#Noproject
#Noproject
THINK WORK
ACT
LEARN
CREATE
#noprojects
A Culture of Continuous Value
Evan
EvanLeybourn
Leybourn&Shane
ShaneHastie
Hastie
ENTERPRISE SOFTWARE
DEVELOPMENT SERIES
#noprojects: A Culture of Continuous Value
Introduction............................................................................................................ 13
The origin of projects........................................................................................... 19
Where we went wrong......................................................................................... 35
Outcomes over outputs....................................................................................... 47
Value over busy...................................................................................................... 67
Adaptive portfolios............................................................................................... 93
Delivering work...................................................................................................109
Continuous culture.............................................................................................121
Value-delivery teams..........................................................................................135
Funding #noprojects...........................................................................................155
#noprojects and business agility.....................................................................177
Shane:
To Nancy - you’ve supported, inspired, put up with me and been a constant
companion for the last 38 years. Thanks for everything - I love you!
Evan:
To Nilmini - thank you for being my biggest champion and driving me to
create something amazing - I love you. Although, I would like to point out that
you still haven’t read my first book :)
Special Thanks:
To the fantastic team at InfoQ who did such a great job with editing,
publishing and promoting this book - the professionalism, care and
support made the “last mile” so much easier. Thanks!
About the authors
Evan Leybourn
Evan is the founder and CEO of the Business Agility Institute: an interna-
tional membership body to both champion and support the next genera-
tion of organisations. These companies are agile, innovative, and dynam-
ic — perfectly designed to thrive in today’s unpredictable markets. His
experience while holding senior leadership and board positions in both
private industry and government has driven his work in business agility,
and he regularly speaks on these topics at local and international industry
conferences.
Evan is also the author of Directing the Agile Organisation, published by
ITGP in 2013, and is a founding contributor to the Business Agility Li-
brary. But the greatest pride in his life is the time he spends raising an
inquisitive and cunning little girl.
Shane Hastie
Shane Hastie is the director of agile learning programs for ICAgile
(www.icagile.com), a global accreditation and certification body dedicat-
ed to improving the state of agile learning.
Since first using XP in 2000, Shane’s been passionate about helping or-
ganisations and teams adopt sustainable, humanistic ways of working —
irrespective of the brand or label they go by.
He was one of the core team who wrote version 3 of the Business Analysis
Body of Knowledge (BABOK™) for the International Institute of Busi-
ness Analysis (IIBA™) and led the joint Agile Alliance/IIBA™ team who
wrote the Agile Extension to the BABOK™.
Shane was a director of the Agile Alliance (www.agilealliance.org) from
2011 until 2016. He is currently the chair of the Agile Alliance New Zea-
land, an affiliate organisation of the Agile Alliance.
Shane leads the Culture and Methods editorial team for InfoQ.com where
he hosts the InfoQ Culture Podcast.
Case-study authors
Allan Kelly
Preface
Allan Kelly inspires, educates, and advises teams and executives creating
digital products. He helps companies large and small enhance their agility
and boost their digital offering. He has over 20 years software engineer-
ing experience and has spent the last 10 years advising companies and
teams on agile and digital strategy.
He is the originator of value poker, time-value profiles, and retrospective
dialogue sheets. Allan is the author of the perennial essay “Dear customer:
The truth about IT projects” and books including Xanpan: Team Centric
Agile Software Development and Business Patterns for Software Developers.
His latest book is Continuous Digital: An Agile Alternative to Projects for Dig-
ital Business.
Doug Kirkpatrick
Haier elevation
Doug Kirkpatrick is an organisational-change consultant, TEDx and key-
note speaker, blogger, educator, executive coach, dual citizen, and author
of Beyond Empowerment: The Age of the Self-Managed Organization. He en-
gages with Great Work Cultures, LeadWise, the Center for Innovative
Cultures, and other communities to co-create the future of work. Doug
enjoys travel in rough parts of the world and appreciates the perspective
he gains from it.
Joanna L. Vahlsing
Evolving budget management
Joanna is a results-oriented-portfolio, program, project-management, and
change leader with a 17+ year history of leading highly successful teams
in enterprise-level and global environments. Her largest team numbered
approximately 100 individuals and her largest managed budget topped
$100 million. She is currently senior vice president of program manage-
ment at Centro, an AdTech company headquartered in Chicago.
Joanna also enjoys giving back to the project-management and agile com-
munities by volunteering her time as a mentor, serving as a content re-
viewer/SME for publications and international events, and presenting
and hosting events.
Naresh Jain
Shipping is NOT success — let it sail!
Developer... consultant... conference producer... startup founder…
struggling to stay up to date with technology innovation. Null-process
evangelist Naresh Jain is an internationally recognized technology and
product-development expert and the founder of ConfEngine. Over the
last decade, he has helped streamline the product-development culture
at many Fortune 500 companies like Google, Amazon.com, HP, Siemens
Medical, GE Energy, Schlumberger, EMC, and CA Technologies. His
hands-on approach to product innovation by focusing on product dis-
covery and engineering excellence is a key differentiator.
Naresh founded the Agile Software Community of India and organises
the Agile India conference. He is also responsible for organising 50+ in-
ternational conferences including Functional Conf, Simple Design and
Testing Conference, Agile Coach Camp, Selenium Conference India,
Open Web & jQuery Conference, Open Data Science Conference India,
and Eclipse Summit India. He has started many agile user groups includ-
ing the Agile Philly User Group and groups in India. In recognition of his
accomplishments, the Agile Alliance in 2007 awarded Naresh with the
Gordon Pask Award for contributions to the agile community.
Larry Cooper
It’s never just “an IT project”
Larry Cooper is a project executive and enterprise-transformation coach
with 40+ years in the public and private sectors in Canada and the USA.
He is a partner in AdaptiveOrg. Larry helps organisations of any size to
transform complex and intransigent problems into simple, focused work
that can be communicated and executed at all levels within an organiza-
tion to achieve strategic intent.
Larry works with leaders and their teams to identify collaborative goals
and the gaps in current strategic approaches. Together, they discover the
portfolio, programs, and initiatives masquerading as large, overly com-
plex, financially risky projects, so they know where to start to implement
in the small while maintaining a steady focus on their short, medium, and
long-term strategic priorities.
He is also an author, speaker, and webinar host who has hosted over 1,500
people in a single webinar.
Max Roy
Using the #noprojects paradigm
Max Roy is a driven IT professional who wants to make a difference in
businesses. He is motivated to deliver projects that provide business intel-
ligence in executive decision making.
Max’s career has spanned over 25 years in roles such as solution/data ar-
chitect, project manager, and IT faculty/trainer. Max has an innovative,
pragmatic approach to addressing business needs and end-to-end deliv-
ery focus.
Max obtained a master’s degree in IT from The Ohio State University and
an MBA from the University of Maryland.
Preface by Allan Kelly
14
INTRODUCTION
ture explicitly defines an end: a point when the project or product will
be done. Rather, it should be understood that every product is intended
to achieve one or more business outcomes and, in order to do so, must
continuously change and improve.*
This is fundamentally what #noprojects is. The approach, struc-
ture, tactics, and techniques available to successfully deliver continuous
change. At its core, #noprojects is predicated on the alignment of activ-
ities to outcomes, measured by value, constrained by guiding principles,
and supported by continuous-delivery technologies.3
There are always exceptions to #noprojects — work that is highly predict-
able and repeatable† or truly temporary.‡ A project structure can provide
a clean break to allow these new ideas to flourish, but for most knowl-
edge-worker organisations, this should be an exception and not the de-
fault delivery mechanism. Projects are exactly that, an exception to busi-
ness as usual and you should be in the business of change.
You’ll always come back to projects if you’re building a literal bridge. You
can’t afford to change the plan once the concrete starts pouring. And once
the bridge is built, you can’t add new major features to it. It has already
achieved the maximum potential value.§ While you need to maintain the
value already created, there’s not much left to create. This is in direct con-
trast to knowledge-worker industries where the creation and realisation
of value is continuous, right up to the natural end of life. There is no lon-
ger a distinction between “build” and “maintain”.
You still need to plan for the future — there is a lot of value in planning.¶
The intellectual rigours of identifying the desired outcomes and consid-
ering different ways to achieve them are important aspects of effective
product development. Adaptive planning, an experimentation mindset,
and ability to rapidly change direction are key elements for success in the
21st century — #noprojects is built on these ideas.
These ideas didn’t spring into existence over the last couple of years**
while we’ve been writing this book — many of them have been around
for decades, and some for centuries. We draw on our own experiences in
* Until the natural end of its life, when it should be gracefully decommissioned.
† Such as a production line.
‡ Such as corporate mergers, construction projects, or (ironically) writing a book.
§ Even if that value is only realised over many years, every time a car drives over it.
¶ Although, honestly, not that much value in the plan itself.
** Waaaay longer than we intended when we first discussed putting our thoughts on
paper.
15
#NOPROJECTS: A CULTURE OF CONTINUOUS VALUE
16
INTRODUCTION
17
PART
TWO
The origin of projects
#NOPROJECTS: A CULTURE OF CONTINUOUS VALUE
20
THE ORIGIN OF PROJECTS
In the reign of King Charles I, infinite projects were set on foot for rais-
ing money without a Parliament: oppressing by monopolies and privy
seals; but these are excluded our scheme as irregularities, for thus the
French are as fruitful in projects as we; and these are rather stratagems
than projects. After the Fire of London, the contrivance of an engine to
quench fires was a project the author was said to get well by, and we
have found to be very useful. But about the year 1680 began the art and
mystery of projecting to creep into the world.
Even many project management tools and visualisations trace their
origins back centuries. The bar chart can be traced back to 1765 in Joseph
Priestley’s “Chart of Biography”.5
Priestley designed this chart as part of his book Lectures on History and
General Policy6 so that students could “trace out distinctly the dependence
of events to distribute them into such periods and divisions as shall lay the
whole claim of past transactions in a just and orderly manner”.*
Priestly subsequently inspired William Playfair to develop the bar chart
as we know it today in his book from 1786, The Commercial and Political
Atlas.7 Playfair is also generally credited with inventing the line, area, and
pie charts.
21
#NOPROJECTS: A CULTURE OF CONTINUOUS VALUE
The first bar chart, from Playfair’s The Commercial and Political Atlas (1786).
This all began to converge between the 1750s and 1850s as the Indus-
trial Revolution completely transformed how people worked. Nowhere
is this more evident than in our favourite quote from Adam Smith’s The
Wealth of Nations.8 Smith drew a comparison from the craft of pin making
and the role of the talented pin-maker who “...could not make 20 [pins in
a day]. But in the way in which this business is now carried on…, I have
seen a small manufactory where 10 men only were employed. Those 10
persons could make among them upwards of 48,000 pins in a day.” And he
was right — easily mechanised and repeatable tasks could produce goods
faster and of higher quality* than anything that came before.
Everywhere you look, you can see the legacy of the Industrial Revolution,
both positive and negative. This industrial mentality has shaped the way
people work for centuries and continues to do so today. Modern project
management’s plan and work breakdown structure has more in common
with the predictable segmentation of work in our pin-making factory
than we give it credit for. Understanding this relationship is a key prem-
ise behind #noprojects and demonstrates some of the issues with project
management as it is currently defined. Much of the work that you do to-
day, especially knowledge work, is unique and innovative and has more
in common with the talented pin-maker than with a pin-making factory.
It is for this reason that, in our experience, creating accurate and useful
22
THE ORIGIN OF PROJECTS
But it was only during the 1900s to 1950s that the origins of what we now
call project management emerged.10 Its immediate precursor would have
to be Taylorism and scientific management. Published in 1911, Freder-
ick Winslow Taylor’s Principles of Scientific Management11 outlined ways to
increase worker productivity. Taylor studied labour-intensive and repet-
itive activities in detail — for example, loading iron from steel mills into
a railcar — identifying where each individual action could be optimised
to improve productivity and reduce error. Considered progressive for his
time, Taylor even noted fatigue as an attribute to be analysed to improve
productivity — in this case by recommending rest breaks to allow labour-
ers to recover. Don’t assume that this meant that Taylor was a champion
* Amongst others.
23
#NOPROJECTS: A CULTURE OF CONTINUOUS VALUE
24
THE ORIGIN OF PROJECTS
As far as we can discover, the first use of the title “project manager” seems
to have occurred around 1953 in the aerospace industry — specifically, in
25
#NOPROJECTS: A CULTURE OF CONTINUOUS VALUE
the Glenn L. Martin Company* and McDonnell Aircraft.13 That said, these
early roles didn’t have many of the same responsibilities that you would
attribute to a modern project manager.
The first project, in the modern sense of the word, would probably
have occurred in DuPont in 1957. James Kelley of DuPont and Morgan
Walker of Remington Rand10 developed a series of mathematical algo-
rithms to track the relationships between individual activities, effort, and
time that would later become the critical-path method (CPM). CPM14
constructs a model of a project that defines all the required activities and
the dependencies amongst them. Using an estimated duration of each
activity, CPM calculates the longest path of sequential activities which
together meet the project goal and the earliest and latest that any activity
can start and finish without extending the project.
At about the same time, Booz Allen Hamilton and the US Navy developed
the program evaluation and review technique (PERT)16 for the Polaris
submarine program. Conceptually similar to CPM, PERT is a statistical
tool for analysing and representing the tasks involved in a project and de-
termining the minimum time needed to complete the total project. These
* Which would become Lockheed Martin after a series of mergers.
26
THE ORIGIN OF PROJECTS
27
#NOPROJECTS: A CULTURE OF CONTINUOUS VALUE
It didn’t take long to rationalise these tools and techniques, and modern
project management was well underway. In fact, except for risk manage-
ment,10 modern project management hasn’t substantially changed since
the 1960s.
And now we come to software engineering. In 1968, the NATO Con-
ference on Software Engineering was created to bring the theoretical
foundations and practical disciplines from traditional engineering do-
mains into the software world as a way to solve the so-called software
crisis. The software crisis was a perception at the time* of the increasing
inability of software development to deliver high-quality products in a
timely manner — in general, attributed to the exponential rise in comput-
ing power.21 Although there continues to be debate today as to whether
there was a software crisis at all,† the participants at the conference con-
cluded that there was definitely an identity crisis.22
In our opinion, this identity crisis was partly a “me too” attitude that came
out of early software development — that software developers should
have the same respect and reputation as engineers and others in “pro-
fessions”. This expressed itself in the idea that writing software should
be predictable and mathematically provable like traditional engineer-
ing, akin to building a bridge. And so, in order to emulate engineering,
software was wrapped up in projects with detailed requirements, spec-
ifications, and plans like any other engineering endeavour. Or that was
the assumption — there was an idealised view of engineering disciplines
amongst the NATO conference delegates that influenced many of the
findings and recommendations.
But it did help. In many cases, this approach was able to bring discipline
to large software projects and allow them to scale — but there was a high
cost, which we will discuss in the next chapter.
With project management becoming a profession, industry certifica-
tion bodies began to emerge; the most famous and relevant today would
be the Project Management Institute (PMI), born in 1969.2 That year also
saw the emergence of the famous “iron triangle” metaphor for time, cost,
and output in Martin Barnes’s “Time and Money in Contract Control”1
course.
Around this time, in August 1970, Royce first coined the term “waterfall”23
in relation to projects for which each phase must be completed before the
28
THE ORIGIN OF PROJECTS
next starts. What is most interesting about this is that in that same paper,
Royce acknowledged the significant risks of this approach:
I believe in this concept, but the implementation described above is risky
and invites failure.… The testing phase which occurs at the end of the
development cycle is the first event for which timing, storage, input/out-
put transfers, etc., are experienced as distinguished from analyzed. These
phenomena are not precisely analyzable.
29
#NOPROJECTS: A CULTURE OF CONTINUOUS VALUE
30
THE ORIGIN OF PROJECTS
Here’s one interesting anecdote, however. The initial idea for Scrum was
triggered by an HBR article from 1986 titled “The New New Product De-
velopment Game”.31 Note the term “product”, not project. In fact, nothing
in Scrum is designed for managing projects; rather, it is a product-devel-
opment framework.
