2) the pipe length. For larger diameters and longer lengths, water hammer
is high, hence stronger pipe material is used. For smaller diameter and shorter lengths,
water hammer is less, hence cheaper material may be used. Water hammer is discussed
in section 8.8.
8.7.1 For larger diameter rising mains (16 inch (400 mm) and above)
86
For details on other pipe types, jointing methods, suitability and other characteristics,
the reader is referred to Chapter-9 (section-9.6). However, a brief discussion on the merits
and demerits of Steel and DI pipes is briefly given in this chapter.
Merits
• High pressure rating.
• Light in weight and minimum damage to pipes in transportation.
• Economical as compared to other high strength pipes.
Demerits
• Less corrosion resistance.
DI pipe
Merits
• High pressure rating.
• Corrosion control is easier and inexpensive.
• Ductile iron pipe is easier to install.
• Push-on (spigot and socket/bell) type jointing system.
Demerits
• Higher cost as compared to other available pipes.
Especially, in rising mains of longer lengths and bigger diameter, water hammer
becomes quite critical and must be examined and evaluated during design of rising mains.
This process is generally referred to as surge analysis. If ignored, it results in severe
operational problems and malfunctioning of the transmission/rising mains.
Water hammer is referred as ‘the pulsation of pressure above and below operating
pressure’. The possible reasons may be:
1. Quick opening/closing of the valve
2. Sudden starting/stopping of the pump
The choice of pipe materials for rising main is dictated by the pressure. The pipe
should be safe against both, the working pressure and when water hammer acts.
87
Software are available for surge analysis under complex conditions. In simple
cases, formulae given in American Water Works Association (AWWA) manual for steel
pipes may be used [15]. The procedure to find water hammer is illustrated as under:
MS pipe may sustain up to 1000 psi pressure (refer to manufacturer brochure for
exact information).
There exist several techniques to control water hammer in rising mains, which
includes provision of
1. check valves,
88
2. surge control valves,
3. surge tanks and
4. stronger pipe material that can bear the water hammer.
The selection of a specific remedial measure depends on factors such as: (1)
capital cost and (2) terrain of the area.
Surge tank is a feasible option in hilly terrain. The tank may be built on the top of a
ridge. When hammer comes, the water pulsates in the tank. Hence pipes are saved from
the surge. In flat topography surge valves may be used. For smaller diameter pipes, non-
return valves may also be used with a spacing prescribed in Chapter-5 in Design Criteria
for water supplies, by PHED [3].
REFERENCES
1. IEP, (2014), Indus Ecoreigon Programme. Accessed on: 20-07-2014, Available at:
[http://foreverindus.org/ie_protectedareas_ramsar.php]
3. Government of Punjab, (2008), Technical and service delivery standards for water
supply and sanitation sectors.
4. Water and Sanitation Agency Lahore, (1976), Design criteria for sanitary sewer,
water supply and drainage, Lahore Development Authority.
5. California Department of Public Health (CDPH), Design criteria for water supplies.
Accessed on: 22-06-2017, Available at: [lbwater.org/sites/default/files/domestic.pdf]
6. World Bank, (2012), Design manual, volume-1, rural water supply. Accessed on:
22-06-2018, Available at:
[siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPHILIPPINES/Resources/RWSVolIDesignManual
.pdf]
89
[ceeserver.cee.cornell.edu/mw24/cee332/Lectures/015%20Transmission%20Line.
ppt]
10. Marley Pipe Systems, (2010), HDPE design considerations. Accessed on: 22-06-
2017, Available at:
[https://www.marleypipesystems.co.za/images/pdfdownloads/productbrochures/hd
pe-design-considerations.pdf]
11. 3M™ Scotchkote™ USA, (2013), Fusion bonded epoxy coating 6233P. Accessed
on: 23-06-2017, Available at:
[http://multimedia.3m.com/mws/media/880258O/3mtm-scotchkotetm-fusion-
bonded-epoxy-coating-6233p-technical-information.pdf]
12. American Iron and Steel Institute, (2007), Welded steel pipes, Design Manual: p. 5.
Accessed: 23-06-2017, Available at:
[https://www.steeltank.com/Portals/0/pubs/Welded%20Steel%20Pipe%2010.10.07
.pdf]
13. A. L. Mamish, (2010), Tape coating system for pipeline corrosion protection, Berry
Plastics Corp., Lexington, MA. Accessed on: 23-06-2018, Available at:
[www.pstc.org/files/public/mamish09.pdf]
14. Ductile iron pipe research association, (2015), Ductile iron pipe Vs steel pipe,
Birmingham, UK. Accessed on: 20-07-2018, Available
at:[https://www.dipra.org/ductile-iron-pipe/dipra-facts-and-figures/ductile-iron-vs-
steel]
15. American Water Works Association (AWWA), (2004), Manual of water supply
practices—M11, Steel Pipe—A guide for design and installation: p. 51.
90
Chapter-9
91
WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
9.1 COMPONENTS OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Water distribution system (WDS) refers to the network of pipelines laid along the
streets/roads within a community, with the purpose of providing water supply to the people.
Service connections are provided to the consumers from WDS. It also includes various
appurtenances/accessories essential to run the WDS. Thus, it may have the following
components;
i. Pipes
ii. Valves/fire hydrants
iii. Overhead reservoirs (OHRs)
iv. Specials (Tees, bends, thrust blocks etc.)
This chapter covers a discussion on the above mentioned components of WDS. In
addition, the chapter also contains material on design and construction of WDS.
Distribution of water to consumers may be carried out in three different ways [1, 2].
92
(c) Gravity method
No pumping is required in this method of distribution. This method may be employed
in hilly areas. Water is collected, may be through a spring, into a storage reservoir located
at sufficient height from WDS. Thus, water flows under gravity. This method is feasible only
if the topography of the area supports. It is the most economical method. It has no
associated energy cost.
Layout of WDS depends upon layout of city roads and streets. Two systems are in
common use [1, 3].
(a) Tree branch or dead end system
It is normally used in irregularly developed areas (Fig 9.1). The advantages include:
(1) easy to design and (2) less number of valves. However, there are some disadvantages
as well; (1) large areas may be cut off in case of valve closure (during maintenance works)
and (2) stagnation of water at dead ends may occur.
93
supply and pressures are balanced and (4) small areas are cut off in case of valve shut off.
However, number of valves needed are more as compared to tree branch system.
Water supply to consumers may be of two types; (1) continuous or (2) intermittent
[2].
In continuous system, consumers are provided water for 24 hours. It has certain
merits; (1) water is available for firefighting at all the times and (2) no infiltration of
undesirable water would occur in water distribution system as WDS pipes are always
pressurized. However, this system has more operational cost. In addition, consumers tend
to use more water.
In intermittent system, water is supplied twice or thrice a day during period of high
water consumption. In general, it is considered economical with respect to operational cost
and water usage. Paradoxically, more water is needed for such systems due to high
wastage. Firefighting may be an issue during period of no supply. Infiltration of dirty water
may take place during no supply period when pipes may not be in pressurized condition.
Pipe maintenance costs (in case of galvanized iron pipes) are higher in intermittent supply
systems as the pipes are alternately exposed to air and water and corrode faster. They
need to be repaired and changed more often to control leakage. Because of the poor
94
service provided and the low quantities of water, tariffs are often low in such systems.
Intermittent supply also poses health risk [4-8].
95
Figure 9.3: Concept of balancing reservoir
Different types of water supply pipes are available in the market. While selecting a
particular type of pipe, following points must be considered [10].
1. Cost of pipe
2. Durability
3. Maintenance cost
4. Type of water to be conveyed (corrosive/normal)
5. Ease of handling
6. Ability to withstand pressure from supply source
7. Degradation when exposed to environmental and physical conditions
96
Figure 9.4: Cast iron pipe; flanged joint
Common Use: Water and wastewater treatment plants, pumping stations, and
where rigidity and strength is required. Mostly exposed pipes in water and wastewater
treatment plants are CI pipes.
Dis-advantages: Rusting can reduce its capacity by 70%, therefore, internal surface
is lined with 1:2 cement sand mortar, if required.
97
9.6.3 Asbestos cement (AC) pipe
It is generally known that AC pipes cause cancer. However, there is not yet any
conclusive evidence that asbestos fibers ingested cause cancer. Nevertheless, it has been
established that workers in AC pipe factories, that inhale asbestos fibers are exposed to
lung cancer [19-25].
Life: ≈ 30 years
C: 130
Length available in market: 13.2 ft (4 m)
Sizes: 80mm to 600mm (to be exact, refer to manufacturer’s brochure)
Pressure rating: B (200 ft), C(300 ft), D(400 ft)
Jointing: Collar Joint (Fig. 9.5)
Common Use: Distribution system, rising mains
Advantages:
(a) Immune to action of salts, no corrosion
(b) Easy laying and jointing
(c) Less pumping cost due to less friction
98
Advantages:
(a) Easy to install
(b) Cheap
(c) Small pumping cost
Life: 50 years
C: 140
Pressure rating: PN: 8 Bar to 16 Bar (250 to 525 ft) (where 1 Bar = 10 m)
Diameter: 1 inch to 10 inch (20 to 250 mm)
Jointing: Socket fusion upto 4 inch and Butt fusion1 for larger diameters. Special
welding machine is used. It is essential to strictly follow the time and temperature for proper
jointing/welding of pipes as recommended by the manufacturer (see videos on YouTube for
better understanding)
Common use: For water distribution system
Life: 50 years
99
C: 140
Size: 1 inch to 32 inch (20 mm to 800 mm)
Joint: Heat fusion
Pressure rating: PN: 4 to 32 bar
Common Uses: May be used for water supply and wastewater collection. These can
be used on surface and underground.
Life: 50 years
C: 140
Diameter: 1 inch to 4 inch diameter (20 to 110 mm)
Joints: Heat fusion
Pressure rating: 20 Bar (200 m or 656 ft)
Common use: In household plumbing system for hot and cold pipes
Water supply pipes in WDS may be named according to their size and function they
perform (Fig. 9.7).
1. Primary Feeders
They form the main skeleton of WDS. They convey water from source/storage tanks
to various parts of the city area. Preferably they should form LOOPs for continuous service
and adequate fire flows. They are the largest in size and may be up to 24 inch (900 mm) in
diameter.
2. Secondary Feeders
They carry large quantities of water from primary feeders to various areas to cater
for normal supplies and firefighting. They form smaller loops within the loops of primary
feeders. These are generally 10 to 12 inches in diameter. In Lahore secondary feeders are
12 inch (300 mm) in size.
100
Note: Service connections are never provided from primary and secondary feeders.
Different types of valves are provided in WDS with the following purpose.
1. To regulate flow
2. To regulate pressure
3. To cut off supply for repair purposes
Sufficient number of properly located valves are essential for the proper operation
and control of the pipe network.
These are used to shut off water mains for repairs and to regulate flow. These are
generally placed at street intersections (Fig. 9.8). The placement is such that a minimum of
area is cut-off during maintenance.
101
Figure 9.8: Location of sluice/gate valves
These allow uni-directional flow of water. These are generally used in pumping
stations. One valve is placed on the suction line of the pump to prevent loss of water when
pump is stopped and one valve is used on delivery line of the pump to avoid water hammer
(Fig. 7.5), in case of sudden stoppage of pump due to power failure. They are also placed
in smaller diameter along the rising mains to reduce water hammer (≤ 8 inches; for details
see chapter-5 on Design Criteria)
These have same function as sluice valve. Usually these are used in bigger diameter
pipes (diameter > 300 mm (12 inch)). Butterfly valve has a disc that slowly rotates in the
pipe to regulate/open/close the flow to reduce the water hammer (Fig. 9.9). Head losses
take place even when the valve is fully open.
Sluice valve (SV) has a sliding gate that retracts into the bonnet when it is open (Fig.
9.10). Hence there are no head losses when valve is fully open. As the pipe diameter
increases, the size and cost of a gate valve increases manifold than that of a butterfly valve.
The reason is the larger size of bonnet to accommodate the sliding gate. Hence butterfly
valves are used when pipe size is greater than 12 inches (300 mm).
102
Bonnet
Rotating Disk
These are used to reduce pressure automatically on the downstream side of their
point of fixing to any desired magnitude. These are employed where there is a large
elevation difference. Due to it, the head become so high (Fig. 9.11), that the plumbing fixture
may be damaged due to the high head. Hence PRVs are used to bring down the pressure.
It is used to allow the accumulated air in the pipe system to escape and the external
air to enter pipe system to avoid the creation of vacuum. These are placed at the highest
points or summits of pipes (Fig. 9.12).
103
Figure 9.12: Double action air valve, placed at the pipe summit
It is used to close a supply line automatically, especially in OHR to cut off supply
when it is full. It is also used in flush tanks.
These are sluice valves of bigger size and are employed in barrages and water
channels and screening chambers at wastewater disposal stations to regulate flow (Fig.
9.14).
104
Sluice Gate/Penstock
These are used to take the surge and avoid bursting of pipes in transmission mains.
Fire hydrants are employed to draw water for firefighting. The diameter of the pipe
on which a fire hydrant is placed should be at least 6-8 inches [26].
In the design of a WDS a designer has to ensure two basic requirement; (1) the
community gets required quantity of water and (2) the water is supplied with adequate
terminal head [1, 2].
Design and analysis of water distribution network involve complex calculations.
Hence software is generally used. The basic algorithm used in the software is generally,
Hardy Cross [27, 28]. It is based upon the following two assumptions: (1) at a node, the
water flowing into the node is equal to water flowing out of the node and (2) the sum of head
losses around a loop is zero. The schematics of the algorithm is shown in Fig. 9. 15. Nodes
are points from where water is withdrawn for distribution. Nodes 1, 2, 3 and 4 are connected
through pipes to form a loop. Arrows show the direction of flow in the connecting pipe.
105
Figure 9.15: Hardy Cross algorithm schematic diagram
106
demands. Most commonly, number of persons per plot is fixed and thus the number
of total persons fed from the node is calculated. From the per capita water
consumption (adopted from design criteria), total average flow to be drawn from the
node is calculated. It is multiplied by peak factor (usually 2.25) to get the peak
demand at the node. Note that WDS network is designed on peak demand (refer to
chapter-5). The above procedure is repeated for all nodes. Thus, peak demand at
all nodes is determined and written on the map. Length of all pipes is also written on
the map. The above data are fed to the software as input file. Alternately, average
demand at each node is written on the map and while data are fed in the input file
the peak factor is mentioned along. The designer may adopt any of the above
method to feed the data in software input file.
3. Second method to find nodal demands is to project the population for design year.
Divide the population with area covered by WDS network. Find the population
density. Assign area to be served by each node. From population density find the
population served by the node. From average water consumption determine nodal
demand and then find out the peak demand at each node. Later feed the data in
software as input file. The input file contains nodal demand, node number assigned
to each node, pipe length and pipe number assigned to each pipe and Hazen Willian
Coefficient for the pipe.
4. The first trial run is made with assumed pipe diameters. The results show head at
each node, flow, velocity and head loss in each pipe. The results are examined to
see that the requirement of minimum residual head (also called terminal head) is
achieved at each node. If not, additional trials are made by changing pipe diameter.
If residual heads are lower than the required, pipe diameter are increased and vice
versa. After a number of trials, most optimum pipe network is reached.
5. At the end, the print out of output file is taken to be attached in the design report.
6. All software have the capacity to simulate OHRs, tube wells, ground storage
reservoirs, sluice valves, pressure reducing valves etc.
7. Residual chlorine modeling may also be performed in EPANET. If wall coefficient
for the pipe material is known, a trial dose of chlorine may be fed into the software
to see the amount of chlorine at different points of WDS network. It is a very useful
feature in EPANET [29].
8. Reader is referred to the User Manual of EPANET, or any other software used by
the reader to learn how to use the software.
107
9.11 LAYING OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
108
Figure 9.17: Thrust blocks
4. Backfilling
After the laying and jointing of the pipe is over, the trench is backfilled. Backfill
material should be free from large stones. First 1 ft of trench should be manually backfilled
and slowly tamped (force down by repeated blows). It is done to avoid any damage to pipe,
and afterwards, any mechanical mean i.e. tractor etc. may be used for the rest of filling.
Two tests are performed before the WDS is put to operation. These are (1)
disinfection and (2) hydraulic testing.
9.12.1 Disinfection
In the process of handling and placing, it is inevitable that the newly laid water mains
will be polluted due to:
1. Storage on the street
2. Mud at the bottom of the trench
3. Wastewater which may run into the trench.
Steps for disinfection are:
1. Flush the lines with water at a velocity of at least 2.5 ft/sec (0.76 m/sec).
109
2. After flushing, pipe is filled with water having free residual chlorine with a
concentration of at least 1.0 mg/L. After 24 hours, water sample is drawn and it must
contain 0.5 mg/L of chlorine. After chlorine test, bacteriological analysis of water is
also conducted.
3. If any coliform bacteria are found, then fill the pipe with water containing 50 mg/L
available chlorine. After 24 hour holding period, chlorine concentration should not
reduce below 25 mg/L.
4. Flush the pipes with water.
It is a very important test and must be carried out before backfilling of trenches [30-
33]. Allowable leakage depends upon:
(1) pipe diameter and
(2) test pressure.
AWWA specifications say that actual leakage should not exceed as indicated by the
following formula.
√
! = op Equation 9.1
.ZA,===
L = allowable leakage, gallon/hr
S = Length of pipe in feet
D = nominal dia of pipe, inches
P = average test pressure, psi
Average test pressure is usually 1.5 times the working pressure of pipe. For
example, for a PVC B class pipe, which has a working pressure of 200 ft, the test pressure
will be 300 ft.
Testing is usually carried out upon lengths of pipe not exceeding 1000 ft (300m). It
is illustrated in Fig. 9.18 and complete procedure is also given below.
110
Figure 9.18: Schematic showing hydraulic testing of pipes
Note: Leakage survey for big transmission lines/rising mains, is important. After
initial hydraulic testing, this survey must be repeated at regular intervals, may be once a
year.
111
Solved Problem
L = 0.47 gallon/hr
Different methods may be employed for leakage detection in WDS. These are:
1. Presence of green grasses over water pipe, during a drought on the ground. It shows
presence of moisture due to pipe leakage.
2. Insert a steel rod in ground and check its tip whether it is wet or dry.
3. A serious leak may be guessed by a sudden drop in pressure on a pressure gauge.
4. Use of aquaphone.
112
Figure 9.19: Typical house connection from WDS
REFERENCES
1. T. J. McGhee, (1991), Water supply and sewrage (6th Edition), McGraw Hill Inc.,
USA.
6. A. C. McIntosh, (2003), Asian water supplies reaching the urban, IWA publishing,
USA. Accessed on: 26-07-2017, Available at:
[https://www.adb.org/documents/books/asian_water_supplies]
7. N. Sunna, (2003), Water quality and intermittent water supplies, World Health
Organization Regional Centre for Environmental Health Activities (CEHA), Amman.
113
Accessed on: 20-08-2017, Available at:
[http://www.emro.who.int/ceha/media/powerpoint/quality.pps]
10. W. W. Amon, (2015), The use of different types of pipes for transmision of water in
Kenya, BSc Thesis, University of Nairobi.
11. Civilblog.org, (2015), Pipes for water supply system. Accessed on: 24-06-2017,
Available at: [http://civilblog.org/2015/08/25/7-types-of-pipes-used-in-water-supply-
system-of-buildings/#]
12. E. Gur and D. Spuhler, (2014), Water distribution pies, Sustainable sanitation and
water management. Accessed on: 24-06-2017, Available at:
[http://www.sswm.info/content/water-distribution-pipes]
13. Ahmed, (2017), Water supply and various types of pipes. Accessed on: 24-06-2017,
Available at: [http://www.gharexpert.com/tips/articles/Construction/1804/Drainage-
,-Sanitary-System-Plumbing-1804-Water-Supply-Various-Types-Pipes_0]
14. P. Scott, (2011), Types of water supply pipes, Nevada: wiseGEEK. Accessed on:
24-06-2017, Available at: [http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-water-pipe.htm]
15. BS 3505, (1986), Unplasticized polyvinylchloride (uPVC) pressure pipes for cold
portable water.
