Observational assessment involves systematically observing and describing behaviors, events, and artifacts in a natural setting. It is important to provide specific, detailed, and factual descriptions without including opinions. Observations can focus on verbal behaviors, nonverbal behaviors, total behaviors, or unobtrusive measures left by people. Observations are conducted in natural settings or contrived settings and can be done by a solo observer, team, or collaboratively with those being observed. Considerations include when, where, and how to observe as well as using technology and ensuring ethical practices. Observational assessment provides concrete evidence and allows assessing behaviors in context.
Observational assessment involves systematically observing and describing behaviors, events, and artifacts in a natural setting. It is important to provide specific, detailed, and factual descriptions without including opinions. Observations can focus on verbal behaviors, nonverbal behaviors, total behaviors, or unobtrusive measures left by people. Observations are conducted in natural settings or contrived settings and can be done by a solo observer, team, or collaboratively with those being observed. Considerations include when, where, and how to observe as well as using technology and ensuring ethical practices. Observational assessment provides concrete evidence and allows assessing behaviors in context.
Observational assessment involves systematically observing and describing behaviors, events, and artifacts in a natural setting. It is important to provide specific, detailed, and factual descriptions without including opinions. Observations can focus on verbal behaviors, nonverbal behaviors, total behaviors, or unobtrusive measures left by people. Observations are conducted in natural settings or contrived settings and can be done by a solo observer, team, or collaboratively with those being observed. Considerations include when, where, and how to observe as well as using technology and ensuring ethical practices. Observational assessment provides concrete evidence and allows assessing behaviors in context.
Pertemuan ke-2 Psikodiagnostik 2 Observational Assessment • The systematic approach! • Where – What + who – How – When
• How to make detailed, specific observation?
– Specific – use numbers/ units of comparison – Detailed – give as much information as possible in describing so a person will be able to picture the object/ phenomena without even seeing it – shape, colors, location, etc. – Factual – avoid opinions. No matter who’s observing, everyone should agree on it. Exercise • Find one person to observe • Observe the person for only 10 minutes • Describe as specific, detailed, and factual as can be • Use Where – What + who – How – When as your guidance Observational Assessment (Cont.) • Most of psychologist are interested in “real-life” phenomena – But, what they have is mostly artificial! Clinics and laboratories • Psychologists act mostly as “operator”, producing data whose conditions they have dominated, instead of “transducers” – Simply translating and coding what happens naturally • What is natural for human being ? Are not immediately obvious • Contributions of technology ! Definitions • ‘observation’ derives from Latin: to watch, to attend to
• A systematic description of events,
behaviors and artifacts in the social setting under study (Marshall & Rossman, 1989: 79)
• Observing: a special skill that requires
addressing issues such as the potential deception of the people being interviewed, impression management, and the potential marginality of the researcher in a strange setting (Hammersley & Atkinson, 1995) Fundamental Fallacies on Observation
1. The researchers were not
trained as social science observers 2. The researchers were not prepared to make observations at that particular moment. Training for Observation • Learning to pay attention, see what there is to see and hear what there to hear • Practice in writing descriptively • Acquiring discipline in recording field notes. • Knowing how to separate detail from trivia to achieve the former without being overwhelmed by the latter • Using rigorous method to validate and triangulate observations • Reporting the strengths and limitations of one’s own perspective, which requires both self knowledge and self disclosure. What are being observed? (1) • Verbal behavior – Bales (1950) developed techniques for analyzing group interactions positive/ negative contribution “task”/ “socio-emotional” specialist
– Albert & Kessler (1978) examined
greeting rituals on telephones four- part rituals, including a summary of the call, a justification for terminating the call, some positive comment and some indication that the relationship would continue. What are being observed? (2) • Non verbal behavior – Argyle (1978) looked at non verbal cues, such as style of speaking, voice tone, loudness, interruptions, speed, hesitations, address codes, paralinguistic, silences, clothing, hair style, make up, facial expressions, use of eyes, body contact, touch, body movement, gestures and proximity
– Vrugt (1990) provides example of analyzing the
non-verbal behavior of Dutch Queen during her annual televised presentation of government policies of the year, if it was possible to detect when the Queen’s opinion is discrepant to those of her government from speech disturbances, object manipulation and looking up. What are being observed? (3) • Non verbal behavior – Argyle (1987) suggests that postural moldings (i.e. the copying of body posture) often indicated that the dyad concerned were getting on well with each other, while eye-gaze (and the breaking of eye contact) was important in synchronizing conversations, signaling to the other when you wished him or her to take over, for example. What are being observed? (4) • Total behavior – Minuchin (1974) divide family dynamics in terms of up/down, near/far and in/out relationships. He concentrated on looking at characteristic patterns and strategies adopted by participants to cope with others in the family.