31
#NOPROJECTS: A CULTURE OF CONTINUOUS VALUE
32
THE ORIGIN OF PROJECTS
11. The best architectures, requirements, and designs emerge from self-organis-
ing teams.
12. At regular intervals, the team reflects on how to become more effective, then
tunes and adjusts its behaviour accordingly.
So where have projects gone wrong? In many ways, they haven’t. Proj-
ects still have an important role to play in delivering time-critical and
predictable work. The aforementioned bridge is only ever going to be
delivered using a project. You’re always going to need an up-front plan,
a schedule, and a validated, approved architecture before beginning con-
struction.
But a new culture is emerging amongst customers and organisations
around the world: an expectation of continuous change and improve-
ment. Most people would agree that the rate of change, and adoption of
that change, has increased more in the last 40 years than in the previous
400. This is true in almost all aspects of our lives, from computers, cars,
and communications to general consumer goods.1 These days, we even
change jobs almost as often as we change phones (every 4.2 years accord-
ing to the US Department of Labour).2
The project mentality isn’t keeping up with this changing pace of demand.
We cannot fault the intention of an organisation when starting a project.
The organisation identifies a need and, eventually, creates a project to
address that need. But in this rapidly changing world, the needs of cus-
tomers will change, outpace, and usually outlive a project’s ability to de-
liver. How many times have you revisited the same product, project after
project, to keep up with new demand? Therein lies the flaw, because that
product isn’t done. Thus, the core premise of a project, as a management
construct with a fixed end that will deliver a complete product, is funda-
mentally flawed.*
And the flaw cuts deep because projects provide an illusion of pre-
dictability. One may go so far as to say a delusion of predictability. And
we like predictability — it makes decisions easier, reduces the perception
of risk, and provides confidence to leaders. It’s also lazy management.
As we’ll see later in this chapter, projects in uncertain environments fail
more often than not so the confidence placed in the promised predictabil-
ity is misplaced.
* There has been a lot of discussion in the community about the word “projects”.
There’s an argument that the word itself should be repurposed to incorporate any
stream of product-development work, whether temporary or continuous. I actually
like that idea. Most organisations already use the word incorrectly to describe any
type of work and so, as part of the natural evolution of language, we can claim the
word and redefine it for ourselves. However, for the purpose of clarity in this book,
we’ll keep to the formal definition.
36
WHERE WE WENT WRONG
That being said, projects do make sense for some cases: when the market
is predictable and we can plan three, 12, or 24 months of work ahead
of time. It’s when the pace of change in the market exceeds the pace of
change in our delivery that products and organisations fail. This is why
startups, with their lower cost base and unbureaucratic delivery process-
es, often outperform established organisations. Those organisations that
can embrace and leverage the unpredictable nature of the market gener-
ally do better.3
What this means to the way we deliver work is that if the product has
untapped value for the customer, then organisations that can continu-
ously deliver change can continuously meet new needs. Unfortunately,
our overreliance on temporary projects, and the promise of predictability
they provide, has led to a stagnation of thought; many organisations just
don’t know any other way to work. Hence #noprojects.
This continuous culture exposes another flaw in the project ap-
proach, one that is a lot more tangible: the cost of running a project. We’re
not talking about the cost to do the work, which occurs regardless of the
operating model, but the (sometimes hidden) cost of running the project
itself. By definition, projects are layers of management, governance, and
supporting activities on top of an agreed sequence of work. Irrespective
of the delivery model used (waterfall, iterative, or agile), these additional
costs can be classified in three types, which we call the three O’s: over-
head, overrun, and opportunity costs.4
First, some quick definitions:
1. Overheads are the direct costs borne from running a project. These
are relatively small, but the easiest to quantify and recover.
2. Overruns are potential costs that are realised when rectifying plan-
ning and estimation mistakes or overall project failure. Depending
on the complexity of the work, the risk profile of the project, and
the maturity of the organisation’s estimation process, these costs can
range from very small to very large.
3. An opportunity cost is the potential forgone revenue (or savings) be-
tween project initiation and completion. The longer a project runs
without implementing a change, the larger the opportunity costs.
Let’s start by agreeing that the overhead costs relating to the cre-
ation of value and delivery of outcomes will remain relatively constant
regardless of the approach taken. In a software team, for example, costs
unaffected by #noprojects include salaries and benefits of the develop-
37
#NOPROJECTS: A CULTURE OF CONTINUOUS VALUE
* In organisations with poor work practices, these costs may actually increase in the
short term as a consequence of creating a mature work environment.
† Particularly in organisations that are over-governed or inefficient.
‡ And we’re honestly not exaggerating.
38
WHERE WE WENT WRONG
We think it’s safe to say that projects overrun and fail with disturb-
ing regularity, whether by failing to deliver a solution that meets the
business expectations, releasing later than planned, or costing more than
initially budgeted. And the solution isn’t better planning. Projects already
spend significant energy in the early stages to plan and estimate the scale
of effort and yet continue to have significant overruns. Note the alarming
results from this study from the Harvard Business Review:5
We examined 1,471 projects, comparing their budgets and estimated per-
formance benefits with the actual costs and results.… When we broke
down the projects’ cost overruns, what we found surprised us. The av-
erage overrun was 27% — but that figure masks a far more alarming
one. Graphing the projects’ budget overruns reveals a “fat tail” — a large
number of gigantic overages. Fully one in six of the projects we studied
was a black swan, with a cost overrun of 200%, on average, and a sched-
ule overrun of almost 70%.
These risks are compounded when there is undue pressure to align the
project budget to a preconceived business expectation — which in turn
leads to fuzzy estimates with little or no bearing on reality. Fundamental-
ly, this leads to the question “why bother?”
39
#NOPROJECTS: A CULTURE OF CONTINUOUS VALUE
0% 50% 100%
2007
2008
2010
2011
2013
SUCCESSFUL CHALLENGED FAILED
These statistics are nothing new; you’ve probably seen some of them
around. But that is exactly our point. IT project failure has become so
commonplace that it is now accepted and usually expected. Read any
project-management study and you’ll see the spectre of project failure
emerge. It’s become such a joke that projects that actually deliver on time
and on budget are a surprise.
Here are some more examples:
• A Geneca survey of 600 executives show that 75% of business and IT
executives anticipate their software projects will fail and are “doomed
right from the start”.11
• The 2015 CHAOS survey shows that only 29% of all projects suc-
ceeded (delivered on time, on budget, with required features and
functions), 52% were challenged (late, over budget, or with fewer than
* Another way to think about it is to do away with the traditional measurements
that indicate failure (i.e., time, cost, and scope). Rather, success is about achieving
outcomes and providing value — that’s how we need to measure it.
40
WHERE WE WENT WRONG
the required features and functions), and 19% failed (cancelled prior
to completion or delivered and never used).12
• EU figures for 214 technology projects from 1998 to 2005 showed
that only one in eight technology projects met their time, budget, and
quality objectives, with nearly 25% of all projects not completed at all.
Total technology-project overruns in only 2004 totalled €142 billion.
• A 2010 KPMG survey showed that 70% of organisations had one or
more failed projects during the previous 12 months.
• A 2008 survey by Logica showed that 35% of organisations aban-
doned a major project in the last three years.13
• Surveys of Harvard Business School’s summer executive education
programme provided examples of large IT failures that exceeded
budgets by over 1,000%, from $30 million to $300 million, and only
delivered 35% of requirements.14
In fact, when conducting the research for this last example, Harvard pro-
fessors Rob Austin and Richard Nolan concluded that there were three
dysfunctional elements prevalent in large IT projects:
1. The first flawed assumption is that it is actually possible to plan such
a large project well enough that success is primarily determined by
degree of conformance to a plan.
2. The second flawed assumption embedded in planning-intensive ap-
proaches is that it is possible to protect against late changes to a large
system project.
3. The third flawed assumption is that it even makes sense to lock in big
project decisions early.
This is easily backed up by the research from Watts Humphrey, who
coined the requirements uncertainty principle: “The requirements will
not be completely known until after the users have used the finished
product.”15
Agile projects don’t get off easy either. Even agile projects, i.e., agile deliv-
ery wrapped inside a project structure, fail at a significant rate. A study by
PMI16 found that 75% of agile organisations met their goals, 65% complet-
ed on time, and 67% completed on budget. While this is still better than
non-agile organisations (with 56%, 40%, and 45% respectively), a failure
rate of one quarter to one third is still too high.
41
#NOPROJECTS: A CULTURE OF CONTINUOUS VALUE
What about the return on investment? When a project runs over, can
it still be considered a success? Sometimes yes, but unfortunately not in
many cases. Based on findings from more than 5,400 IT projects, large IT
projects run 45% over budget and 7% over time on average while deliver-
ing 56% less value than predicted. To quote McKinsey:
We also found that the longer a project is scheduled to last, the more likely it is
that it will run over time and budget, with every additional year spent on the
project increasing cost overruns by 15 percent.17
In fact, the project-management process is fundamentally designed to
separate the work done from the business benefits. How many projects
have you experienced that have claimed success (on time and on budget)
but, after the project was closed and the project manager moved on, still
failed to deliver the expected business benefits? There are too many in
our experience.
By any criteria, an IT project has a significant risk of overrunning
time, cost, or scope, with the associated financial, opportunity, and rep-
utational costs. These statistics demonstrate a fundamental flaw in the
approach taken to project management regardless of size, technology,
vendor, approach, or processes used. Of most interest is that, in many
cases, this is not a failure of the work but rather a failure of estimation
and expectation. In reality, an activity takes as long as it takes — but that is
usually longer than you want. The failure comes from wrapping a project
construct around product delivery that is inappropriate for what you’re
trying to deliver.
They say that the definition of insanity is to do the same thing and expect
a different result.* So why do organisations keep running projects?
#noprojects provides a less risky approach to delivery by removing the
common factor in all of these failures: the project itself. This is not to
say that there are no failures in a #noprojects approach. However, be-
cause of the continuous and discrete nature of #noprojects activities, fail-
ure is smaller, self-contained, and easily identified, and you can generally
recover from it. Failure relating to project process, project governance,
stakeholder buy-in, and scope management becomes, by definition, far
less likely.
42
WHERE WE WENT WRONG
Opportunity costs and the cost of delay18 can be the hardest to quan-
tify but also can be the largest costs to an organisation running a project.
As mentioned earlier, we have seen organisations take up to six months
of planning and approvals just to begin a two-month project. That’s six
months of forgone revenue or productivity gains. We’re not even going
to begin to get into the cost of locking in a specific option at the expense
of any other option. With a #noprojects approach, you are able to bring
value to market sooner and adapt to market changes faster than you could
had you initiated a traditional project.
Organisations that can calculate the cost of delay are better placed to
appropriately prioritise work and reduce their internal bureaucracy in
order to make optimal decisions. In many cases, the organisation’s own
design is the culprit. We have seen divisions spend months negotiating
to transfer budget from one to another* in order to fund a project that
everyone agreed was absolutely critical. And this almost always leads to
significant project overruns.
Even if you can’t make quantitative calculations, it’s possible to assess the
cost of delay in a qualitative manner. Joshua Arnold19 writes that the cost
of delay has two essential ingredients: value (defined as killer, bonus, or
meh) and urgency (defined as ASAP, soon, or whenever). An idea that is
killer and needed ASAP is likely to have a very high cost of delay per week.
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Once again, we can turn to reports and research for actual examples of
this. In 2008, the US Treasury Inspector General for Tax Administration
released audit findings of the delayed Electronic Fraud Detection System
project. In its own words, “we estimated that during PY 2006, when the
fraud detection system was not operational, the IRS failed to stop approx-
imately $894 million in fraudulent refunds.”20
And this is just the forgone revenue. It doesn’t include the direct costs
borne by the organisation for workarounds, interest on that forgone rev-
enue, or revenue from any potential reinvestment.
When looking at other opportunity costs, you would also consider:
• lost market share,
• flow-on costs to customers,
• continuing maintenance costs for legacy systems, and
• productivity loss (or, more accurately, unrealised productivity gain).
We feel that this quote from Johanna Rothman perfectly encapsulates this
idea:
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WHERE WE WENT WRONG
Johanna, we want to ship this product in the second quarter this year. We esti-
mate it will take us a quarter to ramp up sales. We think there are lifetime sales
of about five years for this product. Any delays in our shipment will not push
our sales figures to the right. They will remove our max sales from the middle.
Got it? We have to make our ship date.21
Agile delivery doesn’t help here. In the majority of cases, the overhead oc-
curs at the start of a project when project approval and funding processes
drive the associated opportunity costs. Ask yourself if the confidence you
gain from writing all those business cases, stakeholder and communica-
tion strategies, RACI matrices, project plans, schedules, and endless ap-
proval meetings is really worth more than the cost of delay.* How much
governance is enough and how much do you really need?
Incremental and agile delivery methods can help once work has started
but are of limited help during project initiation. And as any process is only
as fast as its slowest point, these early delays and bottlenecks can have
significant flow-on impacts to the rest of the project.
This is all symptomatic of the project mentality, where projects cause
organisations to focus on the work rather than on what’s important to
an organisation or customer. The best example we have comes from a
project-management guide that we found as we were researching for this
book:
While the reason for undertaking a project may have been to reduce utility costs
by 10% or to increase productivity by 20%, achieving such goals may be outside
the scope of the project.22
This is the problem. Projects are decoupling delivery from value. And to
be fair, there’s a reason for it — it’s much simpler to measure an output
than an outcome. If you need to decide whether to pay for something,
asking “how much does it cost?” is a lot easier to answer than “what is it
worth?” And because your financial measurement systems focus on what
is measurable rather than what is valuable, you tend to be biased towards
perceived efficiency† at the expense of improving productivity.
Irrespective of the delivery model used (waterfall, iterative, or agile), proj-
ects are not working well. They increase the total cost of ownership and
reduce return on investment. They introduce additional risk and cost for
a false sense of predictability, just to give leaders comfort.
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The answer is not “do better projects” — we have been trying to do better
projects for 400 years. This approach has led to highly optimised proj-
ect-management processes that have improved how you deliver the easily
measured outputs rather than the valuable outcomes. So, if better proj-
ects are not the solution, then perhaps a solution is to not do projects
at all. #noprojects brings a different viewpoint and an alternative way of
looking at work, focusing first and foremost on business outcomes while
delivering work as a continuous stream of value rather than a temporary
endeavour.
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PART
FOUR
Outcomes over outputs
#NOPROJECTS: A CULTURE OF CONTINUOUS VALUE
About 10 years ago, Evan was the programme manager responsible for
delivering a government system to map the Australian national popula-
tion against various government statistics (such as socio-demographic
census data, health-care spending, and government infrastructure spend-
ing). The theory was that by mapping this data to locations, we could bet-
ter help the government identify areas of disadvantage and focus spend-
ing, which is a reasonable goal.
But before we talk about the outcomes, let’s start at the beginning. The
business case was long* and we spent a lot of time finding “benefits”. We
have put benefits in quotes because the funding had already been assigned
(as part of the annual government funding processes) before we wrote the
project business cases. But we had to find benefits before finance would
release the funds. After a few months of back and forth, we found the de-
scription of benefits that made finance happy. But it didn’t matter; we had
a great idea and it looked good. Sound familiar?
We spent many millions of dollars over four years. We released new func-
tionality every month (it was an agile project). We set business milestones:
we met some and missed some, but we hit most of the quantifiable bene-
fits and overall the organisation was happy with what we delivered. By all
definitions it was a successful project — but what happened to it?
Nothing at all. By the time Evan left the project, we had maybe 100 users
and, as far as we could tell, very few of them actually used the tool to in-
form where to focus spending. We probably would have had a better out-
come if we’d just given each user $10,000 to invest in their programmes.
This is the problem. In most companies, the focus on successfully de-
livering projects has distanced them from focusing on delivering value to
their customers. And it should not be controversial to say that delivering
value is an organisation’s raison d’être, and work that does not create val-
ue should be avoided. All too often, organisations have been measuring
activity and cost instead of outcomes and value — our argument is that
organisations need to change this to remain competitive.
In the example above, we started with the idea for a product, then we
found the benefits and outcomes. If we knew then what we know now,
we would have ignored the product and started purely from the outcome.
And everything we did from there should have been focused on that. We
might never have created the sexy product that everyone asked for, but we
might have produced something that everyone used.