16. 3M™ Scotchkote™ USA, (2013), Fusion bonded epoxy coating 6233P. Accessed
on: 23-06-2017, Available at:
[http://multimedia.3m.com/mws/media/880258O/3mtm-scotchkotetm-fusion-
bonded-epoxy-coating-6233p-technical-information.pdf]
17. American Iron and Steel Institute, (2007), Welded steel pipes, Design Manual: p. 5.
Accessed: 23-06-2017, Available at:
[https://www.steeltank.com/Portals/0/pubs/Welded%20Steel%20Pipe%2010.10.07
.pdf]
18. A. L. Mamish, (2010), Tape coating system for pipeline corrosion protection, Berry
Plastics Corp., Lexington, MA. Accessed on: 23-06-2018, Available at:
[www.pstc.org/files/public/mamish09.pdf]
114
19. American Cancer Society, (2015), Asbestos and cancer risk. Accessed on: 24-06-
2017, Available at: [https://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancer-causes/asbestos.html]
20. National Cancer Institute Spain, (2017), Asbestos exposure and cancer risk.
Accessed on: 30-06-2017, Available at: [https://www.cancer.gov/about-
cancer/causes-prevention/risk/substances/asbestos/asbestos-fact-sheet]
22. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, (1984), Health effects assessment for
asbestos, EPA/540/1-86/049 (NTIS PB86134608). Accessed on: 30-06-2017,
Available at:
[https://cfpub.epa.gov/si/si_public_record_Report.cfm?dirEntryID=40602]
24. M. Goldberg and D. Luce, (2009), The health impact of nonoccupational exposure
to asbestos: what do we know?, European Journal of Cancer Prevention, 18(6): p.
489-503.
28. A. M. G. Lopes, (2004), Implementation of the Hardy-Cross method for the solution
of piping networks, Comput Appl Eng Educ 12: p. 117125.
30. AWWA, (2004), Standard C600 and C605; Appendix C, Procedures for pressure
and leakage testing of water mains.
31. AWWA, (2003), Principles and practices of water supply operations: water
transmission and distribution, Denver, CO.,.
115
32. AWWA, (2002), PVC pipe-design and installation, Manual of Water Supply Practices
M23, Denver, USA.
33. AWWA, (2005), Underground Installation of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pressure pipe
and fittings for water, AWWA Standard C605, Denver, USA.
116
Chapter-10
117
WATER QUALITY, CRITERIA AND
STANDARDS
Water can be brought into different uses such as:
1. Water supply: municipal and industrial
2. Recreational: swimming, boating etc.
3. Fisheries
4. Commercial
5. Sports
Each use requires a specific quality of water if that use is to be continued. In this
chapter, water quality for municipal water would be in focus. Municipal water is the one that
is furnished for domestic and commercial use by any government agency (municipality,
WASA) or private non-governmental organization (NGO) (see Chapter-4). Municipal water
is also used for drinking purposes. Hence its quality is related to human health.
Water which is safe to drink, pleasant to taste and useable for domestic purposes is
called potable water. Whereas contaminated water is the one which causes ill health effects.
It defines those chemical, physical and biological characteristics by which one can
evaluate the acceptability of water for a specific use. Surface water (rivers, springs, streams,
lakes, etc.) carries suspended particles of sand, silt and clay and microorganisms -- pathogenic
(disease causing) and non-pathogenic (non-disease causing) [1]. Groundwater contains
dissolved substances like minerals e.g., calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, and dissolved
salts of these minerals like sulfates, chlorides, carbonates, bicarbonates, and dissolved metals.
Nutrients like phosphorous and nitrogen etc. are also present in surface and groundwater. A
variety of trace elements like heavy metals (chromium, cadmium, lead, mercury etc.) and organic
pollutants (pesticides, phenols etc.) may also be present in surface and groundwater.
Human impacts, that include; increase in human population, industrialization, agriculture
and urbanization, have seriously affected water quality globally [2-10]. Pakistan is not an
exception [1, 11-16]. Water pollution has serious implications not only for human race but also
for all other flora and fauna.
Water pollution, from human sources, comes from a variety of ways. These include [11]:
118
(a) Release of untreated industrial wastewaters into environmental (like water bodies,
on land, oceans).
(b) Use of fertilizers and pesticides on agricultural lands. Runoff mobilizes fertilizers
and pesticides. Thus, these may seep into ground and join shallow groundwater
sources or enter water bodies.
(c) Oil, grease and toxic chemicals from urban runoff.
(d) Eroded sediments from construction sites, crop fields, forest lands and stream
banks.
(e) Bacteriological contaminants from poorly maintained water supply system.
Various reasons of contamination are: poor workmanship in laying transmission lines
and distribution system; poor maintenance of water transmission and distribution
pipes; cross connection between water pipes and sewers laid close enough and
impounded storm water seeping into poorly maintained water pipes.
(f) Soakage pits in rural areas where groundwater table is high.
Compromised drinking water quality has serious health implications in the form of
different diseases. Other effects are aesthetic related to colour, taste and odour in water.
Water and diseases have a close relationship [17-20] . The water related diseases
can be classified into 3 categories.
1. Water-borne diseases
2. Water-washed diseases
3. Water-based diseases
119
The laboratory procedure to determine the bacteriological quality of water is through
Escherichia Coli (EColi) test. EColi bacteria live in human gut and are excreted with the
feces. These are referred to as indicator microorganisms. Their presence in water indicate
that the water has come in contact with human feces. There are chances that a person
suffering from a water borne disease may be present in the community. If it is true, then the
wastewater stream containing feces would bear disease causing microorganism. Thus,
person using water having EColi, may suffer from a water-borne disease.
A water-washed disease is the one that is caused by skin or eye contact with
contaminated water. These include; trachoma, scabies and flea, lice and tick borne
diseases [29]. Water washed diseases may also be caused due to severe lack of adequate
water supplies.
A water-based disease is the one caused by the parasites living in water. Diseases
like Schistosomiasis, Dracunculiasis (also called guinea worm disease), and other
helminthic (worms) diseases, fall in this type. Schistosomiasis is caused by a small worm,
a parasite recognized as Fluke which enters human body by drinking contaminated water.
Or it may also enter through skin if one swims or baths in the contaminated water. Global
figures show 243 million cases per year of Schistosomiasis [30]. Guinea worm has
dramatically reduced from 3.5 million cases in 1986 to almost negligible in 2015, by
educating people through community based programs led by WHO and UNICEF [31, 32] .
Helminths are reported to cause diseases in 1 billion people per year [33, 34]. Similarly,
diseases caused by mosquitoes such as malaria, dengue fever etc. are also water based
diseases.
Many water based diseases follow the fecal-oral route ( from excreta to water and
water taken by a person; flies sit on excreta and then on food and food taken by a person;
from infected hands after defecation if food is taken without washing contaminated hands)
[35, 36].
Water quality may be protected by adopting a multi barrier approach. Firstly: raw water
sources, both surface and groundwater, must be safeguarded against contamination. For details
see Chapter-7. Secondly, appropriate water treatment may be rendered, if raw water does not
meet the specific quality standards. Reader is referred to books on water treatment methods.
Thirdly, protection of water distribution system (WDS) is of critical importance. For WDS,
surrogate measures monitored are: residual chlorine, water pressure and turbidity. If these
remain within prescribed limits, water quality may be reasonably ensured. Water must have at
120
least 0.2 mg/L of residual chlorine when it reaches consumer end. Maintaining adequate water
pressure saves intrusion of contaminated water present in the surroundings of water pipes. Low
level of turbidity ensures effective disinfection and good aesthetic quality.
Table 10.1 delineates various impurities/contaminants in water and their health and
general impacts.
121
Sr
Type Pollutant/contaminant Impact
No.
Iodide causes goiter if < 1 mg/L [45]
122
Sr
Type Pollutant/contaminant Impact
No.
cancer and other skin lesions, such as
pigmentation changes [47, 54].
Aluminum (Al) May give rise to alzheimer, dementia and
cognitive impairment [55].
Antimony (Sb) At given concentration, normally found in
natural water, has no harmful impact [56].
Barium (Ba) For drinking water the maximum contaminant
level set by the USEPA is 2.0 mg/L. Barium
(Ba+2) can cause an increase in blood
pressure, gastrointestinal problems, muscle
weakness and affect the nervous and
circulatory system [57, 58].
Boron (B) Affects male testes at concentration level of
2.0 mg/L [59, 60].
Copper (Cu) Cause nausea, abdominal pain, or vomiting
[61, 62]
Cyanide (CN) Lowers Vitamin B12 levels and increases
incidence of goiter [63, 64].
Nickle (Ni) No significant health impacts through water
[65].
Selenium (Se) Causes loss of hair, weakened nails, mental
symptoms [66].
Zinc (Zn) zinc levels greater than 5 mg/L can lead to
stomach cramps, nausea and vomiting [67,
68]
Phenolic compounds Act as carcinogens and cause damage to
the red blood cells and the liver, even at low
concentrations [69].
Polynuclear aromatic Carcinogenic [70].
hydrocarbons (PAH)
Total Pesticides Acute* effects include diarrhea, nausea,
(There is a long list of vomiting, abdominal pain, profuse sweating,
pesticides. Normally total salivation, blurred vision, irritation of skin,
pesticides are reported) eyes, and upper respiratory tract. However,
no chronic effects are observed [71, 72].
123
Sr
Type Pollutant/contaminant Impact
No.
E-Coli Indicator of fecal contamination.
3. Gases Oxygen Causes corrosiveness to metals
H2S Malodourous
CO2 Produces acidity
*Acute toxicity is defined to be the amount needed to kill 50 percent of a population of laboratory rats. It is
expressed as milligrams of pesticide per kilogram of body weight. Ranges are defined as follows: high toxicity:
<500 mg/kg; moderate toxicity: 500 - 5000 mg/kg; low toxicity: >5000 mg/kg
Pakistan announced its National Standards for Drinking Water Quality (NSDWQ) in
2010 [73]. Primary aim of these standards is the protection of public health and elimination
or reduction to a minimum of constituents of water that are known to be hazardous to health.
After the 18th amendment in the constitution, each province would have its own drinking
water standards. Mostly NDWQS have been adopted by most of the provinces.
These standards can be categorized under 6 major headings.
1. Microbiological (E-coli)
2. Physical (colour, taste, odour, turbidity, pH, TDS, total hardness)
3. Chemical; Essential inorganic (aluminum, antimony, arsenic, barium, boron,
cadmium, chloride, copper, chromium)
4. Chemical; Toxic inorganic (cyanide, lead, fluoride, manganese, nickel, mercury,
nitrite, nitrate, selenium, zinc)
5. Organic (pesticide, phenolic compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH))
6. Radioactive (Alpha emitters; Beta emitters)
The values of various drinking water quality parameters prescribed in NSDWQ are
given in Table 10.2. However, the reader is suggested to look for any latest
updation/changes, before referring to the values given.
Table 10.2: Water quality parameters and prescribed limits in NSDWQ [73]
Type Sr No. Quality parameter Upper limit
Microbiological 1. E-Coli or Zero/100 mL
Thermotolerant
Coliform
Physical 1. Colour ≤15 TCU1
2. Taste Non objectionable/acceptable
3. Odour Non objectionable/acceptable
124
Type Sr No. Quality parameter Upper limit
4. turbidity <5 NTU2
5. Total hardness < 500 mg/L
(as CaCO3)
6. TDS < 1000 mg/L
7. pH 6.5 – 8.5
Chemical 1. Aluminum (Al) ≤0.2 mg/L
(Essential inorganic) 2. Antimony (Sb) ≤0.005 mg/L
3. Arsenic (As) ≤0.05 mg/L
4. Barium (Ba) 0.7 mg/L
5. Boron (B) 0.3 mg/L
6. Cadmium (Cd) 0.1 mg/L
7. Chloride (Cl) < 250 mg/L
8. Chromium (Cr) <0.05 mg/L
9. Copper (Cu) 2 mg/L
Chemical 1. Cyanide (CN) 0.05 mg/L
(Toxic inorganic) 2. Fluoride* (F) ≤ 1.5 mg/L
3. Lead (Pb) 0.05 mg/L
4. Manganese (Mn) 0.5 mg/L
5. Mercury (Hg) 0.001 mg/L
6. Nickle (Ni) 0.02 mg/L
7. Nitrate* (NO3) ≤50 mg/L
8. Nitrite* (NO2) ≤3 mg/L
9. Selenium (Se) 0.01 mg/L
10. Residual chlorine 0.2-0.5 mg/L at consumer’s end
0.5-1.5 mg/L at source
11. Zinc (Zn) 5 mg/L
Organic 1. Pesticides NSDWQ give no standard value.
However, refer to PSQCA3 No.
4639, page no. 4, Table no.3,
serial number 20-58.
2. Phenolic NSDWQ give no standard value.
compounds (as WHO recommends ≤0.002 mg/L
Phenols)
3. Polycyclic aromatic NSDWQ give no standard value.
hydrocarbons (as However, WHO4 recommends
PAH) mg/L 0.01 g/L by GCMS5 method
Radioactive 1. Alpha emitters 0.1 bq/L6 or pCi7
2. Beta emitters 1 bq/L
* indicates priority health related inorganic constituents, which need regular monitoring
1
True colour units
2
Nephelometric turbidity units
125
3
Pakistan Standards and Quality Control Authority
4
World Health Organization
5
Gas Chromatography Mass Spectroscopy
6
becquerels per litre (unit of radioactivity)
7
pico Curie (unit of radioactivity)
126
Various components of the framework are briefly discussed as follows.
Objectives of monitoring need to be clearly defined, before starting the process [76].
Questions that need to be answered while framing the objectives include: What is the
purpose of the monitoring effort; who will use the data; and how will the data be used?
Field data, during sampling and laboratory data, after testing, may be collected at
one place. Lab data would give the state of water quality. Accurate and complete
documentation of procedures is essential at this stage of the process [78, 79].
Lab and field data must be in a form that it is usable and accessible. Sufficient
descriptive information must be added to the data to make these understandable to all the
stakeholders [80].
127
10.7.7 Convey findings and evaluate program
Findings and conclusions are to be disseminated by various means for use by all
stakeholders, including water quality managers, academicians, policy makers and the
public. Thus, format is important. It should be easily understood by the target audience.
Simple, clear explanations and graphics are essential for effective communication.
In designing a suitable format, one must seek answers to the questions like; What
is our objective? Who is our targeted audience? What is the overall message to be
conveyed? What format is to be used to convey the message? How will the message be
distributed? How will the success of this strategy be evaluated? [82]
There should be a strong system of feedback to examine the effectiveness of all the
above processes/steps. It would improve the processes and thus, help to understand and
protect and restore the water quality.
After the formulation of WQM framework, the implementation is the next steps. It
requires regulatory standards and an organizational setup (Fig 10.2)
1. Regulatory
Standards
2. Organizational
Setup/arrangements
128
10.8.2 Organizational setup/arrangement
REFERENCES
1. G. M. Carr and J. P. Neary, (2008), Water quality for ecosystem and human health;
in "Water Programme with International Institute, PAS- European Regional Centre
for Eco-hydrology UNESCO IAP Water Programme", UNEP Global Environmental
Monitoring System: p. 9-17.
2. European Commission, (2014), Pollution due to Eurpean biggest steel plant in Italy.
Accessed on: 28-06-2017, Available at: [http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-
14-1151_en.htm]
129
6. L. Arrigo and G. Pouleston, (2006), The environmental movement in Taiwan after
2000: Advances and dillemas, Harassowitz Verlag, Germany: p. 166.
8. Ministry of Environmental Protection of China, (2009), The 2008 report on the state
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136
Chapter-11
Introduction to wastewater
engineering
137
INTRODUCTION TO WASTEWATER
ENGINEERING
The term “sewerage” or “wastewater engineering” are synonymous. These refer
to the collection, treatment and disposal of the wastewater. The term “sanitation” is also
used by foreign donor agencies while referring to wastewater collection, treatment and
disposal (World Bank, Asian Development Bank). UNICEF uses the term WASH (Water,
Sanitation and Hygiene). It includes water supply, sanitation and personal hygiene.
This chapter also includes a brief overview on: national policy framework on
sewerage/sanitation; historical perspective of sanitation in Pakistan; situation analysis in
sewerage/sanitation; and definitions of some basic terms. Thus, context will be set for
detailed discussion on design and construction of sewers (Chapter-13).
As discussed earlier, in Chapter-1, wastewater engineering may be divided into
three components. These are:
138
Domestic: It is the wastewater generated from residential buildings, offices,
institutions, commercial areas, recreational places and other buildings.
Industrial: It is the liquid waste from industrial processes like dying, paper making,
fertilizers, chemical manufacturing, leather tanning and many other industrial processes.
Storm water: When rain falls on earth, a part of it is absorbed and a portion flows
on the surface. It is referred to as storm runoff. Storm runoff, in urban areas, may be highly
polluted, because along its way, it may dissolve many pollutants while it come across with
solid waste, road surfaces and other impurities [2-5].
The relative position of some of the sewers, mentioned in Table 11.1, is further
explained in Fig. 11.1
139
Figure 11.1: Definition sketch for various types of sewers in a collection system
Three different types of sewerage system may be provided [6, 7]. The selection of
any one, is made, depending upon the specific circumstances, discussed in the following
text.
(a) Separate System: In this system, two separate pipes are laid; one for the
collection of sanitary sewage and second for the collection of storm water. It is
usually preferred when sanitary sewage needs treatment, while storm water is
not polluted to the extent that it needs treatment.
(b) Combined System: In combined system, one sewer is laid to receive both
sanitary and storm sewage. It is employed: (i) when combined sewage can be
disposed of without treatment (ii) when both need treatment and (iii) when
streets are narrow and two separate sewers cannot be laid. Combined system
is not a good option in Pakistan. Most of the rainfall occurs in the month of July
and August and the weather remains dry for most of the time in a year. Under
such conditions, the flow in dry season mostly consists of sanitary sewage and
140
is quite low as compared to the design flow. This results in very low velocity of
sanitary sewage and deposition of solids starts in the combined system.
(c) Partially Combined: This system lies in between the above two systems. The
pipes laid, in partially combined system, take sanitary sewage and a portion of
the storm runoff (from roads, roof tops, house courtyards etc.). Hence it is called
partially combined.
In Pakistan, most of the sewers are designed as partially combined sewers allowing
surcharging of the system for some time, especially during monsoon season [8]. London
city has combined sewers [9]. In London rain occurs frequently. Hence a combined sewer
may be justified. However, nowadays, separate sewers are considered better, with respect
to management issues. Therefore, some US cities, very recently, have planned to separate
their sewer system. Many cities have been able to separate only portions of their combined
systems. High costs involved; physical hindrances and public inconvenience could be the
major hurdles in achieving complete separation of sewers in US cities [10] .
11.5 INFILTRATION
It is the water that enters a sewer through poor joints and cover/walls of manholes.
Infiltration is almost non-existent in dry weather but it will increase during rainy season.
Sewage flow may be taken as 80 to 85% of the water consumption [11-13]. Thus, if
water consumption is 100 liters per capita per day, then out of it, 80-85 liters will appear as
wastewater/sewage. This may be true for residential, commercial, institutional, recreational,
office building. However, in case of industries, the above percentage may not be applied.
Nevertheless, in case of municipalities, where all types of land uses are found, the above
percentage may be used.
The per capita sewage flow, calculated as described above, gives the average
sewage flow. Variations do occur during a day. These are related with variations in water
consumption. Seasonal variations may also occur. Normally variations during a day is taken
into account during sewer design [12].
Since sewers must be able to accommodate the maximum sewage flow, the
variation in sewage flow needs to be studied.
Generally, the following formula is used to estimate the rates of maximum (peak) to
average flow [7]. However, if the local design criteria prescribe a value for peak factor, then
it must be followed and given preference over the formula given in equation 11.1.
141
]x&,y .Z
= { = 1 + Equation 11.1
],z Z/√
Where;
P = Population in thousand
PF = Peak Factor
Solved Example
The residential area of a city has a population density of 15000 persons per Km2
and an area of 120,000 m2. If the average water consumption in 400 LPCD, find the average
sewage flow and the peak sewage flow that can be expected in m3/day
Solution
.3=,===
Total population = 15000 × = =1800 persons.
.===×.===
Per capita sewage flow = 0.8 × 400 = 320 LPCD
Average sewage flow = 1800 × 320 = 576 m3/d.
.Z .Z
M=1+ =1 = 3.6
Z/√ Z/√..A
Peak Sewage Flow = 576 × 3.6 = 2073 m3/d.
It is the level of the invert of the sewer pipe (Fig. 11.2). The invert level may be
calculated using the following relationship (Fig. 11.2).
Invert Level = Ground level - cover over pipe – thickness of pipe – diameter of pipe.
142
11.9 MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM VELOCITIES IN SEWERS
For Reinforcement Cement Concrete (RCC) sewers, Table 11.2 shows the slopes
to maintain self-cleansing velocities, when sewer is running full. This table has been
developed using Manning’s equation and MS Excel spreadsheet. Manning’s equation is
used for the design of gravity sewers. The slope given in Table 11.2 may vary for other pipe
types. Detailed discussion on the equation is presented in Chapter-13. Using the details
given, the reader may develop such tables, for ready reference, using Manning’s equation
and other pipe parameters, which are available in the literature and on the internet
143
resources. A spreadsheet like MS Excel may help to develop such tables in a very short
time.
