Chinese Gleams of Sufi Ligh PDF
Chinese Gleams of Sufi Ligh PDF
OF SUFI LIGHT
Sachiko Murata
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
Foreword vii
Acknowledgments xiii
Introduction 1
1. Chinese-Language Islam 13
The Essentials of Islam 14
The Chinese Language 17
Wang Tai-yii 19
Liu Chih 24
The Arabic Translation of Liu Chih' s Philosophy 28
Translations into Chinese 31
The Neo-Confucian Background 35
6. Gleams 128
Notes 211
Glossary of Chinese Words 237
Bibliography 241
Index of Chinese Names and Terms 247
Index of Persian and Arabic Names and Terms 251
General Index 255
Foreword
community and the larger society which had been profoundly shaped
by Confucian values is a fascinating area of inquiry for intellectual histo-
rians, comparative religionists, and theologically-oriented philosophers. 4
It has also recently attracted the attention of Islamic scholars, especially
those in Cultural China.
Before answering this challenging question one must first inquire what
the creative minds among the ulama actually produced as the result of
their philosophical reflections and how they responded to this perceived
need. Such an inquiry entails a concerted effort to recognize, understand,
and appreciate the best of the cultural production that is still available
to us. Archival work, textual analysis, bibliographic research, philological
study, and translation are necessary steps toward a preliminary inter-
pretation. Sachiko Murata, through painstaking archaeological digging
and patient attentiveness, is instrumental in opening up this field to the
international scholarly community. I am privileged and grateful to have
been associated with her project from the very beginning. It has been
an intellectually enticing and spiritually uplifting experience.
I first encountered Islamic philosophy in the early 1960s, through a
comparative religion course with Wilfred Cantwell Smith focusing on
the perceptions of religious communities outside the Christian West.
Smith's sympathetic reading of the Koran as a committed Christian
thinker was a source of inspiration to me and enhanced my ability to
appreciate the three Abrahamic spiritual traditions from a Confucian
perspective. Later, I also benefited greatly from Huston Smith's sensitive
and humane approach to the world's religions. His admiration for Frithjof
Schuon' s insight into the perennial philosophy also helped me cherish
the quintessential values of Sufism. Annemarie Schimmel's masterly
depiction of the mystical dimensions of Islam heightened my fascination
with the experiential side as well as the intellectual understanding of
the Prophet's message. My meeting with Professor Toshihiko lzutsu at
the East-West Philosophers' Conference in Honolulu in 1969 and at sev-
eral subsequent international gatherings offered me a rare opportunity
to think philosophically about Sufism from a Sinic perspective. I am proud
to have played a part in reissuing his seminal work, Sufism and Taoism,
in North America by the University of California Press. However, it was
my collaboration with Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Osman Bakar in a series
of Islamic-Confucian dialogues in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and in
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, in 1995 that enabled me to truly immerse my-
self in the study of Islamic philosophy in classical Chinese.
I learned from Sachiko Murata and William Chittick that Wang Tai-yu
and Liu Chih's philosophical reflections on Islam represent the earliest
instance in which Muslim thinkers wrote their treatises in a major intel-
lectual language other than Arabic or Persian. Even the Muslim appro-
Foreword ix
TuWEIMING
Acknowledgments
xiii
xiv Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light
The calligraphic design on the front cover is taken from the frontis-
piece of ]en-chi hsing-yu by Ma Ming-lung, published in 1919. A copy of
this work was kindly provided by the Tenri University library. The text
reads as follows (Chinese indicated by italics, Arabic by roman letters):
He said, the sage said, upon him be peace. "At the time when the
human recognizes himself clearly, he truly recognizes the Real Lord of pro-
tecting and nourishing." "He who knows himself has known his Lord."
Introduction
When The Tao of Islam was published in 1992, I knew little about Chinese
Islam and had no thought of learning more about it. However, I had
decided to continue my study of Neo-Confucian thinking, and, with
the intention of reading Chinese texts under the guidance ofTu Weiming,
I applied for a fellowship to spend time at the Center for the Study of
World Religions at Harvard. I received the fellowship for the academic
year 1994--95, and devoted my time there to studying Chinese cosmol-
ogy. In March 1995, however, I attended a conference called "Islam and
Confucianism: A Civilizational Dialogue" at the University of Malaya in
Kuala Lumpur. Professor Lee Cheuk Yin of the National University of
Singapore, a specialist in Chinese intellectual history, presented a paper
there on Wang Tai-yii, the first Muslim thinker to write in Chinese. I was
fascinated by his talk, and on my return to Harvard I immediately went
to the library of the Yenching Institute to see if I could find any of Wang's
books. The Yenching turned out to have one of the oldest known copies
of Wang's major work in its rare book collection, and it also had a small
shelf of works by Wang, Liu Chih, and other Chinese Muslim authors.
Seeing the availability of these resources, I put aside my previous project
and devoted myself to the study of the Chinese texts. I have not been
able to put them down since. The present work is the first fruit of that
change of direction.
In The Tao of Islam, I tried to examine Islamic thought with Far Eastern
eyes. It became clear to me in carrying out research for the book that the
manner in which Islamic intellectuality is portrayed by modern scholar-
ship has at least as much to do with the preconceptions of Western schol-
ars as with the actual texts. If scholars see the Islamic tradition as mired
in either/or thinking and as antithetical to the Far Eastern concepts of
balance and harmony, this is because they have been trained to think in
terms of sharp dichotomies, not because the texts necessarily present
2 Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light
the world in these terms. As soon as one searches Islamic texts for the
idea of an overarching Tao that functions according to the complemen-
tarity of yin and yang, it turns up in a wide variety of texts, beginning
with the Koran and the Hadith, and especially in the various forms of
literature that employ imagery and symbolism, Sufi writings in particu-
lar. Even the famously rationalistic texts of the philosophers find plenty
of room for such quasi-Far Eastern concepts, though it is far more diffi-
cult to find them in I<alam (dogmatic theology) and almost impossible
in jurisprudence.
I based the Chinese side of The Tao of Islam on my own understanding
of Chinese thought. It barely occurred to me that Muslim thinkers might
already have covered some of the same ground. It was precisely the
discovery that they had in fact dealt with similar issues that excited me
the moment I heard Professor Lee speak about Wang Tai-yii. Here was a
seventeenth-century Muslim discussing Islamic concepts in the Chinese
language in a manner that immediately struck me as similar to what I
had been trying to do, though his version was far more sophisticated
than mine. My intention in spending a year at Harvard had been to
continue the line of research that I had begun in The Tao of Islam. But the
existence of texts by Wang and other Chinese Muslim thinkers made me
think that I should rather investigate how Muslims themselves inter-
acted with Chinese metaphysics, cosmology, and psychology.
In order to continue my research on Chinese Islam in a more concen-
trated manner, I applied to the National Endowment for the Humanities
for a fellowship to study the works of Wang Tai-yU.. I received support
for the academic year 1997-98, and was also accepted as an associate at
the Harvard Yenching Institute. In the preceding spring, I had used a
sabbatical leave to undertake the first stage of my project. That was to
look carefully at the handful of Persian texts that had been translated
into Chinese in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, with the aim
of grasping how Islamic ideas were transferred into the Chinese intel-
lectual milieu. The second stage was to make a translation and careful
study of Wang's major work, The Real Commentary on the True Teaching.
As part of the preparatory research, I spent three months in Japan and
China looking for manuscripts and old editions of the Chinese texts.
During the fellowship year, I was not able to make a great deal of head-
way in translating Wang's long work, but I did make a careful study of
one of the translated Persian texts, Liu Chih' s Displaying the Concenlment
of the Real Realm, and one of Wang's shorter works, The Great Learning of
the Pure and Real, and these are the texts presented here. I met with far
more difficulties in understanding these texts than I would have ex-
pected, and several of my colleagues and friends from whom I sought
help will surely attest that we are dealing with works that are challeng-
Introduction 3
ing even to those who have a thorough knowledge of later Chinese in-
tellectual history. Many passages would have been indecipherable with-
out my own understanding of Islamic concepts paired with my col-
leagues' grasp of the niceties of Nee-Confucian and Buddhist thought.
Before even beginning to introduce Wang Tai-yii and Liu Chih, the
greatest of the Chinese ulama, it may be useful to say something about
the significance of their writings for our understanding of Islam in China.
Any survey of the modern scholarship will reveal that very little is known
about Chinese Islam, even though it is generally acknowledged that there
have been Muslim communities in China for a thousand years. A good
deal of research has been carried out on Islam in twentieth-century
China, but little has been written on the Muslims' perception of them-
selves before the twentieth century. It is true that in the late nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries, many scholars devoted efforts to survey-
ing the Islamic writings in the Chinese language. Isaac Mason, among
others, did pioneering work on bibliography, and he partially translated
Liu Chih's life of the prophet Muhammad into English. All this secondary
literature has been surveyed, summarized, and improved upon by the
valuable books of Donald Leslie, Islam in Traditiontll China and Islamic
Literature in Chinese. But despite all this research, little attention has been
paid to the actual contents of the Chinese writings and how they relate
to Islamic teachings. One of the few exceptions is provided by the excel-
lent articles of Fran~oise Aubin.
Like Islam in other parts of the world, Chinese Islam has its local pecu-
liarities, though these should not be exaggerated. As Joseph F. Fletcher
has pointed out, early scholars of Chinese Islam often suggested that
Islam in China had departed from the orthodoxy and orthopraxy of the
central Islamic lands, but there is little evidence to support this claim.
For, as Fletcher maintains, "The history of Muslims in China is not a
history isolated from other Muslims." 1 Nonetheless, we meet formula-
tions of Islamic teachings in the Chinese language that would certainly
appear strange if they could be translated directly back into Persian or
Arabic. The reason for this is that the most important determinant of the
local peculiarities of Islamic teachings in Chinese is the Chinese language
itself along with the great intellectual heritage for which it was the
vehicle.
The specifically Chinese formulations of Islamic teachings do not begin
appearing until the seventeenth century because, so far as is known, up
until that time Chinese Muslims studied and wrote about Islamic topics
in their own languages, mainly Persian. In 1642, Wang Tai-yu published
his Real Commentary on the True Teaching, which is the first Chinese-
4 Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light
Arabic. The other languages that were used to express Islamic learning,
like Turkish and Urdu, were also in effect new creations of Islamic civili-
zation itself.
What the Chinese ulama did, then, was to write about Islam in a com-
pletely non-Islamic idiom. The only similar situation that had been expe-
rienced by Islamic civilization was the Muslim adoption of Greek thought
during the first three or four centuries of Islam. The grand difference,
however, is that the early Muslims wrote about Greek thought in Arabic,
not in Greek, so they used Islamic terminology to make their points and
they did not have to worry about responses by the Greek philosophers.
In contrast, the Chinese ulama wrote in Chinese, so they had to use Nee-
Confucian terminology. Their books were immediately printed and dis-
tributed, so they could not ignore the possible reactions of other Chinese
intellectuals. Anyone who reads these texts with a knowledge of the
Chinese ambiance of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries can see
that they are part of the ongoing discussion and debate among Chinese
intellectuals concerning the nature of the quest for human perfection.
Given that these texts anticipate what Muslims would have to do in
the modern world, studying them may suggest in unexpected ways the
resources available to the Islamic tradition for dealing with alternative
interpretations of the universe. Modern Muslims, for example, have writ-
ten a good deal about Islam's theoretical and theological relations with
other religions, Christianity in particular. Far too many of these writings,
however, are marked by a surprising lack of understanding not only of
the other religions, but also of Islam's own theoretical resources for deal-
ing with religious diversity.
To cite one example of what I have in mind, it is commonly thought
that Far Eastern metaphysics and cosmology are impersonal and there-
fore alien to the Islamic world view. But this was certainly not the way
in which the Chinese ulama saw Confucianism. If we can learn only one
thing from their writings, it is that the stereotypes about Islamic and
Chinese thinking need to be discarded. Islam is indeed the third of the
three Abrahamic monotheisms. There have been modes of Islamic think-
ing that tend toward a rather harsh exclusivism. But this does not mean
that there have not been other modes of Islamic thinking that easily
adapt to a much broader and more inclusivist view of things.
From another side, some of modern scholarship still maintains that
Confucianism is not really a ''religion," but rather a philosophy. This evalu-
ation, of course, depends upon our definitions of the terms religion and
philosophy, and it is heavily indebted to a Christian sensibility toward what
may be properly called ''religion." For their part, many of the Chinese
Muslims saw Confucianism as an affirmation of the same transcendent
principles that animate the Koran. They had no difficulty understanding
Introduction 7
One of the things that is striking about these Chinese texts on Islam is
the nonalignment of a good proportion of the contents with any specific
teaching. My Confucian and Buddhist colleagues have been deeply
struck by the manner in which the texts obliterate the modern stereo-
types about Islam. When I spoke to Professor Lee about Wang at the
conference in Kuala Lumpur, he explained that he had discovered one
of Wang's books a short time before in a Chinese bookstore in Singapore.
After telling me how the book had totally changed his preconceptions
about Islam's role in China, he expressed an opinion that has been echoed
by several others who have looked at these texts, if not in so many words:
"If this is Islam," he said, "Islam is a wonderful religion."
To the question,"Is this Islam?," my own response is that it is as much
Islam as any other seventeenth-century version of the faith, and a lot
more so than anything that famously bears the name in the modern
world. The fact that so many interpretations of Islam have now been
narrowed down to fit into ideological frameworks is simply a reflection
of modern Muslims' ignorance of the Islamic tradition and their sense
of impotence in the face of the impersonal forces of modernity. It says
nothing about the rich resources of the tradition itself.
I am not about to enter into a defense of these texts, however. They
speak for themselves, and readers can take them or leave them. Rather,
I would like to suggest some of the commonalities that the Muslim
authors saw with the other Chinese traditions. This is, after all, the first
instance in which Muslims wrote in the context of a foreign intellec-
tual tradition, and as such, it does parallel the experience of modern
Islam. But there is also a vast difference between seventeenth-century
China and the modem intellectual environment. In China at that time,
there was no basic conflict between the principles that underlie the Far
Eastern religions and Islamic principles. In contrast, the principles that
have molded modern thought are largely hostile to religion. I do not
think that it is going too far to say that the contemporary intellectual
environment is essentially hostile to religious teachings and only acci-
dentally tolerant toward them. In contrast, the Chinese intellectual
environment in which the Muslim scholars were living and writing was
essentially congenial with religious teachings, and only critical of spe-
cific teachings, the specificities depending on who was writing-Neo-
Confucian, Buddhist, Taoist, Muslim, etc. What I have in mind can quickly
be grasped if we think about some of shared features of the traditions
8 Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light
that were plain to the Chinese ulama. Five of these seem especially ob-
vious.
The first principle of Islamic thinking is taw~id, the assertion of (God's)
unity. The Arabic word means literally "making one" or "making into
one" or, as it is sometimes translated into Chinese, "practicing one" (hsi-
i). The most concise theological expression of taw~id is said to be the first
half of the Shahadah, that is, the statement," (There is) no god but God."
As the first and most basic principle of faith, taw~id is the fountainhead
of all theological thinking. By theological thinking I do not mean simply
Kalam (dogmatic theology), but also philosophy, theoretical Sufism, and
many other expressions of Islamic understanding-notably poetry,
which is the chief vehicle for expressing theological ideas in accessible
language.
Taw~id demands that all of existence be governed by a single, supreme
Reality-which the Chinese ulama had no objection to calling by the
Nee-Confucian term Principle (li). Everything comes from this One, Real
Principle, and everything returns to it. The fact that much of Islamic
discourse personifies this Principle and discusses it wholly in anthropo-
morphic terms does not detract from the fact that there is a complemen-
tary perspective found in the same Islamic discourse that declares the
Principle's utter transcendence and ineffability, making personal and
anthropomorphic language totally inappropriate. The twin ideas of tran-
scendence and immanence, or asserting God's incomparability (tanzih)
and his similarity (tashbih), are the yang and the yin of Islamic theologi-
cal thinking.8
There is certainly no disagreement among the three Chinese traditions
concerning the underlying unity of all reality, whatever the terminology
that may be employed. Hence, the Islamic stress on unity appears as
another version of a well known idea. Nor does the anthropomorphic
pole of Islamic understanding pose any problem when the terminology
is drawn from the three Chinese traditions. There is no concept of "God"
per se in Chinese, so the highest principle cannot be named in the same
personal terms that are usually used in Islamic languages. Nonetheless,
many of the typical designations for God used by the Chinese ulama-
such as "Real Lord"-are rooted in the ancient Chinese writings and
Confucian imperial imagery, and such expressions are perfectly conge-
nial with some of the Koranic divine names. On a more philosophical
and metaphysical level, the abstract terms that Nee-Confucianism em-
ploys have plenty of parallels in Islamic texts, so it is easy to make the
transition from one set of impersonal terminology to another.
In the works of the Chinese ulama, taw~id is a constant theme, even
though they rarely employ the Arabic word. A prime example is Wang
Tai-yii's Great Learning of the Pure and RMI, which is translated here. The
Introduction 9
The present book is divided into seven parts. Part one describes the
first appearance of Chinese-language works written by Muslims in the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, introduces the two major Chi-
nese Muslim scholars, Wang Tai-yii and Liu Chih, and describes some of
the efforts carried out by Muslim scholars to translate Islamic books into
Chinese. Part two introduces the writings of Wang Tai-yii in detail. Part
three describes Wang's Great Learning of the Pure and Real (Ch'ing-chen ta·
hsiieh) and situates it in the context of Chinese and Islamic teachings.