* I (Evan) know, because I wrote much of it.
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OUTCOMES OVER OUTPUTS
So, by focusing on the project, we lost sight of the product. And by focus-
ing on the product, we lost sight of the value.
And that’s what #noprojects is all about: the alignment of activities
to outcomes, measured by value, constrained by guiding principles, and
(optionally) supported by continuous-delivery technologies.1 It’s about
continuous delivery. It’s about moving away from a finite construct of
fixed outputs and fixed timeframes and moving towards a model of “we
have a product and we’re going to develop the product only until it makes
sense to stop developing the product”. It’s about changing our measure-
ments and monitoring processes from measuring outputs to measuring
outcomes, about looking at value realisation rather than lines of code,
requirements, or user stories met.
But before we go any further, let’s start with some basic #noprojects ter-
minology.
An outcome is a meaningful, and fundamental, change in the status quo
as a result of some work.* Intended and actual outcomes should be ex-
pressed in measurable terms. There are four types of outcomes:
1. good and intended,
2. good and unintended,
3. bad and unintended, and
4. bad and intended.
We are talking about mainly number 1 and occasionally number 4, and
we hope to use rapid feedback cycles and the continuous culture (to be
discussed in much more detail in later chapters) to expose number 2 and
avoid or minimise number 3.
Value is the often-intangible change that is the result of work and con-
tributes to achieving an outcome.†
A portfolio is the prioritised backlog of work underway or to be done.
It includes building new products or services, maintaining existing prod-
ucts or services, and business-as-usual (BAU) activities.
An activity is any discrete piece of work that is undertaken as part of a
change.
* Some organisations may use the term “benefits” and “outcomes” interchangeably.
The two concepts are closely aligned and, for the purpose of this book, we have
chosen to predominantly use the term outcomes.
† Value is the subject of the next chapter and its case study.
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Outcomes
Value
Value Delivery Team(s)
Portfolio
Activities
PERFORMS
This relationship could be described thus: you need to justify work based
on the value it could deliver to the organisation in the context of a busi-
ness outcome. That is a simple sentence, but the relationship between
outcomes, value, and work is at best complex and often chaotic — it is
very hard to link a specific piece of work directly to a specific outcome.
Instead, look at the trend of value generated from multiple activities over
a period of time. In many businesses, committing to specific value from
specific work is a dangerous, but common, behaviour.
The first step to understand the relationship between work and outcomes
is understanding complexity theory. The Cynefin framework is a tool for
making sense of a domain and describes the inherent nature of the work
needed to address a problem or opportunity.
* This is a deliberately simplified view of the relationships. The reality includes some
level of coordination between delivery teams, particularly in situations where
multiple value-delivery teams need to collaborate to achieve an outcome. See the
conversation about the value-management office in a later chapter.
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Cynefin explained
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tices that align with achieving the outcome. There may be a need to learn
and adapt along the path, but the intended result is clear to all concerned.
Building computer systems to address known business problems falls
into this category: there is a wide range of possible approaches that could
be taken, there will be a lot of learning as the solution evolves, and the
link between the solution and the problem is relatively clear. Agile devel-
opment methods with their focus on strong technical practices and rapid
feedback will often be appropriate in this domain.
Complex: The relationship between problem/opportunity and solution
is not clear and there is a need to experiment to uncover the actual prob-
lem. You can undertake many parallel experiments, and there is a need to
run those experiments rapidly and at low cost. The ideas of lean startup
(build-measure-learn) are well suited to this domain. Run a small exper-
iment, check the results, and either amplify the solution with the next
experiment or pivot and run an experiment with a different focus. The
intent is to experiment and learn in order to clarify the underlying prob-
lem/opportunity (in which case the problem moves to the Complicated
domain and the experimentation can give way to more structured learn-
ing) or to come to the realisation that the problem/opportunity should be
abandoned.
Chaotic: There is no discernible relationship between cause and effect,
between problem and solution. In this state, there is no clear vision of
what you need to do to address the problem, and the solutions will not
be evident until after they emerge. It is important to act quickly as chaos
states will devolve into more and more chaos, but exactly what actions
will solve the problem are not clearly discernible. Firefighting is an exam-
ple of a chaotic domain — doing nothing is not an option but exactly what
needs to be done is often not directly visible to all concerned, and often
the act of addressing the problem will cause other problems (e.g., water
damage in parts of a building that did not burn).
Kurtz and Snowden provide an example of the impact of trying to apply
ordered thinking in the Chaotic or Complex domains:
A group of West Point graduates were asked to manage the playtime of
a kindergarten as a final year assignment. The cruel thing is that they
were given time to prepare. They planned; they rationally identified ob-
jectives; they determined backup and response plans. They then tried to
“order” children’s play based on rational design principles, and, in con-
sequence, achieved chaos. They then observed what teachers do. Experi-
enced teachers allow a degree of freedom at the start of the session, then
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OUTCOMES OVER OUTPUTS
So, when looking at any opportunity to invest, you need to understand the
likely nature of the work that will be needed to take advantage of the op-
portunity. Where the work is clear and the value generation is obvious (an
obvious system), then any delivery model, including traditional projects,
is appropriate. The more abstract the value generation from the work, the
more you enter the territory of complicated, complex, or even chaotic sys-
tems. By their nature, projects do not operate well in these environments.
Back to the topic at hand. Whether at the level of team, division, or or-
ganisation, the continuous flow of activities is focused on changing out-
comes (the benefits realised as a result of work) rather than outputs (the
product of the work).5 An outcome is measured by its value to the organ-
isation, whether direct and tangible or indirect and intangible. Outcomes
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are planned, slowly changing, and define the common direction for the
organisation.*
How’s this different from a project? Assume that we run a HR division.
Our outcome, or one of our outcomes, is staff retention. That’s our ra-
tionale; that’s why we exist. We create a team whose job, whose only job,
is to improve or maintain staff retention. That’s what they are account-
able for. The actual products or activities that we do are the outputs, the
means to the end. As long as what we do remains within our budget and
improves staff retention, we can choose to spend our budget however we
like. While there is value to be created, the team continues to operate.
Understand though, that outcomes can be complex, interdependent, and
occasionally conflicting. To effectively manage this at an organisation lev-
el, you need to understand four things:
1. the profile of the outcome,
2. the relationship between outcomes,
3. the principles that align work across all outcomes, and
4. the impact of unintended consequences.
The profile of an outcome defines the context, intent, and expectations
for the team, division, or organisation. While the characteristics of a pro-
file will differ between organisations, at a minimum it should contain the
following:
1. Summary — This is a short description of the outcome.
2. Owner — Who (either an individual or team) is accountable for this
outcome?
3. Measurement — If the outcome is quantifiable,† how do you mea-
sure it? How will you measure effectiveness of the activities against
the outcome target?
4. Current baseline — What is the current state of the measure?
5. Current target — What are you trying to achieve? Try to avoid per-
centages‡ and remember that this is a current target. It will change
* Here’s a hint to get you started: determine the specific (measurable) impact that the
work you are doing today has against key business outcomes. If you can start here,
this will greatly smooth out the transition away from projects.
† And most should be.
‡ As they can be easily gamed.
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OUTCOMES OVER OUTPUTS
over time. Depending on the context of the outcome, the current tar-
get may also have a timeframe or due date.
6. Cadence — How frequently will you be measuring the outcome?
Automatic measures (those which can be calculated without human
intervention) should be done as regularly as reasonable. Those which
require polls or surveys of users or team members should be sched-
uled to avoid overload.
7. Lag/lead time — How soon after doing work will you see the effect
on the outcome?
8. Dependencies and order (ranking) — Where does this outcome sit
in relation to your other outcomes?
9. Budget — What is your maximum available investment/budget to
achieve this outcome?
What is not included in the profile is a plan. The team is expected to dy-
namically react and pro-act* to opportunities in the market or organisa-
tion by instituting continuous change.
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#NOPROJECTS: A CULTURE OF CONTINUOUS VALUE
* And a third time for luck. You are not in the business of making money. (Okay… if
you’re an investment bank then you are in the business of making money, but that’s
not true for other organisations.)
† While really annoying in my five-year old, it’s an incredibly powerful technique.
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CASE STUDY
Shipping is NOT success - let it sail!
by Naresh Jain
All organisations, from the largest enterprise to the newest startup, face
the same challenge: how to solve their users’ problems by bringing a su-
perior product (or service) to market faster than their competitors while
reducing effort spent on overhead activities or, worse, building the wrong
product. I hope no one wants to build “stuff” for the sake of being busy.
This is especially critical in organisations that produce consumer prod-
ucts. My case study describes how one such organisation, building prod-
ucts used by millions of diverse users every day, used a #noprojects and
#noestimates approach to meet this challenge.
Problems
In any organisation, understanding your user is always difficult. And this
is compounded for consumer products with millions of diverse users,
each with their own reasons for using the product. In our case, we had
three distinct problems:
1. How do we build a novel product that appeals to our entire user base
without making it too complex or expensive (both to build and to
maintain)?
2. How do we find the right user needs to focus on and make the right
feature decisions (with the best ROI)?
3. How do we innovate rapidly and build a superior product faster than
our competitors (improve the time to market and reduce friction)?
While we had a good start with millions of happy users and big investors,
we were also exposed to stiff competition from some of the most innova-
tive global tech giants. To beat them, we had to up our game.
Causes
The company founder hired a new executive from the Valley. The new
hire started to question some of the decisions that had been made: “How
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OUTCOMES OVER OUTPUTS
many features did we build last year? What was the traction of those fea-
tures?”
That is not to say that the company wasn’t already asking those questions,
but a fresh perspective was a strong reminder that they needed to critical-
ly examine the product. When they looked at the data, they saw that they
had shipped hundreds of features in the previous year, but many of them
weren’t being used as widely as they had wished. The teams were super
productive in shipping but not in generating engagement. They were too
eager to celebrate success as soon as they shipped. They produced a lot of
waste in the process.
There had to be a better way. This was the state when I joined the organ-
isation.
Solution
Our solution had five key elements:
1. We structured teams around user-first product thinking rather than
platforms or functions. We called these “value teams” — each respon-
sible for a specific end-to-end user experience (or theme) and consist-
ing of people with the skills necessary to deliver the result. Because
user experience is common across platforms, we needed everyone,
from mobile to web, to work together. This also meant completely
changing how we managed the product roadmap, planned team ca-
pacity, and measured effectiveness.
2. We changed our organisational metrics to focus on nine key OKRs,
which we gradually reduced to just three, centred on user engage-
ment, user retention, and how deeply the user is invested in our prod-
uct. Even that wasn’t going far enough — about five months into the
journey, we realized that even three were too many. We gave each val-
ue team one primary OKR that they had to actively improve and two
secondary OKRs that they had to maintain at least at the same level.
3. We focused on building a learning organisation and building skills
and talent (through both acquisition and improvement). We focused
on craftsmanship and developing mastery in all disciplines. We also
tried to create cross-functional teams by embedding dedicated de-
signers, testers, data analysts, and user-insight people in each value
team.
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OUTCOMES OVER OUTPUTS
Implementation
The first thing that we did was to challenge how product decisions were
being made. We moved from gut feelings or pseudo data-driven (biased)
decision making to using statistically significant user data to make in-
formed decisions. We made a significant investment in democratising
data and running experiments at scale, which could help everyone in the
company to gain insight from data and make more informed decisions.
Anyone could challenge the product manager if the data did not support
the hypothesis.
The other big challenge was the number of long-term bets that the com-
pany had been focusing on. In order to keep the board and the investors
happy, we had to have grand things to talk about. Many times, these big,
new, shiny things would take over. Breaking those big ideas into tangible,
quantifiable experiments was really important. Putting a WIP limit on
these long-term bets was equally important as we were seeing a signifi-
cant impact from refining and polishing what we already had. The bal-
ance is extremely critical.
Once we started down this path, two things emerged:
1. Our annual plan focused on fewer big bets and featured a lot of emer-
gent short-term bets (refinements). This meant that the teams could
be lot more responsive to users, as they learned about user behaviour
and measured usage patterns without having to worry about the big
bets.
2. This also meant that we could move out of marketing-driven-devel-
opment mode — i.e., marketing was no longer calling the shots on the
timeline. This led to teams feeling less pressure to deliver. They could
really experiment and iterate ideas in a safe-to-fail environment. We
would prove with data that a hypothesis worked on a statistically sig-
nificant chunk of the user base before we rolled it out to the entire
user base. Marketing also become an integral part of our day-to-day
activities, giving teams more confidence in this approach. Now, our
teams were able to focus on the core user need and give users a “wow”
experience.
This directly led to thinking that we could structure work around
self-contained themes, thus allowing teams to own the full end-user ex-
perience. We called these “value teams”.
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Challenges
There was a lot of experimentation and volatility throughout our journey.
We could categorise what we learned as team design, politics, and mea-
surement.
We spent a lot of time experimenting with team design. We started by
creating 12 teams, which we then dropped to eight, then to six. We end-
ed up going back to eight. This volatility was natural as we were clearly
measuring the impact each team/theme had on the broader business out-
comes. Themes that didn’t have a material impact on the OKRs we either
dismantled or restructured and reassigned those people so there was no
fear of job loss, which allowed the teams to be honest and not game the
metrics.
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OUTCOMES OVER OUTPUTS
We had the usual challenge of managers who felt that they were losing
control. Historically, they’d build up political capital based on team size,
and we took that into account when forming (and re-forming) teams.
Our biggest challenge was measurements and metrics. Historically, we
tended to try to micro-measure things. We generally thought that the
more we measure something and the more precisely we measure it, the
better we got at understanding it. But the opposite was true. At the time,
we were measuring NPS and several other misleading KPIs, but all we
were really doing was feeding our own confirmation biases — the more
data we had, the more we could make that data say what we wanted it to.
Once we decided that increasing engagement and retention was our tar-
get OKR (and I’d go so far as to say that that target is relevant for every
company), we needed to decide how to measure it. We commissioned our
data-science team to look at groups of highly engaged users to find their
“aha!” moment and distil that into something we could measure. We dis-
covered some interesting correlations between various behaviours and
usage patterns that allowed us to refine our impact measurements.
We ended up using this information proactively to improve user engage-
ment and retention. It also helped everyone in the company focus on the
same impact and talk the same language. These are important ingredients
for creating a user-first thinking culture.
Outcome
We achieved some pretty fantastic outcomes. User retention rose by over
20% and engagement rose by over 30%. While it took us longer than be-
fore to release features, when we did release, we had much better conver-
sions. Without spending a single penny on marketing campaigns, we had
a steady flow of new users coming in. And, most importantly, the culture
changed as well. We are now more likely to experiment and kill new fea-
tures than ship and fail.
The journey continues. While I’m not involved with this company any-
more, they continue to evolve their business structures and models to
meet the changing demands of their users.
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PART
FIVE
Value over busy
#NOPROJECTS: A CULTURE OF CONTINUOUS VALUE
* Shane and David also discussed Dude’s law on InfoQ’s Engineering Culture Podcast.
https://www.infoq.com/podcasts/david-hussman
† There ain’t no such thing as a free lunch.
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VALUE OVER BUSY
poor quality. Making the trade-offs about what dimension of value mat-
ters most is one of the toughest aspects of product development.
However there remains significant nuance in how value interacts
with the world. Consider three aspects of the lifecycle of value creation:
1. Value degrades. This is actually the entire point of #noprojects: if you
don’t keep up with change, you’ve already failed. The value generated
by any activity, once implemented, will begin to degrade. The rate of
degradation depends on the context but is sadly inevitable.
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3. There are local maxima. If you find that your activities aren’t having
the desired improvement to the outcome, you sometimes may need
to reduce the overall value of the outcome temporarily in order to
increase it later — e.g., removing functionality from a product in or-
der to simplify further development. This can happen when you have
reached a point of diminishing returns or if the cost of change (or
innovation) has increased exponentially.
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* In many cases, they should not have applied before, but we can now move past them.
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VALUE OVER BUSY
The reality is that the three elements that were so often used to measure
success are really a set of constraints. We have a certain amount of time
and money to deliver the needed scope, but the primary drivers of success
are functional capability (for a variety of stakeholders) and an acceptable
level of quality, as these are the elements that actually make a difference
to the outcomes the work achieves.