Table 11.2: Slopes to maintain 2.5 ft/sec (0.76 m/s) velocity in RCC sewers, running full
Dia Q slope
inch mm m3/sec cusec m/m; ft/ft
Sometimes, bigger objects also enter sewers. Clogging is less likely if sewers are
not smaller than 9 inches (225 mm) [6, 20, 21]. This smallest size must be larger than the
house sewer connections in general use. Thus, the articles that pass through the house
connections may readily pass through the sewer. Sometimes people, even outside their
houses, use sewers to dispose solid waste, construction waste (e.g. broken bricks, debris
etc.) and animal remains, especially at Eid ul Azha. Thus, a minimum size of 9 inches (225
mm) is recommended for gravity-flow sanitary sewers. The most common size of house
sewer is 6 inches (150 mm) .
11.12 MANHOLES
144
REFERENCES
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wastewater, McGraw-Hill Inc. USA: p. 61.
7. T. J. McGhee, (1990), Water supply and sewerage, McGraw Hill Inc., USA.
8. Government of Punjab, (2008), Technical and service delivery standards for water
supply and sanitation sectors.
10. USEPA, (1999), Combined sewer overflow management fact sheet: Sewer
separation, EPA-832-F-99-041, Washington DC, USA. Accessed on: 05-07-2017,
Available at: [https://www3.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/sepa.pdf]
11. F. Rabah, (2016), Design criteria of wastewater collection system, Islamic University
of Gaza-Environmental Engineering Department. Accessed on: 05-07-2017,
Available at: [http://site.iugaza.edu.ps/halnajar/files/2011/09/Lecture-3.-Design-
Criteria.pdf]
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approach, PHI Learning Pvt Ltd, Delhi: p. 20.
145
13. B. Joseph, (2009), Environmental studies, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi: p. 143.
18. C. Nalluri and A. Ghani, (1996), Design options for self cleansing storm sewers,
Water Science and Technology, 33(9): p. 215-220.
19. Government of the Hong Kong, (2013), Sewerage manual:Key planning issues and
gravity collection system, Drainage Services Department: p. 22. Accessed on: 5-
07-2017, Available at:
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Manual_1_Eurocodes.pdf]
20. M. Neary and G. Amirzehni, (2008), Sanitary sewer design standards, Department
of Engineering and Construction, Community & Economic Development Agency,
California
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146
Chapter-12
147
DESIGN CRITERIA FOR SEWERAGE (PHED
& WASA)
The state organizations, managing water supply and sewerage facilities are Public Health
Engineering Departments (PHEDs) and Water and Sanitation Agencies (WASAs). For all the
water supplies in public sector, the design criteria laid down by these two organizations, are
followed. PHED was first established in Punjab in 1961. Design criteria develop by it were mostly
adopted by PHEDs in other provinces, with minor modifications. The latest revision of Punjab
PHED design criteria was made in 2008 [1]. In 2008 version, design criteria on wastewater
treatment were also included, for the first time. However, this section requires major
improvements. Portion on water supply and sewerage is in line with the international practices
and norms.
Design criteria for sanitary sewers, water distribution system and storm drainage, for
WASA Lahore, were prepared in 1975 by the consultant M/s Camp, Dresser & Mckee (CDM)
[2, 3]. It is still in use and no revision has been made in it.
In view of the rapid changes in water and sanitation sector, growing water scarcity, need
for water conservation and tapping resources judiciously and innovatively, there is a need to
revise design criteria proposed by PHEDs and WASAs.
The following sections present the sewerage design criteria by PHED (2008 version).
WASA design criteria (1975 version) differ from PHED at few places; these have been mentioned
in the relevant section. Where both are the same, the name of either PHED or WASA has not
been mentioned.
The wastewater disposal station should be located at a place from where sewage can be
safely, economically and hygienically disposed of into a receiving natural water body.
The sewers will be generally designed as partially combined system allowing surcharging
of the system for some time depending upon the financial capability of the sponsoring agency.
Bypass arrangements at disposal station must be provided wherever possible in order to
meet emergencies and to avoid un-necessary pumping.
Acquire sufficient area for disposal station to accommodate future expansion for the next,
at least, 40 years. Master plan should be prepared for the sewerage system but implementation
should take place in phases, according to the priority of work/area.
PHED
148
Sewers and civil works = 25 years
Pumping machinery = 15 years
Wastewater treatment works = 20 years
PHED
For population upto 100,000 = 80% of average water consumption
For population greater than 100,000 = 85% of water consumption
WASA
80 to 85%
Sewers must take the peak flow generated in the system. Hence these are designed on
peak flow. PHED prescribe the peak factors to be adopted as shown in Table 12.1. It can be
observed that peak factor has higher value for smaller population and lesser for larger population.
It is due to the fact that smaller areas have less length of sewer network. The travel time of
wastewater in sewer network is smaller. During peak water consumption, wastewater from even
farthest places in sewer network reach at the disposal point quickly. Hence a pronounced peak is
generally observed. In larger cities, the network is quite long. Wastewater from farthest points
may take considerable time to reach mains. During this period, peak wastewater flow from nearby
areas may already have passed the disposal point, and hence the peak is not so pronounced.
Table 12.1: Peak factors for wastewater flow
Population Peak
(in thousand) factor
Up to 5 4.5
5-10 4
10-25 3.5
25-50 3
50-100 2.5
More than 100 2
Dry weather flow, is the flow, that will run in sewer during dry season (excluding monsoon
period or rainfall duration). Thus,
Peak dry weather flow = Average wastewater flow x peak factor
149
12.6 STORM WATER ALLOWANCE (FOR PARTIALLY COMBINED SEWERS)
12.7 INFILTRATION
PHED: sewer above sub soil water level = 350 gall/inch dia/mile/day
Sewer below sub soil water level = 700 gall/inch dia/mile/day
WASA:
9 inch – 24 Inch dia = 5 % of average sewage flow (225-600mm).
> 24 Inch dia= 10 % of average sewage flow.
If the sewer is designed as partially combined sewer, then the design flow may be
calculated as given below.
Design flow = Peak dry weather flow + storm allowance + infiltration
All sewers would be design on running full conditions with Manning’s equation. This
equation is used for open channel flow. Since flow in sewers take place under gravity, with no
pressure, hence above stated equation may be used.
..ZA
[= | 3/ × o ./3 (FPS Units) Equation 12.1
.
[ = | 3/ × o ./3 (SI Units) Equation 12.2
Where
V = Velocity, ft/sec (m/sec)
^ ~
, 6 (6 )
R = hydraulic mean depth =
, ()
For a pipe, flowing full the value of ‘R’ is
(X/Z)×Y6 Y
= = ;
XY Z
For pipe flow half full, R is same as for flowing full
S = slope of sewer
150
n = Co-efficient of roughness for pipe (0.013 for R.C.C pipes)
Sewers are always designed on the assumption that they are flowing full. In actual practice
sewers always flow partially full. For detailed discussion on sewers flowing partially full, see
Chapter-14 (section 4).
PHED
For partially combined sewers
Desirable velocity = 2.5 ft/sec (0.76 m/sec)
In difficult situation where above velocity is not possible = 2 ft/sec (0.6 m/sec)
Max in hilly area = 7 ft/sec (2.1 m/sec)
For storm sewers = 3 ft/sec (0.91 m/sec)
WASA
Velocity = 2 ft/sec (0.6 m/sec) – It is for sanitary sewers
Manhole will be provided at every change in direction. Where level difference between two
lines is more than 3 feet, a DROP manhole will be provided.
Manhole sizes, above sub soil water level are given in Table 12.3
Table 12.3: Manhole sizes for different diameter and depth of sewers
Sewer size Depth
Manhole size Remarks
(inch) (ft)
9-12 Up to 4 2ft x 2ft Use brick masonry with 1:3 cement sand
12-21 4-7 4 ft diameter motor
151
Sewer size Depth
Manhole size Remarks
(inch) (ft)
24-30 8-20 5 ft diameter Thickness of masonry
33-42 8-20 6.5 ft diameter Up to 8 ft depth = 9 inch
45-54 8-20 7.5 ft diameter From 8 to 15 ft depth = 13.5 inch
60 8-20 8 ft diameter From 15 to 20 ft depth = 18 inch
66 8-20 8 ft diameter
72 8-20 9 ft diameter
For manhole under sub soil water, RCC core wall and manhole floor will be designed as
per actual depth of water encountered.
For more details on manhole and illustrations, see Chapter-14.
1. Multiple pumps will be provided; one that could pump average flow; another that could
take larger than average flows; and both combined could pump peak flows
2. Stand by pumps must be provided having capacity as 33% of peak sewage flow.
3. Alternate source of energy must be provided in the form of diesel generators.
4. Proposed detention time at average flow in wet wells are shown in Table 12.4.
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Population Detention time
(in thousand) (minutes)
Above 200 2
Sewage pumping stations are proposed to be designed on the basis of peak flows.
Type of pumps
All sewage pumps should be capable of passing solids of 2-3 inches size. These will be
powered by AC electric connections.
Stand by arrangements. For safeguard against power failure, at least 50% pumping
capacity will have additional electric power generator (diesel driven).
Sewer beddings are provided to increase the load carrying capacity of RCC pipes.
Above sub soil water
For 9-12 inch RCC pipe diameter = sand
For RCC sewers 15 inch dia and above = brick ballast or crushed stone (1/4 inch to 1
inch size)
Below sub soil water
Either a PCC 1:2:4 cradle or RCC 1:2:4 cradle be provided. Bedding thickness be such
that it balances the buoyancy by water. PCC may be provided in case underground strata are
good and stable (like sand). RCC bedding is required at places where underground strata consist
of silt/clay. Special sewer joints are provided, under water, to control infiltration of groundwater
into sewers. Standard bedding design (thickness and steel details) developed by PHED may be
used. More details on bedding may be found in Chapter-13 (section 13.13).
Mostly, under normal loading conditions, ASTM pipes class-II (ASTM specification No. C-
76) as amended by PHED should be used. For use of class-III pipes, decision should be taken
as per specific site conditions
Pipe reinforcement may be provided as per BSS and ASTM specifications (as amended
by PHED). Reinforcement table is attached as Annex-1 of this book
Minimum gradient of sewers to attain velocities as per section 12.9 above should be
adopted.
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12.19 DESIGN FLOW FOR STORM WATER (DRAINAGE)
The flow for storm sewer is calculated according to Rational Method, which relates the
flow to rainfall intensity, the tributary area, and a coefficient, which represents the combined
effects of ponding, percolation and evaporation. The discharge is calculated as follows:-
Q = CIA
Where:-
Q =Discharge in cusecs
C = Runoff coefficient
I = Rainfall intensity (inch/hr)
A = Drainage/catchment area in acres
Run off coefficients for different type of surfaces are given in Table 12.5.
Table 12.5: Runoff coefficients for Rational Formula
Run off
Type of surface
coefficient
Water tight roof surface 0.7-0.95
Asphalt cement street 0.85-0.9
Portland cement street 0.8-0.95
Brick paved driveways and walkways with tightly cemented joints 0.75-0.85
Brick paved driveways and walkways with uncemented joints 0.7-0.8
Inferior block pavement with uncemented joints 0.4-0.5
Gravel driveways and walkways 0.15-0.3
Lawns sandy soil
2% slope 0.05-0.1
2-7% slope 0.1-0.15
> 7% slope 0.15-0.2
Lawns, heavy soil
2% slope 0.13-0.17
2-7% slope 0.18-0.22
> 7% slope 0.25-0.35
Business downtown area
Neighbourhood area 0.7-0.95
Residential (urban) 0.5-0.7
Single family area 0.3-0.5
Multi units-detatched 0.4-0.6
Multi units-attached 0.6-0.7
Residential (sub urban)
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Run off
Type of surface
coefficient
Apartment area 0.25-0.4
Industrial
Light 0.5-0.7
Heavy 0.5-0.8
Parks, cemeteries 0.6-0.9
Playgrounds 0.1-0.25
Railroad yards 0.2-0.35
Unimproved area 0.2-0.4
For Southern Punjab an intensity of 1/30 inches per hour may be taken except for industrial
cities where higher intensities (1/4 inches/hour) are assumed for small towns while ½ inches/hour
should be used for larger cities.
REFERENCES
1. Government of Punjab, (2008), Technical and service delivery standards for water supply
and sanitation sectors.
2. Water and Sanitation Agency Lahore, (2014), Terms of reference for preparation of master
plans for the water, wastewater & storm water drainage of Lahore District, Lahore
Development Authority: p. 3. Accessed on: 06-07-2017, Available on:
[http://www.wasa.punjab.gov.pk/system/files/tor.pdf]
3. Water and Sanitation Agency Lahore, (1975), Final design criteria for phase-II
improvement program, Lahore Development Authority.
155
Chapter-13
156
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF
SANITARY SEWER
Sewer design refers to determining two things: (1) the diameter of sewer pipe to carry the
design flow and (2) the required slope/gradient at which the sewer may be laid to maintain self-
cleansing velocity. Before the above two steps, there are some pre-requisites that need to be
completed, so that the design work could be undertaken. The entire exercise of design may thus
be divided into the following steps [1]. Each step will be discussed in detail. In addition, other
important information and details, essential to complete the design process, will also be reviewed
in this chapter.
1. Survey, mapping and data collection
2. Design consideration/Formulation of design criteria
3. Actual design
4. Preparation of drawings and BOQ
5. Preparation of design/feasibility report
6. Subsequent modifications.
The first step in sewer design for a project/community is to visit the project area. If map of
the area is available, it must be taken along. The existing map should have sufficient details
needed to meet the purposes of design. However, if no map of the area is available, the first step
is to carry out survey of the area. This activity is normally outsourced to a survey company having
necessary equipment and staff. The map developed, after survey must have the following details;
Streets and road layout
Railway lines passing through the project area
Streams near or passing through the project area
Location of underground utilities like gas, water mains etc.
Any other permanent features
Established bench marks and spot levels must be written at every street/road junction
Contours must be marked on the map, at about 5 feet interval, to examine natural drainage
pattern in the project are.
Soil conditions in the project area may be investigated to know soil type and location of
underground water table. Water table investigations are very important. If water table is high, then
sewer may have to be laid under water. Under such circumstances, special bedding for sewer
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and dewatering of sewer trenches are required. Hence, it is essential to know, at the very initial
stage of planning, the depth of water table.
Collection of rainfall data for the last 5-10 years. Rainfall data may be collected from
Meteorological Department on payment. If the rain gauge of Meteorological department is not
exactly located at the project site, data for the nearest gauge may be used. Internet may be used
to search rainfall data, which are available for some locations in Pakistan. This step is optional as
in PHED design criteria rainwater allowance, for partially combined sewers, has been simplified
as 50% or 33% of peak dry weather flow. In addition, for storm drains, the rainfall intensity to be
adopted has been mentioned. However, if the client insists on using actual rainfall data for storm
sewers then the procedure is different and has been discussed in detail in Chapter-16
Study of natural slopes of the area and selection of a suitable disposal point should be
finalized prior to design.
PHED or WASA design criteria are normally used in Pakistan [2, 3]. However, if some
deviations/changes are to be made, keeping in view the special site circumstances, the approval
must be obtained from the client to avoid later complication and design revision.
13.3 DESIGN
As discussed earlier, the design refers to finding out the diameter of the sewer and the
required slope to maintain the self-cleansing velocity. Since the self-cleansing velocities are pre-
fixed by PHED/WASA design criteria, the slope required to achieve the desired velocity may be
determined using Manning’s equation [1, 4]. Both versions of the Manning’s equation are given
as under.
..ZA
[= | 3/ × o ./3 (FPS Units) (Equation 13.1)
.
[ = | 3/ × o ./3 (SI Units) ( Equation 13.2)
Where
V = Velocity, ft/sec (m/sec)
^ ~
, 6 (6 )
R = hydraulic mean depth =
, ()
For a pipe, flowing full or half full, the value of ‘R’ is
(X/Z)×Y6 Y
= =
XY Z
S = slope of sewer
n = co-efficient of roughness for pipe (0.013 for RCC pipes)
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Sewers are designed by assuming that they are flowing full [4]. A back calculation table is
usually developed, using Manning’s equation. It is done using an electronic spreadsheet, like MS
Excel. Since design is always initiated, by assuming that sewer is flowing full, therefore, hydraulic
mean depth in Manning’s equation would be D/4. Table 13.1 shows this back calculation table,
assuming a self-cleansing velocity of 2.5 ft/sec.
Table 13.1: Back calculation table for RCC sewer with self-cleansing velocity of 2.5 ft/sec
Fall
Dia Q slope
1 in ?
Once the design flow in a sewer has been determined, Table 13.1 is used to select a
suitable pipe diameter that may take that flow with corresponding slope. For example, if the design
flow in a pipe comes to be 2.4 cusec (ft3/sec), the appropriate size would be 15-inch diameter
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pipe with a slope of 0.0023 (with self-cleansing velocity of 2.5 ft/sec). The last column of Table
13.1 shows the fall. For example, for a 9-inch sewer, there would be a fall of 1 ft in 221 ft length
of sewer (or 1 m fall in 221 m length of sewer). Similarly, for a 30-inch sewer, there would be a
fall of 1 ft in 1119 ft length of sewer (or 1 m fall in 1119 m length of sewer).
Table 13.2 shows the back calculation table for self-cleansing velocity of 2 ft/sec.
Table 13.2: Back calculation table for RCC sewer with self-cleansing velocity of 2 ft/sec
Dia Q slope 1 in ?
Table 13.3 gives the back calculation table for a self velocity of 3 ft/sec for storm sewers
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Table 13.3: Back calculation table for self cleansing velocity of 3 ft/sec for storm sewers
Dia Q slope 1 in ?
.
Back calculation tables, for any pipe type may be developed, using Manning’s equation,
for a specific self-cleansing velocity and using appropriate Manning’s co-efficient for that pipe.
Using the back calculation table, a hydraulic computation table (usually referred as Hydraulic
Statement) is set up. Diameter for different pipes and slope is noted down in the Hydraulic
Statement (for details see section 13.5). It may also be noted that for RCC pipes, diameter starts
from 9-inch and it increases with an interval of 3 inches
In actual practice, sewers never flow full throughout the day. The flow is partially full, most
of the time, and during off peak hours reduces to a considerably low level. Conditions (velocity
and depth of flow) during partial flow, must be investigated in combined / partially combined
sewers due to the following reasons [4].
1. To examine that during dry flow conditions, velocities are not less than self-cleansing
velocity to avoid solids deposition in sewers.
2. Knowledge of depth of flow is of value in designing larger size sewer inter sections. Large
sewers should be brought together at elevations so that water may not back up into the
other.
Diameter and slope of sewer are selected, from the back calculation table, assuming the
sewer is flowing full. It is very important to note that velocities are critical at low flows. Low flows
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occur during dry seasons and sewer pipe is flowing partially full. Therefore, the velocity at actual
peak dry weather flow (col. 13 of Hydraulic Statement) is essential to check against the self
cleansing velocity. It is carried out using graph shown in Figure 13.1.
In Fig. 13.1, hydraulic elements of pipe i.e. ratios of discharge and velocities are given on
x-axis. On y-axis, ratio of depth of flow to the diameter of the pipe is given. Two curves, one for
discharge and one for velocity may be seen in the Fig. 13.1. In fact, the value of ‘n’ also changes.
However, it is not generally taken into account. Thus, the terms in Fig. 13.1 may be defined as
follows;
d = depth of sewage flow in the pipe during low flow (usually at peak dry weather flow)
D = Diameter of sewer
v= Velocity of flow in the sewer
Vfull = Velocity while pipe is flowing full (2.5 ft/sec or any other, used for developing back
calculation table).
Qfull = Discharge when the pipe is flowing full
q = discharge during low flow (usually peak dry weather flow)
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can be found. This process is illustrated in a solved example, given below. This graph may be
translated in an Excel spreadsheet, and by using VLOOKUP command in Excel, the Hydraulic
Statement could be linked with this table and process can be automized. In this case, there will
be no need to consult Fig. 13.1. Thus, a lot time may be saved by using excel and its VLOOKUP
command.
Solved example
A 36 inch RCC circular combined sewer is laid on a slope of 0.003 and it is flowing full
with Manning’s n = 0.013. What will be the velocity and depth of flow when the sewer is carrying
5 cusec discharge?
Solution
q = 5 cusec (low flow)
Find the velocity of flow in the sewer, when flowing full, using Manning’s equation
..ZA
[= | 3/ × o ./3 (FPS Units)
Substituting values in above equation
..ZA Y 3/
[= Z × (0.003)./3
=.=.