Part four is a translation of Wang's Great Learning. Part five explains the
importance of the Persian work Gleams (Lawti>ib) by ~bd al-Ra~man Jami
and describes Liu Chih's translation of Gleams into Chinese with the
title Displaying the Concealment of the Real Realm (Chen-ching chao-we1).
Part six offers a new English translation of }ami's Gleams from the Per-
sian. Part seven presents a translation of Liu Chih' s Displaying the Con·
cealment of the Real Realm. The two translations are arranged on facing
pages so that readers can judge for themselves how Liu Chih modified
the text to fit the Neo-Confucian context of Chinese thought. The trans-
lation of Gleams from Persian was made by my husband, William C.
Chittick, whose editorial advice has been followed throughout the book,
though I remain fully responsible for the final text.
1
Chinese-Language Islam
13
14 Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light
Muslims. The Shariah delineates in clear detail what the Koran and the
Sunnah teach about rites and various communal and societal actions.
11
The so-called Five Pillars of Islam" are the most basic rites, incumbent
on all Muslims. But the Shariah, like Jewish law and Confucian social
teachings, also deals with many issues that do not appear "religiousn-
and certainly not'' spiritual"-to most people in the modern West. These
include foods, business transactions, marriage, and inheritance. The
Orientalist adage, "Islam is not a religion but a way of life," refers in part
to this wide reach of the Shariah.
The second basic branch of Islamic learning addresses right under-
standing. The Koran commands faith in God, his angels, the scriptures,
the prophets, and the Last Day, and it was clear to Muslims that people
cannot have faith in things of which they have no knowledge. From
earliest times, scholars devoted themselves to explicating these objects
of faith. By the third/ninth century, this second branch of the tradition
had subdivided into three major offshoots, each of which was well on
its way to full flower. "I<alam" or dogmatic theology took a defensive
and polemical view of Koranic teachings, depending on rational argu-
ment to convince doubters and disbelievers. ''Philosophy" was heavily
indebted to the Greek heritage and, like Kalam, took a rational approach
to understanding, but it avoided Koranic language and often voiced
opinions on Ultimate Reality and the prophets that blatantly contra-
dicted the views of the I<alam authorities. "Theoretical Sufism" differed
from the first two by stressing suprarational perception over reason. For
the Sufi authorities, the key to understanding was not the acquisition of
knowledge through study and investigation, but-much in the Taoist
fashion-the emptying of the heart so that God might inspire it directly.
The most common designation for the knowledge gained by this route
is "unveiling" (kashf). Although these branches of learning tended to be
distinct in their formative period, many scholars studied all of them and
a number of famous authors wrote books in more than one branch or
harmonized them in various ways.
The third basic branch of Islamic learning has to do with right inten-
tion, sincerity, purity of character, love for God and the neighbor, ethics,
morality, interiority, and the spiritual path. This is the whole enterprise
of strengthening one's personal connection with the divine, purifying
the heart and mind, and attempting to live day-by-day in the awareness
of God's presence. The most thorough explications of these issues are
found in theoretical Sufism which, as noted, pertains to the domain of
right understanding.
In all these branches of Islam, it was-and remains-difficult to speak
of anything that might properly be caUed "orthodoxy," given that there
has been no institution that might decree the correctness or incorrect-
ness of various expressions. This is not to say that no one made claims to
16 Chinese Gletlms of Sufi Light
authority, simply that there was no church or hierarchy that could adju-
dicate the claims. As a result, Islamic norms became established through
various sorts of consensus, but debates have always continued. Certainly
Muslims agree on the basic principles, which are God's unity, the
prophethood of Muhammad, and the divine origin of the Koran. But all
these are terms that need definition, and diversity of opinion arises as
soon as definitions are formulated. Some observers have suggested that
"orthopraxy" was the criterion for Islamicity-that is, acknowledgment
of the incumbency of the Shariah and observance of it. This is perhaps
closer to the actual historical situation, but it also is problematic. It is
true, however, that acceptance of the incumbency of the ''Five Pillars"
has been considered by most Muslim scholars as the least criterion for
Islamic affiliation.
In the second branch of learning, which is the domain of right under-
standing, there are three foundational issues, often called the "three
principles" of Islam-the assertion that God is one (taw~id), prophecy,
and the Return to God. Each of the three branches of the tradition that
dealt with right understanding discussed these issues in its own ways.
Philosophy, for example, had several major schools, and the basic discus-
sions were all rooted in the three principles. In the seventeenth century,
most of the positions of the three major approaches to this field of learn-
ing were still being discussed. For example, Mulla $adra of Shiraz (d.
1640) presents in his Asfar an encyclopedic engagement with all the philo-
sophical and theological positions of earlier schools of thought. Theo-
retical Sufism was especially rich in the diversity of its approaches to
divine Unity, though by the seventeenth century the dominant themes
were set by the school of Ibn aJ-cArabi (d. 1240).5
Sufism had several characteristics that made it adaptable to diverse
cultural contexts. These help explain why Sufi teachers were commonly
the means whereby Islam has expanded its borders, as can be witnessed
in India, Indonesia, Central Asia, Africa, and, as scholars have often re-
marked, China. These characteristics can be boiled down to the fact that
Sufism stresses the essential over the accidental. Always the Sufi teach-
ers focus on "spirituality," which is to say that they stress the kernel
over the shell, the meaning over the letter, the spirit over the body, and
the subtle over the dense. If, for example, Rumi's 25,000-verse didactic
poem, the Mathnawi, has been called for centuries the Koran in the Per-
II
sian language," this is not to suggest that it has any formal similarity
with the Koran. Rather, the Mllthnawi succeeds in bringing out what Rumi
himself calls "the roots of the roots of the roots of the religion." It is this
special ability to look beyond the form and into the divine intention
that marks Sufi writings throughout Islamic history.
Traditional criticisms of the Sufis have come from two groups of schol-
ars who have a vested interest in defending the formal dimensions of
Chinese-Language Islam 17
the religion. These are the jurists, who specialize in the Shariah, and the
I<alam authorities, who defend the primacy of certain exteriorizing inter-
pretations of the Koran. The Sufis have typically replied by agreeing
upon the necessity of the formal observances as well as belief in the
Koranic dogmas, but by criticizing the critics for not recognizing that all
these things, no matter how necessary for Islamic faith and practice, are
the body of Islam. Real Islam demands making contact with the heart
and spirit of Islam.
Tazaka, to render the concept of God Muslims used "heaven" in the Tang
period (61~907) and both "heaven" and "Buddha" in the Sung dynasty
(960-1279). At the end of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), when they had
begun writing books in Chinese, they used words like "Real Lord" (chen-
chu), uReal One" (chen-r), "Real Ruler" (chen-tsar), and ~~Lord" (chu).
"Real Lord" is especially interesting because Christians employed the
expression "Heavenly Lord" (t'ien-chu). The very name of the Christian
divinity would have caused difficulties for metaphysically minded
Chinese, given that heaven and earth are inseparably linked, while the
supreme principle must lie beyond the two. As it happens, the Koran
frequently refers to God as" creator of heaven and earth," and the com-
mon Chinese expression "heaven, earth, and the ten thousand things"
has its Koranic equivalent in "heaven, earth, and what is between the
two," which occurs in some twenty verses.
The question of Islamic terminology in Chinese has yet to be investi-
gated with any rigor, so a few examples will have to suffice. Muhammad
11
was referred to as the Sage" (sheng) or the "Utmost Sage" (chih-sheng)-
"sage" being a term that was reserved for Confucius and the great
teachers who had preceded him. Muhammad was also called the "Chief
Servant" (shou-p'u) and the '~bassador" (ch'in-ch'a), terms that reflect
a standard version of the second half of the Shahadah (the testimony of
faith), recited in the daily prayer- ''I bear witness that Muhammad is
His servant and His messenger." The Koran is the ~~classic" (ching), the
uheavenly classic" (t'ien-ching), and the "real classic of the true mandate"
(shih-ming chen-ching). The Islamic tradition itself is often called "the pure
and real teaching" (ch'ing-chen chiao). Adam is the "human ancestor" (jen-
tsu). The prophets (anbiya') and "friends" of God (or the "saints," awliya')
are the" sages and worthies" (sheng-hsien ). The angels are the "heavenly
immortals" (t'ien-hsien), a term associated with Taoism. The jinn, who in
Islamic terms are spiritual beings ranked below the angels and made of
fire rather than light, are "spirits and demons" (shen-kuez). Satan is the
"chief spirit" (shou-shen) or the" chief devil" (shou-mo). The vicegerent of
God (Arabic khalifa; English caliph), a term whose spiritual rather than
political meaning is important in Chinese, is the "representative" (tai-li).
Paradise is called "heaven country" (t'ien-kuo) or "ultimate happiness"
(chi-lo). Hell is called" earth prohibited" (ti-chin) or" earth prison" (ti-yu).
The daily prayer (Arabic $1Zldt, Persian namdz) is called "worship" (li-pat).
11
The mosque (masjid) is named the temple of worship" (li-pai ssu) or
"the temple of the pure and real" (ch'ing-chen ssu). In all these cases, the
Arabic expressions are basic Koranic terms, but the Chinese words are
unrecognizable as Islamic terminology except in the context of the Islamic
writings.
The Islamic languages also have numerous theological and philosoph-
ical terms that are necessary for serious discussion of the religion, and
Chinese-Language Islam 19
translating these called for a good knowledge not only of Islamic thought
but also of the Chinese intellectual tradition. The first principle of faith,
taw~id, is often rendered as "returning to one" (kuei-1) or "practicing one"
(hsi-t). God is frequently discussed in Islamic texts in terms of "essence
and attributes" (dluit wa ~ifdt), and for this pairing the Chinese ulama
used standard Nee-Confucian pairings such as "root nature" (pen-jan)
and "movement and quietude" (tung-ching), or "substance" (t't) and
"function" (yung). One of the goals of seeking knowledge is to discover
the "reality" (tJaqiqa) of things, and this term is often rendered by the
extremely important Neo-Confudan term "principle" (It). The two basic
worlds of the cosmos, often called the "world of the witnessed" (calam al-
shahdda) and the "world of the absent'' (cdlam al-ghayb), become the "world
of color" (yu-se chilu) and the" colorless world" (wu-se chiat)-terms that
in the context of Buddhism have usually been translated into English as
the "world of forms" and the "formless world." 7
Wang Tai-yii
In Islam in Traditional China, Donald Leslie writes that the first Chinese
book on Islam known to have been written by a Muslim is The Real Com-
mentary on the True Teaching (Cheng-chiao chen-ch'uan) by Wang Tai-yii.8
Other historians agree that the The Real Commentary is one of the most
basic works in the history of Chinese Islam, and that its author is one of
the two most important leaders of Chinese-language Islam. 9
Little is known of Wang Tai-yii' s life. The modern editor of his works
can come no closer to a date of birth than 157~1619. Nonetheless, circa
1590 seems likely. At the end of an autobiographical note in The Real
Commentary, Wang signs his name as chen-hui lao-jen (an old man of the
real Hui). This suggests that at the time of finishing the book he was at
least forty. Most likely he was about fifty, which was Confucius' age when
he came to know the heavenly mandate. Liang 1-chiin, a disciple of Wang
Tai-yii, wrote an introduction to The Real Commentary and put its date at
1642. 10 Thus we can assume that Wang was born about 1592, or at most
ten years later. The fact that he did not start studying classical Chinese
seriously until he was thirty makes the earlier date much more likely
than the later.
It is worth noting here that Wang is often referred to in the later lit-
erature as "the old man of the real Hui," and in his conversations and
dialogues compiled by his disciples he is also referred to by this title.
The disciples, if not Wang himself, certainly had in view the correspond-
ing Arabic and Persian terms for "old man," that is shaykh and pir, both of
which were employed to mean teacher and especially Sufi master. Rilmi
reminds us that ''The shaykh is the 'old man' through the intellect, not
20 Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light
through whiteness of beard and head,'' 11 so one might think that Wang's
own use of the term uold man" does not tefer to age. However, it is un-
likely that a young man would call himself by this term in the Chinese
context, or even in the traditional Islamic context.
The best guess at the year of Wang's death seems to be 1657-58. His
disciple Ho Han-ching wrote an introduction to what appears to be a
second edition of The Real Commentary, dating it 1657; in it he refers to
Wang as still alive.t:z In the introduction to another of Wang's work, Ma
Chung-hsin, one of his most famous disciples, refers to his teacher as
"the late master Wang," and this is dated 1658. 13
In introducing The Real Commentary, Wang tells us that his ancestor
was an astronomer who had come to China from '1\rabia" (t'ien-fang,
more likely Persia) to bring a tribute to the emperor Kao three hundred
years earlier, during the Ming Hung-wu era (1368--98). He then under-
took to correct the details of the emperor's astronomy and to fix the
mistakes of the calendars. "He surveyed high into the nine heavens and
deep into the nine seas and stood aloof from previous works, without
any mistakes." The emperor was pleased and thought that it was not
possible to reach what he had reached if there was no true transmission
of a true learning. Finally he bestowed upon him a Directorate of Astron-
omy, granted him a house, and exempted him from various obligations.
"For three hundred years this mature learning has survived." 14
Wang underwent the traditional training of a Muslim scholar in the
Islamic languages. He is not specific, but he must have known both Persian
and Arabic, if not a Turkic language as well. Sciences that he studied-
because any Muslim scholar must study them- include Arabic grammar,
Koran commentary, Hadith (sayings of the Prophet), jurisprudence, prac-
tical morality, and theology. He certainly also studied theoretical Sufism
and perhaps Islamic philosophy.
Although Wang had immersed himself in Islamic learning, as a young
man he did not have the ability to write proper Chinese-this despite
the fact that he belonged to a Muslim family that had been established
in China for three hundred years. He presumably had relatives who had
become thoroughly Sinicized. This alone would have sensitized him to
the difficulties of making Islamic teachings available to Muslims who
were learned in Chinese but had no proper training in the Islamic lan-
guages. Moreover, his own social position did not allow him to be proud
that he did not know Chinese-which might have been the case if his
family had lived in some isolated part of China. He writes that he did
not study Confucian learning in his childhood, and at the age of twenty
his knowledge of Chinese was sufficient only for correspondence. At the
age of thirty, he says, "I was so ashamed of my stupidity and smallness
that I started to read [Chinese] books on metaphysics and history." 15
Given his role as a scholar serving the Muslim community, it is doubtful
Chinese-Language Islam 21
and appended to the book as a way of making Wang appear more hostile
to Buddhism than he actually was.
The Retll Commentary is by far Wang's longest work. In it, he summarizes
Islamic teachings in two volumes, each of which is divided into twenty
chapters. The relatively scant attention that the work pays to Islamic
practices suggests that Wang Tai-yti was not worried about the transmis-
sion of the Shariah. Presumably Muslims were being taught how to pray,
fast, and prepare food in the proper way within the family. Instead, Wang
is attempting to explain the logic of Islamic theological, cosmological,
and psychological teachings, many of which might not have made sense
to the Chinese mind, especially if offered without attention to the subtle-
ties of Chinese thought. In cases where Wang does discuss practice, the
issues are usually those that would go against Chinese customs, such as
the prohibition of pork, wine, and gambling. Indeed, for the Chinese,
the most striking characteristic of the followers of this foreign religion
was precisely the fact that they refused to eat pork, that greatest of deli-
cacies.
Wang depicts Islam in a way that makes it appear largely in agree-
ment with Confucian ideas. He often quotes from the Chinese classics
and sometimes employs Buddhist terminology to make his points. He is
not uncritical of the three Chinese traditions, but it is probably fair to
say that his criticisms do not transgress the degree of mutual criticism
found among the three traditions themselves. The non-Muslim Chinese
reader would not feel that Islam has too much to say that is very differ-
ent from what was already available in Chinese learning. He would feel,
however, that the Muslims are much more in agreement with the Con-
fucians than with the Taoists and Buddhists.
This is not to suggest that all Muslim readers would have been happy
with the way in which Wang was presenting Islam. In his introduction
he remarks that certain scholars had read his manuscript and blamed
him for quoting too much from the Chinese classics and going too deeply
into Taoism and Buddhism. He agrees with his critics that everything
can be found in the classical books of Islam, but he points out that Chinese
speakers have no access to those books. Hence he has presented Islam
in a way that those unfamiliar with its teachings can understand it. 20
Elsewhere he maintains that he cites Confucian sources only in those
places where Islamic teachings are no different from those of Confu-
cianism, such as in the cultivation of the personal life, regulating the
family, and governing the country. Always, however, the foundation of
the argument and the standard of judgment is the Koran. 21
In his inbuduction to The Real Commentary, Wang's disciple Liang explains
his own view of Confucianism, and this coincides more or less with what
one can glean from the writings of Wang himself. It also coincides nicely
with Erik Zurcher's points about the Chinese ''cultural imperative,"
Chinese-Language Islam 23
noted here in the introduction. Liang writes that if someone asks if the
Tao of Confucianism is wrong, he will answer that it is not. On the level
of everything under heaven, the Confucian way explicates the Five Rela-
tionships-ruler and minister, father and son, husband and wife, older
brother and younger brother, and two friends. It also explains sincerity
of will, correctness of heart, cultivation of the personal life, regulating
the family, governing the country, and bringing peace to everything
under heaven. It clarifies the principles of these relationships, and it
exhausts the ways, such that nothing escapes from it. It is the totally
correct middle way, and it avoids all extremes. Without these teachings,
the way of heaven would not be perfect and the law of governing would
not be complete, and because of them, the way of the Confucian teach-
ers never changes. However, the teachers never speak of the origin of
the world and the relationship between life and death. They talk about
the middle, but not about the beginning and the end. 21
In short, Liang tells us that the Confucian teachings fail to address the
issue of creation on the one hand and eschatology on the other. Given
that macad or the "return" to God is the third of the three principles of
Islamic faith, this cannot but appear as a major lack in Muslim eyes.