This requires defining the desired capability and quality outcomes of the
work being done and identifying the constraints within which it must
fit. Historically, the “triple constraint” measure of success has resulted in
products that meet requirements but don’t deliver value to the funding
organisation. It is the relationship between these dimensions that governs
what constitutes value for any given group of stakeholders.
There are certainly circumstances when it makes sense to run a
project. Going back to the earlier definition of a project, project-based
delivery makes sense if:
• the outputs clearly lead to clearly defined outcomes and the nature of
the work is such that it really does have a defined beginning and end;
• the requirements can be defined in absolute detail and truly can be
expressed in terms of the three dimensions of scope, time, and mon-
ey;
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VALUE OVER BUSY
3. client-driven iterations,
4. delivering value to clients every iteration,
5. radical transparency,
6. continuous self-improvement, and
7. interactive communication.
These drivers of value are radically different to what it took to succeed in
the 19th and 20th centuries. This is part of the reason many existing or-
ganisations find it hard to adapt and are being beaten by companies who
embrace this philosophy.
Denning’s first principle, of delighting clients, is the key to success: iden-
tify the people who actually use or receive benefit from your product and
ensure that you make them happy. These clients are the ones whose needs
come first. The project sponsor or other internal “customers” may be a
source of requirements but they are never the source of value — value
comes when the product in use makes a difference in someone’s life.
In his book Joy, Inc.,6 Richard Sheridan describes the Menlo Innovation
approach to eliciting and understanding clients’ needs: high-tech anthro-
pology7. This approach puts front and centre the person whose life you
want to change and whose behaviour you want to influence. Everything
built into the product must work for the primary target persona; other
stakeholders’ needs matter but it is delighting that primary client that re-
sults in successful products.
With ideas from The Leader’s Guide to Radical Management and tools like
high-tech anthropology, you have ways to build delightful products, but
that is not enough — you need to identify which products to build. The
harsh reality is that identifying value is hard, but there are some tools that
can help you compare the likely value and drivers for different initiatives,
thus helping to ensure that you spend the organisation’s money doing the
right things. And because there will always be more opportunities than
any organisation has the funding to build, these tools help you to select,
from all the possible ideas, those initiatives that will be the most valuable.
The first such tool is the purpose-alignment model created by Niel
Nickolaisen,8 which is a method for aligning business decisions and pro-
cess and feature designs around purpose. The purposes will generally be
to either differentiate the organisation in the market or to achieve and
maintain parity with the market. Those activities that do not differentiate
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the business in the market can often either be delivered by finding a part-
ner to achieve differentiation or do not deserve much attention.
Purpose-alignment model.
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Kano model.
The purpose of the Kano model is to help you to identify those aspects
and features of the product that are most important to the customer and
to make better decisions about what to include and when. The Kano mod-
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• Quality — Measure the qualities that matter for this product (e.g., a
reduction in customer complaints, improved response times, or ca-
pacity metrics).*
• Customer satisfaction and employee engagement — Use net pro-
moter score (NPS) to survey your customers to see how committed
people are to the product. Likewise, you can use NPS with your team
members to measure how engaged they are with the organisation.
• Organisational capability and responsiveness — How quickly
does the organisation respond to customer feedback and changing
market conditions?
• Speed of learning — What new things have you included in the
product in response to customer feedback? Similarly, how frequently
do new ideas appear, how quickly do you evaluate them, and how
efficiently do you decide to discard or keep them?
Understanding value, both from the perspective of choosing the right
“thing” to do and how to keep doing it right, gives focus and direction —
in other words, “why”. Now that you have, as Simon Sinek10 famously put
it, started with why, you need to look at the “what”. In all but the simplest
of organisations, deciding what to create falls within an actively managed
portfolio of initiatives. Within a #noprojects context, this portfolio needs
to be adaptive to be successful.
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CASE STUDY
It’s never just “an IT project”
by Larry Cooper
Problems
The corporation had recently decided to place staff in Canadian em-
bassies and missions around the world. All of its existing training for its
products and services were classroom-based. With the increasing geo-
graphic dispersion of its people, continued use of classroom-only training
was deemed to be cost-prohibitive and would cause undue delays in the
roll-out of new products and services.
The project had a fixed time of 18 months and a $2.5-million budget.
The original project definition was to simply procure and implement a
learning management system (LMS) in the way that most IT projects are
defined in traditional settings. The IT team already had a product in mind
for the LMS, which would cost $1 million.
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When I arrived, I was given a copy of an RFP that a similar Crown corpo-
ration had used to procure a LMS; it was 246 pages long. The corporation
had a number of Scrum coaches on site, who delivered a one-day intro-
duction to Scrum for everyone on the cross-functional team. Scrum had
not been used for a procurement project before, and the coaches indicat-
ed that it would not be a good fit. However, the executive gave the teams
and me no choice: we had to use Scrum. That order, having a sample RFP
for a LMS, and IT already focused on a specific product were major chal-
lenges to overcome. As well, the Learning and Development (L&D) group
within HR also had little to no experience with developing learning con-
tent for online delivery.
Solution
The L&D group, along with the program-management office (PMO)
within IT, felt that a cross-functional team of business and IT people, aug-
mented with contracted workers, would be necessary. They also wanted
the entire effort to use Scrum, including for the procurement of the LMS.
The IT PMO hired me to lead the cross-functional team, with reporting
lines into both business and IT. The programme manager and the L&D
director provided clear-the-path leadership for their respective groups.
Where necessary, they were able to escalate to their respective VPs, who
also strongly supported the approach.
During the first three to four months, I asked a lot of “why” questions as
I introduced the team to a series of approaches to help them plan out an
iterative and incremental approach to the work:
• We used an outcomes-driven approach that used back-casting to de-
fine the ultimate, intermediate, and immediate outcomes.
• The resulting outcomes map (see Figure 1) identified the required
portfolio of initiatives that we would have to undertake and what
each initiative would need to accomplish, as well as the order in
which we would execute them.
• Each initiative was purpose-defined to deliver a specific portion of
the strategic intent (i.e., the immediate, intermediate, and ultimate
business outcomes to which they would contribute).
• We created a modified version of the business-model canvas called
the service canvas. It helped the L&D team to capture their current
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services and define the new ones that would be needed (see Figure 2).
The red text in Figure 2 depicts the new additions.
• We identified the required business capabilities that we would need
and updated them based on the outcomes map and the service canvas.
• A technique for prioritising business value proved instrumental in
saving 98.5% of the originally forecasted budget of $1 million for pur-
chasing the LMS license. (This saved the corporation over $200,000
each year thereafter in software-maintenance costs.)
• We redeployed the $975,000 in procurement savings to the creation
of the new services as well as the processes and supports necessary
for creating learning content for the new LMS
I had previously implemented two other LMSs, one for a private client
and the other for a public-sector client. While the first one was done
without an outcomes map, the client similarly viewed it as “an IT project”.
I managed to get the business and IT to agree to take a business-process
perspective of what had to be done, as it was a commercial-training de-
livery organisation that had previously been writing off 18% of their an-
nual revenue due to bad process. Within three months, the organisation
implemented the process and accounted for every penny, and there were
no transactions in error. Within six months, they had an ISO certification
on their processes.
The public-sector one was done using outcomes mapping from the out-
set. These experiences were leveraged to persuade the L&D group and the
program office to give the recommended approach a try.
While the original plan had only called for the procurement and installa-
tion of the LMS along with data migration, the creation of an outcomes
map identified a considerably richer and detailed set of strategic initia-
tives that would be necessary to realise success at a business level, as can
be seen in Figure 1 and in the list of value streams under “Implementa-
tion” below. Initiatives are depicted as boxes, assumptions as triangles,
and outcomes as circles. The “clouds” are used to represent value stream
areas — note the overlaps.
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Knowledge
Services
Key Distribution
Processes Channels
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Implementation
To achieve these outcomes, we identified five value streams along with
nine purpose-defined initiatives and related immediate (secondary bul-
lets) and intermediate (main bullets) outcomes as shown.
L&D governance value stream
• Develop and implement learning-governance model
»» Learning-governance model is implemented.
»» Organisational accountability for learning is defined.
»» L&D role in talent management is defined.
»» LOB/CoE roles/responsibilities are clear.
»» L&D/LoB/CoE engagement model is ready for use.
• Develop and implement a learning shared-services model
»» Learning shared-services model is ready for use.
»» Revised measurement model is ready for use.
»» Consistent intake, assessment, development, and deliv-
ery processes are ready for use.
»» Performance consultant processes are standardised.
»» L&D roles are redefined.
Learning-content design and development value stream
• Develop and implement learning-content design, development, and
management processes
»» Courseware design and development processes are
managed through workflow.
»» Learning-content design and management processes
are implemented.
»» Learning architecture is defined.
»» Learning-content design, development, and manage-
ment processes are standardized.
Learning-content management value stream
• Establish learning-content hosting in a single repository
»» Consistent learning is achieved.
»» Collaboration amongst learning-content developers
occurs.
»» Learning content is managed using a single repository.
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within the original timeline and budget, had I not introduced the teams to
new-to-them business and IT frameworks, methods, and practices.
We created backlogs for each initiative and delivered them in two-week
time boxes. We used VersionOne to manage the initiative backlogs. As the
PMO was using MS Project Server for tracking and reporting of finan-
cials and overall delivery timelines, we agreed to only show in MS Project
Server the sprints under each initiative with a comment indicating what
each intended to deliver as well as a link to the VersionOne backlog. This
enabled the PMO to collect the financial data they needed to report on
while the project team worked in an agile way with a clear focus on busi-
ness value.
We held daily stand-ups in the same place at the same time each day. We
secured a team room and used it extensively throughout the 18 months of
the project. We printed the outcomes map and services canvas on 36-inch-
by-48-inch sheets and posted them in the common area of the office. We
supplied stickies and pens so people could add comments. This approach
led to numerous impromptu discussions in front of each canvas, which
significantly enhanced shared understanding as well as the completeness
of our vision. We would collect the stickies once a week and update both
posters. We also held numerous workshops with different parts of the
business across Canada to clarify our strategic intent.
To better understand what the LMS needed to do for the business, I fa-
cilitated a series of workshops over a two-month period. During each
workshop, we helped the team identify required business capabilities
along with more detailed statements for each capability area. When they
felt they had a sufficiently complete picture of what they needed from the
LMS, we had them rank each statement in each capability area on a scale
as shown in Table 1.
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Once the team ranked all statements, I then had them do pairwise com-
parisons of like-ranked statements, starting with the 5s. For each pairwise
combination, I asked, “If you only had $1, and you could only buy one of
these, which one would it be?” If they answered with one choice, the other
was downgraded to the next lower number (i.e., a 4 if it had been a 5). If
the response was indecisive or two items were considered equal in value,
then both options maintained their current rank.
When the team evaluated and re-ranked all statements as necessary, I then
asked the L&D leaders and their team members about those items ranked
1 or 2, of low or very low business value to them. Did they still want to
include them, which would add much complexity to the bid responses as
well as potentially skew the vendor rankings, or would they like to drop
all of them?
They chose to drop the items that they had deemed to be of low or very
low business value. The reduced the resulting RFP to 10 pages (from 246)
and mostly explained the process we would use for evaluation. All ven-
dors were required to submit electronic-only responses to the bid.
The evaluation team was able to complete the evaluation process in a sin-
gle day. The top three vendors were invited to a boardroom demo in front
of key business users. Following these sessions, we swapped the ranks of
the number one and number two vendors due to vendor number two’s
better user experience; we had made clear in the RFP that users have to
be able to use the LMS to support the required business capabilities. This
meant that there was no room for bid challenges based on the process.
We also made the agile way of working part of the vendor evaluation —
we wanted to make sure the vendor we chose could work the way we
were. The winning vendor did.
We took only five business days to go from receipt of bid responses to
selecting the winning vendor.
The overall RFP process was completed in less than six weeks leading up
to vendor selection.
Challenges
The biggest challenges were with the IT support staff and the IT architec-
ture team. The IT support staff wanted a specific product, which is where
the original $1-million budget number had originated. They made several
attempts throughout the project to have their preferred tool selected.
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The architecture team, upon finding out that the selected product ran on
Windows instead of their preferred Unix (the IT support team’s product
was Unix-based) engaged in a formal challenge of the procurement de-
cision, which resulted in a two-month delay in the final contract award.
Throughout both sets of challenges, the programme manager and the
L&D director remained steadfastly behind the decisions of the team.
Once we overcame the IT architecture team’s challenge, the IT support
team dropped their challenge.
Another challenge came from the L&D team that developed the course
materials. They had to move from developing classroom-only materials
to developing content for online delivery. This meant:
• identifying new roles and processes relating to content design, devel-
opment, and deployment;
• using a more iterative and incremental approach to content design,
development, and deployment;
• having to procure and learn new content-development tools and new
practices; and
• adding a content management system to the solution.
This is what led to the value streams for learning-content design and de-
velopment and for learning-content management.
The final challenge came from an unlikely source. While the work was
underway, another team was looking at lean process design. The ap-
proach led to a challenge for the L&D team that was developing the new
processes, primarily for the learning-content design and development
and learning-content management value streams. The L&D team were
told they had to develop the “as is” before creating the “to be” processes
and were told to do that for the developing content for online delivery
— except they had never developed content for online delivery before.
This created unnecessary work and tension between the teams, though
we resolved it prior to going live.
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Outcomes
The direct additional benefits for the organisation from the approach
used included:
• clarity around what L&D did and the service commitments they
would uphold for their business clients as documented in a service
catalogue (no such catalogue existed previously);
• support for online and blended-learning delivery (previously, only
classroom delivery was done);
• new processes for learning-content design, development, deploy-
ment, and management that were not part of the original plan;
• contributions to initiating talent management, which were also not
part of the original plan;
• an agile procurement saved $975,000 in the LMS purchase and over
$200,000 in annual LMS licensing; and
• the $975,000 was redeployed to deliver business value that had not
been identified as part of the original project.
These benefits were achieved within the original budget and schedule,
which were estimated based on only procuring and implementing a LMS
along with the migration of data from the existing learning administra-
tion system.
While the defined outcomes from the outcomes map guided decision
making throughout the various initiatives that we executed as part of the
portfolio of work, the outcomes that would be relevant to any organiza-
tion that used similar approaches include:
• Outcomes mapping (or similar maps that focus on business value) al-
lows teams to clarify strategic intent and establish the “why” before
focusing on the “what”, “how”, “who”, “where”, and “when” — you get
to design the problem you want to solve without needing to know a
lot of the details before you start.
• It helps teams to think of the big picture while they work in the small
on purpose-defined initiatives.
• A service focus connects the “why” to the “who”, which in turn pro-
vides even greater clarity on the “what”, “how”, “where”, and “when”.
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91
PART
SIX
Adaptive portfolios
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ADAPTIVE PORTFOLIOS
INITIATIVE 1
INITIATIVE 3
INITIATIVE 6
INITIATIVE 2 INITIATIVE 7
INITIATIVE 4
INITIATIVE 5 INITIATIVE 8
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decisions made and the rationale for them. This is not about getting per-
mission to make a decision, it’s empowering people to make decisions and
hold themselves accountable for those decisions.
This requires careful management of the backlog of work to slice it
into discrete, valuable, implementable pieces. This backlog refinement
is a constant and ongoing activity that requires clearly defining what is
valuable and the capacity available to deliver. Having a well-refined and
well-managed backlog permits agility in delivery. Stopping work doesn’t
mean discarding what has been done so far, it only means that the work is
sufficient for delivering an outcome for now and you can free up the ca-
pacity to focus on more valuable work. This means you may stop sooner
than originally planned (if you have done enough to realise the planned
value or learned that the plan was unrealistic) or later (if you learn there
is more potential value to realise from continued investment) — the met-
ric of success is not meeting an arbitrary date or even a fixed budget but
rather is maximising the value to the organisation from the work done
and not doing more than is needed.
The cycle in which you re-evaluate initiatives should directly relate to the
planning horizon of that particular product and should take place rough-
ly halfway through a planning cycle. If the initiative has a three-month
planning horizon then this governance checkpoint should occur every six
weeks.