..ZA 3/
[= × (0.003)./3
=.=. Z
..ZA 3/
[= × (0.003)./3
=.=. Z
[ = 5.16 /
Flow in sewer when flowing full
c
= d × [
× p3
c
= × 5.16
4
× 33
c
= × 5.16
4
c
= 35.4 cusec
Find q/Qfull
5
= = 0.14
c
35.4
d = 0.3 (from Graph using discharge line)
D
d = 0.3 × 36 = 10.8 inches at 5 cusec
Find velocity at q (low flow)
= 0.6 (from graph using d/D line against 0.3)
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Va = 0.6 × 5.16
= 3.09 ft/sec
The minimum velocity in storm sewer must be 3 ft/sec (See chapter 12; section 12.9).
hence the situation is satisfactory.
Two different form of hydraulic statement samples are presented for partially combined
sewers. Option-1: If the area to be designed is small in size, and the housing plots could be easily
counted. In this case, number of plots served by a sewer line is calculated. By adopting an
average household size, the number of persons served by the sewer line may be determined.
The average household size for Pakistan is 6.5 persons per family (source: 2017 census). The
format of Hydraulic Statement for option-1 is given below
Option-1: Hydraulic statement for small housing colony
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Peak dry
Av. Infilt.
weather
Other Total Daily (5-10 % Peak Storm
From To Plots Served sewage Flow
Sr. Length Pop Pop Sewage of Av. Factor Sewage
MH MH (Col 10xCol
No. Flow Daily)
12)
On line Previous Total Persons Persons
ft cusec cusec cusec cusec cusec
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
Explanatory Note:
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Option-1: Firstly, manholes are numbered. Either numerals may be used for manhole or
symbol M1, M2 may be used. It is up to the designer. Say, if manholes are numbered as M1, M2,
the line may be represented as M1-M2 i.e. sewer line from manhole M1 to manhole M2. Col. 5
shows the plots served by the line. Col. 6 shows the plots served by a sewer line which lies behind
and gravitates into the line M1-M2. Thus, sewer line M1-M2 has to carry wastewater generating
not only from the plots served by it but also from the plots served by sewer line lying behind it.
Col. 7 gives the total number of plots served. If number of persons per plot is fixed, then
total population served by the sewer line may be determined (2017 census shows, on average,
6.5 persons per household; and it may be adopted if actual data are not available). Col. 8 is just
added, to cover any other miscellaneous population (e.g., commercial, industrial, institutions,
mosque etc.) in addition to plots, that may have to be served by the sewer line. Col. 9 gives the
sum of all population served by the sewer line. Col. 10 gives average sewage flow. It is obtained
by multiplying total population with per capita sewage flow. Col. 11 is for the amount of water
entering the sewer line through infiltration. PHED or WASA design criteria may be adopted to find
it out. Col. 12 gives the peak factor. It may also be adopted from PHED design criteria. It will be
on the basis of total design population served by the sewer line. Thus, it may vary for different
sewer lines serving different number of people.
Col. 13 gives the peak design flow for the sewer. It is the flow in dry season. It is assumed
to be the minimum flow. During rainfalls, a component of stormwater is added in case of partially
combined sewers. Hence flow during rainfalls is expected to be higher than the dry weather. Col.
14 gives the storm water allowance for partially combined sewers. The amount of storm water
allowance in partially combined sewers has been mentioned in both, PHED and WASA design
criteria. The amount to be adopted depends on the criteria followed. Col. 15 gives the design flow
for the sewer, which is the sum of peak dry weather flow, infiltration and storm water allowance.
Col. 16 gives Vfull, which is the self-cleansing velocity you have adopted. For partially combined
sewer it is 2.5 ft/sec.
Consult back calculation table and select a suitable diameter (col. 17) that can take the
flow determined in col. 15 (design flow, Q). Adopt the slope given in back calculation table (col.
18) and write Qfull (col. 19) from back calculation table for the pipe diameter selected. Find the
ratio q/Qfull (col. 20) and from Fig. 14.1, locate q/Qfull on x-axis and move upward to hit discharge
curve. From discharge curve, move to y-axis and determine d/D (col. 21). Determine ‘d’ i.e. depth
of flow (col. 22). Using the value of d/D, hit the velocity curve in Fig. 14.1 and drop a perpendicular
on x-axis and read the v/Vfull value (col. 23) and from this value determine v (col. 24), it is the
actual velocity of flow for the dry weather flow (col. 13 of Hydraulic Statement). Check whether it
is close or equal to self-cleansing velocity. If below self-cleansing velocity, then increase slope of
the sewer and repeat the above process again until the actual velocity (v) is equal to self-cleansing
velocity.
Finally, determine the fall in the line (col. 25). The ground levels of upper end (U/E) of
sewer (Col. 26) and lower end (L/E) (col. 27) are noted in the hydraulic statement. At the end, the
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invert levels of upper end (U/E) (col. 28) and lower end (L/E) (col. 29) of the sewer are noted in
the hydraulic statement. The process is repeated for all the pipes in the network.
Option-2: If the project area is quite large in size, it becomes difficult to count plots. The
solution is to find the design population and find out the population density by dividing the design
population with the project area. The area served by each sewer (also called the catchment area
of the sewer) is determined and multiplied by the population density to get number of persons
served by a sewer. Hydraulic statement for option-2 is shown below. This is the only difference
between option-1 and 2. Rest of the procedure is same as explained above.
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Invert
Design Ground Level
Storm Level
Flow (q) V full Dia Slope Q full q/Qfull d/D d v / Vfull v Fall
flow
(13+15+16) U/E L/E U/E L/E
Explanatory Note: In col. 5, the area served by the sewer line is marked on the map. This
area is measured. From the population density, the number of persons served can be calculated.
For example,
Area served by sewer line = 4 acre
Population density = 100 persons/acre
Population served by sewer line = 4 x 100 = 400 persons
Note: The designer may add or delete columns in Hydraulic Statement as per requirement
of the project and site. Excel spreadsheet is used to save time and avoid calculation mistakes in
the Hydraulic Statement.
166
Sometimes, mistakes may be made in the carryover of invert levels, from previous to the
next sewer line, while preparing Hydraulic Statement. If the following two cases are understood
by the reader, it would ensure the correct transfer of invert levels. The Case-1 deals with equal
diameter pipes, while case-2 deals with different diameter pipes meeting at a junction.
Case No.1: Fig. 13.2 shows two pipes M1-M3 and M2-M3, both of 9 inch diameter join at
manhole M3. Invert Level (IL) L/E of M1-M3 is 198 ft and IL of L/E of M2-M3 is 199 ft. What will
be the IL of U/E of M3-M4.
M1
9 inch
IL=199 ft IL = 198 ft
M2
M3
9 inch
IL=?
9 inch
M4
In order to maintain gravity flow, the lower of the two invert levels, from two contributing sewers,
i.e. 198 ft will be the IL of U/E of M3-M4.
Case No.2: Fig. 13.3 shows the same figure as that of 13.2. However, in it, the sewer M3-
M4 is not of 9 inch, but of 18 inches.
167
M1
9 inch
IL=199 ft IL = 198 ft
M2
9 inch
IL=?
18 inch
M4
Figure 13.3: Carry over of invert level when pipe diameter is different
Figure 13.5: Correct carry over of invert level at the junction in case-2
After the design of sewer is complete, the next step is to prepare the necessary
construction drawings. Typical drawings include:
1. Sewer layout plan
2. Sewer joints
3. Manholes
168
4. Sewage pumping station (PS)/sewage disposal station (DS)
5. Sewer profiles or L – sections
Sewer layout refer to a drawing, in which, layout of streets and roads is shown. The sewer
lines are marked on this layout with sizes, lengths and slope. Drawings of sewer joints are
essential. Different types of joints may be provided. Detail discussion on it is made in section
13.15. Manhole drawings are essential part of the drawings. Manhole are discussed in detail in
Chapter-14. Sewage disposal station will be dealt with in Chapter-15. Sewer profile or L-section
is discussed in detail in section 13.8.
All the work related to the design of a project is presented to the client in the form of a
Design report/Feasibility report. A general structure of the design report is suggested to the
reader. However, the structure may change from one project to the other. Site conditions and
special project requirements may alter the format/structure of the design report.
1. Background
2. Project area description (topography, soil conditions, water table in the area)
3. Population forecasting
4. Design criteria used
5. Design of sewers, disposal station, pumping equipment
6. Hydraulic statement
7. Drawings
8. Bill of quantities and engineer’s cost estimates
9. Operation and maintenance expenditure
After the design exercise is completed, a vertical profile (also called L-section) of each
sewer line is prepared (Fig. 13.6). The sewer profile:
1. provides basis for construction drawings
2. helps site engineer to control levels of sewer
3. helps in estimating construction costs
4. shows underground utility services (water, gas etc.).
169
For a sewer profile, distances are plotted along x-axis and elevations along y-axis A typical
sewer profile is shown below. A suitable scale along x and y-axis is selected.
Figure 13.6: Typical sewer profile and information given below the profile
Different type of pipes may be used for sewers. Typically, RCC pipes are used. However,
these days, other pipe types are also being used. A brief account of various pipe types is given
in the following sections. It may be noted that the diameter referred to in case of PCC/RCC pipes
are internal diameters while for uPVC and HDPE are external diameters.
This is a new pipe type that has become very popular for wastewater collection. It is
different from the uPVC used for the water supply. The one used for wastewater collection is non-
pressure bearing as against the one used for water supplies.
These have a number of benefits over conventional PCC/RCC pipes, which include: (1)
they have low friction and smooth inside surface that significantly reduce deposits commonly seen
in conventional PCC/RCC sewer pipes; (2) there are less chances of bacterial and algal growth
in uPVC; (3) these are non-corrosive and chemical resistant; (4) are light weight and easy to install
and hence has lower transportation and installation cost; (5) jointing is easy and quick as
170
compared to PCC/RCC pipe joints; (6) inspection, cleaning and repair is easy as compared to
PCC/RCC pipes and (7) life is 50 years as compared to 20-30 years for PCC/RCC pipes.
uPVC pipes are available in a size range of 4 to 16 inch. Instead of pressure rating, their
rating is done on the basis of stiffness. As SN (nominal stiffness) increases, the load bearing
capacity of pipe increases. SN-4 and 8 are usually available. Two types of joints are available; (1)
rubber-ring/push fit joint and (2) solvent cement joint.
Jointing with other various other type of materials (concrete, cement sand mortar ete.) is
possible with uPVC. In such cases, solvent cement jointing is usually employed. For more details
on standards and specification, material and available size range, the reader is suggested to
consult the local manufacturer.
AC pipes are often used for sanitary and storm sewers. These are available up to 24 inch
size diameter.
Normally used for small storm drains and sanitary sewers. These should conform to ASTM
specifications. They are available in different classes; Class I, Class II and Class III. As the class
increases, the strength of pipe increases [4].
RCC pipes are normally used for sanitary, partially combined and combined sewers. They
are locally available in diameters ranging from 9 inches (225 mm) to 72 inches (1800 mm). They
should conform to ASTM specification (No. C-76). These are available in five classes; Class I,
Class II, Class III, Class IV and Class V. Strength of pipe increases with its class. They are
available in three different wall thickness; Wall A, Wall B and Wall C. Thickness increases from A
to C. Under normal conditions, Class II, Wall B RCC pipes are used. Higher class and wall
thickness are used under conditions when strength requirement is not met by Class II and Wall B
pipes. The reader is referred to Annex-1 on the reinforcement details of RCC pipes.
Recently HDPE (high density polyethylene) pipes are also used for sanitary and storm
sewers.
Both are used under unusual loading conditions like at places where road is to be crossed
and depth of pipe is shallow and heavy live loads (traffic) have to pass over it.
171
13.11.7 Spira pipe:
This is a relatively new arrival in sewer pipe family. It is gaining popularity due to its certain
advantages over the other pipe types. It is a patented technology by a leading Turkish pipe
manufacturing company VESBO.
It is made of uPVC strips, usually 10 to 20 cm wide. The strips wound on drums are easily
transported to the site. Manufacturing is carried out at site. It has an outer ribbed surface for better
strength. It is light weight and strong. It can be lowered into the trench manually, like PVC pipes.
It is now in use in many countries like Bulgaria, Albania, Tajikistan, Georgia, Romania,
Kazakhstan, Turkey and Pakistan. These are not locally manufactured and are imported. Dealers
are available, which facilitate the client by taking responsibility of all the import process. Reader
is encouraged to get more details from internet sources [5]. Brochures are also available on line.
Diameter: 6- 132 inch (150 to 3300 mm)
Jointing: coupling of same material by applying uPVC solvent
Manholes: Brick or precast RCC
It has certain advantages over RCC pipes. These are:
1. Being heavy, the transportation of RCC pipes and later removal from vehicle takes a
lot of time. Pipes, if handled carelessly, may be damaged.
2. Transportation of very large diameter RCC pipes and their storage at the site is a big
challenge. Work progress is slow, as due to larger weight, mechanical equipment is
required to pick them up and lay in the trench. Length of run laid during one day is
much less as compared to Spira pipes. Hence considerable time may be consumed
to complete the project.
3. Pipe jointing is easy and quick as compared to RCC pipes.
4. RCC pipe comes in a standard length of 8 ft, while with Spira pipes longer lengths, up
to 100 ft may be prepared and laid at site.
5. Cost is little higher than RCC pipes. However, other benefits outweigh the cost
difference.
6. Life is 50 years as compared to RCC pipe having a life of around 25 years.
Values of Manning’s coefficient ‘n’ for different type of pipes are presented in Table 13.3.
The selection of appropriate value is important. Adopting a high value will result over-sizing of
pipe, while a lower value would result an under-size pipe [6].
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Table 13.4: Recommended values of Manning roughness coefficient ‘n’ for different type of pipes
American Concrete Pipe Association
Pipe Type
recommended values
PCC and RCC Storm sewer-- 0.011-0.013
Sanitary sewer—0.012-0.013
HDPE (lined) Storm sewer—0.012-0.02
PVC Storm and sanitary sewer—0.011-0.013
Three edge bearing test is used to assure the quality of an RCC pipe. The test is called
three edge, as the pipe is supported at two points at the bottom and load is applied from the top
at the third point (Fig. 13-7). Load is applied till a crack of 0.01 inch (0.25 mm) is produced in the
pipe. The crack must spread over almost the entire length of the pipe. The above load is then
compared with the standards loads called the “D” load, which is the maximum permissible safe
load on the sewer pipe.
The arrangements in a three-edge bearing test is shown in Fig. 13.7. It can be seen that
pipe is supported at the base and top with two wooden beams. The beam at the base, has two
supports on it. On the top, an I-beam is placed over the wooden beam. Load is applied on the I-
beam, which is then transferred to the pipe through the wooden beam.
Figure 13.7: Three edge bearing test (a) cross section; (b) longitudinal view [7]
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Figure 13.8: Crack appearing in sewer pipe after three edge bearing test [7]
The load to produce a crack of 0.01 inch is compared with the load given in Table 13.5
Table 13.5: Design (D) loads for three edge-bearing tests [8, 9]
To produce a 0.01 inch crack Ultimate
Class Lb/ft per ft dia N/m per m dia Lb/ft per ft dia N/m per m dia
I 800 38.3 1200 57.4
II 1000 47.9 1500 71.8
III 1350 64.6 2000 95.8
IV 2000 95.8 3000 144
V 3000 144 3750 180
If the force, at which, a crack of 0.01 inch is produce in the pipe in three edge bearing test
is greater than load given in Table 13.5, then pipe passes the quality test. If not, it should be
rejected. For example, if a Class II pipe is tested, and the load from three edge bearing test comes
out to be 1050 lb/ft per ft dia, then pipe is safe (D load for Class II pipe is 1000 lb/ft per fit diameter.
Three edge bearing test videos are available on YouTube. Reader is encouraged to watch
those to have a better understanding of the test. Try this link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gs6Rm7Rz7YY
For RCC pipe steel reinforcement, PHED has adopted the specification given by ASTM
[8]. Details of steel reinforcement for all Classes of pipes, D loads etc. has been given in ASTM
(C76-10) and adopted by PHED. Reader is referred to Annex-1 for additional information.
This section specifically deals with the loads coming on RCC pipes conforming to ASTM
specification C-76. As the sewer goes deeper, the dead load on pipe increases. It must not
174
increase the “D” load for the pipe to ensure structural stability of the pipe. Thus, load coming on
deeper sewers must be investigated.
The static load produced on buried pipe may be calculated by using the following equation
[4, 10, 11]:
W = C w B2 (Equation 13.3)
Where
W = Load on pipe per unit length Lb/ft (Kg/m)
w = weight of fill material per unit vol, Lb/ft3(kg/m3)
B = width of trench at the top of pipe, ft (m)
C = a co-efficient which depends upon; (1) Depth of trench and (2) Fill material
The product K ranges from 0.1 to 0.16 for most soils. The values of K are given in
Table 13.6.
Clay 0.130
The unit weight of the materials commonly encountered during sewer laying is given in the
Table 13.7.
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Table 13.7: Specific weight of materials [4]
Unit weight
Material
Lb/ft3 Kg/m3
Dry sand 100 1600
Solved example
A 24-inch (610-mm) RCC sewer is to be placed in an ordinary trench. Depth of fill above
the pipe crown is 12 ft (3.66 m). Width of trench over pipe is 4 ft (1.22 m). Trench will be backfilled
with saturated clay weighing 130 lb/ft3 (2080 kg/m3). Determine the load upon the pipe. Comment
on the suitability of using Class II ASTM RCC pipe.
Solution
W = C w B2
= 2.19 x 130 x (4)2
= 4617 Lb/ft
= 2308 Lb/ft length/ft diameter
The dead load coming on the pipe is 2308 lb/ft/ft dia. The D-load for Class II pipe is 1000
lb/ft/ft dia (Table 14.3). Hence pipe is not structurally safe. For structural stability, strength from
3-edge bearing test should be greater than W.
There are two possible solution; (1) to provide a Class V pipe having a D-load of 3000
lb/ft/ft dia or (2) use a suitable bedding under the pipe to increase its load carrying capacity. Sewer
bedding are discussed in the following section.
If sewers are simply laid by placing the pipe barrel on the flat trench bottom (case-1), the
pipe will take a load slightly greater than the 3-edge bearing test (Fig. 13.8).
176
However, if the trench bed touches at least the “lower quadrant” of the sewer (case-2) and
backfill material is carefully tamped around the sides of pipe, the load carrying capacity of the
pipe significantly increases (Fig. 13.9). Load factor, expresses this increase in load carrying
capacity and is numerically equal to
Figure 13.9: Supporting pipe barrel at trench bed and effect on load carrying capacity of pipe
Various beddings, normally used by PHED & WASA [2, 3], and their load factors are
shown in Fig. 13.10.
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13.14 LAYING OF SEWER UNDER WATER
At certain places, the water table is high enough. Therefore, a portion of sewer has to be
laid under water table. Most of the designers avoid to lay the sewer under water. However, it may
be unavoidable at some places. Class A bedding, either PCC or RCC, is used for sewers under
water. The type, whether PCC or RCC, has to be decided after detailed soil investigations.
For sewers under water, a special RCC envelope is laid over the joint to avoid ingress of
underground water in the sewer. PHED has approved certain bedding designs for sewers under
water. This approved bedding is adopted from ASTM with some modification. These have been
used at many places in Pakistan and when laid with all precautionary measures, have proved
successful.
Two types of joints are used for sewers. These depend upon the diameter of sewer. One
type is bell and spigot joint; these are used for sewer from 9 inch (225 mm) diameter up to 24 inch
(600 mm) diameter (Fig. 13.12). The spigot end has a groove. A rubber ring is inserted in the
groove. The spigot end is then pushed into the bell end. The space between the bell (collar) and
spigot end is filled with jute string dipped in cement slurry and later the joint is flushed with 1:2
cement sand motor.
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Figure 13.12: Bell and spigot joint (9 to 24 inch diameter)
For sewers, larger than 24 inch (600 mm) diameter, tongue and groove joint is used (Fig.
13.13). Rubber ring is inserted in groove on the smaller end of pipe. Both these joints are known
as flexible joints.
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13.16 SEWER CONSTRUCTION
After the design and drawings are complete, the sewer construction may be initiated. In
general, following steps are followed:
The first step in sewer construction is clearance of right of way in which sewer is to be
laid. Normally, sewers are laid in the state owned land (streets, road side etc.). However, if it has
to pass through some private land, necessary clearance is essential before initiating construction
activity.
The site engineer must have a copy of the approved construction drawings. These include
sewer layout plans, profiles and other essential drawings.
Keeping in view the layout plan, the alignment of sewer lines is marked on the ground. It
is usually done with the help of chalk powder. In fact, the two ends of trench are marked. Later,
labour starts excavation on the marked lines.
Trenches are excavated up to the desired depth. The width of trench must be sufficient
for comfortable laying and jointing of the sewers. The trench width is usually given in the
drawing/design report.