Moreover, discussion of the Return is invariably associated with discus-
sion of the Origin (mabda>). The Koran links the notion of returning to
God with that of coming from him in numerous verses, and this sets the
pattern for all subsequent discussions of Islam's third principle. Thus it
seems that Chinese Muslims like Wang and Liang granted the correctness
of traditional Confucian teachings on social relationships and cultiva-
tion of the personal life and the self, but they considered them lacking
on the level of faith, where all three principles of the religion need to be
addressed-taw~id, prophecy, and the return to God.
Practically nothing is known about Wang's training, but it is obvious
from his writings that he was well grounded in theoretical Sufism. The
research of Joseph Fletcher and others has shown that certain Sufi orders,
especially the Naqshbandiyya, were active in China during this period,
and there is no reason to suppose that the sophisticated theoretical doc-
trines of Sufism had not been brought along with the more practically
oriented teachings. 23 The most obvious candidate for intellectual influ-
ence on Wang was the school of Ibn al-<Arabi, which was flourishing
throughout the Islamic world at this time and had several major repre-
sentatives among the Naqshbandi masters. However, Wang almost never
cites Arabic words or mentions names of Muslim scholars in his writ-
ings. At the present state of knowledge, it would be difficult to make
anything more than circumstantial arguments for such influence.
Besides The Real Commentary, Wang wrote two longish treatises and
several minor works. I referred to one of these treatises, The Great Learning
of the Pure and Real (Ch'ing-chen ta-hsueh), in the introduction. This work,
24 Chinne Gleams of Sufi Light
LiuChih
If anyone surpasses Wang Tai-yii in his influence on Chinese-language
Islam, this would be Liu Chih, who was born about 1670, some dozen
years after Wang's death.25 He wrote the culminating work of his career
in 1724; it is not known when he died. He tells us that his father was a
scholar who deeply felt the lack of Islamic materials in Chinese. After a
preliminary Islamic education, Liu began to study the Chinese classics
at the age of fifteen, then devoted six years to Arabic and Islamic litera-
ture, three to Buddhism, and one to Taoism. He completed his education
by studying 137 books from the "West." Most scholars have assumed
that he means European books, and this is likely, given the fact that the
famous Jesuit Matteo Ricci had arrived in China a century earlier, in
1601. He and his successors wrote many Chinese tracts on Christianity
and Western knowledge in general. One Japanese scholar, however,
thinks that this might mean Persian and Arabic books along with Euro-
pean books. 26
Liu Chih turned his efforts toward making Islamic learning available
in Chinese from the age of thirty-three, that is, around the year 1700. He
says that he wrote several hundred manuscripts, of which he published
only ten percent. Modern scholars have remarked that he is more sympa-
thetic toward Confucianism than any other Chinese Muslim author. Like
Wang, he saw no fundamental discrepancy between Islamic teachings
on God and the world and the grand philosophical themes of Neo-
Confucianism. Using the Neo-Confucian term li, he writes that the guid-
ing ''principle" of the Koran is similar to what motivated Confucius and
Chinese-Language Islam 25
Mencius. This li, he says, "is the same li which exists everywhere under
Heaven." 27 He seems to be expressing in Chinese terms the Koranic view
that God has sent prophets to teach taw~id to all peoples.
Liu completed his first major work in 1704, calling it T'ien-fang hsing-
li, a title that has usually been translated as The Philosophy of Arabia. T'ien-
fang means literally "the direction of heaven," and is used both for Mecca,
the direction of Muslim prayer, and for Arabia. Hsing-li means literally
"nature and principle," but it refers specifically to Nee-Confucianism,
which is typically called "the school of nature and principle" (hsing-li
hsiieh). Thus, it would not be going too far to translate T'ien-fang hsing-li
as "Islamic Nee-Confucianism." Like the title of Wang's Great l.eJlrning of
the Pure and the Real, it points already to a synthesis of Islamic and Con-
fucian teachings.
The Philosophy of Arabia is divided into six short books. The first book,
which Liu Chih calls pen-ching, "the root classic," sets down the main
ideas of the text in five chapters, for a total of about 2,000 characters. The
five chapters are followed by ten diagrams that illustrate the metaphysi-
cal and cosmological relationships described in the chapters. Each of
the five remaining books explains one of the five chapters in detail, and
each employs twelve more diagrams to do so. The resulting seventy dia-
grams are reminiscent of those found in Arabic and Persian works of the
school of Ibn al-<Arabi from about the eighth/fourteenth century onward,
but they also appear to be traditional Chinese depictions of the relation-
ships among the three basic realities-heaven, earth, and the human
being. This may be why a non-Muslim mandarin and Vice-Minister of
the Board of Propriety could remark in a preface to the Philosophy that
the Buddhists and Taoists had undermined the ancient Confucian doc-
trines. "Now, however, in this book of Liu Chih we can see once more
the Way of the ancient sages.... Thus, although his book explains Is-
lam, in truth it illuminates our Confucianism." 28
If we do keep the translation Philosophy of Arabia for Liu Chih's T'ien-
fang hsing-ii, it needs to be kept in mind that the study of "Nature and
the Principle" that he undertakes does not coincide with falsaja in the
technical Islamic sense. His Nee-Confucian approach to things is much
more congenial with the world view of later Sufism than with that of
the Muslim philosophers. The fact that he had an eye on Sufi texts be-
comes completely clear in the first book, the "root classic," where he
repeatedly mentions a number of Persian and Arabic works by name.
These include Najm al-Oin Razi's Mi7$dd al-'ibiid (twenty-nine times),
cAbd al-Ral)man Jami's Ashiccat al-lama'at (fifteen times), cAziz al-Oin
Nasafi's Maq$12d-i aq$d (twelve times), and Jami's l.Awd)i~ (eleven times). 29
These are four classic Sufi texts, the first three of which had been trans-
lated into Chinese some thirty or forty years earlier, and the last of which
26 Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light
was later translated by Liu Chih himself. I will have more to say about
them shortly.
Liu Chih completed his second major work, (A Selection of the Impor-
tant] Rules and Proprieties of Arabia (T'ien-Jang tien-li (tse yao-chieh]), in 1710;
it deals in twenty sections with a variety of theoretical and practical teach-
ings. He finished his third and last major work, a biography of
Muhammad, in Nanjing in 1137/1724. This is the only long Chinese work
on Islam to have been studied by modern scholars; it was partly trans-
lated into English in 1921, and also into Russian, French, and Japanese. 30
The article on Liu Chih in the Encyclopaedia of Islam calls it "undoubtedly
Liu Chih's greatest work," but this seems a premature judgment, since
greatness is not necessarily gauged by widespread appeal. The work is
a relatively straightforward recounting of the historico-mythic origins
of Islam in terms that agree with traditional Arabic and Persian texts
and fit the rhetorical and religious needs of Chinese Muslims. Certainly
a study of Liu Chih' s methods in this book would tell us a great deal
about how Islam was being taught to Chinese Muslims. But Liu Chih' s
two other major books, especially the Philosophy, are sophisticated at-
tempts to harmonize Islamic metaphysical, cosmological, and spiritual
teachings with the Chinese traditions. They are certainly more interest-
ing for Chinese intellectual history, and either or both may have made a
more important contribution to the permanent establishment of Islam
in China.31
In both Philosophy and Rules and Proprieties, Liu Chih provides lists of
the titles that he employed as his sources. There are altogether sixty-
eight different titles, eighteen of which are used in both books. At least
fifteen titles represent various Sufi schools of thought. 32 Although the
exact identity of many of the titles has not yet been established, there do
not seem to be any significant works pertaining to the fields of Kalam
and Islamic philosophy. In other words, most of the works that provide
theoretical explanations of the nature of things-God, the cosmos, the
soul-belong to the Sufi tradition. It is clearly the Sufi works along with
Neo-Confucianism that form the basis for Liu Chih's explanation of
Islamic teachings.
Even more indicative of the Sufi context of Liu Chih' s Philosophy is the
actual text, which is a synthesis of the metaphysical and cosmological
teachings of the just-mentioned Persian works presented in the language
of Neo-Confucianism. The book seems to have been widely read well
into the twentieth century, because it was republished twenty-five times
between 1760 and 1939.33 A brief summary of the contents of its first
book can help provide a sense of the theoretical issues that occupied the
minds of Muslim intellectuals.
Chapter one: The beginning of creation and transformation. The
beginningless beginning is the origin of the ten thousand things. This is
Chinese-Language Islam 27
the Real Substance, which is the root nature of creation and transforma-
tion. It is the Real Being, the Uniquely One, and the Real Principle. Its
knowledge and power pervade its root nature, and these two become
manifest as the inward and outward of the subtle function. As the subtle
function starts to move, yin and yang become separate, bringing about
the manifestation of water and fire. Fire appears outwardly along with
air, and then heaven and the stars become manifest. Water piles up in-
wardly along with earth, and then the earth and the oceans come into
existence. Next the four elements bring forth the ten thousand things.
Chapter two: The separate endeavors of the ten thousand beings. The
One Real overflows and transforms, and this results in the appearance
of principle along with images. The principle is possessed by the Real's
knowledge, and the images are seen because of its power. Knowledge
pertains to the domain of before-heaven (the spiritual realm), and power
spreads out in after-heaven (the earthly realm). The domain of before-
heaven reveals itself through images, and the domain of after-heaven
gives form to the principle. Knowledge and power become manifest in
a great variety of human types, including four degrees of sagehood and
various lesser degrees such as those of worthies, men of knowledge,
modest servants, and good people. So also they appear in the various
levels of creatures, including the three u children" (Chinese tzu, Arabic
muwalladdt), which are the animals, plants, and inanimate things, and in
the nine heavens, the four elements, and the four seasons.
Chapter three: How human nature and the human body come to be
manifest. The essence of the seven elements (the four elements and the
three children) turns outwardly and gives birth to the human ancestor.
All the qualities and characteristics of the created things appear in human
beings gradually, beginning month by month in the womb and extend-
ing to the stages of their gradual growth and development until they
reach perfection.
Chapter four: The virtues preserved in the human body, heart, nature,
and mandate. All virtues are gathered together in the heart. Seven virtues
make the heart spiritual and clear. These are obedience, faithfulness,
kindness, clear discernment, sincere reality, issuing concealment, and
real appearance. The last of these is the first heart, or the real human
heart that gave birth to all the levels of the descending arc of manifesta-
tion. The human task is to traverse the ascending arc. Thereby one can
return to the real heart, complete the circle, and achieve the perfect form
of human fullness, the state of the human ultimate.
Chapter five: How everything described in the first four chapters
returns to the One. One is the root nature of all numbers, and the numbers
are the subtle functions of the One. When substance (t'1) and function
(yung) are undivided, this is the "Real One." When function manifests
substance, this is the "Numerical One." When the function returns to
28 Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light
the substance, this is the "Embodied One." Although there are three
Ones, in fact each is the same One with a different description. The Real
One gives rise to transformation, the Numerical One perfects transforma-
tion, and the Embodied One transforms the transformations. Each of
the three Ones has in tum three levels, each of which has a variety of
manifestations on the level of cosmic transformation, though all manifest
the same Principle. The tiniest thing manifests the complete substance
of the root nature, and each moment is everlasting and infinite. Heaven
and the human being are undivided transformations, and all things and
the "I" go back to the Real. The first act is the principle of reality, the
present act is the guise of reality, and the seeing of the guise is the being
of the reality. At this point the seed and the fruit are completed.
It should be noted here that Uu Chih' s discussion of the" three Ones"
in the fifth chapter has in view Wang Tai-yii's discussion of the same
three Ones in the Great Learning, though the subdivisions of each One
do not follow Wang's scheme.
the text is far too free to be called anything but a paraphrase of Liu Chih' s
own commentary.
Ma's lAta' if and Shart£-i lata'if present Liu Chih' s teachings in Arabic
terms that would be familiar to anyone versed in theoretical Sufism. At
first glance, they seem to be more or less standard Sufi explanations of
the nature of God's relationship with the cosmos and the soul. There is
no overt trace of the Neo-Confucian world view that is so obvious in
Liu Chih' s original. However, careful study shows that the text depicts
the Islamic universe in a way that is clearly reminiscent of Chinese
thought. A unifying theme of the book is the balance that is established
between two complementary divine attributes-knowledge and
power-whose mutual activity brings the universe into existence. The
original Chinese text demonstrates explicitly that Liu Chih had in mind
the yin-yang complementarity that guides Chinese depictions of the
nature of the universe.
In Ma's l.Afa'if, the first chapter is called "Explaining the descents of
the macrocosm." In it he describes twelve descending levels of reality.
The second chapter details all the kinds of existent things in the macro-
cosm, explaining how their diverse characteristics depend on the divine
attributes that they manifest. Chapter three explains that the human
being was created in twelve levels that coincide with the twelve levels
of the macrocosm. Chapter four deals with the specific characteristics of
human beings, especially the virtues and character traits that distinguish
them from other creatures, and it also describes the various human types.
The fifth and final chapter explains how human beings bring together
all the characteristics and qualities of the universe and then, by means
of their own all-comprehensive nature, return to the One from which
the universe arose.
The manner in which Ma' s Arabic text is infused with yin-yang think-
ing can be seen by any careful reader. Here it will suffice to analyze the
argument of the first chapter, in which the pattern is set for the rest of
the book. The chapter begins by dividing reality into three basic stages,
which are God, heaven, and earth; or True Existence, the spiritual realm,
and the corporeal realm. Each of these stages can be further subdivided.
The first stage can be divided into three levels, which are God's Essence,
his attributes, and his acts-though Ma also mentions many other well-
known names for these levels. The second stage, also in three levels,
pertains to the spiritual world. It includes the supreme Spirit (the First
Intellect), the universal soul, and the universal intellect. As for the third
stage, it covers the six levels of the corporeal world, beginning with the
Dust (universal substance), moving down through the four elements,
heaven and earth, and the three progeny (the three kingdoms); and
ending with human beings.
30 Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light
circles. The central circle, which represents movement toward the center,
is labeled "frigid," and the outermost circle, which represents movement
toward the periphery, is labeled "fervid." Ma then refers explicitly, for
one of the few times in the text, to Chinese teachings. He provides the
famous diagram of tai-chi, which represents yang on the right side and
yin on the left, and he says that the circle of fervid and frigid provides a
more adequate representation of the nature of things.
The differentiation of the Dust into fervid and frigid gives rise to a
second level of bodily creation, which is fire and water, and these in
turn produce the third level, that of the four elements. The elements,
still under the influence of fervid and frigid, give rise to heaven (mani-
festing the fervid) and earth (the frigid), then to the three progeny, and
finally to human beings. In each succeeding level, the interplay of forces
becomes more complex, but Ma frequently refers back to the original
divine duality of knowledge and power. So also, in the remaining four
chapters he sometimes mentions the complementarity of the two divine
attributes or that of frigid and fervid, to explain how creation and trans-
formation bring about the differentiation of the universe in its entirety.
In the last chapter, he illustrates how the same two forces are harnessed
in the reverse movement, which reintegrates all things in the Real One
through the activities of human beings.
of these four works are all well enough known to be among the small
number of Sufi books to have been translated at least partially into English.
The first, Mir~d al-cibdd min al-mabda) ila'l-macad ("The path of God's
servants from the origin to the return"), was written by Najm al-Oin
Razi (d. 654/1256), an important master of the Kubrawi Sufi order. It was
translated as Kuei-chen yao-tao in the year 1670 by Wu Tzu-hsien, who is
believed by some scholars to have been a student of Wang Tai-yii. 38 This
is by far the longest of the four works, and the Persian text is deservedly
the most famous and widely read. It can be considered, as its English
translator puts it," the summation of the historical elaboration of Sufism"
down to the thirteenth century, when there was an extraordinary flower-
ing of Sufi literature. It is a thorough exposition of right understanding,
the second dimension of Islam, with the aim of inspiring Muslims to
engage themselves in the third dimension, that of spiritual aspiration. It
deals in a relatively systematic manner with the nature of human beings
as the linchpin of cosmic existence and universal equilibrium. It describes
the prophets as the guides to ultimate happiness and presents a detailed
enumeration of the ascending levels of human perfection. It discusses
the various modes of unveiling and spiritual vision that the travelers
may witness in their journeys to God, and describes their final attain-
ment to the Divine Presence. It explains that human beings have been
given charge of fashioning their own souls during their sojourn in this
world and that, in the next world, they will find themselves divided
into four basic types, depending on the nature of the soul that they have
achieved. A final section devotes eight chapters to explaining how
various sorts of people should follow the path to God-kings, ministers,
scholars, the wealthy, farmers, merchants, and craftsmen.
Among the qualities that have made Mir~d at-cibtid a classic are the
clarity, fluency, and beauty of its prose. Although it deals with issues
that remain abstruse in the hands of theologians and philosophers, it
avoids technical discussions and uses the imagery and analogies of every-
day language. The result has been an extraordinarily popular book, read
throughout the eastern lands of Islam as a guide to all dimensions of the
path to God. Although understanding the book does not demand train-
ing in the technical Islamic sciences, it does require a degree of knowl-
edge of the tradition that would have made its translation into Chinese
no easy task. On the whole, Wu Tzu-hsien is as faithful to the original as
one could hope, and he is helped in his efforts by the nature of the text,
rooted more in imagery than in technical discourse. Nonetheless, when
the discussion enters areas that would be difficult for Chinese readers
to understand without detailed commentary, he is not averse to dropping
the passage.