The key is to be able to ruthlessly evaluate the value delivered by an ini-
tiative and recognise when the cost of building the next piece exceeds the
value to be derived from having that piece. This means that everyone in-
volved in the initiative needs to be willing and able to let go at any point —
careers, promotions, and bonuses mustn’t be linked to individual initia-
tives but need to be based on overall value delivered for the organisation.
Stopping work on an initiative does not mean disbanding the team; it
means enabling the team to pull the next-most-important initiative from
the backlog (which could be a different set of features for the current prod-
uct or a completely different product) so that they are always working on
the most important pieces of work in the organisational-level backlog.
An adaptive portfolio is a key characteristic of a truly learning organi-
sation, one that listens and responds to the ever-changing voice of their
customer. Peter Senge wrote, “In the long run, the only sustainable source
of competitive advantage is your organisation’s ability to learn faster than
your competition.”2
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ADAPTIVE PORTFOLIOS
These ideas bring a radical shift to the traditional PMO role. This
group has been responsible for ensuring the “success” of projects against
the triple constraints of time, cost, and scope. Value and quality, while
sometimes paid lip service, were largely ignored in the drive to meet re-
quirements. Adherence to a defined process, audit trails,* and transaction
logs are used, in part, to avoid blame† and are also key contributing factors
to a manager’s promotion and success.
In an adaptive portfolio environment, the PMO becomes the VMO — the
value management office, responsible for maximising the value delivered
to the organisation from the items in the portfolio. The VMO is empow-
ered to make decisions about stopping and starting work on an initiative
based on the changing needs of the organisation and an understanding of
strategic priorities.
This is a radical shift in thinking for many organisations and PMO teams.
They have to find new ways to define and measure success, new ways to
evaluate what will and won’t be undertaken, new ways to fund initiatives,
and new ways of working. Being process police no longer‡ adds value.
Rather, the VMO takes on roles of coaches and mentors who can help
teams identify the best way of working in a particular context, becoming
valued partners and trusted advisors.
The organisation strategy and goals need to be clear and communi-
cated in such a way that everyone understands what they stand for, why it
matters, and who they are. This enables the formation of a decision-mak-
ing framework to help to identify priorities and select from competing
initiatives. One approach is to create a value model that ranks the dif-
ferent aspects of the organisation’s operations and goals with weighting
factors.
By articulating the value model, everyone in the organisation has a tool
to guide decision making and ensure they align with the organisation’s
target outcomes. This means people can feel empowered to make good
decisions without needing to escalate every question to get permission.
* “Can you send me an email with that?” is often said — the implication being “I need
it in writing to cover my arse later.”
† “I did my part correctly, so it must be someone else’s fault.”
‡ We maintain that it never did.
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Strategic
Objective
i.e. Profitability
Biz Capability
Biz Capability Biz Capability
i.e. Talent
i.e. Growth i.e. New Product
Development
Value weighting
Value Component Value Component Value Component
factor 4
weighting factor 1 weighting factor 2 weighting factor 6
Increase Capability
New Markets Market Share Increase Revenue
& Capacity
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ADAPTIVE PORTFOLIOS
* This is a horribly overused and misunderstood term. To pivot is to stand on one foot
while changing direction, not jump to a completely new location. Abandoning one
product in favour of another is not a pivot, it is choosing to discard and abandon
the work already done. Pivoting leverages what has been done and takes it in a new
direction.
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Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
Marketing Trade show
needs in Jakarta
Market Lunar New Ramadan Holiday
events Year sales in
USA
Technolo- Next
gy changes Android
version
Capabili- Initial sales Loyalty Privacy Loyalty
ties/risks capability programme legislation rewards
changing for holiday
sales
Resultant Catalogue Customer Wishlist Reward re-
schedule and sales registration demptions
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ADAPTIVE PORTFOLIOS
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80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
1 2 3 4 5
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ADAPTIVE PORTFOLIOS
Kanban boards: one for new ideas that need to be evaluated and assessed
and the other for existing initiatives that are underway. The workflows
for the two boards differ and the decision to move something from the
ideas board to the initiative board is key.
Kanban is one of those tools that easy to implement and hard to master.
There are some simple rules that you need to follow:
• Visualize the work — Focus on the whole value chain and ensure
that every step is visible.
• Limit work in progress — You can never introduce more work
than your capacity can handle.
• Make policy explicit — Use agreed-upon frameworks and rules.
• Measure and manage flow — Make it easy to identify wastes and
risks.
• Define classes of service and the level of importance of each type of
work item — All items are not equal.
• Establish service-level agreements — Agree on goals, which are
monitored by class of service.
• Identify improvement opportunities — Continuously learn and
adapt.
idea
idea item
item item
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#NOPROJECTS: A CULTURE OF CONTINUOUS VALUE
item
item
item item
New Zealand Post Group’s sorting wall (an executive Kanban visualisation of
all strategic initiatives in the organisation).9
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ADAPTIVE PORTFOLIOS
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106
ADAPTIVE PORTFOLIOS
The stories that come out of the bottom of the backlog are small enough
for the team to deliver using their agile development practices. Ideally,
these items should be fully implementable (per the agreed-upon defini-
tion of done) in half an iteration or less — the smaller your stories, the
better your ability to predict and plan work. For those stories that are
far away, however, you want to keep the level of detail coarse. The reali-
ty is that your understanding of what is needed will evolve significantly
based on what happens as the product is delivered, and much of what you
currently understand will turn out to be mistaken or obsolete. You must
accept the VUCA nature of business needs and defer the detail until the
last responsible moment.*
This continuous revision, refinement, and adaptation is a reflection of
why #noprojects is so important for success in the volatile business world.
Continually delivering the right work at the right time moves the organi-
sation towards achieving the outcomes it needs to be successful.
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108
PART
SEVEN
Delivering work
#NOPROJECTS: A CULTURE OF CONTINUOUS VALUE
* And if you don’t, you weren’t paying attention in the previous three chapters. :-)
† We want you to forget the word “priority” — it doesn’t matter how important
something is (everything is important to somebody). Rather, we want to know which
is first, then second, then third, etc.
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DELIVERING WORK
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112
DELIVERING WORK
INVEST
When defining an activity, it should meet the INVEST characteristics, as
defined by Bill Wake:2
• Independent — Each activity should be as self-contained as possi-
ble, with minimal dependencies on any other activity. This allows for
easy reordering or removal as circumstances change.
• Negotiable — An activity can change at any time up to the point
work commences.
• Valuable — Each activity should deliver tangible and (in aggregate)
measurable value towards the outcome.
• Estimable — The definition of each activity is such that the team can
estimate it.
• Small — The estimate and delivery of an activity should take place
within a few days to a few weeks.
• Testable — Each activity should have appropriate quality control, so
that what is delivered can be assessed against the intent.
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But what if all else isn’t equal? Activities with fixed due dates or depen-
dent activities will naturally impact the order of work. Dependent ac-
tivities should be rare if you’re following the principle of independence.
Where they exist, you can redraw the path based on the new order. This
will also help you identify and streamline common dependencies.
Activities with a fixed due date are anomalous but expected. These may
jump to the head of the queue regardless of which quadrant they are in
— although activities in the Avoid quadrant should still be avoided when
possible.
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DELIVERING WORK
You want to look at the Defer items on a regular basis to see if you can
break them down into smaller pieces, which could then move into the
Do quadrant. By slicing activities this way, you are often able to deliver
the core value earlier and leave higher-risk or complex parts for later or
discard them completely.
There is another benefit to this approach: by actively managing your ac-
tivities, you can identify structural problems with your value-delivery
team. When activities appear on the board (especially in the Do and Defer
quadrants) faster than they are being completed, it is likely that you do
not have the right number or mix of skills. Use this opportunity to run
a retrospective to analyse the root cause of the issues and either increase
your team’s capacity or identify a different approach.
This brings us to the final point. It doesn’t matter what the work is.
Nothing that we’ve discussed here is specific to software development (or
accounting or manufacturing, for that matter). As long as there is a level
of unpredictability in the outcome, the teams are trusted to make oper-
ational decisions, and value can be continuously created, a #noprojects
approach works.
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CASE STUDY
Using the #noprojects paradigm
by Max Roy
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DELIVERING WORK
The IT manager decided to set aside the consultancy’s findings and com-
mence building the applications with the team defined in the list above.
Happily, he did not have to negotiate a bureaucratic decision-making
process through levels of senior management before commencing. He
adopted a #noprojects paradigm in that there were:
• no extensive boilerplate documentation, such as solution architec-
ture or detailed system design, on the lines of Prince2 or other proj-
ect-management methodology, prior to building the applications;
• no project schedule with defined start and end dates and consequen-
tial penalty clauses for not meeting them; and
• no annual budget allocations or approvals from the financial control-
ler.
The team used an agile approach in:
• consulting with the embedded business SME to list the functionality
and features of each application, prioritising the features to work on
based on business value;
• building the features, both database design and coding, in short iter-
ations (one to two weeks);
• having the business SME approve the feature implementation at the
end of each iteration cycle;
• dynamically changing the system design in response to feedback;
• holding retrospectives at the end of each sprint to determine lessons
learned and what worked best; and
• releasing to production when a logical piece of work had been com-
pleted (e.g., when the functionality for resource type “vehicle” was
done in the resource management system, the business SME tested it,
and once approved, it was released into production for the end users.)
As mentioned, there were no project deadlines or penalties for not meet-
ing them.
The end users for these applications were:
• about 1,200 brigade personnel who entered incidents, resources (ve-
hicles, equipment, etc.), and their response compliance times;
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118
DELIVERING WORK
119
PART
EIGHT
Continuous culture
#NOPROJECTS: A CULTURE OF CONTINUOUS VALUE
Why now? What is it about the current market and economy that
makes #noprojects a viable approach? The simple answer is that custom-
ers now expect this. We call this “continuous culture”. The market expects
continuous change and improvement in the majority of our products and
services. Everything you see around you is continuously changing and
improving,* in all aspects of your life.
The half-lives of phones, advertising, and the age of companies1 are all
evolving — as is even the way you live. As we mentioned earlier, people
change jobs almost as often as they change phones (every 4.2 years ac-
cording to the US Department of Labour).2
What does this mean for organisations? It’s more than just understanding
continuous change, it’s understanding continuously continuous. It means
that companies can no longer rely on the corporate five-year plan, or even
a short project plan, to remain accurate.† Let’s examine that for a moment.
Strategic planning is the process by which an organisation defines the
projects, initiatives, and actions (the plan) that will achieve their corpo-
rate vision or mission. It is traditionally time consuming, with lots of
data collection and meetings of executives. Once the plan is complete, it
is presented as a fait accompli‡ to the rest of the organisation for imple-
mentation. However, ask any executive§ and they’ll admit that this process
doesn’t work — there are few real innovations and the plan itself is usual-
ly out of date before it begins.
An agile or continuous organisation wants to move away from the tradi-
tional, static planning process towards a dynamic and agile strategy that
can adapt as the market changes. We might also call this a “learning or-
ganisation”,3 one that uses an “inspect and adapt” feedback cycle to con-
tinuously create and refine their corporate strategy.
* At the very least, things are changing. Hopefully, they are improving at least most of
the time.
† Not that it ever was.
‡ An “accomplished fact” or thing that has been done — everything sounds better in
French.
§ Over beer.
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Finally, the feedback cycle: because you’re dealing with strategic initia-
tives, you usually don’t have the same instant validation that you would
with a product. However, you still need constant feedback — look for a
combination of lagging and leading indicators that represent success (e.g.,
staff attrition or sales). However, be alert for and ignore vanity metrics —
those that if improved would lead to no meaningful benefit to the organ-
isation (e.g., increasing Facebook likes or team velocity).
That opens up the flow in your development teams. Great. Except that
Scrum hasn’t been as effective as you’d hoped. Development is still taking
too long.† Now, there’s a new constraint in the system, perhaps the de-
ployment environment. So, you bring in DevOps. Great — that opens up
the flow further.
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SCRUM
Apply DevOps Here
But now, there’s a new constraint. You need a wider view. You need to
bring in business agility. Where’s the next constraint? Maybe it’s finance,
your budgeting process. You have an 18-month budgeting process that
limits the development cycle that can deploy every day. Fix that. Then it’s
HR or the PMO… — wash, rinse, repeat.
SCRUM
DEVOPS
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CONTINUOUS CULTURE
These are not easy problems to solve. It’s not just a matter of asking fi-
nance and HR to adopt Scrum or Kanban.* There may be significant cul-
tural and experience barriers to the adoption of the new approach. These
are teams who are accustomed to their current ways of working because
they have always worked that way — and in many cases quite successfully.
If you want to introduce agility to these divisions, you need to communi-
cate that this isn’t about fixing a problem. You’re fundamentally changing
the way the organisation operates in the market. To put it another way,
you are improving the outcomes for the entire organisation, not just a
single division.
The point is that there is always a constraint to organisational agility,
which in turn limits the ability to adapt to an unpredictable and ambigu-
ous market.
Ultimately this leads to the concept of an agile business. A continuous
business. One that is designed around flow or the continuous creation of
value. Continuous culture means that an organisation is itself continu-
ous, that the company maps to the market and the way the market thinks
and reacts, rather than the traditionally assuming a predictable and un-
ambiguous environment and creating one-year or five-year plans in that
false context. That’s not to say that continuous organisations don’t have
goals. Goals are in fact critical for success. And throughout this book, you
should have seen the importance of defining clear outcomes for any en-
gagement. The difference is that you don’t prescribe in advance how you
expect to achieve this — you allow this to emerge in response to immedi-
ate context. A continuous business means designing a team, division, or
organisation around continuous culture.
This culminates in a process of continuous learning, the ability to
identify new opportunities, market trends, customer demands, and inter-
nally new ways of working. But this is not some “lessons learned” work-
shop.† This is about using the feedback loops to apply that learning con-
tinuously. Part of your daily process is to look at ways you can improve
the work being done. The market changes continuously, so if you don’t
continuously observe and experiment, then you’re not in a position to
learn from it.
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* And failed.
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CONTINUOUS CULTURE
* Some organisations have gone so far as to no longer have testing and staging
environments, reducing their need to maintain and support these platforms and
freeing up as much as 30% of their IT funding. See https://www.infoq.com/
podcasts/Michael-Bryzek-testing-in-production for an example of how one
company has achieved this.
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CONTINUOUS CULTURE
* Where multiple teams are accountable for their part in the process.
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PART
NINE
Value-delivery teams
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VALUE-DELIVERY TEAMS
* Pyramids.
† A good example of that is the competitive annual budget cycle — especially when
bonuses are at stake.
‡ Even if the decision is pushed to lower levels.
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* Literally.
† Rather than empowerment.
‡ We’d argue that this started with the emergence of the matrix structure.
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VALUE-DELIVERY TEAMS
Laloux is clear about the limitations and biases that emerge from classifi-
cation. In no case is an organisation entirely achievement/orange or plu-
ralistic/green. Different individuals, teams, and business units may op-
erate at different classifications depending on the context. Even a single
team may operate at different levels at different times. When an organisa-
tion is called pluralistic/green, it merely means that this is the dominant
paradigm within which the organisation and its leaders operate.
What does all this have to do with #noprojects? Understanding how
your organisation approaches work is critical to adopting #noproj-
ects-based models. Organisations that are predominantly impulsive/red,
conformist/amber, or, to a lesser extent, achievement/orange are going to
struggle to adopt this style of work. Once we move away from temporary
teams, team permanence becomes a necessity and so dedicated, stable
teams are critical to success.
We call these “value-delivery teams”.
Because value-delivery teams are accountable to deliver a specific out-
come rather than an output, a new team structure emerges that by ne-
cessity integrates the skills from multiple functional areas. These stable,
cross-functional teams benefit the organisation by improving coordina-
tion, simplifying communication, and sharing expertise to solve prob-
lems. This approach significantly reduces many of the overheads in tra-
ditional project structures as many of the coordination, monitoring, and
reporting activities are no longer required.