– Carry (1978) looked at the social rules
used by pedestrians where two pedestrians are meant to look at each other until they are about 2.5 metres apart, and then look away when actually passing. What are being observed? (5) • ‘unobtrusive measure’ evidence left by people – Webb et al. (1981) examined of carpet wear and ‘nose-prints’ on glass protecting screens as indicators of the relative popularity of the art at exhibitions. They also cite discarded rubbish studies, where contents of people rubbish bins are looked at in terms of such variables as their consumption of alcohol. What are being observed? (6) • Procedures: content or happenings, another to sample extensively, but for only a limited time – Event sampling critical incident technique – Time sampling Who conducts the observation? • Solo & Team; Participatory & Collaborative approach – Degrees of collaboration vary along a continuum. At the end is the solo field worker or a team of professionals: The researchers completely control the inquiry. – Collaborations with the people in the setting being studied is called “co- researchers”; they help design the inquiry, collect data and are involved in analysis. When does the observation take place? • Refers not only to the period and timing of the observation but also the time that observation are recorded. – Immediate recording: avoids much of the problem of memory distortion.
– Retrospective recording: occurs when the
assessor jots down observations after the conclusion of an interview or testing session, or uses a check sheet or rating scale to record impressions. Such recording suffers from problems of condensation and forgetting, but may be the only feasible way to obtain some observations. Where to observe? • Natural setting/ Field Observation – Barker et al (1978) : the ecological psychology studies which provide extensive accounts if behavior in community settings
• Contrived/ Simulated setting
– work samples: duplicating the conditions one is interested in, perhaps using the actual site in which the person will ultimately be performing, e.g. In-basket test The subject receives basic information about a company and told to play the role of an administrator whose job is to handle a series of memos, letters, forms, and other request like those typically coming to a manager’s in-basket. Assessors may use visual impressions and analyze the quantity and quality of the subject’s production and decisions – situational test: a contrived situation in which the subject is given a task to accomplish, e.g. police recruits. Where to observe? (Cont.) • Standardized conditions in the clinic or laboratory – Ainsworth et al (1978) assesses a child’s reactions to being separated briefly from his parent under standardized conditions (The Strange Situation Test) How to observe? (1) • Participant, Onlooker or Both – A participant observer shares as intimately as possible in the life and activities of the setting under study in order to develop an insider’s view of what is happening. Not only sees what is happening but feels what it is like to be part of the setting. – Onlooker / non-participant observer : complete separation from the setting as a spectator. The observer observes the program in distance, with no direct contact with the observed study. – Both: The extent of participation can change over time. The study may begin with onlooker and gradually become a participant as field work progress; vice versa How to observe? (2) • Overt or covert – Overt observation is done to the belief that there should be full disclosure of the purpose of any research project. – Covert observation is done to the belief that people may behave quite differently when they know they are being observed. How to observe? (3) • Technology – Audio – Visual – Other digital portable transmitters – Transcript: checking, writing, or dictating • Ethical considerations – consents Variations in Observation 1. Structure of the observation highly structured, detailed observation ------ diffuse unstructured description 2. Focus in observation narrow, specific aspect of observation ------ broad focus 3. Knowledge of those being observed about the process overt (full disclosure) ----- covert (no disclosure) 4. Explanations given to those being observed full explanation ----- no explanations 5. The time scale of what being observed single observations ----- extended observations over time 6. The method used simple note taking ----- the use of devices 7. Feedback given to those observed full sharing of observations and interpretations ----- no further contact at all with the participants. Advantages • It can provide concrete evidence of the phenomenon under investigation • Enables you to assess the behavior within its context • It is good for studying behavior that people may not be aware of (e.g. non verbal behavior) or behavior that is inaccessible using self report methods (e.g. because of denial, distortion or simply forgetting). • It can tell us not only what is going on, but also who is involved, when and where things