The second of the four texts is Maq$1ld-i aq¢ by the well-known Sufi
<Aziz al-Oin Nasafi (d. ca 700/1300), also a master of the Kubrawi order.
Chinese-Language Islam 33
at least from the time of An Explanotion of the DiJzgram of the Great Ulti-
mJZte, a brief but highly influential treatise by Chou Tun-i (d. 1073).52 In
the Taoist perspective, the Non-Ultimate represents a reality that is situ-
ated beyond all being, differentiation, and conceptualization. It is the
Tao that cannot be named. In contrast, the Great Ultimate is the Tao that
can be named. It is pure and undifferentiated being, carrying within
itself the roots of all manifest reality. According to Chu Hsi' s influential
interpretation of these two terms, they designate a single reality, the
Principle, but from two different points of view. As Wing-tsit Chan ex-
plains, ,The Non-Ultimate is the state of reality before the appearance
of forms whereas the Great Ultimate is the state after the appearance of
forms." 53
For Chu Hsi, the concept of the Great Ultimate is inextricably bound
up with principle, an ancient term that had been made the center of
Neo-Confucian thinking by the Ch' eng brothers. According to them,
principle is "self-evident and self-sufficient, extending everywhere and
governing all things .... It is many but essentially one, for all specific
principles are but one principle. It is possessed by all people and all
things.... It is universal truth, universal order, universal law.... [IJt is a
universal process of creation and production. "54
The Great Ultimate gives rise to the universe through movement (tung)
and quietude (ching), which are designations for the two basic cosmic
forces, yang and yin. As Chu Hsi writes,
There is no other event in the universe except yin and yang suc-
ceeding each other in an unceasing cycle. This is called Change.
However, for this movement and quietude, there must be the Prin-
ciple that makes them possible. This is the Great Ultimate. 55
Principle is often paired with vital-energy (or material force, ch'r). Vital-
energy designates the subtle force that is differentiated first into yin and
yang, then into the Five Agents (or elements). These are water, fire, wood,
metal, and earth. Ch'en Ch'un writes, "Originally there was only one
vital-energy. It is divided into yin and yang and further divided into the
Five Agents. The two and five separate and combine in their own way
as they operate, producing and reproducing throughout time without
cease." 56
For Chu Hsi, principle and vital-energy are two sides of the same real-
ity. Principle is hidden, while vital-energy is manifest. Vital-energy deter-
mines the movement and quietude of everything that appears to human
beings. In effect, the whole universe is vitally dynamic and ever-changing
because of the principle that animates it. Ch'i manifests li.
To use another pair of terms well known both to Neo-Confucians
and Buddhists, principle is the "substance" (t'r)-or, as some prefer to
translate it, the "essence"-that underlies and infuses all things, while
38 Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light
the Tao consists of the fact that the heart of Heaven and Earth, which
produces things, is present in everything.... In the teachings (of
Confucius, it is said), "Conquer oneself and return to propriety"
[Analects 12:1). This means that if we can overcome and eliminate
selfishness and return to the Principle of Heaven, then the substance
of this heart will be present everywhere and its function will always
be operative.61
The differentiation that is referred to by the pairings "principle and
vital-energy," or" substance and function," parallels the two domains that
are mentioned in another ancient pair of terms--ming (destiny or man-
date) and hsing (nature).62 The first of these is typically associated with
heaven and what comes down from heaven, and the second with what
becomes established in the earth as a result of heavenly activity. Thus,
for example, when Confucius tells us about the stages of his lifetime, he
says that he came to know the "mandate of heaven" at the age of fifty
(AMlects 2:4). The exact meaning of this mandate was much debated in
Chinese thought. Those inclined toward a more theistic view of things
tended to look upon it as God's decree and commandment, while those
who looked at things in more impersonal terms associated it with the
natural order. Thus Chan tells us that "in religion it generally means
fate or personal order of God, but in philosophy it is practically always
understood as moral destiny, natural endowment, or moral order.'' 63
In the Chinese Islamic texts, it seems best to translate the term ming as
"mandate" rather than "destiny" or"fate." Thesamerangeofmeanings
is found in the Koranic term amr, usually translated as command." The
11
Islamic intellectual tradition divides God's command into two sorts. One
sort of divine command, called the "engendering command" (amr
takwini), pertains to the natural order. It is the command that brings about
the existence of things. "His only command, when He desires a thing, is
to say to it 'Be!', and it comes to be" (Koran 36:82). The other sort, called
the ''prescriptive command" (amr taklift), pertains to the human order
and designates the moral and social commandments that God sends
down through the prophets. Thus, in Islamic thinking, both natural laws
and moral laws are God's command," which is to say that they both
II
have the same source and manifest the same principle. Reading the
Chinese texts in Islamic terms, one might say that ming, like amr, refers
to the divine command as embracing both the engendering and the pre-
11
scriptive commands. However, scholars understand it to mean man-
11
date" when it refers to the moral order, and destiny" or "fate" when it
refers to the natural order.
The correlation between mandate and nature goes back at least to the
I Ching, where it is used in the commentary on the first hexagram: "The
way of the Creative works through change and transformation, so that
Chinese-Language Islam 41
each thing receives its true nature and destiny [mandate] and comes
into permanent accord with the Great Harmony."" Chu Hsi provides a
well-known Neo-Confucian formula when he tells us, ''What is imparted
by Heaven to all things is called mandate. What is received by them
from Heaven is called nature." 65 Or again,
Nature refers to what is stabilized, whereas mandate refers to
what is operating. Mandate, for example, refers to water flowing,
while nature refers to water contained in a bowl. A big bowl contains
more water, while a small one contains less. The water in a clean
bowl will be clear, whereas that in a dirty bowl will be turbid.66
One of the most vexing questions that arises here is why some bowls
are large and some small, some clean and some dirty. In other words,
what is it that causes the differentiation of the ten thousand things? And
what is it that makes human beings uniquely able to achieve sagehood,
and uniquely blameworthy if they fail to achieve it? All things, after all,
follow heaven's mandate and their own natures, and as such they are
what they must be. If this is so, why should human beings be criticized
for being what they are? What is wrong if they simply live according to
their own nature, which manifests the heavenly mandate? A basic Islamic
answer to this question is simply to differentiate between the two com-
mands, or the two ''mandates." The engendering and creative command
establishes nature, but the prescriptive command addresses human free
will, which itself is given by nature. People will be held responsible for
following the prescriptive command inasmuch as they are free. Of
course, the question remains as to how free they are, and this was con-
stantly debated. Chu Hsi and others frequently address these issues. In
the following, Chu Hsi does so while answering the question, "Physical
nature differs in the degree of purity. Does the nature bestowed by
Heaven differ in degree of its completeness?"
No, there is no difference in the degree of its completeness. It is
like the light of the sun and the moon. In a clear, open field, it is
seen in its entirely. Under a mat-shed, however, some of it is hidden
and obstructed so that part of it is visible and part of it is not. What
is impure is due to the impurity of vital-energy. The obstruction is
due to the self, like the mat-shed obstructing itself. However, man
possesses the principle that can penetrate this obstruction, whereas
in birds and c.nimals, though they also possess this nature, it is never-
theless restricted by their physical structure, which creates such a
degree of obstruction as to be impenetrable. 67
The basic Neo-Confucian perspective on things can be summarized
as follows: One principle, which is the Tao or the Great Ultimate, gives
42 Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light
rise to the infinite diversity that is called heaven, earth, and the ten
thousand things. All things are constituted by the interplay of the vital·
energies, yin and yang, which manifest the one Principle. The function
of each thing is distinct, but, in the last analysis, the substance of all is
the Great Ultimate. Things naturally flow according to the mandate of
heaven, but the natures of things are such that some display heaven's
characteristics more fully than others. In the case of human beings, nature
has become obscured and needs to be purified and clarified. This is
achieved by learning, which aims to recover the true heart, within which
all the virtues are fully present. As Wang Yang-ming puts it,
When the heart is free from the obscuration of selfish desires, it is
the embodiment of the Principle of Heaven, which requires not an
iota added from the outside. When this heart, which has become
completely identical with the Principle of Heaven, is applied and
arises to serve parents, there is filial piety; when it arises to serve
the ruler, there is loyalty; when it rises to deal with friends or to
govern the people, there are faithfulness and humanity. The main
thing is for the heart to make an effort to get rid of selfish human
desires and preserve the Principle of Heaven. 68
2
The Works of
Wang Tai-yii
It was said that Wang Tai-yii is the author of one long book, The Real
Commentary on the True Teaching; two longish treatises, The True Answers
of the Very Real and The Great Learning of the Pure and Real; and a few
shorter works. The Great Learning is introduced and translated in parts
three and four. What follows here is a description of three minor works
not yet mentioned and a more detailed description of The True Answers
and The Real Commentary, including translations of excerpts.
The excerpts in particular will show one characteristic of Wang's works
that is probably shared by many of the Chinese writings. Those familiar
with Islamic texts will be struck by the free translations of passages from
the Koran. In many cases, one can only guess which Koranic verse he
may have in mind. In addition, he does not always discriminate between
the Koran and the Hadith. Sometimes he ascribes what are clearly hadiths
to the Sage, and at other times he ascribes them to the Classic. Although
I said in the previous chapter that Chinese authors call the Koran lithe
Classic," it will be clear in what follows that Wang sometimes calls Hadith
u the Classic" as well. Indeed, other Islamic works can also be called by
the same term.
I noted that the Chinese works rarely mention Arabic names, and even
when they do, it is often difficult to decipher them. Wang mentions sev-
eral in the Real Commentary, and I have given a few examples in the sum-
maries. He seems to have a special interest in Abu Yazid Bastami (d. ca.
261/874), using the Persian form of his name, Bayazid (Ibn al-<Arabi quotes
from Abu Yazid more than any figure after the Prophet).
One old edition of The True Answers includes all the short writings
attributed to Wang. 1 Two of these, the Appendix (fu-lu) and the Adden-
dum (sheng-yu), also found in the 1925 edition of the same book, were
described earlier. Three more are as follows:
43
44 Chinese Gltt~ms of Sufi Light
A guest [Taoist] asked, ''For what reason did the Real Lord create
heaven, earth, and the ten thousand things?"
Answer: "For human beings."
Question: "Why were human beings created?"
Answer: "When the Lord wanted to manifest His own utmost honor,
He created human beings specifically. This is the general meaning."
Question: "The Lord is the most honored and the utmost great. Why
should it be necessary for Him to manifest Himself?''
Answer: "If there were no heaven and earth, humans, and spirits, how
could the Lord be the Lord of the ten thousand things? According to
your statement, it is not necessary for the greatly honored to manifest
himself. This would mean that it is possible for him to be a king without
ministers and multitudes. Were there none of these people, who would
make him a king?" 3 (p. 263)
A guest said, "The Oassic says that the Real Lord created tun-ya (dunyd]
(which translates as the 'earthly world'). He has never been looking and
guarding it, because He dislikes it. If there were no looking and obser-
vation by the Lord, there would be places He did not reach."
Answer: "If you hate and dislike someone and say that you will not
guard him, at root it means that you do not want to do it, not that you
will never guard him."
The guest also said, "When the Real Lord hates and dislikes the tun-
ya, why did He create it?"
Answer: "The tun-ya is the dregs of the ten thousand spirits, so it can
surely be hated and disliked. There is also something to be taken from
it. The Classic says, 'The Real Lord created and transformed the life and
death of humans specifically to test whether or not they have loyalty
46 Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light
and filial piety.' 4 If there were not this place, where would they be testedr'
(pp. 273-74)
A guest asked, '~t the time of animal sacrifice, why is the honored
name of the Lord invoked?"
Answer: "The meaning is because of his origination. The proof of the
Lord's creation and transformation is itself the proof of clearly witness-
ing the Lord. In people, this is to conquer the self and not to forget the
Lord." (p. 277)
A guest asked, "In the Tao of the True Teaching, minister and son do
not do obeisance to ruler and father. Is this propriety?"
Answer: "The obeisance and propriety of the minister and son toward
ruler and father is not like obeisance and propriety toward the Real Lord.
Between Lord and servant there is naturally a division and distinction
of the utmost propriety. This is not 'obeisance."' (p. 281)
A guest asked, "Is there anything useless in the heaven and earth?"
Answer: "If you reflect upon and observe your own body, you will
awaken." (Appendix, p. 296)
A guest asked, "The life and death of birds and beasts-are their na-
ture and mandate taken by the heavenly immortals or not?"
He answered, "The true meaning of life and death is in humans. Birds
and beasts have no share in it. The Classic says, 'The Real Lord created
and transformed life and death to test and examine among you people
who will have deeds of loyalty.' 5 Because of this, in the beginning He
The Works of Wang Tai-yii 47
issued the mandate to the heavenly immortals to take earth with which
to create form, and in the end He issued the mandate to the heavenly
immortals to take back the mandate and return [the earth] to the root.6
All of this is unique to humans. The life and death of birds and beasts at
root depend on the ebb and flow of humans. Their form is nothing but
the collectedness and dispersion of vital-energy. When vital-energy is
collected, form is perfected, and when form perishes, then it returns
and is transformed to become vital-energy. In reality they are for the
use of humans and they cannot be compared to eternal and everlasting
humankind." (Appendix, pp. 298-99)
He also asked: 'J\part from heart, apart from Buddha, and apart from
thing, with which principle do we understand?"
The old man said: 11 No heart, no Buddha, no thing."
Weeping, the monk made obeisance and left. (Addendum, p. 309)
Book One
1. The Real One (chen-i). There are two levels of oneness: the Only-
One, which is the Real Lord; and the Numerical One (shu-i),
which is the origin of the universe. It is the latter that is referred
to by such well-known sayings as "The Great Ultimate produces
the two wings, and the two wings produce the four images" (I
Ching); "The ten thousand dharmas return to One" (Buddhism);
and "The Nameless is the beginning of heaven and earth, and
the Named is the mother of the ten thousand things" (Tao Te
Ching 1). The Real One is the Unique One, not the Numerical
One.
2. The Original Beginning (yuan-shih). The Real Lord is the Origi-
nal Being without beginning and the root origin of the Non-
Ultimate (wu-chi), which is the beginning of all the subtle lights.
The human ultimate (jen-chi) is the original source with begin-
ning. Before creation, the surplus light of the Real Lord made
manifest the original chief of the ten thousand sages, who is
Muhammad, the root origin of the Non-Ultimate. There are two
levels of being, the Original Being that is not related to the ten
thousand things, and the Powerful Being or the "surplus light''
that nourishes the ten thousand things.
Note that in these first two chapters Wang offers interpretations of
the terms Great Ultimate and the Non-Ultimate, making both of them
stand at the level of the Numerical One, which designates the function
of the ultimate substance, which is the Real One. Thus he differs from
the Taoists, who would put the Non-Ultimate at the highest level, beyond
The Works of Wang Tai-yii 49
the Great Ultimate, and from Chu Hsi, who discusses the two Ultimates
as two aspects of the same supreme Principle. In Chapter6, Wang tells us
that the substance of the Utmost Sage (chih-sheng) is the Non-Ultimate
and his function the Great Ultimate. Thus he makes clear that the Utmost
Sage is another designation for the Numerical One, a point to which he
devotes the third chapter of his Great Learning.
In Islamic terms, what Wang seems to be saying is that the "Real One"
refers to the divine Essence (dhdt), which cannot properly be designated
by any name or attribute, while the "Numerical One" refers to the Divin-
ity (uluhiyya), the One God who gives rise to all multiplicity and who can
be discussed in terms of names and attributes. Inasmuch as the Divinity
embraces all possibilities and principles, it is called the "Reality of Reali-
ties" (J:uzqiqat al-~qa>iq). Inasmuch as it is the pattern (or logos) for all of
creation, it is called the "Muhammadan Reality." If we think of God's
atbibutes in negative terms, declaring him beyond all positive conceptions
on our part, then he is called the "Non-Ultimate." If we think of them in
positive terms as related to the universe, then he is called the "Great
Ultimate." (For parallel discussions in Lawa>i~, see Gleams 17 and 24). 10
By "Human Ultimate" (jen-ch1) Wang seems to mean the perfect human
being, who is embodied most fully in Muhammad. The term goes back
at least to Chou Tun-i's Explarultion of the Diagram of the Great Ultimate.
Wmg-tsit Chan and Michael I<alton both translate the expression as "the
ultimate standard for man." Chou Tun-i writes: "The sage settles these
affairs by the Mean, truth, humanity, and righteousness, taking quietude
as chief. Thus he establishes the Human Ultimate." 11
a ted, and is invariably good. What exists after physical form, however,
is confused and mixed, and good and evil are thereby differentiated." 12
The terms "before-heaven" (hsien-t'ien) and "after-heaven" (hou-t'ien)
are Taoist expressions referring to the state of existence before this world
and existence in this world. In Neo-Confucianism, the two terms are
closely associated with Shao Yung (d. 1077), whose thought was com-
monly called the ''learning of before-heaven." 13 Wang is clearly using
before-heaven to designate the realm of reality that is preparatory to
the appearance of this world. In Sufi texts it is often discussed as the
''Arc of Descent" (qaws al-nuzul), and in philosophical texts as the "Ori-
gin" (mabda').
12. The Real Heart (chen-hsin). There are three kinds of heart-ani-
mal, human, and real-each of which has seven levels. These
are desire, wisdom, humanity, seeing, enjoying, mystery, and
the ultimate level. Worldly people have three levels: desire, wis-
dom, and humanity. Only true people have all seven levels. The
real heart is the Koranic heart, about which God said (in the ~dith
qudsi), "Heaven and earth encompasses Me not, but the heart of
the true believer does encompass Me."