And so, unlike a team formed in a matrix organisation, value-delivery
teams need to be stable, need to report to a single line manager, and need
to be structurally aligned to parent outcomes.* In fact, the entire point
of #noprojects is that these value-delivery teams will own the changes
that add value to the target outcome. Collectively, the team is accountable
for the outcome — although, depending on the style of organisation, this
may be expressed through a team leader. It is the team leader (or team
facilitator2 for teal teams) who also takes on the responsibility for the few
traditional project-management activities that remain: stakeholder en-
gagement, expectations management, risk identification, and so on.
Whether multiple value-delivery teams collaborate on a single business
outcome (and outcome profile) or focus on independent outcomes, they
all share a single purpose.† This alignment to purpose helps to ensure that
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Facilitator
Guides and enables the team to collaborate, achieve consensus, work at a
sustainable pace, and meet compliance and process commitments in or-
der to operate at peak effectiveness without sacrificing quality or crafts-
manship. A servant leader who is also responsible for removing impedi-
ments, leading team meetings, and other common social practices.
Experience & Seniority: Any, but must have respect of the team
Example Roles: Agile coach, ScrumMaster, project manager
Metaphor: The nervous system
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VALUE-DELIVERY TEAMS
Analyst
Brings domain knowledge and works closely with users and stakeholders
to understand and define their needs.
Experience & Seniority: Experienced
Example Roles: Product owner, business analyst, SME
Metaphor: The eyes and ears
Customer
Owns the final product and ultimately is responsible for the value gener-
ated and final outcome.
Experience & Seniority: Highly experienced
Example Roles: Customer, product owner, product manager
Metaphor: The spirit
Enabler
Responsible for any supporting activity that enables the rest of the team
to operate at peak efficiency.
Experience & Seniority: Any
Example Roles: ScrumMaster, executive assistant, accountant
Metaphor: The heart
Architect
Designs the most appropriate solution to the context while factoring in
working principles, the wider ecosystem, and any other constraint.
Experience & Seniority: Experienced
Example Roles: Software architect, modeller, UX designer, service de-
signer
Metaphor: The head
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Builder
Anybody who directly creates a piece of the product.
Experience & Seniority: Any
Example Roles: Software developer, database developer, engineer, oper-
ations, UX/UI, process analyst
Metaphor: The hands
Communicator
Clearly, succinctly, and continuously shares details relating to the adop-
tion of the team’s work.
Experience & Seniority: Any
Example Roles: Change manager, OCM, technical writer, marketer
Metaphor: The mouth
Tester
Ensures that the product is appropriate to the context or of appropriate
quality and that it achieves a measure of value towards the outcome.
Experience & Seniority: Any
Example Roles: Tester, QA, business analyst
Metaphor: The immune system
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VALUE-DELIVERY TEAMS
shows that teams must move through multiple stages before they can be-
come highly effective. These are:
1. Forming — The team is new and individual members tend to act in-
dependently. They are focused on finding their place in the team and
how that aligns to the team objectives.
2. Storming — The team is learning to work together and the natural
tensions and conflicts between members emerge. Some* teams skip
this stage.†
3. Norming — The team has stabilised as a cooperative and collabora-
tive unit with a common goal. There may be disagreements, but the
(formal or informal) social contract amongst team members provides
a mechanism to manage these.
4. Performing — The team is now highly motivated and knowledge-
able. Team members are focused on the outcome and, even if working
independently, operate as a team.
This team formation takes time — in our experience, it takes at least six
months for a team to settle into a performing mode and it may revert to
previous states as circumstances change.
This is another reason that stable teams are so important and why organ-
isations should avoid short-term project teams. When project teams hand
over to a separate “business as usual” (BAU) team and disband at the end
of a project, there is a net loss for the organisation4 in terms of both the
effort involved to form a team and the technical and domain knowledge
that the team has acquired. This is compounded when a project team is
made up of contractors or vendor representatives, which leads to addi-
tional costs for organisations to transfer knowledge to BAU staff. And, of
course, there is significant lead time when the organisation starts the in-
evitable version 2 or upgrade project and needs to either find the old team
members or train a new project team. This can be avoided with dedicated
value-delivery teams.
#noprojects is as much a cultural change as it is a process change.
As such, leaders will need to support their value-delivery teams in iden-
tifying the natural rhythm or cadence of the work they do. After all, it
is the value-delivery team itself, not a manager, who are fundamentally
accountable for managing the continuous flow of change and the asso-
* Lucky.
† And some unlucky teams never get out of this stage.
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ciated real-time planning of activities. And this is true at both the macro
(outcome) and micro (activity) level.
At the macro level, the cadence of work is managed through the
team backlog. The sizing of the activities, the planning and delivery cy-
cle, and the feedback loops all inform the overall cadence of the team.
Depending on the context of the team, this backlog may be the equiva-
lent of an agile product backlog or it may contain activities from multiple
products. The value-delivery team (which includes the product owner if
it is an agile delivery team) is solely accountable for the content, prioriti-
sation, and delivery of that backlog. The intention is that each item in this
backlog will create value towards the success of the associated business
outcome. At the organisation level, the measure of this outcome provides
the governance necessary to ensure that the value-delivery team is work-
ing on the correct activities.
An anti-pattern that we see all too often is when a single value-delivery
team is simultaneously working towards multiple outcomes (or for mul-
tiple clients) and switching between them frequently. This usually is a re-
sponse to the question of how to manage team workload and show prog-
ress to clients when working on more than one project.* This misses the
point. Team structure and organisational design should be such that focus
is possible. And stop saying that you need to multitask. All that means is
that you don’t know how to say no, plan your work, or define clear and
independent outcomes.
Multitasking like this can nurture negative behaviours in everyone. From
a team perspective, it’s going to be hard to keep momentum on your work.
From a client perspective, neither client is going to get the focus and pro-
ductivity they expect and thus will not be happy. And from a management
perspective, it’s difficult to measure productivity and value. In short, ev-
erything you work on will take longer than it should.
When a single value-delivery team must support multiple clients,† the
team must have a single, managed, and prioritised backlog (and activity
canvas) for all their work while using a continuous-delivery model. The
team can then always work on the next most important task, regardless of
what it is or who it is for. This also helps to answer the question of “when
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will X be done?” By analysing metrics for lead time* and cycle time,† it is a
simple matter of extrapolating how long X will take.
At the micro level, the team will have a cadence in their daily work,
and leaders need to enable that. Nowhere is this more evident than in the
way you plan your day. Managers typically schedule their work in hour
or half-hour blocks, whereas staff tasked with large-scale work will typ-
ically schedule their work in half-day blocks. Paul Graham defines this
brilliantly:5
There are two types of schedule, which I’ll call the manager’s schedule
and the maker’s schedule. The manager’s schedule is for bosses. It’s em-
bodied in the traditional appointment book, with each day cut into one-
hour intervals. You can block off several hours for a single task if you
need to, but by default you change what you’re doing every hour.
...
But there’s another way of using time that’s common among people who
make things, like programmers and writers. They generally prefer to use
time in units of half a day at least. You can’t write or program well in
units of an hour. That’s barely enough time to get started.
So, an agile leader not only lets “makers” schedule their own workday but
is subservient to their schedule. Should an hour-long meeting be needed,
an agile leader should work around the makers’ schedule. This is one of
the hallmarks of an empowered employee, one who has the authority to
manage their own schedule rather than bend to the whim of their man-
ager’s schedule.
We’ve implemented this with a few of our previous clients. Meetings, as
requested by management, can only be scheduled between 9 and 11 a.m.
Beyond this, the schedule for each team and each team member is at their
sole discretion. This has increased both the productivity and morale of
the team.
So, what is the role of a manager in #noprojects? In many ways, it
is the very distinction between leadership and management. Assuming
you’ve not gone full teal and have self-managing teams, the leader of a
value-delivery team (or #noprojects organisation) is one who understands
how to support and delegate. And we don’t mean delegating actions‡ but
* Lead time is the time it takes for an activity to go from the initial request to done.
† Cycle time is the time it takes for an activity to go from start to done.
‡ “I need you to put a presentation together by Friday.”
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VALUE-DELIVERY TEAMS
These are the attributes of a bad manager, but what attributes make a
successful leader? While that could be an entire book in itself,* we would
condense them into 10 core attributes:112
1. You can validate the pros and cons of a decision in an uncertain or
ambiguous context to take advantage of change.
2. You have excellent facilitation, communication, and social skills (e.g.,
engaging, presenting, negotiating, resolving, and persuading) to build
relationships with customers and colleagues while reducing misun-
derstanding and conflict. A quick wit and good sense of humour help
with this.
3. You are creative and can develop or recognise new responses to prob-
lems in order to improve outcomes for your customers and reduce
costs for your business. Creative leaders also tend to attract talented
teams.
4. You have strength of character when dealing with stress and keep
emotions out of professional interactions and decision making to
build a professional environment where individuals are comfortable.
5. You are aware of and leverage your strengths and weaknesses and
how they apply to your role. Teams respond well to self-confidence
but not to a large ego.
6. You are self-motivated, with effective time management skills, and
take accountability for organisational outcomes (visualising the
short, medium and long-term outcomes while adapting to changing
circumstances).
7. You have the appropriate professional and technical knowledge need-
ed to engage with your colleagues and customers. You do not need to
know enough to do their job, but enough to understand their work.
8. You understand the value of delegation, getting things done through
other people, in order to improve overall productivity and promote
personal development. You trust your teams and colleagues and do
not fear losing control.
9. You lead your team with honesty, fairness, and integrity to create an
environment where mistakes are seen as learning opportunities. You
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are willing to listen to and seek input from colleagues and you are
honest about performance without being offensive or personal.
10. You are aware of the organisational strategy and your role within it so
that organisational outcomes (not just team outcomes) are factored
into decisions.
You may notice that nothing we’ve mentioned here requires a leader to
be in a position of authority. In other words, a leader doesn’t have to be
a boss. Before we finish this chapter, let us distinguish the two different
forms of authority:
1. Institutional authority — Your authority (or right to lead) is instilled
by virtue of the position you hold in the organisation.
2. Personal authority — Your authority (or right to lead) is instilled by
those around you.
Obviously, a strong leader (in the boss definition) should have both, but
anyone in the team can, and should, have personal authority. In general,
an individual’s personal authority is strongly aligned to how much you
trust their competence and sharing a commonality of purpose. If team
members can build trust and commonality of purpose, you have a team
that is set up for success.
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CASE STUDY
Haier elevation
by Doug Kirkpatrick
This case depicts a global manufacturing giant grappling with the chal-
lenge of unlocking the innovative and entrepreneurial spirit of its em-
ployees worldwide and linking them so tightly to its end users that it
creates zero distance between employee and customer, driving superior
levels of responsiveness and customer loyalty.
Problem
Haier entered the Internet Age with a bureaucratic, hierarchical compa-
ny full of middle managers, hampering innovation and business agility.
Its connectivity to external stakeholders, particularly customers, was less
than optimal. Many employees lacked the skills to innovate and adapt
to an environment of continuous change. Haier’s CEO, Zhang Ruimin,
had always been a visionary advocate of adaptation and improvement.
His challenge was how to infuse that vision into a global manufacturing
concern.
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VALUE-DELIVERY TEAMS
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#NOPROJECTS: A CULTURE OF CONTINUOUS VALUE
erator model. If he or she could sell management on the idea, that work-
er would be given the chance to recruit and lead their own project team
staffed with subject-matter experts attracted to the idea, who would then
receive a share of any profits.
By the end of 2012, Zhang had eliminated most middle management, al-
lowing the self-managed teams, the multidisciplinary ZZJYTs, to flourish
— which they did, quickly growing to some 2,000 teams. The sheer size
and scale of the move was breath-taking — Zhang clearly believed that
the risk of standing still far outweighed the risk of radical change. He did,
however, recognize the risk of a system in constant upheaval. For exam-
ple, organisational self-managers could organically shift back and forth
between teams, which would form and then dissolve like the clouds over
Qingdao harbour.
“I have to find a balance between reform and risk,” Zhang has said.7 One
of Haier’s inspirations is Morning Star, which began practicing organi-
sational self-management in 1990.12 “The most difficult thing is that in
the past the employees would listen to their bosses, but now they don’t
have any bosses; they have to listen to the users,” Zhang has observed.15
His goal for Haier’s self-managed teams is to create zero distance to the
customer.
Haier America has begun implementing the reforms, and Zhang intends
to extend worldwide his vision of a company full of self-organizing entre-
preneurs. As he said to Forbes contributor Jim Stengel in 2012, the future
of organisation design will be more self-managed.12
Challenges
No disruptive change effort is without challenges.
First, in moving to a flat, self-managed ecosystem, Haier laid off 4,000
middle managers. The company invited many to reapply, but for entre-
preneurial positions in the new, flatter company.
Second, Haier experienced a quantum of employee unhappiness as a re-
sult of the massive change. As Zhang noted:
This is a really difficult nut to crack. The only thing we can do is provide
employees with a level playing field, where they can compete on an equal
footing for opportunities within the company. In reality, however, even
this isn’t good enough; many employees just don’t have the necessary
skills. So, what do we do? This is an issue we have yet to fully resolve.
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153
PART
TEN
Funding #noprojects
#NOPROJECTS: A CULTURE OF CONTINUOUS VALUE
It helps those of you reading this who aren’t from a finance back-
ground to approach the subject of funding with empathy and under-
standing, to understand that there is an important reason for the process-
es and controls that the CFO places on an organisation.* Fundamentally,
finance are accountable for the management of all fiscal elements of the
business. And they are held to account for the correct allocation of every
dollar by many masters: the CEO, the board, shareholders, external audi-
tors, the legislative taxation body, and corporate regulators.
The finance domain includes:
• typical products like an annual report, budget allocation, and tax fil-
ings;
• typical processes like cashflow management, managing accounts,
shares management, short-term and long-term investments, manag-
ing depreciable assets, and raising capital (shares and loans);
• optional processes like procurement, forex markets and currency
conversion, and international trade; and
• frameworks and guidelines like relevant tax and accounting legisla-
tion, GAAP, CPA, or equivalent guidelines.
We explain this because it’s important to understand what finance needs
from you — not what they ask for, but what they really need. In a word,
that is predictability.
If you’ve been paying attention, you know that this entire book is predi-
cated on the fact that we live in an unpredictable (or VUCA) world. His-
torically, projects have given finance a false sense of predictability. The
business case and project plan make a promise to finance: for $X, you’ll
get Y in return. And historically, we’ve broken that promise more often
than not. Is it any wonder that finance keeps putting stricter controls on
the entire organisation to try to gain that financial predictability?
We are going to let you in on a little secret: funding a continuous
stream of work without the false security of a project is both simpler and
more predictable for you, your customer, and your finance division. From
personal experience, and without exception, we’ve had positive feedback
from the finance teams in every organisation where we’ve worked to em-
bed a #noprojects approach.
* And the more complex and organisation, the more controls are needed.
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FUNDING #NOPROJECTS
While writing this book, we spent a lot of time discussing what we should
call it. One title that we played around with for quite a while* was Con-
tinuous Flow. While we have to admit that it isn’t a good title, it capably
describes what #noprojects is, how funding works, and why it gives fi-
nance easier forecasts and predictability. For finance, #noprojects means
working with a predictable and linear spending curve that can scale on
demand.
GAAP explained
Let us take a moment to explain some of the core principles behind fi-
nancial accounting. If you’re going to have a conversation about moving
towards funding teams based on #noprojects approaches, you’re going to
have to be able to speak finance’s language.
There is a set of finance principles called the generally accepted account-
ing principles, or GAAP for short — although, do note that there are mul-
tiple competing (if similar) standards across the world (e.g., IFRS and IAS).
GAAP is made up of four basic principles and five basic constraints that
are designed to remove subjectivity and bias from corporate accounts.
Principles
1. Historical-cost principle — Companies account for and report the
acquisition costs of assets and liabilities rather than their fair market
value.2
2. Revenue-recognition principle — Companies record revenue
when earned rather than when received. This is the essence of accru-
al accounting.
3. Matching principle — Where reasonable, expenses have to be
matched with revenues and must be recorded in the same accounting
period as the revenue it helped to earn. Only if no connection with
revenue can be established may it be charged as expenses to the cur-
rent period.
4. Full-disclosure principle — Information disclosed should be
enough to make a judgment while keeping preparation costs reason-
able.
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Constraints
5. Objectivity principle — Financial statements provided by accoun-
tants should be based on objective evidence such that different people
looking at the same information will arrive at the same conclusions.