Minimum width of trench may also be evaluated by using the following two relationships.
(1) Minimum width of trench = 1.5 D + 12 inch, where D is the diameter of pipe in inches
[12]; or
(2) outside diameter + 16 inch or 1.25 times outside diameter + 12 inch, whichever is
greater [13].
For deeper trenches, the side wall may cave in and hence wooden bracing is provided to
support trench side walls for the safety of workers. Sandy and silty soils may easily cave in and
hence bracing becomes essential in such conditions even for shallow depths.
If sewers are to be laid under water, dewatering of trench is essential. For it, shallow bores
are made on both sides of the trench. Pumps are installed at bores. Pumping is carried out till
water table is lowered below the bed of the trench. For under water sewers, PCC or RCC bedding
is essential. Concrete is poured up to the desired level. During this period dewatering process
continues. After 24 hours, when concrete reaches its 80% of strength, the pipe is laid, joints are
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made and backfilling is done. Dewatering is stopped, after backfilling. For under water sewers, an
RCC envelope is provided around each sewer joint for water tightness (see section 13.11)
Correct levels/grades are shifted with the help of leveling instrument, staff, boning rod,
threads, pegs and wooden planks as illustrated in Fig. 13.3. It is worthy of attention for all the
readers to clearly understand the process of level shifting.
After the excavation of trenches, wooden pegs are installed on both sides, close to the
trench edge. Wooden planks are then installed on these pegs; these are referred to as sight rails.
At the center of sight rail, a wooden cleat is fixed. On this cleat a nail is driven. Such arrangement
of pegs, planks, cleat and nails is repeated at 100 ft interval, along the trench. Lastly, a thread is
tied to the nail and is extended to the next nail. The two nails are fixed at such a level that when
thread is tied to them, the gradient of thread is the same at which the sewer is to be laid.
Assume that a 12-inch pipe is to be laid at the trench bed. The invert of the pipe is 192 ft.
The wall thickness of pipe is 2 inches (0.1666 ft). Thus, the bed level would be 192-0.1666=
191.833 ft. A boning rod of sufficient length is taken. Trench is excavated up to a level close to
the bed level. From the level difference between the nail and the trench bed, the vertical distance
between nail and trench bed is calculated (say X). A red tape is fixed from one end of boning rod
at a distance X.
A person, at the bottom of trench, with boning rod in his hand, travels from one sight rail
to the next and tries to match the red tape with the thread. Any differences are removed by further
excavating the bed trench. Once the red tape on boning rod perfectly coincides with the thread
while the person walks from one sight rail to the next, it confirms that the trench bed is at the
desired level and grade.
After the above activity completes, the trench is ready for the pipe to be laid. Another red
tape is fixed on the boning rod in such a way that its distance from the first tape is exactly equal
to the external diameter of the pipe. The 12-inch pipe has an outer diameter of 16 inch. Thus,
second tape would be fixed 16 inches below the first tape.
After the above step, the pipe is lowered to the trench bottom. The boning rod is laid at its
top and it is moved along the thread. If the second tape coincides with the thread, it means the
pipe has been laid at the desired gradient. After laying some convenient pipe length and making
proper joints, the trench is backfilled. Space for manholes is left, which are usually constructed
after laying of sewer pipes.
Shifting of correct levels and grades is the most important task in sewers construction.
Most of the sewer problems like frequent choking, silting, have their origin to the incorrect grades.
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Figure 13.14: Process of shifting of correct levels during sewer construction
An example, of how things are set out at the site while shifting of levels, will further explain
the above arrangements
Let the diameter of the pipe shown in Figure 13.14 be 12 inches. The pipe thickness is 2
inches. Let depth of trench be 4.5 ft at the first site rail.
Let reduced level (RL) of trench bed at first site rail = 191.9 ft
Thickness of pipe in ft = 0.1666 ft (2 inches)
Internal diameter of pipe = 1 ft
RL of top of pipe at first site rail
= RL of trench bed + 2 x thickness of pipe + diameter of pipe
= 191.9 + 2 x 0.166 + 1
= 193.233 ft
If the gradient of pipe is 0.003 (see Table 13.1) and the first site rail is 50 ft away from the
second site rail, then the fall in 50 ft will be 0.003 x 50 = 0.15 ft.
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If the nail on the cleat of first site rail is 4.5 ft above the bed of the trench then its RL will
be
= 191.9+4.5 = 196.4 ft
The nail on cleat of second site rail will be fixed at an RL of
= 196.4-0.15 = 196.25 ft
Thus, the string pulled from the nail at first site rail to the nail at the second will have a
falling gradient of 0.003. And when the tap mark on boning rod showing pipe top coincides with
the string when boning rod is moved from the site first site rail to the second, this shows that pipe
has been laid at the correct gradient. This is how all the pipes are laid, using this method.
After the trench bed is fully prepared, and set as per grade of the sewer pipe, the pipes
are laid and jointed with strict control over levels and grades. These are repeatedly checked and
ensured. Shifting of correct levels is the most important and critical step in sewer laying. Additional
excavation at the sewer bells (diameter 24 inches and below, for RCC pipes) must be made to
support the full pipe barrel on the trench bed. It saves the pipe from unnecessary stress.
13.16.8 Backfilling
Careful backfilling is also of extreme importance. The backfill material, up to 1 ft above the
sewer crown, must be free of all stones and cobbles. It must be manually placed and compacted.
Special care must be exercised while backfilling pipe haunches, because this backfill provides
majority of the resistance against soil and traffic loads [14]. After manual backfill, the rest of the
backfilling may be carried out mechanically, using excavator blade.
After backfilling, the last step is the construction of appurtenances i.e. manhole, drop
manholes, street inlets and others. Sewer appurtenances are discussed in Chapter 14.
Quality assurance means to make sure that quality of work, executed at site, meets the
specifications; and will fulfill the purposes of the project. Supervisory staff, thus, should have a
complete knowledge of the specifications of sewer work, exercise different checks during
construction, and must visit site at critical stages of the sewer project. Following general
guidelines are proposed for quality assurance.
Supervisory staff must have complete drawings (layout, profiles, manhole and inlet
drawings, steel reinforcement details etc.). These may be carefully examined before the initiation
of work.
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13.17.2 Due diligence during level transfer
Most critical part of sewer construction is correct shifting of sewer levels/grades. These
must be cross checked frequently. Mostly sewer work is started from the outfall works and laterals
are laid at the end. Full time resident supervision is essential on sewer projects for level control
and check.
If RCC pipes are used in the sewer project, then either the construction contractor builds
its own pipe factory at site (in case of big projects) or purchases it from the market. In both cases,
supervisory staff must be permanently stationed during manufacturing process to check steel
reinforcement and concrete mix ratio. Steel must be tested from a laboratory for its strength.
Cubes must be filled from the concrete prepared for for testing its strength in the laboratory. Pipes
may be randomly selected for 3-edge bearing test. If the pipe fails in test, all pipes prepared in
that lot may be rejected (lot means; pipes prepared in one shift). Pipes must be carefully loaded
and unloaded at site to avoid damage. In case of PVC, AC or HDPE pipes, approved manufacturer
must be preferred.
For under water sewer, PCC or RCC bedding is used. It is essential to ensure dry
conditions, by lowering water table, before concrete bed is poured. Pipe is laid over the bed at
least after 24 hours so that concrete bed achieves its 80% strength and can take the load of the
pipe. RCC envelope must be laid over the joints for water tightness. Pumping must continue for
further 24 hours after the laying of RCC envelopes.
Most under water sewers fail due to non-observance of above instructions. Failure means
the RCC sewer settles after some time. It is due to the poor quality of bed or joints. In case of
poor jointing, the surrounding groundwater enters the sewer through these joints and brings along
the adjoining strata. Thus, caving occurs. It results in sewer settlement after some time. Under
water sewer is the most difficult and demanding work in sewer construction.
REFERENCES
1. Metcalf and Eddy Inc., (1989), Wastewater engineering: Collection and pumping of
wastewater, McGraw-Hill Inc. USA: p. 61.
2. Government of Punjab, (2008), Technical and service delivery standards for water supply
and sanitation sectors.
3. Water and Sanitation Agency Lahore, (1975), Final design criteria for phase-II
improvement program, Lahore Development Authority.
184
4. T. J. McGhee, (1991), Water supply and sewrage (6th Edition), McGraw Hill Inc., USA.
6. American Concrete Pipe Association, (2012), Manning’s n values history of research, DD-
10 (11/12). Accessed on: 09-07-2017, Available at: [http://www.concretepipe.org/wp-
content/uploads/2014/09/DD_10.pdf]
8. American Society for Testing Materials- Philadelphia, (2010), Standard Specification for
Reinforced Concrete Culvert, Storm Drain, and Sewer Pipe," (C-76)".
9. Department of Public Works- Los Angeles County, (2008), Updated structure design
manual, section-1;Design of reinforced concrete pipes. Accessed on: 09-07-2017,
Available at: [ladpw.org/des/Design_Manuals/DesignReinforcedConcretePipe.pdf]
10. American Concrete Pipe Association, (2011), DD5 multiple pipe installation: Trench
condition. Accessed on: 09-07-2017, Available on: [http://www.concretepipe.org/wp-
content/uploads/2014/09/DD_5.pdf]
11. American Concrete Pipe Association, (2011), Surcharge loads. Accessed on: 09-07-
2017, Available on: [http://www.concretepipe.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Att-
15_DD22.pdf]
12. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), (2002),
Standard specifications for highway bridges, SECTION 30, DIVISION II, Thermoplastic
pipes
13. American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM) D 2321, (2014), Standard practice for
underground installation of thermoplastic pipe for sewers and other gravity-flow
applications.
14. L. H. Gabriel, Installation and construction of sewer, Plastic Pipe Institute. Accessed on:
17-07-2017, Available at: [https://plasticpipe.org/pdf/chapter-
6_installation_construction.pdf]
185
Chapter-14
Sewer appurtenances
186
SEWER APPURTENENCES
Wastewater and storm water collection systems consist of pipes laid down at certain depth
and gradient. Appurtenances are structures, in addition to the pipes, that are essential for the
operation of a collection system. These are used to ensure that that the collection system will
function as designed and can be inspected when desired [1, 2]. This chapter presents the principal
appurtenances used in the collection system. These include:
1. Manholes
2. Street Inlets
3. Catch basins
4. Oil and grease traps
5. Building connection with municipal sewers
6. Sewage pumping stations
Appurtenances from serial number one to five will be discussed in this chapter while
sewage pumping stations will be dealt with in Chapter 15.
14.1 MANHOLES
It has already been discussed in Chapter-11 that the purpose of the manhole is: (1) to
connect house sewer with municipal sewer; (2) cleaning of sewer lines in case of blockage and
(3) inspection of sewers. Spacing requirements have been discussed in Chapter-12 (section
12.10).
Manholes may be circular or square depending upon the depth of manhole. They may
be of brick masonry, in cement sand mortar 1:3, or pre-cast. For brick masonry manhole,
square shape is used up to 4 feet depth. For deeper manholes, circular shape is adopted. Brick
masonry manhole requires time to construct. This causes public inconvenience due to traffic
congestion, during construction, for an extended period of time. Thus, these days, pre-cast
manhole are very common abroad [3, 4]. Just a pit of required size is excavated and the RCC
pre-cast manhole is brought and placed there. WASA and PHED may consider this option.
A typical masonry manhole is shown in Fig. 14.1. PCC 1:4:8 is provided at the base as
foundation. On it, circular masonry is erected. The thickness of masonry depends upon the depth
of manhole. The thickness guidelines are given in PHED design criteria (see Chapter-12; section
12.10) [5]. The masonry converges to an opening of 2 ft at the top. A manhole cover either of
cast iron/RCC/Stainless-steel or any other suitable material is provided at the top.
The inner side of manhole is plastered with 1:2 cement sand mortar. Mild steel (MS)
steps are embedded in the masonry wall during construction. These are used to gain access into
the manhole during cleaning/inspection. The base of manhole is filled with PCC 1:2:4, and a semi-
187
circular space spans between the sewers on the two ends of the manhole. This space is called
benching (Figure 14.1).
Standard manhole drawings are also developed by PHED. These may be adopted.
However, these deal only with brick masonry manholes.
For manholes, that are to be built for sewer laid under water, special RCC core wall is
provided to avoid ingress of sub soil water. Core wall height must be equal to the sub soil water
level (SSWL) as shown in Fig. 14.2.
188
Figure 14.2: Manhole for sewer laid under sub soil water level (SSWL) with core wall
Drop manholes
Where laterals or sub-mains join a deeper sewer, laterals and sub mains are kept at
normal gradient and a vertical drop is given when sewer reaches deeper sewer. This vertical drop
is given at the manhole and this manhole is known as drop manhole (Fig. 14.3). It is provided
when level difference is greater than 2 ft (0.6 m). Drop manhole is provided for the following two
reasons: (1) to avoid deep excavation for laterals/sub main and (2) to avoid splashing in the
manhole while sewerman is in the manhole and carrying out any maintenance job (cleaning etc.)
[2]
189
Figure 14.3: Section of a drop manhole
An inlet is an opening designed to permit the entrance of rain water from the street/road
surface into the sewer. These are usually of three types; (1) curb inlet; (2) gutter inlet and (3)
combination inlet. In case of curb inlet, a stainless-steel grating is installed vertically along the
curb stone of footpaths (Fig. 14.4 and 14.5). In gutter inlet, the grating is installed horizontally, on
street/road surface, to intercept the runoff (Fig. 14.6 and 14.7). As a general rule, gutter inlets are
used on steep grades where sheet flow is to be intercepted. Curb inlets are used on flat grades
with steep cross slopes.
190
Figure 14.4: Curb inlet
191
Figure 14.6: Gutter inlet
Size of bars used in an inlet grating, may vary in spacing and size, but the tendency is to
adopt a few standard types which meet the conditions usually encountered in practice. The
material used may be cast iron or stainless-steel. Nowadays, stainless-steel grating is in common
use. However, it is costlier than cast iron. Proper maintenance and frequent cleaning of grating is
an essential requirement, for the proper functioning of the street inlets.
Curb and gutter inlet may also be combined at some places as shown in Fig. 14.8. Such
a facility is named as combined inlet.
192
Figure 14.8: Combined inlet (curb and gutter both )[6]
The catch basin is an inlet with a basin which allows debris to settle out before the storm
water enters the sewer (Fig. 14.9). The outlet pipe of catch basin, that discharges storm water
into sewer is provided with a hinged flap, to prevent escape of odours from the sewer, a provision
that also causes retention of floating matter.
Catch basins were formerly considered necessary to intercept heavy sediment load and
solid waste into sewers. This situation was especially critical when streets were crude and
uneven, and little attention was given to keeping them clean. Present practice, however,
emphasizes good sewer grades and careful construction, and with proper solid waste services,
simple inlets are preferred.
The water held in catch basins frequently produces mosquitoes and may itself be a source
of odours. If they are to function properly, they must be cleaned frequently. Cleaning of catch
basins is much easier and cheaper than cleaning clogged sewers. If used, they should be located
so that they interfere as little as possible with pedestrian and vehicular traffic. Use of catch basins
have been considerably reduced and may be required only in special situations
193
Figure 14.9: A typical catch basin
When the catch-basin sump is approximately one-half full of solids, the solids removal
efficiency is reduced considerably, even for small storm flows, and solids are carried into the
sewer. Thus, frequent cleaning is essential to meet purposes for which catch basin is provided.
The required frequency of catch-basin cleaning depends on several local conditions, such as
sump capacity, quantity of accumulated street solids, antecedent dry period, meteorological
conditions, street-cleaning methods and practices, surrounding land use, topography, and the
erodibility of the soils subject to wash off.
A possible point where catch basin may be useful is a place where a large quantity of grit
will probably be washed into the inlet. Catch basins need not be cleaned when there is little
accumulation in them unless the nature of the deposit creates offensive odours and annoys
persons passing by or living nearby. Under certain conditions, catch basins may become breeding
places for mosquitoes. Additional information derived from a detailed evaluation of catch basins
and their performance may be found in reference [7].
The sewage from kitchens of hotels and restaurants may contain oil and grease. Wash
water from car wash stations contains oil, mud, silt, clay and sand. Oil and grease tend to
accumulate on sewer walls and cause clogging. Whereas, silt, clay and sand may occupy useful
volume of the pipe. Fig. 14.10 shows a section of a grease trap. Fig. 14.11 shows a combination
194
of sand and oil trap. It is important, however, that the traps be regularly cleaned, otherwise they
are of no value. Regular inspections are necessary to ensure this [2].
Figure 14.11: Oil, grease, sand and mud trap for car wash garages [2]
A building is connected with a municipal sewer at a manhole. The sewers are laid on the
side of a street and hence closer to the houses on that side, while the houses on the opposite
side are at some distance.
195
Two approaches may be used in public sewerage project. First; one manhole may be
provided for two houses. Each house then connects its house sewer by its own arrangement. The
house sewer is brought up to the manhole. Wall of manhole is punctured for the house sewer to
discharge its wastewater into the manhole. The houses located on the side of street where sewer
is laid, gets connected easily. However, the houses located on the opposite site have to cut the
road and lay longer sewer lines to get connected to the municipal sewer. Second; along with
constructing two manholes for each house, a small chamber is built on the opposite side of the
street and connected with the manhole located on the other side of street (Fig. 14.12). Thus, when
the houses are constructed on the other side of street, they will connect to the already built
chamber and no road cut will be involved. The second option is considered better.
REFERENCES
1. Metcalf and Eddy Inc., (1989), Wastewater engineering: Collection and pumping of
wastewater, McGraw-Hill Inc. USA: p. 61.
2. T. J. McGhee, (1991), Water supply and sewrage (6th Edition), McGraw Hill Inc., USA.
3. USA Water And Wastewater Utility: City of Naperville Illinois, (2013), Sanitary sewer
construction standards, Naperville standard specifications. Accessed on: 13-07-2017,
Available at:
[https://www.naperville.il.us/contentassets/4160bb766f174b31ba5056871eedb7e6/stand
ard-details-section-300.pdf]
196
5. Government of Punjab, (2008), Technical and service delivery standards for water supply
and sanitation sectors.
6. USA Urban Drinage and Flood Control District Colorado, (2016), Street inlets and storm
drains, Urban Storm Drainage Criteria Manual Volume-1. Accessed on: 11-07-2017,
Available at: [https://udfcd.org/wp-
content/uploads/uploads/vol1%20criteria%20manual/07_Streets%20Inlets%20Storm%2
0Drains.pdf]
7. J. A. Lager et. al., (1977), Urban stormwater management and technology: Update and
users guide, Report 600/8-77-014, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
Research and Development, Cincinnati, Ohio.
197
Chapter-15
198
SEWAGE PUMPING STATIONS
After collection the wastewater is disposed of into a water body, with or without treatment.
Since the outfall sewer is quite deep, hence, the wastewater is lifted, either to introduce it into a
wastewater treatment plant or the water body. This function is performed by a sewage pumping
station (PS). Following three situations necessitate the provision of sewage pumping station:
2. An obstacle lies in the path of sewer (e.g., river canal etc.). It is not possible to lay
gravity sewer. Hence, PS is provided to cross the obstacle by pumping sewage
through a force main, cross the obstacle, and again resume gravity flow.
There may be either two or three components of a sewage pumping station. These are:
(a) Screens: The outfall sewer opens into the screening chamber. It is a masonry
chamber, with stainless-steel screens fixed in it. The purpose of screens is to screen
out large floating matter which can damage pump.
(b) Dry well (optional): It is only needed when centrifugal pumps are used, in which the
pump and pump controls (on-off system, switches etc) are installed in the dry well. For
submersible and cordon shaft pumps, dry wells are not needed. Thus, in latter case,
space and cost on civil structure of dry well may be saved.
In case of submersible pumps, the pump is placed at the bottom of wet well. Pump
controls (switches, on-off system) are installed in an operator room instead of dry well,
which takes much less space and cost as compared to dry well.
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(c) Wet well: Sewage, after passing through the screens enters into the wet well, from
where it is pumped either into another sewer, treatment plant or the water body.
2. For larger pumping stations, more than two pumps must be used. One having
capacity to take average, second maximum flow and the third peak flow.
3. Stand by pump must be provided at the PS. Its capacity should be at least 50% of
peak sewage flow.
4. Alternate source of power must be provided at PS (either power from two feeders or
a diesel generator be provided).
5. If centrifugal pumps are used, these should be of self-priming type and operate under
positive suction head.
7. Screens with 2-inch (50 mm) opening be provided at pump suction to avoid entrance
of large objects/particles in pumps, which may damage the pump.
8. Size of dry well (if used) should be sufficient to house pumping machinery.
9. Dry well (if used) be provided with sump pumps which are usually reciprocating type
to pump out sewage leaks in the dry well.