The seven levels are reminiscent of the seven ascending "subtleties"
(latti'if) that are often discussed in later Sufism. A typical version has
body, soul (nafs), spirit (n2M, heart (qalb), mystery (sirr), hidden (khaft),
and most hidden (akhfti); another version has body, soul, heart, mystery,
spirit, hidden, and Real (~qq).
13. Life and Death (sheng-ssu). Life and death need to be defined in
terms of being and nonbeing. There are three degrees of being-
being without beginning or end, being with beginning and with-
out end, and being with both beginning and end. Death should
be understood in relation to three degrees of nature: living,
aware, and spiritual. The death of the human body does not
mean the death of the human spirit.
14. Human Level (jen-p'in). The mysterious pivot of the Human Ulti-
mate encompasses the ten thousand images. It is one, but it is
then transformed into two, which are husband and wife. "One"
is the human, and "two" is humanity (jen). Thus, the Three Bonds
and Five Constants are established on the humanity of husband
and wife. Only the human being-not heaven or earth-was
able to manifest the great ability of the Real Lord.
15. Husband and Wife (fu-fu). The Non-Ultimate is the beginning
of husband and wife, and the Great Ultimate is the origin of the
The Works of Wang Tai-yu 53
the One (Great Learning IV 3; cf. Liu Chih's translation of Lawti'i~, Gleams
S-10).
20. Bearing Witness (tso-cheng). To recognize the Lord, you first must
say, "I bear witness." This is because, in order to recognize the
Lord, you must first recognize yourself.21 Bearing witness (i.e.,
the Shahadah) is the call to awakening from the drunken dream
of the ancients and the moderns.
Book Two
1. The Five Constants (wu-ch'ang). The Five Constants (i.e., Islam's
Five Pillars) are remembrance (the Shahadah), giving (alms tax,
zalait), worship (daily prayer, ~ldt), abstention (fasting during
Ramadan), and gathering (the hajj).
This relatively long chapter describes briefly the basic activities in-
volved in Muslim observance and explains the meaning behind the
actions. Note that here Wang appropriates the expression Five Constants
for the Five Pillars, whereas earlier, in Chapter 14, he had used the ex-
pression in the standard Confucian sense.
2. Real Loyalty (chen-chung). Honoring the Unique One, the Lord
without twoness, is called "real loyalty." The term one refers to
three things-the Unique One, which is the Real Lord; the Nu-
merical One, which is the seed, and Practicing One, which is the
act of the real human being. When people recognize the Lord,
their heart is made true. When a heart is made true, this brings
about real loyalty. The ten thousand good things all issue forth
from this loyalty.
The three "ones" are the topic of Wang's Great Learning, though there
he calls the last of them the "Embodied One" (t'i-i) instead of ''Practic-
ing One" (hsi-r). In the Confucian writings, "loyalty" (chung) is often
paired with "faithfulness" (hsin), as in Analects 1:8, "Hold loyalty and
faithfulness as first principles." Wang employs this pairing twice in the
Great Learning. The Neo-Confucians frequently discussed the relation-
ship between the two terms. According to Ch' eng Hao, ''Loyalty issues
from the self with a spontaneous exertion to the utmost, and faithful-
ness is following things without any deviation." 22
3. Utmost Filial Piety (chih-hsiao). The necessity to worship the Lord
and to be filial toward one's parents is the utmost filial piety.
Those who have real loyalty are sure to have filial piety, and
those who practice filial piety are surely loyal. When loyalty and
56 Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light
filial piety are both complete, they perfect the True Teaching. As
the Classic says, "The joy of the Real Lord is entrusted to the joy
of parents and children."23 Filial piety has three levels: body,
heart, and mandate. Nourishing only the parents' bodies is not
filial piety-the same nourishment is given to dogs and horses.
The filial piety of the heart's will is constant filial piety, but it is
not the ultimate filial piety. Acts such as worshiping five times a
day, giving alms, and helping the poor are the filial piety of nature
and mandate. The utmost filial piety is to worship the Lord.
4. Listening to the Mandate (t'ing-ming). Those who listen to the
mandate do not follow their own nature, but rather conquer
themselves and their selfish hearts. Listening to the mandate is
the Tao of heaven, and conquering the self is the Tao of human
beings. These two ways are the two sides of the human heart.
They should be followed on the levels of intention, word, body,
and property.
We have already met the expression" conquering the self" in a quota-
tion from Chu Hsi and in a passage quoted from The True Answers. Note
that it is drawn from the Analects (12:1), where Confucius defines hu-
manity (jen) as ''conquering the self and returning to propriety." Wang
discusses the term frequently, both in this work and in the Great Learning.
Liu Chih, in his translation of Lawti>i~ (Gleam 8), uses it to express the
general Sufi idea of exerting efforts on the path to God, and then, in the
next Gleam, he uses it to translate the important term Jana> or" annihila-
tion." Annihilation designates the purification of the self and the elimi-
nation of the constricting limitations of ignorance and forgetfulness; or
the transformation of blameworthy character traits into praiseworthy
character traits. It is usually paired with "subsistence" (baqa>), which is
the actualization of the divine attributes in whose image the human being
was created. The Koranic source of the pairing is the verse, "Everything
upon the earth [and pertaining to the bodily side of things] is annihi-
lated, and there subsists the face [i.e., the manifestation] of God, Possessor
of Majesty and Generous Giving" (55:27).
5. The Chief Leader (shou-ling). The Prophet said, "You are like a
shepherd, and each of you will be asked how you handled your
task." 24 The body is like a country; hearing, seeing, and speaking
are its ministers; the four limbs and the one hundred bones are
its people; and the heart is its leader. If the heart is true, the body
is true, and if the heart is crooked, the body is crooked. 25 The
public way among human beings is the scale of the Real Lord.
The Works of Wang Tai-yii 57
the ceremony" (Analects 3:17), lets us know that the name of the
sacrifice remains, but the reality is lost. There are two levels of
''animal"-internal and external. Sacrifice of the internal animal
is to surrender self-nature and to embody the person of the sage
at every moment. Sacrifice of the external animal is not neglect-
ing the ancient code, observing the rulings of the sage, and re-
stricting oneself to the wise and clear.
14. Meat and Vegetables (hun-su). It is not good to eat only vege-
tables or only meat. Once a worthy visited Bayazid. He wanted
to enter the room, but the room was transformed into an ocean.
Bayazid entered the ocean and invited the guest to come swim
with him. The guest replied that he could not. Bayazid said, "You
cannot because what you eat is not refined and clean. How can
you ford this pure and clean ocean?" This indicates that the
worthy was partial to eating vegetables. Once a worthy visited
Rabica, who was sitting among birds and animals, but they all
ran away. He asked why they fled, and she asked him what he
had eaten that day. When he replied that he had eaten meat,
she said, ''When you want to eat their meat, how is it possible
for them not to run away from you?" This indicates that the
worthy was partial to eating meat. 30 Some meats are not permit-
ted, and on certain occasions, no meat is permitted.
15. Gambling and Drinking (po-yin). The True Teaching prohibits
both gambling and drinking wine because these perplex people's
hearts, which then swing and become irresolute. Then the devil
takes advantage of them and seduces them. The devil's seduction
follows what people desire. The Classic says, "Wine is the key to
all evils." 31
16. Interest and Hoarding (li-ku). Interest and hoarding are acts
against the dear mandate and betray the great mercy of the Lord.
Both are strictly prohibited by the Pure and Real. When the
mandate is with the people, there is a day's life and a day's body.
When there is a day's body, there is a day's nourishment. Thus
it is said, "It is not that people die young or have a long life, but
when one's emolument is exhausted, one dies."
17. Wmd and Water (jeng-shui, i.e., geomancy). Attempting by human
power to choose auspicious sites for burning the dead and giv-
ing profit to the living is ignorance, especially when people do
not know good and evil, which are the root of yin and yang, nor
the heart-ground, which is the fountainhead of feng-shui. Good
60 Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light
of empty death.
19. This World (chin-shih). Life in the earthly world is one act [of a
drama ).32 Everyone has four enemies: self-nature, devils, deluded
people, and the earthly world. The earthly world is a big theater.
Fame, wealth, nobility, the ten thousand things, and the ten thou-
sand affairs are the puppets. The chief devil is dressed up as an
actor. Deluded people rush to watch the drama. Self-nature is
for you to sit together with others. But, a true human is simply a
passing guest in the theater. The Classic says, "People in the world
are traveling merchants, and whatever they possess is borrowed
or rented." 33 Whatever is borrowed will certainly return to the
Original Lord.
20. The Afterworld (hou-shih). Human beings experience three
worlds: the original beginning, which is the time of the seed;
the present, which is the time of the sprouting; and the return,
which is the perfecting of the fruit. The Classic says, "This world
is the field of the afterworld." 34 Those who cultivate flowers reap
flowers, and those who plant thorns reap thorns.
the chapter, he describes the creation of Adam on the sixth day. He begins
his account with what can be recognized as allusions to various hadiths
according to which God sent an angel to gather the earth for Adam's
clay from the four corners of the earth and then molded the clay with
his own two hands, after which he let it sit for forty days. Wang also
alludes to the Koranic verse, "Surely a day with your Lord is as a thou-
sand years of your counting" (22:47). He then answers an objection that
Chinese readers could be presumed to make.
On the sixth day [of creation], at the time of the monkey, for the
first time the Real Lord commanded the heavenly immortals to bring
the soil of the five directions. He created the form and body of A-
tan, the human ancestor, and this is the form and body that people
have had from ancient times until now. The body was perfected in
forty days. Hence, from the creation of heaven, earth, and the ten
thousand things to the end [of Adam's creation], it took forty-six
days. This is the time scale of the everlasting world, where every
day is one thousand years of our time.
Someone may say that the whole is one world. Why should there
be different lengths of time like this? I would reply as follows: If a
worldly prince seeks to become an immortal, he will be transformed
into a crane, and then the length of time will be different. Like a
crane, who lives a thousand years, he will not himself have aware-
ness of the length. So also a mayfly, which is born in the morning
and dies in the evening, does not itself know the shortness. In the
same way, as long as the saltiness of the sea does not penetrate the
freshness of the river, the things in salt water are not aware of the
saltiness, and the things in fresh water are not aware of the fresh-
ness. How can any of these transcend salt and fresh, long and short,
so as not to be bound by the restraints of the conditions before the
eyes?35
Wang now turns to the next stage of Adam's creation, when God blew
of his own breath into Adam's clay. However, Wang apparently does
not feel that this sort of anthropomorphic imagery is appropriate for his
readers, even if it is found in the Koran.
At the time when the human ancestor's body was perfectly com-
pleted, his original real nature was still with the Real Lord. The two
fountainheads that are life and wisdom wandered until they com-
bined naturally in the body. After that, the four limbs and the one
hundred bones, the eyes, the ears, the nose, and the tongue, all
started to move with spiritual illumination.
Wang now turns to the Koranic account according to which God taught
Adam all the names and commanded the angels to prostrate themselves
62 Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light
vided. Moving to this earthly world is to live among good and evil.
After that, people follow their own kind. Good people go up, but
evil people descend further.
The second reason for the descent was so that the Real Lord could
reject the protest of the heavenly immortals and shame the empty
effort of the devils, because at root the Real Lord desired noble
people. By making people suffer, He made them reach this situation.
The human ancestors knew rightly the kindness and compassion
of the Real Lord. At the beginning they woke up to their own dis-
obedience and became more modest and humble.
The ancestors became upset at the heavenly immortals' protest
and they guarded themselves against the devils' deception. They
obeyed the clear mandate and they conquered the selfishness of
their selves. They entrusted their bodies and lives loyally to the
Real Lord, and from the lowest they ascended again to the highest.
Naturally, the protest of the immortals and the deception of the
devil died down and dissipated. The Real Lord's mysterious con-
trivance was bright and uniquely brilliant. When we look at this,
we see that although the name is "falling into trouble," in reality
this was an increase in completion.
After having told the rest of the story, including the fall, Adam's re-
pentance, his acceptance by God, and the manner in which God taught
lessons to the devils, Wang reaches the final moral, a good example of
Neo-Confucian Islamic thinking:
When you reflect and look at this situation, you will certainly
come to know that the Non-Ultimate is the seed, the Great Ulti-
mate is the tree, and the human ultimate is the fruit. The seed is the
fruit, the tree is concealed in the fruit, and the fruit is concealed in
the tree, which embraces comprehensively and penetrates thor-
oughly. Everything is complete. The Classic says, "Those who are
attached to the words and separated from the substance merely talk
about the principle." 38 This is all because the selfishness of the self
has not yet been purified and the eyes of the heart have not yet
been opened. How could a breast filled with dregs reach the Origi-
nal Beginning of the great transformation?!
trasted with islam or" submission," which means in this context submis-
sion to the will of God by following the practices set down in the Shariah.
When imdn and isldm are looked upon as complementary, imdn embraces
not only the idea of belief and conviction, but also firm and steady com-
mitment to the objects of faith, which are most briefly, the "unseen"
(ghayb), and in more detail, God, the angels, the scriptures, the proph-
ets, the Last Day, and the "measuring out'' of good and evil. As pointed
out earlier, faith demands knowledge of the objects in which one has
faith. From the scholars' attempts to clarify the nature of faith's objects
has arisen the whole enterprise of Islamic theorizing about God, proph-
ecy, the soul, and the Last Day.
That imdn should be a "solicitude" is implied by many Koranic verses
that assert that people will not have faith until God allows them to have
it. "Those against whom thy Lord's word is realized will not have faith,
though every sign come to them" (10:96). An often cited saying attrib-
uted to the Prophet tells us that imdn is a light "that God casts into the
heart of whomsoever He will."
Wang's definition of the word imdn is especially worthy of note. He
says at the outset that it means "the fountainhead of clear virtue" (ming-
te chih yuan). The term "virtue" (te) has special resonance in Chinese
thought. As Wmg-tsit Chan explains, it means the power of the Tao when
it becomes particularized through the good character and moral excel-
lence of individuals. 39 The most famous example of its use is in the title
of Lao Tzu's Tao Te Ching. The expression "clear virtue" is found already
in the ancient classic, the Book of Odes, as in the lines, "The Lord on High
said to King Wen: 'I cherish your clear virtue."'40 The most significant
usage in the Nee-Confucian context is probably found in the Great Learn-
ing, which lays down "clarifying the clear virtue" as the first of the three
items involved in learning. In his own version of the Great Learning, Wang
places "knowing the fountainhead of clear virtue" next to discrimination
of the Real One from the Numerical One, that is, next to the discern-
ment that is established by the Shahadah, the most basic teaching of
Islam.
go against the Lord, and if you do not go against the Lord, you will
escape and stay apart from the Earth Prohibited. If you have hope and
expectation, your deeds will be in obedience, and if your deeds are in
obedience, you will ascend to the Heavenly Country. If you have real
happiness, you will know that there is only the Lord and forget alto-
gether the ten thousand things.
Generally, those who gain these signs see gold and jade as mud and
sand, wealth and nobility as dreamlike things, life and death as identical.
Gain and loss do not surprise them. Each of these signs has an essential
comfort that is not comparable with the small happiness of fame and
profit. This is what is called "seeing the large and forgetting the small."
Heaven, earth, and the ten thousand things, wealth and nobility, and
success and fame are made for the sake of human beings and they all
are called the" solicitudes of mercy." However, these are always changing
and altering, and in the twinkling of an eye they become a dream. How
could this be the real solicitude?
The Classic says, "Indeed the life of tun-ya is one act of a drama." 41
(The Arabic word tun-ya translates as the ''earthly world.") This is what
I meant. When you carefully reflect upon all the details, only one affair-
i-ma-na-always is and exists eternally. It neither decreases nor increases.
It is the ultimate equilibrium and the ultimate truth. It transcends the
ten thousand beings and transforms all evils into surrender to it. In-
deed, it is the real solicitude.
The real solicitude is prior to heaven and earth, and it is the ancestral
teacher of the Human Ultimate. It is the rule of being in the world and
the axis of the true Tao. Thus, when there is the real solicitude, there is
real knowledge. When there is real knowledge, there is the fixed prin-
ciple. From ancient times to the present the fixed principle is not two,
and the far and the near are one.
But this [fixed principle] is not what is now called "the Tao." Why?
Because each people is endowed with numerous different levels, and
the natures are not one. Therefore Confucius said ju ["the learned"], Lao
Tzu said Tao, Buddha said shih ["freedom"]. Each made right what he
thought was right. The differences in the Tao are not less than ten thou-
sand fragments, because all of them depended upon their own natures.
Moreover, these masters acted in accordance with teachings of their
own natures from the beginning. They still have a jumbled dispute over
right and wrong, and they compete with each other. The ordinary people
are widely in confusion and perplexity, and they do not know what to
follow. How could they be settled in one?
If heaven is not settled, the sun and the moon will move in distur-
bance. If the earth is not settled, oceans and rivers will overflow. If people
are not settled, right and wrong will be reversed. When we look at this,
The Works of Wang Tai-yii 67
the situation is like someone who crosses a vast ocean. If he does not
have a compass, he cannot possibly escape delusion and confusion.
There are three meanings for real solicitude: following the One [shun-
i], recognizing the One Uen-i], and becoming the One [ch'eng-i]. "Fol-
lowing the One" is at the time of receiving the mandate while existing
before heaven.41 1t is the seed. "Recognizing the One" is at the time of
obeying the mandate while existing in this world. It is nurture. //Becom-
ing the One" is at the time of returning to the mandate while existing in
the next world. It is the fruit.