6. Materiality principle — The significance of an item should be con-
sidered when it is reported. An item is considered significant when it
would affect the decision of a reasonable individual.
7. Consistency principle — The company uses the same accounting
principles and methods from period to period.
8. Conservatism principle — Accounting should be fair and reason-
able and should never overstate or understate the affairs of the busi-
ness or the results of operation.
Cost constraint — The benefits of reporting financial information should
justify and be greater than the costs imposed on supplying it.
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FUNDING #NOPROJECTS
Capex explained
The world of corporate finance is complex and requires more depth than
we can give here. However, there are a few key concepts you need to un-
derstand to have this conversation. Foremost is to understand capitalisa-
tion.
In brief, many of the “things” we create have value over multiple years.
We call these assets. If I cook myself a delicious dinner, its value lasts for
a couple of hours.† If I buy a new oven that lets me cook many meals, the
value of that oven lasts for decades.
We want companies to create capital assets because this is what drives
long-term economic development and generally creates a sustainable
revenue stream. The downside is that it costs a lot of money up front to
build an asset and it can take several years to recoup that investment. The
implication of this is that companies want to be able to spread the impact
of that initial loss out over the lifespan of the asset‡ (for both tax and ac-
counting purposes).
It’s also important to understand that the value in capital assets changes
over time. Some will depreciate (that new car you purchased will never
be worth more than when you first bought it§) and others will appreci-
ate (your house is probably worth more than when you bought it). Some
assets will earn you money while you own it (a rental property) and the
value of others is only realised when you sell it (your home).
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So, the rules are clear. For an asset to be capitalisable, it has to have a
useful life beyond one year, have clear business value (e.g., directly or in-
directly helps you generate income), and be something you own. Within
those criteria, anything can be an asset, including an intangible object like
software.
So, when spending money or effort, a capital expense (usually shortened
to “capex”) is anything that materially contributes to the creation of an
asset and an operational expense (“opex”) is anything that contributes to
running the business.
To determine which activities are capex and which are opex, always start
by talking with your finance department. They will be able to work with
you to develop clear guidelines that are in compliance with industry stan-
dards and relevant taxation legislation and will withstand an external au-
dit. In general, there are some common principles at play:
• First, the product has to be something that generates value over
multiple years. HR or marketing teams will be nearly 100% opex —
a marketing campaign or HR policy is not an asset. The acquisition
of physical hardware or plant equipment will nearly always be 100%
capex.
• In developing a product, the work of most roles can be capitalised.
In a software team, the costs of the time spent by developers, testers,
architects, and designers are all capitalisable. Some organisations (de-
pending on country and company policy) will capitalise the costs of
ScrumMasters and management roles while others will not. Admin-
istrative support and training is always opex.
• In enhancing* a product, most work can be capitalised. In that same
software team, all effort going towards creating a new feature, ex-
tending existing features to reach new users (internationalisation or
multiplatform development), and improving the existing code base
(e.g., refactoring, performance, or DR) would be capex. However,
there are many activities you cannot capitalise. Temporary customis-
* In an early draft of this book, we had used the phrase “in maintaining a product”.
I was (rightly) slapped down for this (thanks Pat Reed). While we were using the
term to imply a continuous flow of new features and improvements, the word
maintenance has a very explicit expense connotation to auditors, finance teams and
accountants. Hence the term, enhancements.
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both finance and auditors require. One piece of advice here; story points,
by themselves, are generally not accurate enough for financial reporting.
You must ensure that the velocity is accurately correlated to effort and
time at the end of the iteration.
A second measure, coming out of lean, is cycle time. Rather than creating
an estimate, cycle time is simply the average of how long each specific
activity takes to deliver to the customer (or a predefined endpoint). This
works best with an automated tool and when activities aren’t too small
(between half a day and two days is ideal). Once again, this measure can
be independently verified based on the data.
However, regardless of the approach used, the goal is to be able to prepare
for, and pass, a capitalisation audit – an independent validation that the
allocation of capital and operational expenses were valid. If you can’t pass
the audit with flying colours, you run the risk of having to pay penalties
and re-report earnings*.
We also need to measure value delivered against the target outcomes.
Focusing just on capex and opex leads to the same behaviours as measur-
ing time, cost, and scope in a project. While each value-delivery team will
define unique measures against each outcome profile, there are certain
common value-based measures you† should consider:
• quality (e.g., defect injection rate, MTTR,‡ number of failed units, per-
centage of returns, etc.),
• customer and employee engagement and satisfaction (e.g., NPS§);
• organisation responsiveness,
• experimentation and learning,
• effectiveness (doing the right work), and
• balancing productivity with efficiency (doing the work right).
There’s an interesting nuance in talking about measuring productivi-
ty versus efficiency. Many organisations focus on efficiency as a way of
driving down costs, which it does. However, once again, that’s not what
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is most important. With apologies, let us explain this with some mathe-
matics.*
r = (P/C)*100
Efficiency (r) is the total amount of useful product output (P) produced
against the cost of resources† consumed (C). In a business sense, this is the
profit margin.
p = O/I
Productivity (p) is the ratio of the business output (O) to key inputs (I; in
this case we’re using a single-factor productivity calculation). In a busi-
ness sense, this is the total profit.
So, let’s create an example. Pretend you run a marketing organisation
with two value-delivery teams who create advertising campaigns for your
clients. Let’s say you sell every campaign for $10,000.
The first value-delivery team of five junior marketers takes one week to
produce a campaign with a total cost of $5,000. This gives you a profit per
person of $1,000.
The second, senior team (also five people) costs $8,000 per week but pro-
duces three campaigns in the same time.
You see in this instance that even though the first team is more efficient
(200% versus 125%), the second team makes more profit ($1,000 versus
$1,200 per person). Beyond this simple example, the problem is that pro-
ductivity is hard to truly define and efficiency is easy to calculate. So, if
* We’re taking a very simplistic approach to give you an idea of how it works. It’s
much, much, much more complicated in reality.
† Yet again, people aren’t resources — but try telling that to mathematicians.
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profits are down, it’s easier to focus on efficiency at the expense of pro-
ductivity.
There’s one more element around funding #noprojects to cover, and
that’s governance. It may surprise you, but we are big fans of governance*.
The key is to build the right level of governance proportionate to the risk
in a way that doesn’t slow down work. Before we proceed, let’s quickly
refresh some basic principles of #noprojects:
• We have trusted and empowered teams.
• Teams are built around business outcomes.
• We measure outcomes on a regular basis.
• Teams pull the work to themselves.
In this context, the question to ask is what is the most appropriate gov-
ernance with the lightest possible touch? To answer that, we need to in-
troduce you to the two basic types of corporate governance: approval and
audit.
Approval-based governance is a gate or a checkpoint. It says, “Stop here
while we’ll check to make sure you can proceed.” This form of governance
is appropriate in high-risk or high-cost environments, especially in situ-
ations where the cost/impact of failure is high — when there is a risk of
death, injury, or significant financial cost. For example, when building
your house, you’re going to stop and check that the foundations are right
before you continue to build anything else.
Audit-based governance checks that you are doing the right work and
that you are doing it right. It says, “Keep going, and we’ll check in with
you every couple of weeks.” This form of governance is appropriate in
lower-risk or time-critical situations, which is pretty much every situa-
tion not included above.
What about situations that are both high risk and time critical? In these
cases, it comes down to the operating† context. If you’re bleeding out, you
want the doctor to fix your injury professionally and quickly, without
waiting for external approval. If there’s a little more time, you’d like the
doctor to please stop and check that they’re operating on the right‡ leg.
* In fact, the name of Evan’s first book was almost “Agile Corporate Governance”. No
one is suggesting that he is good with names.
† Pun intended.
‡ Or left.
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To understand what this means, it can help to visualise the rate of spend.
In the above figure, we track the value of work against a linear financial
spend (fixed team size). In this example, the initial work is of low value,*
followed by low-effort yet high-value tasks, followed by the lower-value
and harder tasks. This is the exact model used in the activity canvas. In
this case, it is very easy to see where the T&M contract should come to an
end as the value diminishes against the cost.
If you need additional controls, you can create a capped T&M contract,
which limits financial spend to a fixed amount. It’s important to ensure
that the cap is high enough so that the overall return on investment is
positive. You can also introduce a guaranteed minimum spend or delivery
bonuses to encourage productivity in the team.†
Outcome-based or performance-based contracts are gaining popu-
larity. These are sometimes known as “power by the hour” in reference
to the support contracts for aircraft engines that are based on hours flown
rather than fixed or annualised contracts.
The terms and measures in this contract should directly relate to the out-
comes defined in the outcome profile. However, do not underestimate the
difficulty inherent in agreeing on a mutually acceptable financial model.
Common examples of outcome-based contracts are software as a service
and other pay-per-use models.
In the contract, and alongside the outcome profile, you’ll also need to
define the payment curve (how will you pay, or be paid, against the per-
formance measures), incentives to exceed the baseline measure, and the
acceptable level of risk to the outcome.
* But necessary to enable the later, high-value pieces of work to be done at all.
† However, be wary of incentivising the wrong behaviour.
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There is one final factor, for both finance teams and contracts, that
needs to be understood: trust. As we have demonstrated, you operate
in an unpredictable environment, bordering on chaotic, and custom-
ers (whether external or internal) traditionally try to establish control
through constraining scope. #noprojects, on the other hand, is successful
because it takes advantage of (rather than controls) this unpredictability.
However, you come up against your customers’ natural concerns and
fears. Can they trust you to act in their best interest? Can they trust you to
fail fast? If you can’t guarantee exactly what they’ll get, can they trust you
to deliver something of value? The less your customers trust you, the less
responsive you can be.
The form and flexibility of the relationship between parties depends on
the level of trust that exists between them. We define this across four dis-
tinct levels:*
Trust pyramid.
1. Reference — This is the lowest form of trust and exists where trust
between the parties is based on the reference of a mutually trusted
third party.
* In Evan’s first book, he described five layers of trust (reference, contract, knowledge,
identification, and team). However, the distinction between knowledge and
identification was confusing, so we’ve merged them.
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2. Contract — This is the most common level of trust, and the majority
of relationships do not extend beyond this. This exists where parties
create legally binding contracts (potentially with penalty clauses) as
the core mechanism to enable trust between them.
3. Identification — This level of trust evolves over time and exists
where parties have the opportunity to work together and build trust
based on personal experiences. This is where we can really start to
be agile.
4. Partnership — This is the highest level of trust and exists when both
parties share the same goals and outcomes. This may take the form of
a strategic partnership or similar structure.
How do you build trust? Being trustworthy is a good start. Act with fair-
ness and integrity, share knowledge, be transparent, and of course per-
form competently. Within teams, leaders who delegate outcomes (rather
than actions), explain why, seek and value opinions, celebrate success, and
give everyone opportunities to contribute (but still consider group rath-
er than individual interests) build trust with their teams. It’s also worth
mentioning that trust is based on perception rather than reality (in an
ideal world, perception and reality would be the same). Acting with confi-
dence and displaying concern or empathy are good ways to build trust at
the start of a relationship.
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CASE STUDY
Evolving budget management
by Joanna L. Vahlsing
Problems
The organization was facing two main problems.
First, the annual budgeting process required that all project, program, and
portfolio planning be completed up front for the following year, effective-
ly locking in the plan and preventing the adoption of opportunities and
changes based on market conditions and consumer feedback.
Next, the process created a mindset in which projects needed to be com-
pleted and the budget spent, regardless of whether or not the project still
provided value, leading to decreased agility due to scarce resources (re-
sources were tied up in approved projects).
Also, the project-budgeting process created tension over project scope
amongst decision makers and the team delivering the work because
if they did not deliver the scope within the budget or time window, all
would lose their opportunity to get what they wanted.
Another problem was the overhead that went into managing the budget
and resourcing, which in lean terms mostly created waste and re-work
due to the granularity with which the budget had to be managed. For cap-
italisation purposes, team members needed to track their time spent on
each task and in which stage the work was undertaken (requirements, de-
sign, build, test, or release).
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Causes
As with most organisations, there is a requirement to create an annu-
al budget. When the organisation was working in a waterfall approach,
planning for the following year would begin to take place in Q4. In this
particular process, the heads of each business function would make a pre-
sentation to the executive team and compete to have their projects ap-
proved for the plan.
Once a project was placed into the bucket of worthwhile projects, the
PMO would start to work with the leaders of the product-development
organisation to meticulously plan which and how many resources* would
be needed for how long.
The waterfall methodology resulted in a sequenced plan that had those
working on requirements for Project 1 finished just in time to start on
the requirements for Project 2, with the same applied to the design, build,
test, and release stages.
The draft plan would go through a variety of versions until it was locked
down and sent to the finance team, who would apply personnel costs and
create the annual operating budget. This would then be revised (usually
down). Once the draft met the target spend amount, it was then set as the
annual operating plan.
The project manager was responsible for assembling the resources and
starting the project at the planned time. Most people assigned to the proj-
ect had not been involved in the decision to put it in the annual operat-
ing plan so most kickoffs started with a couple of line-item notes from
the executive planning meeting the year before. Outcome ownership and
team-member engagement usually did not exist.
Without some level of outcome ownership, most project team members
didn’t stop to think if the project would still bring the same level of value
it had been thought to bring when it was discussed in annual planning.
Solution
In the agile transformation, the product-development organisation moved
from project teams to durable product teams, with each team focused on
and owning one particular area of the product. These teams had all the
skills that they would need to deliver their outcomes, including product
management embedded in the team. They were also tasked with goals
* This means people. See our earlier point about humans not being resources!
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Implementation
Because the executive team supported the transition to more agile ways
of working, success came down to how finance would buy into this ap-
proach.
Finance team members were involved in the transition from the begin-
ning. The first steps were to increase their buy-in by showing how their
needs would still be met with this new process. It required educating them
in the new approach to product-development planning and the benefits it
would bring and working with them to ensure that there was transparen-
cy, clarity, and understanding.
We conducted a dry run with finance before setting the following year’s
budget and worked through any issues and questions as we created the
necessary templates and artefacts.
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When it came time to set the annual budget for real, planning went
smoothly. The year was planned based on the rough number of teams that
were needed, based on what the organization was trying to accomplish.
It was easy enough to understand the product/software-development or-
ganisation’s run rate, find the average cost of a team, then figure out if and
when we would need to add more teams during the year.
Because using product teams instead of projects built more flexibility into
the plan, budget-management overhead significantly dropped, which al-
lowed the finance team to use that saved time to work on more strategic
items.
We continued to use timesheets to track individuals’ time spent on activ-
ities that could be capitalized. When making this switch at other organi-
sations, we’ve implemented options such as estimation of administrative
hours per role and other suggestions in the beyond-budgeting7 model.
Challenges
Because this was almost a decade ago (before agile became more main-
stream and understood), one of the biggest challenges was convincing
finance team members that agile wasn’t just a fad and that making these
changes would ultimately help the company to meet its purpose and mis-
sion.
To overcome this, we knew we needed not only to approach the change
from an educational perspective but also to demonstrate the benefits that
the finance team would gain.
We found that we needed to take a hybrid approach because some work
still needed to be planned in a waterfall fashion, mainly the back-office
systems. Knowing this up front would have helped us structure the plan-
ning in a hybrid manner. Fortunately, we encountered this challenge
early, while reviewing the entire portfolio of work, and we were able to
determine which projects still needed to be planned and budgeted in a
waterfall manner.
Outcome
Product teams were free of the constraints that budget planning usually
places on a team. Teams were funded, or weren’t, and it became the team’s
responsibility to understand how they’re tracking to achieve their out-
comes. At the executive level, strategic conversations could happen based
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on the outcome metrics and a product team could adjust their focus ac-
cording to that information.
Gone were the days of the “we have it budgeted so let’s spend it” mind-
set; the new mindset of the teams was “are we achieving our desired out-
comes?”
The finance team members, without so much budget-management over-
head, were able to work on more strategic items.
While we didn’t track metrics as much as we would have liked to, we es-
timate that moving to this new mindset saved a minimum of six weeks
each year of up-front planning when setting the annual plan and probably
a least another four weeks throughout the year.