10. In case of centrifugal pumps, sluice valves must be provided at suction and delivery
side of the pump and a non-return valve at the delivery side.
11. Detention time in wet well should not be greater than 30 min (at average flow rate) to
avoid septic conditions.
Fig. 15.1 shows a typical drawing showing a pumping stations with dry well and centrifugal
pump. Outfall sewer enters the screening chamber. Normally, screening chamber are always in
duplicate. It helps to keep the pumping station operational if one screening chamber is closed for
200
cleaning or maintenance/repair. The screening chamber has a sluice gate. It is operated from the
top. It is used to open/close the flow to the screening chamber. Screens are installed at an angle
ranging from 45 to 60°. When clogged with screenings, these are usually manually cleaned with
the help of a rake. The screenings are wet and hence temporarily stored on a perforated platform
(Figure 15.4) provided with the upper end of the screen; these are allowed to dry before disposal.
Through a sewer pipe, screening chamber is connected to the wet well. The wet well can
be of two shapes: (1) circular if some part of lower portion of wet well is under water or (2)
rectangular if the water table is deep and all the wet well structure is in dry condition. The bottom
of screening chamber and wet wells are sealed with PCC or RCC 1:1.5:3 plug to avoid sewage
loss from the bottom. RCC 1:1.5:3 core wall is provided to avoid sewage loss in adjoining soil.
Especially in wet well, the RCC core wall is provided up to the height of sewage level in the wet
well. Walls of the screening chamber and the wet well are made of masonry over an RCC curb
with an angle iron cutting edge. RCC curb provides strong foundation to walls. In addition, it helps
in sinking of the wet well up to the desired depth (Fig. 15.1). A hand rail is provided at the top of
screening chamber and wet well for safety of persons around (avoid falling into screening
chamber or wet well).
At the bottom, the wet well is connected with the dry well using a cast iron/mild steel pipe.
A centrifugal pump is connected to the suction pipe. Pump always works under positive suction
head as shown in the figure. Hence priming is not required. It pumps the sewage to the final point
of disposal or a sump. The sump is connected with the help of a delivery pipe or sullage carrier
(drain) to the final point of disposal (water body).
201
A simplified plan and section of wet well using submersible pump is shown in Fig. 15.2
and bit more detailed section of screening chamber and wet well, with submersible pump is shown
in Fig. 15.3.
202
Figure 15.3: Section of a typical PS with a submersible pump
The purpose of screens is to remove large floating or suspended particles ( > 2 inch size).
It saves the pumping machinery, used in the sewage PS, from clogging and any damage.
Screens consist of parallel bars, rods, wire mesh or perforated plates. The opening may
be of any shape (generally rectangular). Mostly, bar screens or racks are used, in public
sewerage projects, which are either hand cleaned or mechanically cleaned. Opening between the
bars range from ½″ - 1½″ (10 mm to 40 mm) [4]. Wastewater, after passing through the screening
chamber enters the wet well. At least two screening chambers must be provided. This helps in
carrying out cleaning or repair, while still allowing sewage flow to the wet well. Penstock is a steel
gate, used to close flow to a screening chamber during routine cleaning/repair.
Floating or large particles, in sewage, are retained on the screens. After, some period,
cleaning of screening is required to allow smooth flow of sewage. Screen cleaning, may be
manual with the help of a cleaning device called rake (Fig. 15.4). A simplified plan and section of
the screening chamber has been shown in Fig. 15.4 and a photograph in Fig. 15.5.
203
Figure 15.4: Line sketch of plan and section of screening chamber
Screen is designed on peak flow. Since no local design criteria (PHED or WASA) are
available for screen design, hence, for such cases, one may adopt the internationally
accepted/used design considerations. Design criteria adopted for screens are shown in Table
15.1 [5-7].
Table 15.1: Design criteria for manually cleaned bar screen
Width: 0.2 to 0.5 inch (5 mm to 10 mm)
Bar size
Depth: 1 to 2 inch (25 mm x 50 mm)
The velocity through the screen must be maintained between the range shown in the
design criteria. Very low velocity would result in solids deposition in the screening chamber. While
high velocity may force the screenings to pass through. Bed slope of the chamber should be
adjusted to maintain the desired velocity in the chamber. Screen is kept inclined for easy cleaning.
Quantity of screenings removed by bar screen is 0.0000035 to 0.0000375 ft3/ ft3 of wastewater
treated (Typical value = 0.000015 ft3/ft3 of wastewater) [8]. The screenings are wet. These are
dried in open and disposed with solid waste.
204
Solved example
Solution
1 inch
0.5 inch
.==,======.A
Average wastewater flow = =24,000 m3/day= 9.8 cusec (ft3/sec)
.===
205
Inflow pipe 18 in
0.5 ft
screens
Screening chamber
^ A..
Clear width of bar rack = = 4.8 ft
..?
If space between bars is 1.5 inch, then total number of spaces for a clear width of
Z.A.3
opening of 4.8 ft =
..
38.4 ≅ 38 spaces
1.5 inch
bar
206
Bars are fixed on an angle iron frame of size 6 inch x 6 inch x 1 inch
1 inch
6 inch
Width of 2 angle iron frames 6x6x1 on both sides of bar rack = 0.5x2= 1 ft
∴ Total width of bar rack = clear width of bars + width of bars + width of angle iron frame
on both sides
= 4.8 + 1.54 + 1 = 7.34 ft
Total width of two screen chamber= 7.34 x 2=14.68 ft
Both screening chambers are separated by a masonry or concrete wall of suitable
thickness, normally 13.4 inch.
Length of chamber upstream (u/s) of rack = 3 ft (say)
Rack length (horizontal) = 6 ft (actual length at 45° = 8.4 ft; using Pythagorean theorem)
Length of chamber down stream (d/s)of rack = 5 ft (say)
8.4 ft
6 ft
6 ft
207
3ft u/s 6 ft 5 ft d/s
Design of screen is now final. Check for actual head losses, across the screen, using the
following expression [9].
. +6 % 6
head loss= \" Equation 15.1
=.? 3
Vs = velocity through screen, ft/sec
V = approach velocity of sewage in the screening chamber (it is usually taken as the self-
cleansing velocity of sewage in the pipe; adopt 2.5 ft/sec)
g= 32.2 ft/sec2
Putting value in equation
1 33 − 2.53
\"
0.7 2 32.2
Design refers to finding the operating volume of the wet well. The volume of wet well
below the invert of pipe, coming from the screening chamber, that holds the sewage is referred
to as the operating volume of wet well. Rest of the portion above, remains dry (Fig.15.3).
A wet well has to fulfill two requirements
1. Pumps should not have to be started and stopped frequently to avoid over heating of
motors. Time between two successive startups of the pumps should be more than
minimum cycle time as given by pump manufacturer.
Minimum Cycle Time: 5 - 10 min for small pumps
2. Detention time in wet well, at average flow, should not be more than 30 minutes to avoid
septic conditions.
208
The concept of operating volume “V” of wet well is explained in Fig. 15.6. It is clear, that
some cushion for submersible pump submergence and invert of pipe from screening
chamber must be added to the operating depth of wet well.
Now,
On Off On
209
t = Time to empty the wet well + Time to fill the wet well
But,
+ Equation 15.2
%] ]
[' − c*%. + [c %.
Differentiate w.r.t Q
−1[' − c*%3 + '−1* [c %3
c
0; ¡ ¢ £8
c
[ [
0 3
− 3
' − c* c
[ [
3
3
' − c* c
(P-Q)2=Q2
P-Q = Q
Q=P/2
Thus, the minimum cycle time for single-pump operation occurs when the inflow is exactly
half the pump capacity. Under this condition, the on and off times are equal. The pump is on for
a longer time, and off for a shorter time for larger inflows and vice versa for smaller inflows. In
both cases, the cycle time is greater and hence frequent shut down and startup is not required.
∴
= x +
% 6 /3
= x + x
6 6
210
4[
¡
4
Operating volume of wet well = V =
Solved example
Design a wet well if the average sewage flow is 1.64 cusec (4000 m3/d) and peak sewage
flow is 5.7 cusec (14000 m3/d). The motor pump has a minimum cycle time of 20 min. Also check
the detention time to avoid septic conditions. If the invert of the incoming sewer, in the wet well,
is at a depth of 15 ft from the ground surface, and water table is at a depth of 14 ft, then find the
thickness of PCC (1:1.5:3) plug to be provided in the wet well.
Solution
¤$#
V=
Z
.?3==
=
Z
= 1710 ft3
Assume operating depth = 6 ft, find diameter of the wet well
In wet well drawing, add 2 ft for pump submergence and 1 ft cushion from the invert of
pipe discharging into the wet well depth
XY6
Volume = 6
Z
XY6
1710 = 6
Z
Diameter of wet well = 19 ft ; say 20 ft
Now for checking septic condition, find detention time at average flow
Detention time =
']*
.?.=
=
..Z=
= 17.3 minutes (less than 30 min; OK)
Thickness of PCC (1:1.5:3) plug
211
If “X” is the plug thickness, then we may write
Specific weight of water is 62.4 Lb/ft3 and specific weight of concrete is 144 Lb/ft3
X = 5.3 ft
Sometimes, water table is quite high, and a portion of wet well is under water. Under such
conditions, RCC core wall is also provided in the wet well walls. It helps to stop surrounding water
coming into the wet well. Core wall is a must under above conditions
For sewage pumping, special type of pumps are used. They are of three different types.
1. Centrifugal pumps: single suction, non-clogging type pumps are used. They have
impellers having 2 or 3 vanes. Pump suction pipe is usually larger than the discharge
pipe by about 25%. Discharge pipe, with pipe diameter smaller than 3 inch (75 mm)
and suction pipe with pipe smaller than 4 inch (100 mm) should not be used [2].
Particles of size up to 2 inch may pass from the pump.
2. Submersible pump: These are submerged in wastewater. These are also non-clogging
type with construction such that particles up to 2 inch may pass through the pump.
These are mostly used nowadays.
Pump control
Manual start up and shut down of pumps has now become obsolete in the operation of
sewage PS. Nowadays, water sensors are employed; these sense the water level and
automatically switch on and off the pumps. These levels must be set in a way that the pump
should not run dry by keeping it in minimum submergence, nor wastewater level in wet well be
high enough to surcharge the contributing sewers [12]. All these requirements are decided by
the environmental engineer and conveyed to the pump supplier (through giving detailed
specifications/requirements in the bidding document).
Fig. 15.7 shows this setup. Four levels sensors are installed. When wastewater level rises
in the wet well and a particular sensor is submerged it sends the signal and the specified pump
is switched on. When wastewater level falls down and sensor is exposed, it sends signal to switch
off a specific pump. A minimum water levels is maintained in the wet well through the level sensor
212
installed at the lowest level. As soon as this sensor is exposed, no pump remains in operation
and this avoid dry running of the pump.
Figure 15.7: Planning for pump startup and shutdowns in a wet well
Sometimes, the final point of disposal is located at some distance from the sewage
pumping station. In such cases, a pipe is laid from pumping station to the point of disposal. Such
pipes are referred to as force mains. The design of force main is essentially the same as that of
water transmission lines/rising mains.
Consider the situation given in Fig. 15.8. A submersible lift station has to pump sewage to
a drain. The drain is located at a distance of 1000 ft from the lift station. The force main will
discharge sewage at an elevation of 250 ft. Pump discharge is 5 cusec. Use PVC pipe as force
main. Determine the (1) diameter of pipe required; (2) head of pump; (3) BHP of motor.
213
Figure 15.8: Sketch for the design of force main
Solution
Q = 5 cusec
Adopt a velocity of 5 ft/sec in the force main (Ch-5; section 5.12). Velocity in transmission
line may be adopted between 2-5 ft/sec. Higher velocities will result in smaller diameter but more
head losses and higher pump heads. Thus, energy bills are more but there is saving in cost of
pipe. With lower velocities, bigger diameter pipes are needed making the cost of force main
higher. However, lower head pumps are needed due to less friction losses and energy bills are
lower. It must be kept in mind that pipe cost is a onetime cost, whereas energy bills is a recurring
cost that has to be paid throughout the design life of the pump. It may be a good proposal to find
out the life cycle cost, which is equal to the capital and energy cost of pump over the design
period. The pipe diameter that gives most feasible life-cycle cost may be adopted. It may also be
noted, that velocities less than 2.5 ft/sec may not be adopted for sewage as it may result in the
settlement of solids in the force main. Therefore, it is reasonable to adopt a velocity of 5 ft/sec for
the force main.
Q=AxV
Where:
Q = pump flow, cusec
A = Area of pipe, ft2
V = velocity of sewage, ft/sec
XY6
5= 5
Z
214
D = 1.1 ft = 13.5 inch; adopt 14 inch dia
Note: Before adopting a diameter, ensure that the diameter is commercially available in
the market. For the purpose consult the pipe manufacturer brochures. Manufacturer website, if
available, may also contain the soft form of brochures that can be downloaded.
To determine the static head, the maximum elevation difference the pump will need to
overcome must be identified. This will be when the water surface elevation in the wet well is at its
lowest, or just above pump’s off elevation. To be conservative, use the pump’s off elevation
Static head = 250-217=33 ft
L = 1000 ft
Q = 5 cusec
C = 140 for PVC pipes
d = 14 inch = 1.166 ft
H = 4.69 ft
Add 10% losses for bends, sharp turns etc = 0.469 ft
Total head losses = 5.16 ft
Step-4: Find total head losses with a terminal pressure of 7 ft at the discharge end of force
main for free flow of wastewater
Total head = Static head + Friction/dynamic head + 7 ft
= 33 + 5.16 + 7
= 45.16 ft ≅ 50 ft
Step-5: BHP of motor required
γ × Q× Η
BHP=
550×η
where γ = density of water = 62.4 Ib/ft3
215
Q= discharge of pumpl, cusec
H= head of pump, ft
η = efficiency of motor ( 60% for electric motor, 40% for diesal engine)
62.4 5 50
b\
550 0.6
= 47.2 ≅ 50 (Always round off to next higher value, available in market)
The motors available in the market have BHP in the multiples of 5.
REFERENCES
1. Water and Sanitation Agency Lahore, (2015), Preparation of master plan for water supply,
sewerage and drainage system for Lahore: Volume IV – Sewage collection and disposal
system: Capacity analysis and operational framework requirements.
2. Water and Sanitation Agency Lahore, (1975), Final design criteria for phase-II
improvement program, Lahore Development Authority.
3. Government of Punjab, (2008), Technical and service delivery standards for water supply
and sanitation sectors.
5. S. R. Qasim, (1998), Wastewater treatment plants: Planning, design, and operation, CRC
Press, Taylor and Francis, USA.
7. M. L. Davis, (2010), Water and wastewater engineering: Design priciples and practice,
McGraw Hill Inc., USA.
8. Metcalf and Eddy Inc., (2004), Wastewater engineering: Treatment and reuse (4th
Edition), McGraw Hill Inc., USA.
9. K. M. Yao, (1972), Head drop across bar screens, Water Pollution Control Federation,
44(7): p. p. 1448-1452.
10. Water Pollution Control Federation (WPCF), (1995), Design of wastewater and storm‐
water pumping stations, Manual of Practice No. FD‐4.
11. Metcalf and Eddy Inc., (1989), Wastewater engineering: Collection and pumping of
wastewater, McGraw-Hill Inc. USA: p. 61.
216
12. Jenson Engineering System, (2012), Pump station design guidelines-2nd Edition.
Accessed on: 15-07-2017, Available on: [www.jensenengineeredsystems.com/.../Pump-
Station-Design-Guidelines-2nd-Edition....]
217
Chapter-16
218
DESIGN OF STORM SEWERS
Storm sewers are meant for taking the runoff generated during a rainfall event. The first
step in the design of storm sewers, is the estimation of storm flow, that would enter a storm sewer.
Primary source of storm flow is rainfall. Rational Method is the most commonly used for estimation
of storm flows in urban and semi urban areas having large amount of impervious land [1].
Use of the rational method includes the following assumptions and limitations [2]:
The method is applicable if Tc (time of concentration) for the drainage area is less than
the duration of peak rainfall intensity (Tc is defined in next sections).
Rainfall intensity is uniform throughout the duration of the storm (intensity is defined as
inches of rainfall per hour; inch/hr (mm/hr); more details ahead).
The frequency of occurrence (return period) for the peak discharge is the same as the
frequency of the rainfall producing that event (more details ahead).
Rainfall is distributed uniformly over the drainage area.
The rational method does not account for storage (depressions, low areas etc.) in the
drainage area. Available storage is assumed to be filled.
The accuracy of rational method depends much on the correct selection of runoff
coefficient and delineation of catchment area. The above assumptions and limitations, are the
reasons, the rational method is limited to watersheds with 300 acre area or smaller [1]. Sometimes
rational method is used for up to 1300 acre drainage area [3].
For larger watersheds, rational method is not applicable because it does not give correct
results. Instead unit hydrograph method is used.
The Rational Method is used to calculate the peak surface runoff rate for the design of
storm water management structures, like storm drains, storm sewers, and storm water detention
facilities. The data required for rational method are: (1) values for the runoff coefficient, (2) the
drainage area, (3) time of concentration, (4) intensity-duration-rainfall (IDF) curves and (4) design
return period. Detail discussion on all the above parameters is included in the following sub
sections.
Mathematically,
Q=CiA (Rational Formula) Equation 16.1
219
Where;
C = Run off co-efficient i.e., the fraction of incident rainfall which appears as surface
flow. It is a function of soil type and drainage basin slope.
The drainage area (watershed area) is usually measured from the maps drawn on scale.
It includes all the area that may contribute to the storm sewer collection system under
consideration.
When the rain falls over a surface, a portion of it is absorbed and the rest appears as
sheet flow/runoff over the surface. The fraction of rainfall that appears as runoff is referred to as
runoff coefficient (C). Value of C for different land uses is shown in Table 16.1. The reader may
also adopt C values given in the PHED design criteria (see Chapter-13; section 13.19). Referring
to Table 16.1, the value of C for watertight roof has been shown as 0.7 to 0.95; thereby showing
that depending upon the roof surface, 70 to 95% of the rain fall appears as runoff.
Table 16.1: Value of C for different land uses [4]
Type of surface C value
Watertight roofs 0.7-0.95
Asphalt roads 0.85-0.90
Portland cement streets 0.8-0.95
Paved driveways and walks 0.75-0.85
Gravel driveways and walks 0.15-0.3
Lawns, sandy soil
2% slope 0.05-0.10
2-7% slope 0.10-0.15
< 7% slope 0.15-0.2
Lawns, sandy soil
2% slope 0.13-0.17
2-7% slope 0.18-0.22
< 7% slope 0.25-0.35
220
If a given area has multiple land uses, then average weighted runoff co-efficient may be
calculated.
^5 5 /^6 6 /^¥ ¥
Average weighted runoff coefficient (C) =
∑
Definition: The time of concentration (Tc) is defined as the time taken by the runoff to
travel from the hydraulically most distant point in the drainage area to the point of reference
downstream. It may consist of time taken by sheet flow over the surface before the storm water
reaches a street inlet (inlet time). This travel requires measurable time and while the areas
immediately adjacent to the inlet will contribute flow quickly, areas which are distant will not.
Sometimes, Tc has two components; the time of sheet flow to reach a street inlet (inlet time) and
the time to flow in a storm sewer before the it reaches the reference point downstream (Fig 16.1).
Inlet Time
I1
Time of
flow in
sewer
I2
Figure 16.1: Concept diagram for inlet time and time of flow in storm sewer (I1; I2 are inlets)
The max rate of runoff for a given rainfall intensity will occur when the rainfall has
continued for a period sufficient to permit flow to reach the inlet from the most remote point of the
drainage area. Consider the rectangular watershed/drainage area shown in Fig. 16.2. The point
of reference, in this case is the inlet.
10 min
15 min
221
5 min.
5 min.
5 min.
Inlet
Storm Sewer
From Fig. 16.2, it may be observed that if a rainfall event occurs for 5 minutes or 10
minutes, it will not produce a peak flow at reference point (inlet). Because, when flow from the
farthest point would reach reference point (in 15 minutes), the adjacent areas would not be
contributing runoff at that time. However, if a rainfall event occurs for 15 minutes, maximum runoff
would be generated at the reference point, because all the three section of watershed/drainage
area wo uld be contributing runoff at the reference point.
From the above discussion, it is evident that only those rainfall events are of interest, which
are of sufficient duration to develop max runoff.
Mathematically,
IDF curves is the basic record/data used in the design of storm sewers. In USA, these
curves have been developed for all the states and are available from the websites. However, in
Pakistan, IDF curves were developed for Lahore and Faisalabad (reader is referred to reference
5 and 6, for details on how to develop these curves from the rainfall data) [5, 6]) whereas for other
areas, these are not available and one has to develop them from the rainfall data. Rainfall data of
at least last 40-50 years are required to develop IDF curves. The data may be obtained from
Meteorological Department.