Thus it has been said, "If you want to discern the real seed of the
before-heaven, it is each sprout before your eyes." If there is no seed,
how can life sprout forth? If you do not add to the nurture, how can you
perfect the fruit? This is only the nature of the principle.
You should know that heaven, earth, and the ten thousand things;
the sun, the moon, and the stars, were at root all set up to plant this one
grain of the real solicitude. Whoever does not have this real solicitude is
as a mirror without light. If a mirror does not have light, how can it be a
mirror? If heaven and earth did not have people, they would be a mirror-
stand without a mirror. If a mirror-stand does not have a mirror, what
good is it?
This is enough to see that the creation of heaven, earth, and the ten
thousand things is all for the sake of human beings.
The creation of humans and spirits is at root for the sake of receiving
this ultimate treasure of the real solicitude. If people clearly understand
the honor and nobility of their own body and obtain surely the ultimate
treasure of the body, then they will know that this body reaches every-
where in heaven and earth. It subtly unites being and nonbeing, and
nothing whatsoever is lacking from it. But unfortunately, people in the
world abandoned and put aside the ultimate treasure of their own body
without knowing how to be at ease with it. Instead, they toil laboriously
toward "flowers in the sky" outside the body.43 Truly this is a life in drunk-
enness and a death in dreaming. The Classic says, "People in the world
are deep in sleep, and after death they become aware."" However, when
they reach this station their regret will have no effect. Whoever talks
about his dreams is certainly awake; whoever knows his own mistakes
will surely move on to good.
However, in order for i-ma-na to become manifest as such, there must
be evidence, which is called the "real solicitude" and "borrowing-and-
lending." Whoever gains the real solicitude will be as if guarding a chain
of jade jewelry while walking, stopping, sitting, and lying down, or, as if
he is facing a great enemy and is afraid of loss. Borrowing-and-lending
is like borrowing something from someone else. You cannot be without
worry that you will make a mistake and lose the thing.
68 Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light
Whoever talks without the root thinking is following his own nature,
or seeking fame, or looking for profit, or fearing people's admonitions,
or wanting their help. He is like someone who walks along with some-
one else who is carrying a torch in the dark night. When the two arrive
at a dividing path, the one without the torch is left in darkness. How
can he walk further?
Whoever knows that the real solicitude is the ultimate treasure will
take cleanness of the heart as root, and sincerity of intention as fore-
most. He will protect and assist the real solicitude without cease, and
with virtuous deeds he will make it stand in gravity and seriousness. If
the heart is not purified, there is no place to receive and contain it. If the
intention is not sincere, there is no place to nourish and produce it. If
there is no protection and assistance, it is not possible to gain perfec-
tion. If there are no virtuous deeds, how can there be any evidence? You
must follow the sequence to observe and guard it. Then it may be that
you will not lose it.
3
Wang Tai-yii' s
Great Learning
The Great Learning of the Pure and Real is the shortest of Wang's three
longer treatises-about 13,000 characters, or twenty-two pages in its
modern printed form. The Confucian Great Learning was originally a
one-page chapter in the Book of Rites, which is traditionally considered
to be by Confucius, though the Great Learning itself is sometimes attrib-
uted to Confucius's grandson Tzu-ssu. Chu Hsi, the most important of
the Neo-Confucian scholars, specified it and three others as the "Four
Books," the most basic of the Confucian classics. The other three are the
Doctrine of the Mean (also from the Book of Rites), the A1Ullects of Confucius,
and the Book of Mencius.
Wing-tsit Chan's English translation of the text and commentary of
the Great Learning takes up less than ten pages. Chan points out that the
work has played a far more important role than its short size would
suggest} Its principal point is to designate and differentiate "the inter-
nal and the external, the fundamental and the secondary, and the first
and the last. ... No other Confucian Classic has presented this idea so
clearly and so forcefully." 2 1t is this distinguishing of levels that is the
basic theme of Wang's Islamic version of the Great Learning.
In Chu Hsi' s arrangement, the commentary on the Great Learning has
ten chapters, and it sums up all of Confucian learning in three items"
I/
and "eight steps." The three items are clarifying clear virtue, loving the
people, and abiding in the utmost good. The eight steps are investiga-
tion of things, extension of knowledge, sincerity of intention, trueness
of heart, cultivation of the body, regulation of the family, governing the
country, and bringing peace to everything under heaven. 3
Wang's Great Learning contains an introduction, three main parts, and
a long conclusion that is called the" general discussion." Each of the three
parts is divided into three chapters, giving a total of eleven sections.
The "general discussion" takes up more than one-third of the book.
69
70 Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light
ing" is to cultivate the self. Thus it would seem that what the Confu-
cians call the great learning" belongs in his view to the domain of the
II
middle and constant learnings, but not to the true great learning.
At the beginning of the Great Learning, Wang says, "The true founda-
tion of the great learning is the word that bears witness." He certainly
Wang Tai-yu's Great Learning 71
problematic terms in this discussion, given that they have specific conno-
tations and nuances in the Western tradition and no exact equivalents
in the Islamic languages, much less the Chinese tradition. The closest
pair of technical terms in Arabic is tanzih or assertion of incomparability"
II
and the normative teachings of all the prophets. In other words, God's
"signs" manifest the heavenly mandate in both the natural order and
the human order.
Wang's insistence that the first discernment is the most important-
that is, the discernment between the Real One and the Numerical One-
underscores two things. One is that this distinction between God in his
Essence and God as designated by the names and attributes is utterly
essential to Islamic theology (even if the terms of the discussion are not
completely clarified in the earliest centuries of the Islamic era). Second
is that Wang felt that his Chinese audience would have difficulty making
this distinction, because the Chinese traditions fail to do so. But neither
Wang nor any of the other Chinese ulama whose works I have read
would go so far as to claim that the Chinese had no understanding of
God's essential incomparability with creation, his "transcendence." They
surely had the understanding, but they did not differentiate clearly
enough between two basic levels of transcendence.
The fact that Wang's discussion employs terminology drawn largely
from Neo-Confucianism shows that he felt it to be the most adequate of
the Chinese traditions to explain the nature of things. He does not explic-
itly criticize Neo-Confucian metaphysics, though he does criticize, in the
Great Learning and elsewhere, Buddhist and Taoist concepts, and these
critiques are in fact quite similar to those made by the Neo-Confucians.
For Wang, ideas like" emptiness" and "voidness" are inadequate to con-
vey the notion of God's simultaneous incomparability and similarity,
his transcendence and immanence.
Although it is too early in my research to attempt to specify all the
ways in which Wang and other ulama highlighted the Islamic idea of
God's incomparability in Chinese terms, it may be useful to stress in
this context the importance of the word chen. I am translating the term
as "real," though it may also be translated as true, genuine, unfeigned,
authentic. It has already been noted that the word is employed in the
expression "Pure and Real" that is commonly used to designate Islamic
teachings. God is given names such as "Real Lord" and "Real One." The
Koran can be called the "Real Classic." Wang uses the word in the titles
of all three of his longer works. Eight of the forty chapters of his Real
Commentary employ the term in their titles, and it is mentioned frequently
in his writings. Liu Chih' s translation of Lawd'i~ also uses the word of-
ten. A word count of the two works translated in the present book would
show it to be among the most commonly used of technical terms, if not
the most common.
The word chen does not play any special role in Neo-Confudan thought,
but it was used in significant senses by both Taoists and Buddhists. They
use the term in the same sort of meaning and with the same heavy sig-
Wang Tai-yu's Great Learning 73
(jen) "forms one body with heaven, earth, and the ten thousand things." 8
But, as Wang Yang-ming reminds us, the realization of this oneness in
its fullness takes place in the human heart, the highest spiritual organ.
"At bottom heaven, earth, the ten thousand things, and man form one
body. The point at which this unity manifests in its most refined and
excellent form is the clear intelligence of the human heart." 9 Wang Yang-
ming, in fact, defines the whole Confucian ethic as outlined in the Great
Learning in terms of clarifying the clear virtue (which, as we saw, Wang
Tai-yii associates with ''faith," iman) and achieving this one body:
The various steps from the investigation of things and the exten-
sion of knowledge to bringing peace to everything under heaven
are nothing but clarifying the clear virtue. Even loving the people
is also a matter of clarifying the clear virtue. The clear virtue is the
virtue of the heart; it is humanity Uen]. The man of jen regards
heaven, earth, and the ten thousand things as one body. If a single
thing is deprived of its place, it means that my jen is not yet demon-
strated to the fullest extent.l0
In describing the three stages of achieving proper embodiment, Wang
tells us that at the first stage, the seekers recognize the benefit of enlight-
enment and sagehood. At the second stage, they are able to transcend
causal connections and personal experiences and depend upon their
own true self. At the third stage, constant recognition of the Real allows
them to overcome all selfish ideas and personal opinions, to return to
the source of the clear virtue, and to depend upon no-self (wu-cht). "No-
seH" seems to be the stage that is achieved by" conquering self," discussed
earlier (p. 56). As such it correlates with Sufi expressions like "annihila-
tion" (/and)), "the Station of No Station" (maqam Ia maqam), and "selfless-
ness" (bi-khwudi). 11
In the last section of the Great Learning, the "General Discussion," Wang
applies the teachings of the first ten sections to a variety of contexts.
This section represents a significant change in voice, and some scholars,
notably Tazaka, have claimed that it was added by another hand (for his
arguments, see below). For one thing, the last section takes on a rather
polemical tone that is lacking in the first ten. Tazaka' s arguments against
its authenticity need to be taken seriously, but I incline to accept the
passage as representing Wang's teachings, since there are several paral-
lels with passages from Wang's other works. Even if we do conclude
that it was revised or added by another hand, it was accepted by the
Chinese Muslims as part of the text, so it deserves to be considered as
the tradition has received it.
78 Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light
The Text
The Great Learning of the Pure and Real has been published at least ten
times, but the date of its first publication is not known, and it is not clear
when it was written. Even the question of its authorship cannot be de-
cided with complete certainty. Wang's two other major works are both
ascribed to him explicitly in their printed texts, but at least some of the
title pages of the Great Learning tell us that it was "commented" on by
"the old man of the real Hui," that is, by Wang, and" commentary" does
not suggest authorship. 12 In contrast to the other two works, the Great
Learning has no preface or introduction providing information on Wang's
life or the year of the book's original publication.
Even if we accept Wang's authorship as given, we still need to con-
sider Tazaka's argument that the "General Discussion" does not belong
to the main text. He makes three points. First, since the text is modeled
on the Confucian Great Learning, it should have the same ten-fold struc-
ture, but it does not unless the General Discussion is dropped. Second,
Isaac Mason described the 1918 edition of The Great Learning as having
forty-four pages, which corresponds with the length of the first part of
the 1921 edition, but the General Discussion adds another twenty-six
pages. 13 Third, the 1852 introduction to the text by Yang Tsan-hsiin (the
"introduction" translated here) says clearly that Master Hsieh Sheng-
wu requested the Ahung of the temple, Master Wang Shou-ch'ien, to
collect the essential contents of Wang's Great Learning of the Pure and Real
and Liu Chih' s Interpretation of the Five Endeavors (Wu-kung shi-i) and to
unite them as one book. The Ahung did this and named the book A
Summary of the Important Points for Enlightening the Young (Ch'i-meng yao-
lueh). If the printed text is identical with this Summary of the Important
Points, then Wang's Great Learning would be the first half of the book,
and the "General Discussion" would be taken from Liu Chih. 14
One can respond to Tazaka's arguments as follows: (1) It is true that
we can look at the text as having ten sections in the pattern of the Con-
fucian Great Learning, but Wang may simply have added an eleventh
section, the "General Discussion," as a sort of complement to or commen-
tary on the first half. After all, the Confucian text has been commented
on by many of the great Neo-Confucians. (2) If the "General Discussion"
was in fact left out of the 1918 edition, this does not prove that Wang
was not the author, nor does it prove that the publishers of that edition
thought he was not the author, since the last section may have been
dropped for some other reason. It is perhaps significant here that Chin
Chi-t'ang, in his discussion of the Great Learning, mentions four different
editions and says nothing about the "General Discussion" being left out
of any of them. 15 But Chin does say that he thinks the "General Discus-
Wang Tai-yii' s Great Learning 79
Preface
by
A Rustic of the Pure and Real
Reflecting upon this Great larning, [we see that] the principle of righ-
teousness is refined and detailed. It reaches directly to the root origin,
specifically clarifying the Real One, manifesting the light of the clarity
of the true Tao, and stamping out the mistakes and errors of the heretics.
In its quietude, it rests in the bosom; in its function, it fills the universe.
It penetrates fine dust, yet it is not tiny; it encloses heaven and earth,
yet it is not vast. 1 It clears away and removes colors and guises, and it
splits and dissolves emptiness and nonbeing. This is because it fully
returns at root to the fountainhead of clear virtue, guiding and leading
the return to the path of the Real. Thus may you escape and depart
from the ocean of illusion and go back again to the other shore. Compare
this to the wide Tao that gives rise to the great code of the Constants of
the Bonds and Relationships. 2 Can that be better than this?
If you want to have an explication of the Pure and the Real so as to
open up this original subtleness, but you lack the right person, you will
not be able to do so. It will not be proper to receive it, and you cannot
receive it. Only when you obtain the right person can you widen this
path. Why? If you do not have the person, but there is explanation, this
is like adding makeup to a jade-like face-it obscures the root color. It is
not that someone does not exhaust his heart [in trying to explain the
Tao], only that, compared to [the Tao], his ability and power stop short.
He should not offer, but he does offer, like a puppet in brocade garments-
81
82 Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light
the outside is glorious and beautiful, but the inside is at root an empty
corpse. If there is no working and handling, how will the puppet move
by itself? If you want to hook the fish in the bottom of the pond with the
sea-turtle's food, not only will the hook not be taken, but also the fish
will be frightened and run away.
If a city of only ten houses still has someone with loyalty and faithful-
ness, will not ten thousand districts of a hundred li have a worthy com-
panion? In general, a man of clarity is clear by himself, and a man of
darkness is dark by himself. What a pity that men of real knowledge
and firm opinions are few, but there are many reckless people who follow
the waves and the flows. They do not discriminate between right and
wrong. They use ears in place of eyes. You should observe the matter
that everyone likes, and you should observe the matter that everyone
hates, because the causes [for like and hate] issue from these people.
Nonetheless, we can expect that there be a true and profound person
who embodies remembrance, loyalty, and sincerity, who reflects upon
and seeks the ultimate Tao, and who clarifies the heart and breast. The
broadness of his vision will mold the opinions of the common people
and sweep away baseless views. He will follow the steps of the real trans-
mission, and then obtain only the truth. If he polishes and sharpens in
the same way, he will know the evidence and clarity of the ultimately
great. He will suddenly awaken to the ancient record of his own self.
Probably, he will not betray the author's earnest concern to elucidate
fully the ultimate Tao of the Pure and Real.
Introduction
by
Humans are born into quietude, which is the oneness of the undifferen-
tiated state. They are the spirit of the ten thousand things, maintain the
essence of the two vital-energies, and contain the refinement of the Five
Agents. Purity and clarity exist in their selves along with real truth with-
out falsehood. Human nature is good, and it can be so without learning.
But self-nature is changed by practice, or perhaps it will gradually run
to the realm of confusion and turbidity and all at once darken its origin.
Endeavoring not and rebelling, it brings about transgression, or else it
sinks and changes into the condition of emptiness and falsehood, more
and more losing its great substance. Thus it abandons the truth, and in
this it does not transform its crookedness. Yet it wants to start each day
The Great Learning of the Pure and Real 83
SYNOPSIS:
COMPREHENSIVE STATEMENT
The true foundation of the great learning is the word that bears witness.
It especially clarifies the principle of the utmost greatness of the Real
Lord and His [chief] servant, and it also clarifies the difference between
the Real One and the Numerical One.
Therefore, first I clarify that the unique and independent One is the
Real Lord who created heaven, earth, and the ten thousand things. How·
ever, He is not related to heaven, earth, and the ten thousand things. He
is the Original Being without beginning.
As for the Numerical One, it is the original beginning of heaven, earth,
and the ten thousand things, so it can represent heaven, earth, and the
ten thousand things. Since it is the original beginning, it is designated
as ''the chief servant;" and since it is the representative, it is designated
as "the utmost sage" or "the special envoy." This is the original founda·
tion, but with a beginning, because it comes into being by receiving the
mandate.
The most important thing in the Pure and Real is that you divide clearly
between the Real Lord and the Chief Servant. Only then can you be
sure to witness the Unique One and the Numerical One. What we call
the Real Lord is the Unique One, the All·Powerful Being, and there is
nothing that does not accord with His will. The Chief Servant is the
Numerical One that receives the mandate, and it is not at all independent.
However, you cannot compare this with ruler and minister, father and
son, because these [relationships] are occasional and nominal and cannot
stand by themselves in reality. Why? Sometimes a son may be wiser
than his father, or a minister may become the ruler by a turn of fortune.
The success and failure of a nation or a family come and go, because the
causes are all of the same kind. As for nature and mandate, life and death,
worthiness and stupidity, untimely death and longevity, old age and
youth, beauty and ugliness-all these are most important for the human
body. A ruler or a father cannot be their means, for heaven must cover
and earth must carry. So, what about the things outside the body?
You should know that the scale and measure of the universe are to
clothe and feed the ten thousand living things, but there is only the Real
Lord, the Unique One, who comprehensively embraces everything from
the beginning of the universe to its end. If you take the propriety that
pertains to the Bonds and Relationships among one kind and apply it to
the utmost greatness between the Lord and the servant, this would be a
major confusion relative to the Pure and Real.