It was a win for all involved and helped the organization achieve increased
agility.
175
PART
ELEVEN
#noprojects and
business agility
#NOPROJECTS: A CULTURE OF CONTINUOUS VALUE
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We have placed the customer at the centre of the model2 not only be-
cause they are the reason you do what you do, but also because customers
have been invisible for so long. Look at your current org chart. Where is
the customer? Organisations have said for years that customers are their
most important asset and yet this asset is nowhere to be seen.
Having the customer at the centre doesn’t mean that the customer is al-
ways right or that employees or shareholders aren’t important. And it
always remains necessary to make a profit. It simply means that almost
everything that you do revolves around them. It means that they are the
top of your organisation charts. It means that the work that you do, and
the way that you do it, is primarily for them.
The first three domains of business agility are part of the work di-
mension. These three domains operate in concert to define how an agile
organisation works.
Technical agility defines the techniques for
delivering work, regardless of function or sub-
ject matter, in an agile way. This includes all of
the techniques for continuous delivery and de-
velopment that are defined in the “Continuous
culture” chapter.
For decades, agile teams have promoted strong technical agility as
the keystone for being agile, the purpose being to increase quality and
throughput and while embracing uncertainty and change. Many of the
agile methods and practices developed over the last 20 years, such as ex-
treme programming XP, behaviour-driven development, test-driven de-
velopment, and DevOps, are almost entirely devoted to technical agility.
And technical agility isn’t limited to software development. Any domain
of work can be technically agile — for example, we’re starting to see agil-
ity emerge in marketing and finance work with their own agile practices
(e.g., agile marketing or beyond budgeting3).
To be technically agile, any work practice or technique needs to be de-
signed for ambiguity, be customer centric, seamlessly respond to change,
and promote collaboration. To benefit from technical agility, your organ-
isation requires the other eight domains, but these techniques and prac-
tices are generally a good place to start.
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ment, as you expect the team (including the product owner, if applicable)
to decide and self-correct their own “what”. Agile leaders require the abil-
ity to inspire purpose, set direction, align teams to business outcomes,
remove impediments, and coach and mentor teams.
At the pioneering end of business agility and, in particular, leadership
agility, there is the concept of self-organisation: teams or divisions with
no managers. Although it requires a significant level of fluency across
all business agility domains, self-organisation takes the position that, as
Drucker5 puts it, “every man sees himself as a ‘manager’ and accepts for
himself the full burden of what is basically managerial responsibility:
responsibility for his own job and work group, for his contribution to
the performance and results of the entire organization, and for the social
tasks of the work community.” Without managers, self-organising teams
remain aligned to company strategy and expectations by being account-
able for specific, and measurable, business outcomes.
Finally, don’t forget that it is agile leaders (who may not be managers) who
orchestrate and guide the organisation towards business agility. These
leaders help align the organisation to a single purpose, enabling individu-
als and teams and taking corrective action where needed.
Market agility defines the relationship be-
tween the organisation and the marketplace.
Organisations have always needed to earn the
right to exist in the market. However, as both
market predictability and the barrier to entry are
decreasing, incumbents no longer enjoy the same
commercial advantage that they used to. It is agile
organisations, those that frequently inspect, adapt, and pivot to meet op-
portunities, that are more likely to flourish in this ambiguous and uncer-
tain market. Speed and effectiveness of this adaption to competitors, dis-
ruptors, and new customer demands are key measures of market agility.
Once you include the connection to the market in the wider systemic
perspective of business agility, your view of the product lifecycle extends
to include the entire value chain, from your suppliers upstream to your
distributors downstream. The partnerships that this systemic perspective
grants enable the creation of superior offerings that delight your custom-
ers. Methods and frameworks like lean startup, lean enterprise, design
thinking, and many of the traditional agile practices fall under this do-
main.
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The third and final dimension is concerned with addressing the cul-
tural domains. These are the key characteristics of an agile organisation:
a learning mindset, a collaboration mindset, and an ownership mindset.
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processes and even to the way they engage the market — promotes col-
laboration and cooperation.
The complexity of collaboration is one of the fundamental reasons teams
in an agile organisation are kept small: O(n2) to be precise6 with 7±2 peo-
ple a commonly accepted size. Decision making is localised to reduce the
lines of communication and subsequent delays. However, don’t let the
goal of collaboration affect your ability to be productive. Sitting in meet-
ings and talking is not necessarily collaboration whereas sitting quietly in
a room by yourself can be.
Critical to effective collaboration is making transparency the default for
information, decisions, and relationships to provide a solid foundation
for trust and respect amongst customers, peers, and leaders. All indi-
viduals have the ability to know what is going on and can draw on that
knowledge to make appropriate decisions. This doesn’t mean that every-
one knows everything but that individuals have the choice of knowing
anything. And, of course, the ability to be opaque to the competition while
being transparent internally is the real art of a collaboration mindset.
You can adopt many tools and practices to improve how your teams col-
laborate — e.g., social contracts, pair programming (or pair work outside
IT), and visualisation tools (like Kanban boards, burn-down charts, or cu-
mulative flow diagrams).
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187
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Part One
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Part Three
1 McGrath, Rita Gunther. The End of Competitive Advantage: How to Keep Your Strategy
Moving as Fast as Your Business. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Review Press, 2013.
3 Bazigos, Michael, Aaron De Smet, and Chris Gagnon. “Why agility pays.” McKinsey
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game-of-chess/
8 Rothman, Johanna. “The Case for #NoEstimates.” AgileConnection. April 22, 2015.
Accessed May 10, 2018, https://www.agileconnection.com/article/case-noestimates
11 Basgall, Joel. “Up to 75% of Executives Anticipate Software Project Failure.” Geneca.
March 14, 2011. Accessed July 18, 2016.
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12 Hastie, Shane. “Standish Group 2015 Chaos Report — Q&A with Jennifer Lynch.”
InfoQ. October 4, 2015. Accessed July 28, 2017.
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13 Securing the Value of Business Process Change. Logica Management Consulting, October
14, 2008. Accessed July 18, 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20101227125457/
http://www.logica.co.uk/we-are-logica/media-centre/news/2008/failing-business-
process-change-projects-substantially-impact-financial-performance-of-european-
bus/~/media/Global site/Imported documents/business_pro
16 PMI’s Pulse of the Profession: Capturing the Value of Project Management. PMI. February,
2015. http://www.pmi.org/-/media/pmi/documents/public/pdf/learning/thought-
leadership/pulse/pulse-of-the-profession-2015.pdf
18 Arnold, Joshua. “Cost of Delay,” Black Swan Farming. Accessed April 21, 2017.
http://blackswanfarming.com/cost-of-delay/
19 Arnold, Joshua. “Qualitative Cost of Delay.” Black Swan Farming. August 24, 2016.
Accessed April 21, 2017. http://blackswanfarming.com/qualitative-cost-delay/
20 “An Estimated $1.6 Billion in Fraudulent Refunds Was Issued During the 2006
and 2007 Filing Seasons.” Memorandum. Treasury Inspector General for Tax
Administration. September 22, 2008. Accessed April 10, 2017.
https://www.treasury.gov/tigta/auditreports/2008reports/200810172fr.html
21 Rothman, Johanna. “Cost of Delay: Not Shipping on Time, Part 1.” Rothman
Consulting Group, February 5, 2014. Accessed July 18, 2016. http://www.jrothman.
com/mpd/portfolio-management/2014/02/cost-of-delay-not-shipping-on-time-
part-1/
Part Four
1 Leybourn, Evan. “#noprojects — If You Need to Start a Project, You’ve Already
Failed.” InfoQ. November 18, 2015. Accessed July 18, 2016.
http://www.infoq.com/articles/noprojects1-projects-flawed
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3 Kurtz, C. F. and D. J. Snowden. “The new dynamics of strategy: Sense-making in a
complex and complicated world.” IBM Systems Journal 42, no. 3 (2003). doi: 10.1147/
sj.423.0462
8 Huckman, Robert and Bradley Staats. “The Hidden Benefits of Keeping Teams
Intact.” Harvard Business Review. December 1, 2013. Accessed July 18, 2016.
https://hbr.org/2013/12/the-hidden-benefits-of-keeping-teams-intact
Part Five
1 “Value.” Oxford English Dictionary. Accessed January 30, 2017.
https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/value
2 Hussman, David. “Dude’s Law, Gordon Pask and The Shoveler.” DevJam. October 5,
2010. Accessed July 18, 2016.
http://devjam.com/2010/08/05/dudes-law-gordon-pask-shoveler/
8 Pixton, Pollyanna. Stand Back and Deliver: Accelerating Business Agility. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Addison-Wesley, 2009.
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10 Sinek, Simon. “How great leaders inspire action.” Lecture, TEDxPugetSound,
Newcastle, WA, September, 2009.
https://www.ted.com/talks/simon_sinek_how_great_leaders_inspire_action
Part Six
1 Kniberg, Henrik. “Spotify engineering culture (part 2).” Spotify Labs. September 20,
2014. Accessed January 9, 2018.
https://labs.spotify.com/2014/09/20/spotify-engineering-culture-part-2/
2 Senge, Peter M. The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization.
New York: Doubleday, 1990.
3 Rock, David and Heidi Grant. “Why Diverse Teams Are Smarter.” Harvard Business
Review. November 4, 2016. Accessed January 9, 2018.
https://hbr.org/2016/11/why-diverse-teams-are-smarter
4 Huckman, Robert and Bradley Staats. “The Hidden Benefits of Keeping Teams
Intact.” Harvard Business Review. December 1, 2013. Accessed July 18, 2016.
https://hbr.org/2013/12/the-hidden-benefits-of-keeping-teams-intact
5 Baer, Drake. “What Multitasking Does to Your Brain.” Fast Company. October 9,
2013. Accessed January 9, 2018.
https://www.fastcompany.com/3019659/what-multitasking-does-to-your-brain
7 Bogard, Jimmy. “From sprints to pull-based flow.” LosTechies. May 13, 2011.
Accessed January 9, 2018.
https://lostechies.com/jimmybogard/2011/05/13/from-sprints-to-pull-based-
flow/
8 Schonfeld, Erick. “Don’t Be Fooled by Vanity Metrics.” TechCrunch. July 30, 2011.
Accessed January 9, 2018. https://techcrunch.com/2011/07/30/vanity-metrics/
10 Hastie, Shane. “Standish Group 2015 Chaos Report — Q&A with Jennifer Lynch.”
InfoQ. October 4, 2015. Accessed July 28, 2017.
https://www.infoq.com/articles/standish-chaos-2015
12 Robson, Sharon and Shane Hastie. “Scaling Agile — It’s All About the Context.”
SoftEd. September 4, 2013. Accessed January 9, 2018.
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13 “Volatility, uncertainty, complexity and ambiguity.”
Wikipedia. Accessed January 9, 2018.
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Part Seven
1 Leybourn, Evan. “#noprojects — Focus on Value, Not Projects.” InfoQ. December
16, 2015. Accessed July 18, 2016.
https://www.infoq.com/articles/noprojects2-focus-value
2 Wake, Bill. “INVEST in Good Stories, and SMART Tasks.” XP123. August 17, 2003.
Accessed November 5, 2016.
http://xp123.com/articles/invest-in-good-stories-and-smart-tasks/
Part Eight
1 Gittleson, Kim. “Can a company live forever?” BBC News. January 19, 2012.
Accessed June 3, 2017. http://www.bbc.com/news/business-16611040
3 Senge, Peter M. The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization.
New York: Doubleday, 1990.
5 Goldratt, Eliyahu M. and Jeff Cox. The Goal: A Process of Ongoing Improvement. New
York: North River Press, 2004.
7 O’Reilly. “Velocity 2011: Jon Jenkins, ‘Velocity Culture’” YouTube video, 15:13. June
20, 2011. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dxk8b9rSKOo
8 Brown, Alanna et al. 2016 State of DevOps Report. Puppet + DORA. 2016.
Accessed June 10, 2018.
https://puppet.com/resources/whitepaper/2016-state-of-devops-report
10 Humble, Jez and David Farley. Continuous Delivery: Reliable Software Releases through
Build, Test, and Deployment Automation. Boston, MA: Pearson Education, 2011.
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11 “Real-time marketing,” Wikipedia. Accessed January 10, 2018.
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Part Nine
1 Laloux, Frederic. Reinventing Organizations. Brussels: Nelson Parker, 2014.
4 Huckman, Robert S. and Bradley Staats. “The Hidden Benefits of Keeping Teams
Intact.” Harvard Business Review. December 2013. Accessed July 18, 2016.
https://hbr.org/2013/12/the-hidden-benefits-of-keeping-teams-intact
7 Schuman, Michael. ”Zhang Ruimin’s Haier Power.” Haier. Accessed May 14, 2018.
http://www.haier.net/en/about_haier/news/201404/t20140426_218091.shtml
8 Pomerantz, Dorothy, Samantha Shaddock, and Caroline Howard, eds. “The 100
Most Powerful Women.” Forbes. August 27, 2008. Accessed May 14, 2018.
http://www.forbes.com/lists/2008/11/biz_powerwomen08_Yang-Mian-Mian_
UCN9.html
9 “Haier Tops Euromonitor’s Major Appliances Global Brand Rankings for Seventh
Consecutive Year.” PR Newswire. January 20, 2016. Accessed May 14, 2018.
http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/haier-tops-euromonitors-major-
appliances-global-brand-rankings-for-seventh-consecutive-year-300206919.html
12 Stengel, Jim. “Wisdom from the Oracle of Qingdao.” Forbes. November 13, 2012.
Accessed May 14, 2018. http://www.forbes.com/sites/jimstengel/2012/11/13/
wisdom-from-the-oracle-of-qingdao/#73e09ba15e01
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13 “Haier: Acquisition of GE Appliances Is Completed.” Polymer Industry Media
International. June 20, 2016. Accessed May 14, 2018.
http://pimi.ir/haier-acquisition-ge-appliances-completed/.
14 Sprague, Jonathan. “Fortune: Haier Reaches Higher.” Haier. September 16, 2002.
Accessed May 14, 2018.
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15 Day, Peter. “Smashing Way to Start a Global Business.” BBC News. October 23,
2013. Accessed May 14, 2018. http://www.bbc.com/news/business-24622247
17 Liu, Cecily. “Taking customers to a Haier ground to serve them better.” China Daily.
August 16, 2013. Accessed May 14, 2018.
http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2013-08/26/content_16920089.htm
20 Fischer, Bill, Umberto Lago, and Fang Liu. “The Haier Road to Growth.”
Strategy+Business. April 27, 2015. Accessed May 14, 2018.
http://www.strategy-business.com/article/00323?gko=c8c2a
Part Ten
1 Kniberg, Henrik. “Spotify engineering culture (part 2).” Spotify Labs. September 20,
2014. Accessed January 9, 2018.
https://labs.spotify.com/2014/09/20/spotify-engineering-culture-part-2/
2 Seo, Ji-Won. Excessive Overtime, Workers, and Productivity: Evidence and Implications
for Better Work. Geneva: International Labour Organization, 2011.
3 Veryanen, Marianna et al. “Overtime work and incident coronary heart disease: the
Whitehall II prospective cohort study.” European Heart Journal 31, no. 14 (2010). doi:
10.1093/eurheartj/ehq124.
197
6 Hastie, Shane. “Lean-Agile Procurement for Outsourcing.” InfoQ. April 16, 2018.
Accessed May 13, 2018.
https://www.infoq.com/news/2018/04/lean-agile-procurement
Part Eleven
1 Leybourn, Evan. “Domains of Business Agility.” The Agile Director. May 25, 2017.
Accessed June 25, 2017.
http://theagiledirector.com/article/2017/05/25/domains-of-business-agility-v2/
2 Denning, Steve. “More on Why Managers Hate Agile.” Forbes. January 28, 2015.
Accessed June 3, 2017. https://www.forbes.com/sites/stevedenning/2015/01/28/
more-on-why-managers-hate-agile
4 Denning, Steve. “What Is Business Agility?” Lecture. Business Agility 2017, New
York. February 23, 2017.
https://www.infoq.com/presentations/3-laws-business-agility
5 Drucker, Peter F. Management: Tasks, Responsibilities, Practices. New York: Harper &
Row, 1974.
198