happen • It can illuminate process and it can examine causality, suggesting why things happen as they do in particular settings. Advantages • The chronology of events can be taken into account and continuities over time can be looked out • Situations can be examined that can not be replicated in a laboratory, such as weddings, political meetings, prisons, behaviors in bars, football crowds and religious behavior • Can be part of multiple-method approach • Allows permanent records to be made, which can be independently analyzed and re- analyzed in detail, ensuring some reliability of interpretation Disadvantages • It can only be used to answer certain research questions • Often have problems with reactivity of measurement: people may behave differently if they know they are being observed. • It tends to make points from the outsider rather than an insider perspective (can be very subjective). • Can be very time-consuming and labor- intensive • People’s behavior may be inconsistent Bias • Halo Effect – a spread of positive or negative evaluations to observations other than those directly related to the reputation • Hawthorne Effect – the subject positive result happens because the effect of observation • Attention span or short term memory/ working memory limitation – Miller, G. (1956). The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information, Psychological Review, 63, 81–97. Observation and Interview • By its nature, observation directly concerns the present, while interviews reflect the past (the past as seen from the present) or surmise the future (as seen from the present)
• Observation and interview supplement each other.
• Observation gives chance to learn things that people would be unwilling to talk about in an interview.
• Interviewees are always reporting perceptions –
selective perceptions. The impressions and feelings of the observer become part of the data to be used in attempting to understand a setting and the people who inhabit it. The observer takes in information and forms impressions that go beyond what can be fully recorded in even most detailed interview.
• Interview without observation is like a body without soul
Observation and Interview • Interview is directed primarily toward obtaining verbal information from the client • Behavioral observation: specific strategies and techniques of measuring the relevant areas of behavior discussed during the interview • Add with observation or not? After initial interview. • Used when interview is not possible, e.g. developmentally disabled, resistant client, very young children Observation in Counseling • In working with clients, if you miss those nuances – if you misread what they may be trying to communicate, if you misjudge their character, if you don’t notice when their emotions, gestures, or tone of voice don’t fit what they are saying, if you don’t catch the fleeting sadness or anger that lingers on their face for only a few milliseconds as they mention someone or something you might otherwise not know what was important – you will lose your client. Or worse still, you don’t (And your client continues with you despite your insensitivity) Drew Watson Observation & Psychological Testing • In using test instrument, esp. projective test, we need to cautiously employ not only our subjective experience, but also “subjective experiences” of the tests. • Psychological testing could be one way to avoid ‘impressionism’ in interpreting personality • It makes diagnosing work to be focused and time-efficient. Observation & Psychological Testing • The difficulty is to decide the unit of observation that could represent the “construct” we are aim for.
Henry and Spiro (1953): four requirements on
psychological testing to added with natural observation: 1. Measurement of the personality “as a whole” rather than by limited techniques. 2. Test material which is not “culture-bound” 3. Tests permitting sampling of large numbers of subjects, and brief tests capable of rapid and easy administration 4. The analysis of which may be done by other person – to check by the analysts and by persons whose judgment was not biased by previous knowledge of the people. Tugas Individual: Review journal • Merangkum isi jurnal • Menjelaskan tujuan observasi • Menentukan tahapan observasi • Mengidentifikasi kendala-kendala dalam pelaksanaan observasi • Mengeksplorasi teknik-teknik pengambilan data lain yang dapat diterapkan untuk mencapai tujuan. REFERENCES • Banister, et al. (2005). Qualitative Methods in Psychology A Research Guide. New York: McGraw-Hill Education. • Barker, et. Al. (1994). Research Methods in Clinical and Counseling Psychology. England: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. • Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative Research & Evaluation Methods 3rd Ed. California: Sage Publication. • Sundberg, N.D. (1977). Assessment of Persons. USA: Prentice Hall • Mensh, I. N. & Henry, J.(1953). Direct observation and psychological testing in anthropological fieldwork. American Anthropologist, 55 (4), 461- 480