The Great Learning of the Pure and Real 85
So, when the Lord and the servant are clearly separated and the Real
One and the Numerical One are established, then only can the fountain-
head of clear virtue be known. When the fountainhead of clear virtue is
known, the clear virtue will be clarified. When the clear virtue is clari-
fied, there will be real knowledge. When there is real knowledge, the
self will be known. When the self is known, the heart will be made true.
When the heart is made true, intentions will be sincere. When inten-
tions are sincere, words will be firm. When words are firm, the body
will be cultivated. When the body is cultivated, the family will be regu-
lated. When the family is regulated, the country will be governed.5
If the country is not governed, it is because the family is not regulated.
If the family is not regulated, it is because the body is not cultivated. If
the body is not cultivated, it is because the words are not one. If the
words are not one, it is because the intention is not sincere. If the inten-
tion is not sincere, it is because the heart is not true. If the heart is not
true, it is because the self is not known. If the self is not known, it is
because knowledge is not real. If knowledge is not real, it is because the
clear virtue has not been clarified. If the clear virtue is not clarified, it is
because the fountainhead of clear virtue is not known. If the fountain-
head of clear virtue is not known, it is because the Real One is not dis-
criminated from the Numerical One. If the Real One is not discrimi-
nated from the Numerical One, it is because the principle of the utmost
greatness of the Lord and the [Chief] Servant has not become clear. When
the principle of the utmost greatness of the Lord and the Servant has
not become clear, ten thousand good deeds may be done, but they are
not worthy of mention. Why? When the taproot of the deed is not pure,
its branches and twigs cannot be pure.
This book points directly at the fountainhead and clarifies its great
root. Thus, true people under heaven will not make mistakes upon reach-
ing the crossroads, and they will not be perplexed when facing the doubt-
ful. There will be things that they take as witness.
You should know that the ultimately great and true concern is why
only human beings can have witnessing. This is because in the begin-
ning, when the Real Lord showed this important trust to the heaven,
the earth, the oceans, the mountains, and all beings and things, all were
fearful and did not dare to accept it. This was because they belonged to
division, so it was impossible for them to combine the beings. Only the
Human Ultimate accepted this great responsibility. 6 1ts color and subtlety
are both complete,7 its spirit is beyond the ten thousand levels, and its
strength is provided with all the conditions.
However, this utmost principle is possessed only by the true heart. If
the heart is crooked, this principle cannot be received. Why? Those who
have made their hearts true are able to complete this heavy trust be-
cause they do not know their own being-they know only the Lord's
86 Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light
being. All the conditions are only its guardians. It is like jade inside stone,
so naturally applications of propriety are all obtained. Those who do
not have true hearts betray this heavy trust, because they do not know
the Lord's being. They know only their own being and that all the con-
ditions are their root substance. This is no different from a shell without
a pearl. Although such people are human, they are so only in external
appearance. They are nothing but name and color. How can they bear
witness to the Real One?
The Classic says: "The Real Lord witnesses Himself; there is no being
except the being of the Real Lord." 8 It also says: "Indeed, the Real Lord
witnesses Himself in the ten thousand things, all of them." 9 How can
we know the matter as such? This is like a ruler over a country or an
elder in a household-if there were two, then the country and the house-
hold would certainly be in a confusion. 10 The vastness and the greatness
of heaven and earth, the rising and setting of the sun and the moon, the
brightness and darkness of day and night, the coming and going of the
four seasons, the shape of the forms of the ten thousand things, the
blooming and withering of trees and grasses-from ancient times until
now, nothing has altered or changed. All these are the very proof that
the Real Lord is the Unique One. 11
That to which the human alone bears witness, in contrast to all other
beings, is intimately connected to him because he is the fruit of the ten
thousand things, the highest and the noblest, and he transcends the ten
thousand conditions. This [relationship between the Real Lord and the
human being] is like the relationship between a beautiful woman and a
mirror. No matter how much makeup and ornament she puts on, the
mirror will not be united with her. Does a mirror use its own light to cast
a reflection? This is the meaning found in the saying of the sage, "Indeed
the Real Lord created human beings and then manifested himself in
them." 11
In the beginning, the Human Ancestor said, "I bear witness that there
is no other thing; there is only the Real Lord, who is the only one, the
peerless. I also bear witness that the utmost sage"- Mu-han-me-te
[Muhammad] (who is called "sage" out of respect)-" is the chief servant
of the Real Lord and His special envoy." 13 The first cause for the human
ancestor's t'ao-po [tawba] (which translates as "repentance") goes back to
the Utmost Sage's inciting his awareness; only then did he wake up. 14
This is why "The true foundation of the great learning is the word
that bears witness." 15 At the beginning of creation, it was at root the chief
summit of the true teaching.
The pivot of the Real One and the Numerical One is wholly provided
in the "I" that bears witness. Know that the "I" of form and color is the
"I" that divides and distinguishes between "I" and "the people." This is
an illusory "I" that is not the "I" of bearing witness. The 'T' that bears
The Great Learning of the Pure and Real 87
witness is the "I" whom the Real Lord entrusted, and it is the real"l."
Other than this entrusted "I," at root there is no "I" at all.
A worthy said, "No human can say that the Real Lord is the only one;
only the Real Lord is able to speak about His only-one-ness." 16 Why?
The "I" of before-heaven has neither color nor guise. [1] It bears witness
to the root nature of the Real Lord. [2] Its seeing and hearing, listening
and speaking, spirit and clarity, life and knowledge, bear witness to the
movement and quietude of the Real Lord. [3] The "I" of after-heaven
combines principle and vital-energy. With form and spirit on One
Thread, it bears witness to the activity of the Real Lord.
There is nothing greater than bearing witness to the evidence of the
Real Lord. Outside of these three witnessings, if you try to think about
the guise of the "I," is there anything? If there is something, it can only
be flawed by the tinge of the newborn. What we call"the T that divides
and distinguishes between T and 'the people'" is not the "T that bears
witness."
Someone asked: What did the Real Lord witness in self, and what did
the human ancestor's "I" witness? The answer is that the Real Lord wit-
nessed in self His great "power" when He created heaven and earth,
and He witnessed in self His own ''completeness" when He created the
Human Ultimate.
Heaven and earth are like a painter's painting, and the human ulti-
mate is like a beautiful woman's mirror. Were there no heaven and earth,
there would be no manifestation of His great power, and were there no
human ultimate, there would be no manifestation of His completeness.
This is the meaning of the Real Lord's witnessing in self.
When you see heaven and earth, this is enough to witness the Real
Lord's great power, and when you reflect upon yourself, this is enough
to witness the Real Lord's completeness. If there is no painter, there is
no painting, and if there is no beautiful woman, why is there a mirror?
This is the meaning of the "I"' s witnessing the Lord through the things.
The Lord's witnessing self is His witnessing that His powerful mandate
makes things into being and nonbeing, but the "I'"s bearing witness is
witnessing that by receiving the mandate, it has a beginning and an end.
The difference between having been created and creating is as clear
as black and white. If a painting is considered the same as the painter or
the mirror the same as the beautiful woman, this is terrible ignorance
and delusion. A poet said:
The Real Lord shows mercy, but no one would know it
if life and death did not suddenly deceive each other.
Trying to think of the ten thousand affairs, who is capable of
oneness?
Why should we dwell in drunkenness and dreams?
88 Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light
Their ignorance and madness is all because they do not know the
unique-oneness of the Real Lord. If this principle does not become clear,
loyalty will not be real loyalty, and filial piety will not be real filial piety.
Even if they do their best to be loyal or filial, they will not be awake as to
why they must be so. This is a pity.
If you want loyalty and filial piety in their innermost fountainhead,
you must reflect upon where you have come from so that you may wake
up to that through which substance and function stand. The human
being is the most refined among forms and spirits. Heaven, earth, and
the ten thousand spirituals exist only for the sake of human beings. The
original meaning of the creation of human beings is at root to recognize
the unique-oneness of the Real Lord, to manifest the original pivot of
movement and quietude, and to represent the subtle function of being
and nonbeing.
Receiving these greatest of mercies, people do not delve into the origin
of their nature and mandate, life and death. They think only of the impor-
tance of the mercy and righteousness of their ruler and their parents,
but this has nothing to do with the most great Real Lord, who created
ruler and parents, nature and mandate, life and death. Unfortunately,
the people of the world do not discriminate the One from the unreal,
and their hearts are in doubt concerning this and that. They are blind to
the real mercy of the Original Being, and they worship emptiness,
nonbeing, and idols. Their bodies stand at a thousand crossroads and
their hearts divide into ten thousand branches. Humanity, wisdom, loy-
alty, and uprightness are obscured and wasted. This is surely a pity.
The endeavor of witnessing the One is indeed the chief task. In dis-
criminating the One, there are three levels: the One that is unique and
independent, the One that is the root of numbers, and the One that is
recognized with the body. The unique and independent One is the Lord
of heaven, earth, and the ten thousand things; the One that is the root
of numbers is the seed of heaven, earth, and the ten thousand things;
and the One that is recognized with the body is the fruit of heaven,
earth, and the ten thousand things.
The Gre~~t Learning of the Pure and Real 89
If you are to become a perfect human and the root cause of the ten thou~
sand sorts of good, the most important thing is that you must first know
that the unique and independent One is the Real Lord, and that at root
He has nothing to do with the ten thousand things.
There are three levels of bearing witness: the Root Nature, the Root
Allotment, and the Root Act. If you make a small mistake and error, the
principle will not be penetrated, and you will not belong to the Pure
and Real.
In order for you to clarify your heart, recognize the Real Lord, cultivate
your body, and widen the Tao, you must first enter the true teaching of
the Pure and Real. Then you must hope to see the Tao and a clear worthy.
Why? If there is a true teaching but no true person, this is like the sun
shining on the blind. How can they divide white &om black? H there are
true people but no true teaching, this is like those with clear vision walk-
ing in the dark. How can they follow the trace of a true path?
I am afraid that those who do not discriminate between true and false
take only wrong ideas as ideas. They may emulate the words and deeds
of a teacher, but this is like a brush and ink. The new learner's empty
heart will be like the white bamboo on which the brush moves when
listening to the teacher. Once the bamboo is filled with writing, if some-
thing is not correct, how can it be made white again7 Therefore, to inquire
after the Tao and to follow the teacher are the most important things-
not at all something to be trifled with. You should never be careless in
this, and you should not simply act to your own liking.
CHAPTER ONE
What we call the "Root Nature" is the Beginningless Original Being, the
Endless Eternal. It does not belong to yin and yang, and at root It has no
opposite. It is the Unique One, the Most Honored, and there is nothing
other than It-no time and space, no form and guise, no defilement and
obstruction, no near and far. It has no spouse, and nothing can be com-
90 Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light
pared to it, nor can anyone describe "how." Its powerful mandate brings
about being and nonbeing, yet It Itself does not fall into being and
nonbeing. It creates the ten thousand things, yet It is not of the same
kind as the ten thousand things. Nothing at all is similar to lt. 17 This is
the Root Nature of the Real Lord's Original Being.
CHAPTER TWO
What we call the "Root Allotment" is the movement and quietude of the
Root Nature. Although It is the Everlastingly Guarded and the Undif-
ferentiated One, Its principle becomes manifest in different ways. This
means that the Real One has nothing to do with the Numerical One;
originally It is One, and thus It is always the Unique One.
The Real Being does not fall into being and nonbeing. Originally It is
Being, so It transcends everything and is everlasting Being. It is the origi-
nal living, without life; the whole of it is living, so it is never not-living.
It is the original knowledge, without heart; It is the penetrating knowl-
edge, so there is nothing that It does not know. It is the original power,
without help; It is powerful originally, so there is nothing that It cannot
do. It is the original looking, without eye; It looks without obstacle, so
there is nothing upon which It does riot look. It is the original hearing,
without ear; It hears without direction, so there is nothing that It does
not hear. It is the original speech, without tongue; It speaks without re-
straint, so there is nothing that It does not say. Everything accords with
Its will, without thinking; wants accord with Its will, so there is nothing
that does not accord with it. It is eternal, without planning; It is the origi-
nal eternity, so It will never be non-eternal. 18
All these are the movement and quietude of the Root Nature. Although
the quietude is without change and has no movement, and the move-
ment is ceaseless and never stops, if we talk about the quietude, the
pivot always becomes manifest, and if we talk about the movement, the
trace will not be seen. The reason we speak of movement and quietude
together is that the two are truly in the midst of the Root Nature's acting
and making.
Know that before the being of heaven and earth, the Real Lord wanted
to manifest His own original power. So, with His original knowledge,
He prearranged the ten thousand things for appropriate use, along with
their beginnings and their ends, their insides and their outsides, with
nothing surplus or lacking, and with no change or alteration. So, noth-
ing is outside the wanting and acting of His knowledge and power. It is
not that His knowledge and power constrict the ten thousand things,
The Great Learning of the Pure and Real 91
only that the ten thousand things cannot transgress these two. The Clas-
sic says that the Real Lord is the Original Being, the Unique One, and at
root nothing was with Him. 19 Afterward, He mentioned and recorded
the ten thousand things according to His own will. This is predetermi-
nation by the Real Lord's movement and quietude.
CHAPTER THREE
What we call the "Root Acr' is the surplus of the unique and independent
One, possessing all the subtlety of the formless. It is the Powerful Being,
and it can be compared to an inkwell. The pure essences of the ten thou-
sand spirituals and the ornaments of heaven and earth all depend on
this Powerful Being. Afterward, with the pen of the representative, It
started to put forth the principles contained in the inkwell. Before the
pen's putting forth, these principles are neither the same as nor sepa-
rable from the Real One. If you try to divide them, they do not come
apart, and if you try to unite them, they still have differences. In [the
inkwell] the pivot of protection and nourishment is stored, and the signs
of doing according to will are already manifest, though only the Lord
knows and sees this. This is the bounded realm of the Real Lord's root
act.
There are six names for this bounded realm: the One Root of the Real
Foundation, the Head of the Four Oceans, the Root Act, the Transform-
ing Fountainhead, the Powerful Being, and the Surplus Light.
Someone may say: The Real Lord is spontaneous, all-penetrating, and
complete perfection. How can it be said that He has a surplus? If there is
a surplus, this means that the original being of the Real Lord has some
defect.
I will reply: The Unique One and Most Honored is the Original Being
and has no opposite. He issues universal compassion by Himself, and
when He wants to make the ten thousand things, He commands the
mandate to be or not to be according to His own convenience. Just then,
the substance and function become divided for the first time, since these
issue forth from the Original Being. It is the Powerful Being, so we call it
the "surplus light." The substance and function are inseparable, and they
have no defects whatsoever.
What we call the "Powerful Being'' is the being of powerful issuing
forth. The power of the Original One gives it oneness, the power of the
Original Being gives it being, the power of the Original Life gives it life,
the power of the Original Knowledge gives it knowledge, the power of
the Original Power gives it power, the power of the Original Looking
92 Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light
gives it looking, the power of the Original Hearing gives it hearing, the
power of the Original Speech gives it speech. Therefore, in the midst of
the Original Being and in the midst of the Powerful Being, the prin-
ciples of the things start to arise.
The Original Being is beginningless and endless, without inside or
outside, but the Powerful Being has the power to begin and the power
to end, the power to be outside and the power to be inside. This is the
meaning of the relationship [between the two]. A poet said,
Why is fire preserved
inside water,
But outside water,
self-burning disappears?
The same heat is clearly divided
inside and outside.
Still, you must examine thoroughly-
how is it preserved, how does it disappear?
This meaning clarifies especially why the Real Lord has no peer.
Afterward, with His original knowledge, He prearranged the origin
of mankind, the spirits and immortals, and the foundations of guarding
all the conditions. At this moment, He commanded all the subtleties to
be raised and possessed by the Powerful Being, and through this activity,
the guises and colors became perfect and complete. The ten thousand
affairs and the ten thousand things are not original beings at root; each
receives the mandate from the Root Nature of the Real Lord's protection
and nourishment, which is the movement and quietude of the Root Act.
T~ Great Letlrning of the Pure and Rul 93
The Topic
What we call the Numerical One is the one root of the ten thousand
different things and the chief summit of the Powerful Being. It also is
called by different names--the Chief Servant, the Originally Honored,
the Special Envoy, the Representative, the Great Pen, the Original Begin-
ning, the Chief Mandate, the Great Wisdom, the Ocean of Nature, the
Human Ultimate, the Great Father, the Fountainhead of the Tao, the Great
Root, the Light of Clarity, the Spiritual Taproot, the Utmost Sage. The
names are different, but the principle is one at root. It is within the Pow-
erful Being, accepts the mandate, and becomes manifest. It is the root
origin of the ten thousand things and thereby carries ten thousand prin-
ciples. It is the Non-Ultimate. There are three levels of bearing witness
to it: as the Originally Honored, the Representative, and the Scribe.
CHAPTER ONE
CHAPTER TWO
The Representative
and demons, the foundation of heaven, earth, and the ten thousand
things-all begin at this time. There is nothing that does not depend on
its mandate and command, which is the issuing disclosure. It represents
the movement and quietude of the Real Lord's activity, such as the pow-
erful mandate of being and nonbeing, life and death, nobility and mean-
ness, safety and danger, gain and loss.
Know that the movement and quietude of the Root Nature is ever-
lastingly guarded in the Real One, and it has nothing to do with any of
the beings. However, the movement and quietude of the activity be-
comes manifest in the ten thousand things, and thus we bear witness.