However, mostly an arbitrary value of rainfall intensity is adopted to determine storm flow,
which is not a correct approach. Fig 16.3 shows IDF curve for Lahore. Rainfall duration (in
222
minutes) is taken along x-axis and rainfall intensity (inch/hr; or mm/hr) is taken on y-axis. Curves
for different return period, ranging from 2 to 50 years are drawn.
Figure 16.3: IDF curves for different return period for Lahore [6]
By return period (re-occurrence frequency) of a given storm means the time interval
during which the given storm is likely to be equalled or exceeded. Thus, if the design return period
for a length of storm sewer is 5 years, then the storm water flow should back up into the manhole
because the pipe capacity has been exceeded only once every 5 years on the average.
The design return period for storm water management structures is typically specified by
a state or local agency. The range in which the return period varies is 5-100 years. The size and
associated cost increases as the return period increases. This, in turn, depends on the level of
protection that is deemed to be adequate for reducing the potential costs of flood damages and
minimizing inconvenience to the public. As such, the decision on what return period to adopt for
design purposes is the result of an informal cost/benefit analysis - where the potential for damages
is low or costs are small, a short return period is usually considered adequate. However, where
the potential for damages is high or where failure would endanger expensive property, then a
longer (more conservative) return period is selected [7]. Table 16.2 suggest probable values for
different drainage structures.
223
Table 16.2: Probable return period for different structures [7]
Area characteristics Return Period
Low value and residential areas 2-5 years
Higher value commercial and industrial areas 5-10 years
Critical areas: significant potential for 10-25 years
damage/inconvenience
Major culverts, bridges etc. for National highways 25-50 years
In Canada, the return period for minor storm drainage systems lies in a range of 1-5 years
and 100 years for major collector streets and arterial streets [8]. In Pakistan, usually 2-5 year
return period is used for storm water structures.
The design rainfall intensity is the intensity of a storm (rainfall) having the specified
design return period and duration equal to the time of concentration for the drainage area.
Once values for design return period and time (duration in minutes) are available, the design
rainfall intensity can be determined from an appropriate IDF curve of the drainage area.
PHED design criteria 2008 (page 72) propose a rainfall intensity of 1/30 inch in southern
Punjab, 1/4 inch for small towns and 1/2 inch for bigger urban areas. Hence, under such
circumstances, there is no need to use IDF curves.
16.3 SUMMARY OF PROCEDURE TO FIND THE DESIGN FLOW FOR STORM SEWER
If the IDF curves of the area are available, use the following steps
1. Find out the time of concentration (Tc)
2. Adopt a suitable return period (2-5-10 years)
3. Adopt a suitable value of “C” for the area. In case of multiple land use, find average
weighted “C”
4. From the Tc and return period, find out the design rainfall intensity (inch/hr) from the IDF
curve
5. Use Rational formula to find the design storm flow for the sewer/drain.
224
16.3.2 Using PHED Design Criteria
The IDF curves for most of the areas, in Pakistan, are not available (except Lahore and
Faisalabad). The PHED design criteria, by oversimplifying, propose the rainfall intensity and its
blanket application without going through the rainfall data and IDF curves. The correctness of this
oversimplification is not supported from the internationally adopted procedures. Nevertheless, the
process of finding out storm flow, using rational method per PHED design criteria is listed below
1. Find out watershed/drainage area
2. Find out C value, for each type of area, from the PHED design criteria (p. 70)
3. Adopt rainfall intensity given in PHED criteria (p. 72) and find storm flow
The entire process of finding out the design discharge for storm sewer, using IDF curves,
has been explained in the following solved example. Assume velocity of flow to be 3 ft/sec.
Solved Example
A storm drainage system has been shown in the figure below. The drainage area is divided
into three sub-catchments viz. A1, A2 and A3. Value of C and inlet time of each drainage area is
also shown. Other relevant data are:
Reach-1 (MH-1 to 2) = 400 ft
Reach-2 (MH-2 to 3)= 600 ft; time of flow in pipe =3.33 min
Reach-3 (MH-3 to 4)= 600 ft = 3.33 min
Find out the maximum storm flow and pipe diameter for each reach (location: Lahore).
Adopt a return period of 5 years. Manning’s coefficient of pipe is 0.013.
A1 A2 A3
2.47 Acre 3.7 Acre 4.94 Acre
C1=0.4 C2=0.3 C3=0.2
Inlet time=15 min Inlet time=17 min Inlet time=20 min
Solution
Develop a computational table (Table 16.2). In order to find out the critical rainfall event
duration, and the corresponding rainfall intensity from IDF curve (Fig. 16.3), and find the flows in
each sewer line, a computation table is set up (Table 16.2)
225
Table 16.3: Computation table to find out design storm flows in storm sewers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
§ ¨©
From To Drainage C AC Inlet Time of Tc i Q
MH MH area (A) time flow in (inch/hr) (cusec)
(Acres) (min) pipe
(min)
1 2 2.47 0.4 0.988 0.988 15 - 15 5 4.94
2 3 3.7 0.3 1.11 2.098 17 3.33 20.33 4.7 9.8
3 4 4.94 0.2 0.988 3.086 20 3.33 21.66 4.5 13.88
Explanatory Notes:
Col.5: Product of AC is taken for each sewer
Col. 6: Sum of AC for each storm sewer is calculated.
Col. 7: Given in the problem statement
Col. 8: With the given velocity of 3 ft/sec and length of sewer, the time of flow in pipe
may be calculated i.e. length of sewer/velocity.
Col. 9: It gives the time of concentration, which is either only the inlet time or the sum of
inlet time and time of flow in the sewer.
Col. 10: Value of “i” for each pipe has been observed from IDF curve of Lahore (Fig.
16.3) for the corresponding time of concentration (return period=5-years).
Col 11: Q = ∑ d × =(col. 6 x col. 10)
Discharge in each pipe has been determined. Diameter may be selected from back
calculation table (Table 13.3). From the table the diameter for reach-1 would be 18 inches,
reach-2 would be 24 inches and reach-3 would be 30 inches.
US EPA's Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) is used throughout the world for
planning, analysis and design related to stormwater runoff, combined and sanitary sewers, and
other drainage systems in urban areas. It is a very powerful tool.
SWMM is a dynamic hydrology-hydraulic simulation model. It is used for single event or
long-term (continuous) simulation of runoff quantity from primarily urban areas. The runoff
component operates on a collection of sub-catchment areas that receive precipitation and
generate runoff. The routing portion transports this runoff through a system of pipes, channels,
storage/treatment devices, pumps, and regulators. SWMM tracks the quantity of runoff made
within each sub-catchment. It tracks the flow rate, flow depth, and quantity of water in each pipe
and channel during a simulation period made up of multiple time steps (Please see reference 5
and 6 for more details)
226
16.4.2 HEC-HMS
REFERENCES
2. Civil Engineering Portal, (2010), What are the limitations of Rational Method in calculating
runoff? Accessed on: 14-07-2017, Aavailable on: [http://www.engineeringcivil.com/what-
are-the-limitations-of-rational-method-in-calculating-runoff.html]
3. H. Bengtson, (2010), The rational method for calculation of peak storm water runoff rate,
Bright Hub Engineering. Accessed on: -14-07-2017, Available at:
[www.hbp.usm.my/.../The%20Rational%20Method%20for%20Calculation%20of%20...]
4. T. J. McGhee, (1991), Water supply and sewrage (6th Edition), McGraw Hill Inc., USA.
227
5. A. A. Rizvi, (2015), Study of rainwater harvesting potential-A case study of FDA city,
Faisalabad, MSc Thesis, Institute of Environmental Engineering and Research, University
of Engineering and Technology, Lahore.
7. Government of Rajistan-India, (2008), General guide lines for drainage sector work,
Design & Construction Management System: Circular -8.
8. Engineering and Public Works Department, (2011), Storm water design criteria manual
for municipal services, Town of Riverview, Canada: p. 13.
228
Chapter-17
229
WASTEWATER DISPOSAL AND REUSE
Liquid wastes (at least after receiving secondary level treatment) may be disposed of in
two ways [1]:
In natural streams, there is a balance between plant and animal life, with considerable
interaction among the various life forms. Waters of good quality are characterized by multiplicity
of species with no dominance.
Disposal of untreated wastewater, in water bodies, results in depletion of dissolved oxygen
in them. It renders water unfit for aquatic life, water supplies and irrigation [2]. It may also result
in the eutrophication of surface waters (Eutrophication: over enrichment of water with nutrients
resulting in oxygen depletion and production of large algae in water) [3, 4].Polluted waters are
characterized by very large number of relatively few species.
Disposal of wastewater, in a stream, should thus be regulated with respect to both quantity
and concentration to safeguard the aquatic life and desirable water use.
At least, secondary level treatment to wastewaters must be given prior to their land
disposal. This is necessary due to the following reasons [5].
1. Spray Irrigation
2. Rapid Infiltration
3. Overland Runoff
The above methods depend upon: (1) infiltration and (2) percolation capacity of the soil.
Infiltration depends on the degree of clogging at soil surface while percolation is a function of soil
characteristics.
230
17.3 REUSE OF TREATMENT SEWAGE FOR IRRIGATION
“All the human and animal manure, which the world loses by discharging of sewage to
rivers if returned to the land, instead of being thrown into the sea, should suffice to nourish the
world” - (Victor Hugo, 1868)
Use of wastewater for irrigation has following four advantages [6].
1. Prevention of river pollution and protection of surface water quality.
2. Conservation of water, that is used in irrigation.
3. Nutrients (N, P, K) in treated wastewater can improve agriculture in arid and semi-arid
regions.
4. Reduction in the use of artificial manure.
Use of raw wastewater for irrigation purposes can be traced back to 1880s. UK, France,
Germany, Australia, Mexico practiced it. However, in the beginning, little consideration was given
to the health hazards related with raw wastewater irrigation containing pathogenic and parasitic
organisms.
After 1945, guidelines were set for the first time, for the reuse of wastewater for irrigation.
The interest in treated wastewater reuse gained momentum. Many countries started this practice
e.g [6].;
Khartoum:2800 hectare (7000 Acre) green belt was irrigated with treated wastewater.
Mexico City: Fodder and grain on 100,000 ha (2.5 lac Acre) were irrigated with treated
wastewater.
Melbourne: Werribbee farms with 10,000 ha (24,000 Acre) land were irrigated with treated
wastewater from Wastewater Stabilization Ponds (WSP). 50,000 sheep and 20,000 cattle
grazed in these farms.
In Pakistan raw wastewater is used to irrigate 800 hectare (ha), 2000 ha and 2500 ha land
in Lahore, Hyderabad and Faisalabad respectively.
Mediterranean countries are in short supply of freshwater. Hence, there is an increasing
trend of reuse of treated wastewater for irrigation purposes [7]. Over the past 30 years,
wastewater reuse is widely practiced in developing countries. However, it is mostly unplanned
and uncontrolled. The public health risk involved in not fully understood. There is a need to take
appropriate measures to make wastewater reuse safe.
231
Many millions / liter for bacteria.
Thousands / liter for viruses.
Few hundred / liter for helminth eggs.
Pathogens can survive in the environment for long enough. Their die away rate follow
descending order; helminths, bacteria and viruses.
Health risk is high for people using salads and vegetables eaten uncooked and irrigated
with raw sewage. Such people may be exposed to the following diseases arranged in descending
order of their chance of occurrence [6].
Helminth (worm) disease.
Cholera
Typhoid
Similarly farm workers using wastewater for irrigation are also exposed to the above
diseases. However, evidence of bacterial and viral diseases among them is limited. Helminth risk
is high.
There is no demonstrated risk to people living close to sewage irrigated sites. Adequate
treatment and disinfection of wastewater can significantly reduce health risks associated with its
reuse for irrigation.
Wastewater from a city of 500,000 persons with 175 lpcd water consumption can irrigate
2700 ha (6600 Acre) of land. Effluent from a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) has a significant
fertilizer value. It can supply all the nitrogen and much of the phosphorous and potassium required
for agricultural crops [6].
Furthermore, the organic matter in the effluent adds valuable micronutrients and humus2
to the soil which helps to improve water retention capacity of the soil.
Studies in California, Portugal and Israel have shown that many crops can grow, without
chemical fertilizers, if treated wastewater is used for their irrigation [6].
232
Exposed
Category Use Helminth Fecal Coliform
group
Irrigation of crops likely Workers, ≤ 1/L ≤ 1000/100 mL
A to be eaten uncooked, consumers, (wastewater
sports fields, public parks public stabilization ponds)
Irrigation of cereal crops, Workers ≤ 1/L No value
B industrial crops, fodder recommended
crops, pasture, and trees
Localized irrigation of crops None < 1/L No value
in category B, if exposure recommended
C
of workers and the public
does not occur
REFERENCES
1. M. L. Davis, (2010), Water and wastewater engineering: Design priciples and practice,
McGraw Hill Inc., USA.
2. J. O. Odigie, (2014), Harmful effects of wastewater disposal into water bodies: A case
review of the Ikpoba river, Benin city, Nigeria, Tropical freshwater biology, 23: p. 87-101.
7. WHO, (2005), A regional overview of wastewater management and reuse in the Eastern
Mediterranean Region, WHO-EM/CEH/139/E.
8. I. Hespanhol and A. M. E. Prost, (1994), WHO guidelines and national standards for reuse
and water quality, Water Research, 28(1): p. 119-124.
233
Chapter-18
234
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE (O&M)
OF WATER SUPPLIES AND SEWERAGE
PROJECTS
18.1 O&M COSTS
Environmental Engineers often have to calculate the operation and maintenance (O&M)
costs of water supply and sewerage projects. O&M cost has three major components: (1) staff
salary; (2) energy bills and (3) repair works. These components are explained below.
18.1.1 Staff
Determination of an adequate staffing level (number) is important. Over staffing and under
staffing both have certain issues. Over staffing leads to higher annual O&M costs, while under
staffing leads to deficient operations. Staffing level depends upon the size of the project. In case
of big urban centers, large staff may have to be recruited. For example, water supply system in
Lahore (the second largest city of Pakistan, having a population of around 11 million) has 430
tube wells for water supply. The sewerage system has 74 lift stations and 14 sewage disposal
station. Total length of sewer lines is around 3500 Km [1]. For smaller towns, there may be less
tube wells and lift/disposal stations. Hence staffing level may be low.
In case of manual operation, each tube well would need pump operator to put on and put
off the pump. The operator also acts as watchman at the tube well pumping chamber/ house.
There may be numerous valve men to open/close valves. Electrician are required to resolve
issues related with electric installations at pump house. Plumbers are required for pipe leakage
repairs. The number of pump operators, valve men, electricians and plumbers needed depends
upon the project size. A careful evaluation of numbers is essential. The job description must be
carefully drafted. Required qualification must be decided. After hiring, initial training and capacity
building of staff should never be underestimated. It is essential for smooth and optimum operation
of the project.
For a sewerage project, the personnel required are sewermen, pump operators, plumbers
and electricians. Again, the number depends upon the size and extent of the project. All other
things apply as mentioned in the para above. Staff salaries account for a substantial part of the
annual O&M cost.
In case of large projects (semi urban and urban areas), manual operation is cumbersome.
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) system is considered to be the most suitable.
Detailed discussion on SCADA is given in section 18.4.
235
18.1.2 Energy bill
Energy bills hold a substantial part of the total O&M cost. The amount depends upon the
motor horsepower, pumping hours and number of electric motors installed.
18.1.3 Repairs
For pumping machinery, the practice is to take 5% of the capital cost, and for civil structure,
1% of the capital cost, as annual maintenance cost [2].
Solved example
The data for a water supply and sewerage project are given. Find the annual O&M cost to
run the system.
Water supply data: There are 10 tube wells. Each has 20 BHP motor. Pumping hours per
day are 12. The cost of pipes and civil structure is Rs 60 million. Cost of pumping machinery and
equipment is 5 million. Staffing level is 10 pump operators, 1 electrician and 3 plumbers.
Sewerage data: There are 5 lift stations and one disposal station. 2 pumps are installed
at each lift station with BHP of motor as 10 and 15. The pump with 10 BHP motor works for 18
hours and pump with 15 BHP motor works for 8 hours. Disposal station has 3 pumps, with motor
BHP as 5, 15 and 20. These work for 12, 8 and 6 hours respectively. Cost of civil structure
(sewers, manholes, inlets, sewage disposal and lift stations) is 80 million and cost of pumping
machinery is 20 million. Staffing level is 6 pump operators, 10 sewermen, 1 electrician, 2 plumbers
and 5 watchmen. A diesel generator (DG) set is also required at disposal station as an alternate
energy source. Find out the KVA of the DG set to meet the requirement with pump having motor
BHP of 20 (pump with peak discharge). Assume that DG set is also operated for 2 hours daily at
the disposal station. Assume cost of DG set as Rs 1.0 Million
Solution
Normally, an Excel sheet is used to frame the annual O&M cost. The same was used for
the above problem. After formulation, it is reproduced below. The staff pays taken are just for this
solved examples. The reader is suggested to take market or government approved pays.
Water Supply Annual O&M
1. Staff pay
Sr Monthly Annual cost
Position Number
No. Salary(Rs) (Rs Million)
1 Pump operator 10 10,000 1.2
2 Electrician 1 15000 0.18
3 Plumber 3 15000 0.54
Sub-Total 1.92
236
2. Energy bills
Units
Number of Kilo Watt Pumping Cost
BHP consumed in
Motors (BHPx0.746) hours (Rs Million)
one year
1 2 3 4 2x3x4x365
20 10 14.92 12 653,496 13.1
Sub-Total-2 13.1
*Cost of electricity adopted = Rs 20 per unit
3. Repair charges
1. Staff pay
Monthly
Annual cost
Sr No. Position Number Salary
(Rs Million)
(Rs)
1 Pump operator 6 10,000 0.72
2 Sewermen 10 8,000 0.96
3 Watchmen 5 8,000 0.48
4 Electrician 1 15,000 0.18
5 Plumber 2 15,000 0.36
Sub-Total-1 2.7
237
2. Energy bill
Units
Number of Kilo Watt Pumping Cost*
BHP consumed in
Motors (BHPx0.746) hours (Rs Million)
one year
1 2 4 2x3x4x365
10 5 7.46 18 245,061 4.9
15 5 11.19 8 163,374 3.3
5 1 3.73 12 16,337 0.3
15 1 11.19 8 32,675 0.7
20 1 14.92 6 32,675 0.7
Sub-Total-2 9.8
*Cost of electricity adopted = Rs 20 per unit
238
4. Repairs charges
Cost 5% of cost 1% of cost
(Rs Million) (Rs Million) (Rs Million)
Pumping
machinery and
DG set 21 1.05
Civil Structure 80 0.8
Sub-Total-3 1.85
18.2 PUMPS
In water supply, either vertical turbine or submersible pumps are used. In case of vertical
turbine pumps, if the water table is at a considerable depth, pumps having long column pipes are
essentially used. Since the motor is installed in the pump house and pump is under water, it is
rotated through a shaft extending from motor to pump. Vertical turbine pumps are water lubricated
i.e. the rubber bush along the column pipe shaft must be watered before starting the pump. For
this purpose, a small drum, filled with water, is attached with the discharge head of pump. Before
starting the pump, the drum is drained into the column pipe to wets all the rubber bushes.
Afterwards, pump is started. If water lubrication is not done, the rubber bush wears very quickly
due to abrasion of shaft rotating at a high speed (either 1450 or 2900 rpm) and early repair is
needed.
Water lubrication is not required in case of submersible pumps; as motor and pumps are
coupled together. The operator must observe for any unusual sound or vibration in the pumping
machinery. Pump repairs are usually outsourced to manufacturer or any pump repair shop having
proficiency in this task.
18.2.2 Sewerage
Submersible pumps are mostly used these days. In case of manual operation of pumps,
constant attendance of operator is essential. Pumps have to be switched on and off depending
upon the amount of incoming sewage in the wet well. In case of any negligence of operator, the
sewage may pond up in wet well, above the invert of pipe coming from screening chamber. This
239
may result in surcharging of sewer lines upstream. Sometimes, the pump may run dry, which
results in serious damage to pump.
To avoid above complications, auto startup and shutdown system are usually employed
these days. The pump startup and shutdown is connected with sewage level in the wet well. In
case of high flows into wet well, both pumps are put on. In case of low flows, when the sewage
level goes down, the pump with high discharge is automatically shut down and the pump with
average flow is kept in operation. It relieves constant attendance of the operator. If requested,
pump manufacturer provides for all necessary controls in the pumping machinery. However, these
provisions must be taken in specifications and bidding documents. It is much beneficial, if
specifications for pumping machinery are finalized in consultation with renown pump
manufacturer’s representative.
Common issues encountered during operation of water supply system include: breakdown
of pumping machinery, leakages in water transmission lines/rising main and distribution system,
contamination of water due to leakages or cross connection with sewer lines and low pressure in
certain areas. In order to sort these out, field investigations are essential to identify the cause and
later suggest appropriate solution.
18.3.2 Sewerage
Common issues encountered in sewerage system are: blockage in sewer pipe resulting
in manhole surcharging and ponding in the area, breakdown of pumps at sewage pumping station,
poor maintenance and cleaning of street inlets that result in street ponding. Minor blockage may
be removed by rodding, while major blockage requires sucking and jetting machines. Regular
inspection of sewer lines may be made for proactive maintenance and avoiding problems to
magnify.
Biological transformation of solids present in sewage gives rise to certain gases which
may be odourous. Most important of these is hydrogen sulfide (H2S). It has a characteristic rotten
egg smell and is extremely toxic, and corrosive [3]. It is also a potential threat to the sewermen
working inside the collection system or manholes for maintenance and repair purposes. The
minimum concentration known to have caused death is 300 ppm while 3000 is quickly fatal [4].
Methane (CH4) may also be produced, which may be explosive, if exposed to a flame. Hence
sewermen must be careful in this regard. The issue of gas production is more pronounced in hot
climate.
240
Control measures to reduce odour and gas problems include: (1) proper design of
collection system and (2) by providing sufficient ventilation in the collection network [4, 5]. Proper
design includes maintaining sufficient grades to have a minimum of 2 ft/sec velocity in sewers.
Lower velocities result in more quantities of H2S [6]. It is reported that the buildup of H2S is more
in smaller diameter sewers as compared to larger pipes [7]. Although the gases, especially H2S
remain emitting from the flowing sewage; their release from sewage is more at points of
turbulence. The point of turbulence are points where there is an intersection of sewers. In straight
line sewers, there is minimum turbulence [4]. For the ventilation of H2S from the collection system,
sewer ventilation shafts are provided with cross sectional area at least half of area of sewer. It
must be tall enough to extend above the nearby roof, releasing odourous gases at sufficient
height.
Sulfuric acid reacts with the RCC pipe and slowly results in eroding of concrete. Ultimately,
the pipe collapses at the crown. It is referred to as crown failure/corrosion. The whole process is
shown in Fig. 18.1.
241
Figure 18.1: Process of crown corrosion in RCC pipe [9]
18.4 SCADA
SCADA is the abbreviation of Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition. The key
words give some insight into what SCADA would be. It starts with “supervisory”, means
supervision; control shows that it also controls somethings; data acquisition means to read and
acquire data. In summary, SCADA means a software that is used to control hardware/equipment
through a communication system and read and acquire data from the hardware/equipment.
Equipment may be a water pump, wastewater pump, a valve, voltmeter, ampere meter and the
like in a water supply or sewerage system. SCADA is essentially used where automation and
remote control are required; like, industrial processes, transport, food and beverage industry,
paper mills, power sector, water supply and sanitation works etc.
SCADA is the most efficient mean of managing water supply and sewerage systems. It
also stores data, shows trends, generates reports and establishes a central command center of
an extended/large water supply and sewerage system. It reduces staffing requirement and
improves level of service. It is not possible to run efficiently very large water supply and sanitation
systems without SCADA [10-12].
The components of SCADA system are shown in Fig. 18.2. First component is the SCADA
server on which SCADA software is installed. This server is connected through the second
component i.e. communication system to the third component i.e. field equipment (which is
242
composed of sensor, actuator and control) [13, 14]. Thus, SCADA server can interact with the
field equipment through a communication system. Communication system may be Ethernet or
Satellite based. Ethernet is wired while satellite is wireless. SCADA server reads what is
happening in the field i.e. whether pump is shut off or running, valve is open or close, what is the
level of wastewater in the wet well, what is the level of water in the OHR etc. All the information
is displayed in the control room. It is used to take decisions regarding pump shutdown/startup,
valve opening/closing and numerous others.
The third component i.e. field equipment contain: (1) sensor; (2) actuator and (3) control.
Sensor senses the input physical quantity. Sensor could be pressure, temperature, flow or level
sensor. Actuator is the one that controls the quantity. Actuators could be pumps, valves or
motors. Control is the PLC (Programable Logic Control) that contains the algorithm of controlling
the actuator. PLC is a hardware. It reads the sensor physical signal, solves the algorithm and give
the controlled output. Similarly, it also receives signal from the SCADA server and executes the
command; say shut down a pump etc.
2. Communication 3. Field
1. SCADA Server System Equipment
(Control Center) (wired or wireless) (Sensor, actuator
and Control)
243
It is very difficult to get exact information about which pump is in operation, operate pumps in the
most economical way, take timely measures to divert flow from one water supply zone to the
other, if the latter is facing water shortage or pressure issues.
SCADA addresses all above issues. SCADA may give the following functionalities:
1. Provides a central place where status of all pumps, valves, water levels in OHR etc.
can be monitored graphically.
2. Remote startup and shut down of pumps from control room.
3. Remote opening/closing of valves from control room.
4. Ringing of auto alarms in case of emergency
5. Provides facility of data logging (time of operation of pumps, time for which a valve
remains open/close, recording of flow rates at pumps, voltage and amperage of
pumps, water levels in wet wells and OHRs etc.)
6. Monitor supply of electricity from national grid and switch to alternate energy source
(diesel generator), if required.
7. Operate standby pump at sewage pumping station on alternate days and ensure that
all pumps are in operation at peak sewage flows.
8. Triggering alarm in control room, in case the fuse of a motor blows off.
9. Stagger stopping of pumps (i.e. shut down one by one after some specified period).
10. Monitoring of motor voltage, amperage and power consumption at control room.
11. Multi-use support (remote monitoring of water supply and sewerage system through
internet); even on a mobile phone.
All or selected functionalities, mentioned above, may be obtained through SCADA.
Fig. 18.3 shows a simple network controlled by SCADA. In it, two field equipment i.e. a
pump and valve are being controlled. PLC-1 is used for pump and PLC-2 for valve and to read
water level in the tank. As soon as the water level in the tank reaches a predefined level, the pre-
programmed PLC-2 opens the valve. When level goes down a pre-defined level, PLC-2 closes
the valve. Both pieces of information are received in SCADA control room showing the status of
valve (open/close). Similarly, when the water level goes down to a pre-defined level, the PLC-1
startups the pump and shuts it down when water tank is about to fill. The pump and valve status
and level of water in tank, all is being observed in SCADA control room that may be several Km
away from these installations. Both pump and valve may be controlled by a person, sitting in the
SCADA control room.
244
Figure 18.3: A simple water supply system controlled by SCADA
The computer used to install SCADA host software must have requisite specifications. It
is advisable to take a life time license of the software, which normally is economical. Software
must have provision for future expansion i.e. to take care of additional pumps to SCADA software,
without any addition to the software or future licensing needs.
It is desirable to add web server software on SCADA Server computer for access to
SCADA interface through internet by any computer or smart phone, even outside the control
center. A single or multiple LCDs may be used to configure graphical display of all field equipment
to be monitored. It is essential to support SCADA server with UPS with a backup time of at least
30 minutes [15, 16].
The biggest security issue with SCADA, especially those which are connected with
internet, is of the security. Any hacker may get in and shut down the whole system. Hence the
vendor providing the SCADA system may be advised to put in a strong security system [17, 18].
245
18.4.4 Companies providing SCADA
There are many SCADA system companies that give services in Pakistan. Internet may
be the best source to find one. To name a few:
1. Encosyst
2. SCADA International A/S
3. ENKO Electronic Control Systems
4. Siemen
5. Schneider
During construction and operation of water supply and sewerage projects, the workers
involved face some health and safety risks. Unfortunately, these are often neglected by the
contractor as well as the executing agency. Resultantly, the workers and sometimes the general
public also suffer a lot. This negligence may result in minor to fatal accidents and sometimes even
loss of life. Hence, it is necessary to delineate briefly occupational health and safety (OHS) issues
during construction and operation phase. Environmental engineers must ensure that all necessary
measures are taken related to OHS [19-22].
246
Figure 18.4: Personal protective equipment (PPE); cap, boots, gloves
During the construction of overhead reservoir (OHR), the workers working at height must
be provided with full body harness as a safety against accidental falls [26]. All the gadgets, used
to move the workers at height, must be properly checked against any malfunctioning. Workers
must be educated about safety measures while working at height.
Operation: Mostly, pump operators are exposed to electric shocks due to the presence
of electrical appliances in the pump house. All wiring must be concealed. There may be no open
circuits, switches or extensions in the pump house [27].
18.5.2 Sewerage
Construction: Trench excavated for a deep sewer is hazard for passerby, traffic and the
workers. Therefore, these must be barricaded [28]. Deep trenches must be provided with proper
shuttering (support) to avoid caving and resulting any injury to the labour working in the trench.
Proper traffic diversion must be provided and information regarding it must be clearly displayed
for the people as illustrated in Figure 18.5. Information that sewer work is in progress must be
displayed with the help of sign boards. Alternate routes must be provided to avoid traffic
congestion and public inconvenience. Signage about alternate routes must be placed at site.
Construction material must be properly stored at a suitable place where it poses no hazard
to the free flow of traffic and people. Labour should wear reflective jackets while working at night.
Proper lighting arrangement be made to avoid any night accidents.
247
Figure 18.5: Work area barricaded and diversion signs installed
Manhole ditch must also be barricaded. The work may be completed in the shortest
possible time. Workers must be provided with essential PPE. Workers orientation on OHS issues
must be done. At site, temporary electric connection must be done by a qualified electrician. No
stray and open wiring should be allowed at the work site. Any electric extensions must be
enclosed to avoid electrocution.
Operation: All sewermen must be provided with PPE (protective boots, gloves, helmets
and other essential PPE as per work requirement) while on work. H2S (hydrogen sulfide) gas in
manhole is highly toxic and becomes fatal for sewermen descending into, for the purpose of
cleaning. Hence, manhole must be kept open for sufficient time allowing hazardous gases to
escape. Sewermen must be provided with breathing equipment for safety against H2S, while
descending and working in the manholes [29].
Chances of electrocution (death due to electric shock) at sewage pumping stations must
be reduced by keeping wiring and electric equipment in proper conditions. Pump operators must
be given awareness to save themselves from electric shocks [27].
REFERENCES
1. Water and Sanitation Agency Lahore, (2015), Preparation of master plan for water supply,
sewerage and drainage system for Lahore: Vol IV - Sewage collection and disposal
system: Capacity analysis and framework requirements.
3. Alken Murray Corp., (2017), The nature of sulfide compounds and their formation.
Accessed on: 25-07-2017, Available at: [http://www.alken-
murray.com/H2SFrameSet.html]
248
4. Metcalf and Eddy Inc., (1989), Wastewater engineering: Collection and pumping of
wastewater, McGraw Hill Inc., USA: p. 61.
5. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, (1985), Design manual "odor and corrosion control
in sanitary sewerage systems and treatment plants".
6. Tony Palmer, Paul Lagasse and Maureen Ross, (2000), Hydrogen sulfide control in
wastewater collection system. Accessed on: 14-07-2017, Available at:
[https://www.roadsbridges.com/hydrogen-sulfide-control-wastewater-collection-systems]
7. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, (1974), Process design, manual for sulfide control
in sanitary sewerage systems.
8. J. Kane, (2014), Hydrogen sulphide gas in sewers –the challenges of odour and corrosion,
39th Annual WIOA Queensland Water Industry Operations Conference and Exhibition
Logan Metro Indoor Sports Centre, Logan 3 to 5 June, 2014: p. 75-81.
9. M. L. Davis, (2010), Water and wastewater engineering: Design priciples and practice,
McGraw Hill Inc., USA.
10. NPTL, (2012), Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA). Accessed on: 23-07-
2017, Available at: [http://nptel.ac.in/courses/108106022/LECTURE%208.pdf]
11. Schneider Electric Telemetry & Remote SCADA Solutions, (2012), White paper on
SCADA systems overview.
12. Control Manual, E-Book, (2015), SCADA: Applications and case studies. Accessed on:
3-06-2018, Available at: [http://controlmanuals.com/files/Automation/SCADA-Systems-
p1.html]
13. J. D. McDonald, (1993), Developing and defining basic SCADA system concepts, Papers
presented at the 37th annual conference , 25-27 April 1993 in Rural Electric Power
Conference.
14. National Communication System Virginia USA, (2004), NCS technical information bulletin
15. J. Marcuse, B. Menz and J. Payne, (1995), Servers in SCADA applications, Industry
Applications. in Thirteenth IAS Annual Meeting, IAS '95., Conference Record of the 1995
IEEE 1995.
17. J. Dagle, (2005), Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) introduction.
Accessed on: 26-07-2017, Available at:
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[http://www.science.smith.edu/~jcardell/Readings/TRUST%20US/2005_09_15_Jeff_Dag
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250
ANNEX-1
RCC sewer pipes reinforcement as per ASTM C-76 specifications
251
ASTM RCC PIPES C-76 SPECIFICATION
RCC PIPE CLASS II - WALL B
Notes:
The strength test requirements in pound per linear foot of pipe under the three edge bearing method shall be either the D-Load (test load expressed in pounds
per linear foot per foot of diameter) to produce a 0.01 inch crack,or the D-Loads when the pipe fails and it is referred to as the ultimate load as specified below
D-Load to produce a 0.01 inch Crack = 1000
D-Load to produce the ultimate load = 1500
The minimum compressive strength of the concrete shall be as shown in this table
252
CONCRETE STRENGTH = 4000 PSI
Figure: Single cage reinforcement and other details of 12 inch diameter RCC pipe
253
Figure: Double cage reinforcement and other details of 36 inch diameter RCC pipe
254
ASTM RCC PIPES C-76 SPECIFICATION
RCC PIPE CLASS III - WALL B
Notes:
The strength test requirements in pound per linear foot of pipe under the three edge bearing method shall be either the D-Load (test load expressed in pounds
per linear foot per foot of diameter) to produce a 0.01 inch crack,or the D-Loads when the pipe fails and it is referred to as the ultimate load as specified below
D-Load to produce a 0.01 inch Crack = 1350
D-Load to produce the ultimate load = 2000
The minimum compressive strength of the concrete shall be as shown in this table
255
CONCRETE STRENGTH = 4000 PSI
256
ASTM RCC PIPES C-76 SPECIFICATION
RCC PIPE CLASS IV - WALL B
Notes:
The strength test requirements in pound per linear foot of pipe under the three edge bearing method shall be either the D-Load (test load expressed in pounds
per linear foot per foot of diameter) to produce a 0.01 inch crack,or the D-Loads when the pipe fails and it is referred to as the ultimate load as specified below
D-Load to produce a 0.01 inch Crack = 2000
D-Load to produce the ultimate load = 3000
The minimum compressive strength of the concrete shall be as shown in this table
257
CONCRETE STRENGTH = 4000 PSI
Additional information/directions
1. Bell and spigot joints will be used from 12" internal diameter (i/d) to 24"i/d size with rubber gasket.
2. Tongue and groove joints will be used for 27" i/d and above.
3. In case of single cage reinforcement, the position of steel reinforcement shall be at the center of the thickness of pipe, in no
case the cover shall be less than one inch from outer surface of the pipe.
258
4. Ooverlaps have not been considered because circular rings are to be manufactured with the help of welding by providing an
over lap of two inches (2") for sound welding.
5. Adequate numbers of straight rods have been provided to hold the circular reinforcement in tact, each straight rods shall be
welded at every spot where it touches/crosses the circular reinforcement(rings).
6. In case of joints the angle of tapper on the conic surfaces of the inside of the bell or groove and the outer surface of the spigot
or tongue should be 8 deg measured from a longitudinal trace on the inside surface of the pipe.
259
SUBJECT INDEX
I
C
Impurities in water and their effects .............................. 121
Catch basins .................................................................... 193 Infiltration ...................................................................... 141
Cone of depression ........................................................... 51 Infiltration galleries .......................................................... 52
Conversion chart ............................................................... 61 Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) Curves .................... 222
Crown corrosion in sewer pipes...................................... 241 Invert level ..................................................................... 142
Carry over .................................................................. 166
D Investigations for suitable water source
Groundwater source ................................................... 48
Deep wells (Tube wells) .................................................... 54
Surface water source ................................................... 71
Design (D) loads for three edge-bearing test ................. 174
Design criteria
Bar screen .................................................................. 204 L
Sewerage ................................................................... 148 Lead time.......................................................................... 21
Water supply ................................................................ 30 Leakage detection in pipes ............................................. 112
Design of tube well ........................................................... 61
Design period .................................................................... 20
M
Different water uses ......................................................... 16
Drop manhole ................................................................ 189 Maintenance issues
water supply and sewerage ....................................... 240
E Major tests of tube well ................................................... 59
Manhole details.............................................................. 187
Economy of scale .............................................................. 21 Manhole spacing ............................................................ 151
Environmental Protection Act........................................... 26 Manholes........................................................................ 144
Manning’s equation ....................................................... 150
F Minimum sewer size ...................................................... 144
260
O Components .............................................................. 199
Design considerations ............................................... 200
Occupational health and safety ...................................... 246 Typical sections ......................................................... 200
Oil and grease traps ........................................................ 194 Where provided ........................................................ 199
Operational cost Sewer appurtenences..................................................... 187
Water supply and sewerage ...................................... 235 Sewer construction - steps ............................................. 180
Overhead reservoir ..................................................... 34, 95 Sewer design - Hydraulic statement............................... 164
balancing reservoir ...................................................... 95 Sewer design - steps ....................................................... 157
Sewer joints .................................................................... 178
P Sewer profiles................................................................. 169
Sewer slopes to maintain self cleansing velocities ......... 143
Peak factor for sewage flow ........................................... 149
Sewer under water ......................................................... 178
Per capita sewage flow ................................................... 141
Sewerage systems
Per capita water consumption .......................................... 30
Types ......................................................................... 140
Perched water table ......................................................... 50
Sewers flowing partially full ........................................... 161
Population projection
Shallow wells .................................................................... 53
Arithmatic growth method .......................................... 39
Software for storm sewers ............................................. 226
Geometric growth method .......................................... 40
Springs .............................................................................. 70
Graphical method ........................................................ 41
Storm water allowance in sewers .................................. 150
Logistic method............................................................ 40
Strata chart....................................................................... 61
Potable water ................................................................. 118
Street Inlets - types ........................................................ 190
Pressure well..................................................................... 51
Surface water sources
Protecting water quality ................................................. 120
Design considerations for intake ................................. 72
Pumps for sewage........................................................... 212
Inlets for surface water sources .................................. 72
Pumps for water supply .................................................... 62
intake structure ........................................................... 72
Pump curve .................................................................. 63
Location of intake ........................................................ 72
Submersible pump ....................................................... 65
Vertical turbine pump .................................................. 64
T
R Three edge bearing test ................................................. 173
Time of concentration .................................................... 221
Radius of circle of influence .............................................. 51
Transmission mains or rising mains
Rational formula
Choice of pipe material ............................................... 86
Assumptions............................................................... 219
design equation ........................................................... 83
Rational method for storm flows .................................... 219
L-Section ...................................................................... 84
RCC pipes-quality test ..................................................... 173
Velocities ..................................................................... 83
Return period .................................................................. 223
Tube well construction ..................................................... 55
Runoff coefficient (C) for storm flows............................. 220
Tube well troubles ............................................................ 62
Tube wells
S Components ................................................................ 54
261
V Methods of distribution .............................................. 92
Type of valves used ................................................... 101
Variations in water consumption ...................................... 18 Types of pipes used ..................................................... 96
Velocities in sewers ........................................................ 143 Water hammer in transmission lines
calculations .................................................................. 87
W control measures ......................................................... 88
Definition ..................................................................... 87
WASH .................................................................................. 3
Water quality.................................................................. 118
Wastewater disposal methods ....................................... 230
Water quality monitoring framework ............................ 126
Wastewater engineering .................................................... 2
Water related diseases ................................................... 119
Wastewater reuse
Water requirements in buildings ..................................... 31
Agronomic aspect ...................................................... 232
Water source protection .................................................. 75
History........................................................................ 231
Hand pumps/shallow wells ......................................... 76
Public health risks associated .................................... 231
Springs ......................................................................... 75
WHO guidelines ......................................................... 232
Tube wells.................................................................... 77
Water conservation guide ................................................ 10
Water supply engineering .................................................. 2
Water distribution system
Water table ...................................................................... 50
Components ................................................................. 92
WATSAN ............................................................................. 2
Design procedure ....................................................... 105
Wet well
Disinfection of pipes .................................................. 109
operating volume ...................................................... 208
Hydraulic testing ........................................................ 110
262