This is all because it issues forth from the Powerful Being, which is the
creation and transformation of the chief forerunner.
CHAPTER THREE
The Scribe
What we call "the Scribe" is the surplus of the Pure Essence, and it is the
naturally issuing disclosure to the outside. It also is called by different
names--the Function of the Numerical One, the Bond of the Ten Thou-
sand Forms, the Taproot of Heaven and Earth, the Mother of the Ten
Thousand Things, the Scribe, the Ocean of Images. This is the Great
Ultimate. At this moment the vital-energy becomes prosperous while
the principle stays concealed. It is what the Taoists say-"The Named is
the mother of the ten thousand things." 21 The Great Ultimate transforms
and enacts yin and yang. If we speak of these two together, they are
heaven and earth. If we speak of them as separate, they are sun and
moon, stars and constellations, earth, water, fire, and air.
Yin and yang transform and enact the ten thousand forms, even
though the ten thousand forms are not the same as yin and yang. Why?
Heaven and earth are like the trunk of a great tree. That of it outside the
six directions is the original taproot of yin and yang. By nature the origi-
nal taproot does not change. That of it inside the six directions is the
leaves and flowers of the tree. By nature the leaves and flowers wither
and fall. When yin and yang are united, they produce the ten thousand
things. When they scatter, each keeps to its own nature.
These are like creatures in water and on land, things that fly and walk,
trees and grasses, metals and jewels, and so on-but human beings are
not like them. The heavenly immortals and the spirits and demons come
forth afterwards. Why? Because human beings are the original taproot
of yin and yang. Coming forth from the formless, they are prior to all
beings. Opening up in the after-heaven, they comprehensively embrace
the beginning and end of all beings. They are the fruit of the ten thou-
The Great Letlrning of the Pure and Real 95
sand things, and like fruit, they are produced ceaselessly. Although they
have a beginning, they have no end and they are preserved and do not
decay. If you take ripe fruit, it still produces new life after its use. In the
coming and going of the fruit, there is never any repetition, nor is the
former fruit recognized in the latter.
The most important point here is the distinction between the true
and the false, and you should know about it. In general, the tree's root is
perfected in the fruit. Heaven and earth are completed in the ability of
the human being who follows the mandate, establishes the ultimate,
and binds together the beginning and the end. This is the "great perfec-
tion," and this is the bounded realm of representing the activity of the
Real Lord, the Sole Mover. For this reason, we call [the Numerical One)
"the Chief Servant" or "the Special Envoy."
We call it "the Chief Servant" because it is the originally honored
among the ten thousand things, and everything follows its being. [We
call it) "the Special Envoy" because it is the representative of the humans,
the spirits, and the ten thousand things, and all things depend on its
being brought forth. It is the great bond above the Three Bonds and the
great relationship above the Five Relationships. Therefore the Classic
says that the inkwell of the Powerful Being carries His mercy and severity;
the intimate pen of the Non-Ultimate manifests the nature and mandate
of all things; the scribe of the Great Ultimate transforms and enacts yin
and yang; and the ten thousand images are sketches of yin and yang. 22
All these manifest the bounded realm of the root act.
96 Chinese Gleams of Sufi Ught
The Topic
What we call uthe oneness of recognition with body" is the human level,
and it also is called by many names: the Heart of the Ten Thousand
Spirituals, the Fruit of the Ten Thousand Images, the Furnace of Alchemy,
the Gate of Life and Death, the Precious Mirror, the Great Perfection.
This level is the Real Lord's original pivot in His ancient archive.
The Embodied One is provided with both form and spirit, the highest
and the lowest. There is nothing that it does not cover or carry.23 It indeed
is the most complete of the ten thousand kinds of things.
Before heaven, the chief mandate is called "the Real Nature," and it
embodies the subtlety of the Real One. After heaven, the bodily man-
date is called "the Root Nature," and it embodies the principle of the
Non-Ultimate. Ym and yang united as one are called "the Disposition of
Form"; this embodies the function of the Great Ultimate. Hearing, see-
ing, speaking, walking, stopping, taking, giving, and the hundred bones
of the body all listen to this one nature. Therefore, through the oneness
of the appropriate body, the oneness of the root of numbers can be wit-
nessed. After that, along with the Numerical One, and only then, can
the oneness of the Unique and the Independent be witnessed. Advanc-
ing step by step to arrive there, no one will go astray. A poet said,
One ink-slab, two pools, the great pen stretches out-
one, yet two, then all return to one.
The Creative, the Receptive, man, woman, all are like this--
track down the trace, ascend the hall, then enter the room! 24
The Classic says, "He who recognizes himself will be able to witness
the Utmost Sage, then recognize the Real Lord."25
There are three levels of bearing witness: recognition with knowledge,
recognition with seeing, and recognition with continuity. Recognition
with knowledge is called "clear penetration," recognition with seeing is
called "intimate connection," and recognition with continuity is called
"unity in union."
The Great l.tJJrning of the Pure and Real 97
CHAPTER ONE
CHAPTER TWO
tains nature and mandate, knowledge and power, each of them bright
and lively; sight, hearing, listening, and speech, each in its utmost re-
finement. In relation to the universe, He is like the most great and the
original pivot. Other than the Real Lord, who can abide through him-
self? Even the worldly affairs in front of the eyes, such as endeavor and
reputation, wealth and nobility, gain and loss, safety and danger-no
one is capable of keeping these. How much less the greatest things, like
life and death!
If you have an astonished awaking, such that you turn your intention
and return your heart, this is the beginning discrimination between the
newborn and the Original Being and the dear division between the Lord
and the servant, none of this depending on your own self. This is "at-
taining one from two." Even though the subtle clarity is manifest, unity
in union has not yet been reached. This stage is called i-t'i-ha-te [ittibdd]
(which means "self-one"). When you arrive at this station, you will begin
to reach the movement and quietude of activity.
You should know that the propriety and righteousness of the constants
of the Bonds-such as loyalty toward the ruler and filial piety toward
parents-give rewards simply for the unplanned meetings of the float-
ing life, even though you ignore your own self-being. If you act the same
toward the Creator and Transformer of nature and mandate and of life
and death, who also gives the eternal abode at the-bodies' Return, how can
you not receive recompense for sincere intention and loyal uprightness?
Nonetheless, if you do reach the utmost ultimate of longing [for the
Real Lord), union will occur only sometimes. This is like someone drunk
and without self, but now and again he is sober. A poet said,
If he becomes drunk
and una wake in his saying and doing,
this is because wine attacks
the form and spirit.
The shining light of stars and moon
never fades away
but quickly it is gathered up
by the greatest light.
When you reach this degree and site, this is like the time between the
blossom's opening and the fruit's ripening. Between self and no-self,
you have to be very cautious about severe rain and strong wind. It is
important to preserve and protect the heart. Only then can you sud-
denly set aside the obstacles of self. Then you will see without witness-
ing, but this is not two.lf you encounter an opportunity like this, at that
moment you can witness the Real Lord untinged by the ten thousand
conditions. This is intimate connection without break.
The Great Learning of the Pure and Real 99
CHAPTER THREE
GENERAL DISCUSSION
One that possesses all the principles is called "Numerical One." The
Powerful Being is not differentiated from the Real One and the Numeri-
cal One. The Powerful Being is rooted in the Real One, and the Numerical
One is manifest in the Powerful Being.
The Numerical One is like the clear brightness of the shining. The
"shining" is similar to the majestic solemnity of imperial guards; although
it is possible for attendants to go near, they are in awe and dread. The
"clear brightness" is like the administrators on behalf of the king. They
indeed constantly have the same place in dealing with him, and they
are comfortable and relaxed. They increase their human level and have
no deficiency or lack. This is the distinction between the Powerful Being
and the Numerical One. If we talk about these as divisions, the root is
one; if we speak of unity, they are not of the same class.
All the other subtleties and all the forms are at root the Non-Ultimate
and the Great Ultimate. The long-flowing life-water does not change or
alter at root, and it is translucent and pure. This is all because the Origi-
nal Being is all-penetrating. As for the stagnant water of pond and pool,
certainly it has both purity and muddiness, so it alters and transforms,
and all this restricts and obstructs the newborn.
At origin the creative transformation clarifies the complete act of sub-
stance and function. Even more do nature and mandate manifest the
root nature and the movement and quietude. Life and death discriminate
the Original Being from the newborn. The Tao of teaching points to the
correct path of returning to the Real. Emptiness and nonbeing are the
illusory ocean without shore. People must depend upon the wise master
who takes charge of the tiller. He looks up to observe the images of
heaven, and looks down to see the compass. Only then will he gain a
favorable tide and a smooth crossing. Otherwise, they will capsize and
drown.
You should know that the creative transformation of the ten thou-
sand things is like a beautiful heart designing a game. At root, this is
simply to test human beings' looking and observing. 31 And you should
know that the creative transformation is not the same as designing a
game; but without designing the game, the creative transformation will
not become manifest. Designing the game is not the same as looking
and observing; but without looking and observing, what is the purpose
of designing the game? The ability to look is not the same as the clear
brightness; but without the clear brightness, how can there be looking?
The clear brightness is not the same as the shining; but without the shin-
ing, how can there be the clear brightness? The shining is not the same
as the sun; but without the sun, how will there be shining? In general,
all the levels rely on this clarity; otherwise, nothing at all has the ability
to act. It is said,
The Great Learning of the Pure and Real 103
You must reflect carefully upon the concealed details, and you should
not read them carelessly with a coarse heart.
Moreover, movement and quietude has two divisions-how is it pos-
sible for Lord and servant to be the same and undifferentiated? If you
make a small mistake and error, you will fall forever into the path of
delusion. This would indeed be lamentable. It is said in a poem,
The ocean is pure and clean in its origin
demanding the wind.
The waves support
the turtles and dragons.
The waves of universal compassion subside
and compassion alone arises.
You should know that the fish and creatures of water
will be preserved forever.
It is also said,
The ocean manifests the rivers and lakes,
but the ocean remains as it always was.
The origin of the rivers and lakes
is divided at root from the dear ocean.
Stop doubting-
this ocean is rivers and lakes,
rivers are rivers and lakes,
but the ocean is by itself the ocean. 36
Even if water reflects bamboo's shadow, these two substances are not
related. The wind plays with the flower's fragrance-they are together,
but not the same. This is the meaning.
You should know that among the Real One, the Powerful Being, and
the Numerical One, there is a subtlety in representing substance and
function. Power is to Being as clarity is to light. The Utmost Sage, who is
the Numerical One, is like an ancient mirror, and each of the sages and
groups of worthies are attendants in waiting. The various heavens and
worlds are the makeup stand. Although the Real Lord manifests His
complete levels, entrusting something special to the Human Ultimate,
yet high and low among them are not the same class.
As for the heretical teachings and wrong Taos, they should not be
looked upon in the guise of one body, because they are deluded at the
fountainhead and rebel against the root. They recognize nature as their
lord. Even though they are human in form, they are not human in real-
ity. Thus the poet says,
Life and death are all caused
by a unique and independent honor.
The Great Learning of the Pure and Real 105
tainhead of virtue, and both are the great roots of making the heart true
and cultivating the body. You cannot lack either of them.
Heretics have the illusion and foolishness of various evils. They are
tainted by the evil custom of deluded people and the stupidity and madness
of self-nature. All of these are the deep taproot of darkening the heart
and forgetting the root. If you have any of them, you will be unlucky.
You should know that at root, square and compass are for making
rectangles and circles in a certain fashion. What does not follow this
fashion is because of the misuse of square and compass. The misuse of
square and compass is due to the artisan's stupidity, so the artisan's stu-
pidity damages the varieties of wood. Once they are affected, they will
become useless things. How lamentable!43
As for worldly endeavor, name, and wealth; and worldly nobility,
wives, children, and social relationships, in the True Teaching there are
methods for true people to guard against them and resist them. When
people encounter heretics, they can use these as weapons with which to
assault and attack stupidity and delusion. Why is this so? When true
people gain them, they honor and venerate the Great Root, and, basing
themselves on worldly conditions, they escape and depart from the ocean
of suffering. Their body returns toward the everlasting abode, until finally
they become a buoyant ship for crossing back. Thereby they ascend to
the Heavenly Gate.
When stupid and deluded people gain these things, they embody
them fully, and this strikes a deep taproot in them. They take charge of
themselves and foolishly think about transcending and escaping life and
death, and they wander about according to their own intentions. They
take so much delight in these that they forget about returning, and they
turn them into sharp weapons for rebelliousness and deviation. They
are mixed up and not one, and loyalty and filial piety are both injured.
Thereby they go down degraded to the Earth Prohibited.
If there were no teaching the Tao by the Pure and Real and if there
were no true people making clear indications, who could cross the ocean
of illusion and search for the Real? Who could turn his body toward the
further shore? The endeavor of following the mandate and returning to
the Real will hang down eternally.
If you encounter the stupidity and madness of self-nature, it will be
difficult to avoid the dangers and obstacles of wave and wind. Like the
drunken and dreaming, you will come and go all in delusion, and your
transgressions will be immeasurable. You must turn your intention and
return your heart. You must leave the lake of dragons and the den of
tigers. You must quickly arrange the baggage for what comes after the
body. You must keep and protect virtuous karma44 in the present. Hope-
fully, you will not lose your humanity. The Classic says, "Creation of this
108 Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light
life and death is at root for the sake of experiencing who are the loyal
and faithful among you." 45
When you reflect upon the meaning of this Classic, you must imme-
diately tum your head, which is resting in a sleepy state. Originally,
nature and mandate are all the untainted mercy of the Real Lord's special
solicitude. He also gives covering and carrying to heaven and earth,
nourishment to the ten thousand things, and the gateway to life and
death. What the teaching of the Pure and Real indicates, such as polish-
ing, is all to complete that great affair. It is necessary to reflect carefully
upon the concealed details, so that it may be possible for you to make
some provision for yourself. This is not like the righteousness of a ruler
and the loyalty of the minister, or the father's compassion and the child's
filial piety. The need for those reciprocal relationships cannot be com-
pared to this.
You ought to think where you have come from and where you will be
returning in the end. Sometimes this will be because of receiving the
mandate of life and death, and sometimes you can do things according
to your own intention. The only fear is that the great limit [death] is at
hand. Profit and name will fade like a dream, mercy and sympathy will
be scattered around like a drama's end. Only then will you know that
the ten thousand affairs are all empty. There exists only the karma of
one body. When the stupid and deluded reach this place, they sorrow
and regret. Even if they weep blood, what profit will that have?
How is it possible to break beforehand [the dream of kingship and
realize that one lives only with] yellow millet?46 How can one wake up
at present to the fact that the things of dust are void and meaningless?
In order to escape from worldly conditions, you need to have one heart
that is pure and clean so as to reflect upon the Real Being properly. Most
of all, you should avoid emptiness and nonbeing.
This so-called "emptiness" is to regard heaven and earth, mountains
and rivers, and everything that has being as "flowers in the sky" before
gazing eyes; they emerge and disappear naturally, with no declaration
of lordship.
It is said in the "Learning of the Principle" [i.e., Neo-Confucianism],
"The Great Void cannot but have vital-energy, vital-energy cannot but
be collected to become the ten thousand things, the ten thousand things
cannot but scatter to become vital-energy, and vital-energy cannot but
be transformed to become the Great Void."47 It is also said, "Ice melts
and bubbles disperse, and yet they are originally water." It is also said,
"The calm waves, the placid water-all of them form one ocean." All of
these are similar to "flowers in the sky."
The ground of this is that [the Buddha] is at root the king of Empti-
ness, who manifested his body according to his own intention and then
explained the dharma. Why did he rely on the causes and conditions,
The Gre~~t Learning of the Pure and Real 109
which are father and mother? This does not tally with the pattern and
fashion of ''flowers in the sky." If he comes and goes by the gateway of
production [the womb], how can he be the Lord-Ruler of the ten thou-
sand spirituals? If his life and death are the same as theirs, why should
he say, "I alone am honored"?48 Defiling himself and then cleansing him-
self is no different from cutting one's flesh for injured parents and then
curing oneself!' H you make images and then sweep them away, how is
this different from destroying a strong wall and then building it up again?
The bonds and relationships are so different from the usual that lords
and parents must pay respect [to ministers and children). 50
He abandoned the body and he avoided killing, and his heart inclined
toward preserving and nourishing all the animals. The yang was alone,
the yin was alone, and he intended and desired to abolish the human
species. Since he rebelled against the creative transformation, he reversed
the order of honor and meanness. For fifty years, he lived alone all over
the world with the birds and the beasts. H a wise man reflects on all the
details, he will come to know this Tao [of theirs].
Those [Taoists] who are called "the men of nonbeing" take voidness
and nonbeing as the Tao. This is like scattering chaff and blinding the
eyes, while wanting the six directions to change their sites. 51 Why? Be-
cause everyone under heaven regards the Real Being as noble, and void-
ness and nonbeing as lowly. You must know that the Original Being
without beginning is the most honored and real, the most spiritual and
clear. But they take as its match the vaguest voidness and nonbeing,
which is the most obscure and obstinate and the most lowly and mean.
How can this be called "true awareness"? Moreover, the sages and spir-
its of the world cannot regard nonbeing as being. How then can a man
of voidness and nonbeing regard voidness and nonbeing as being?
People like Buddha and Lao Tzu are the ancestors of emptiness and
nonbeing. Before they were born, at root there were no Buddha and
Lao Tzu. Afterward, they surely depended on their parents for their
birth, for nothing comes into being from emptiness and nonbeing.
Heaven, earth, and the ten thousand things are all like this-they dwell
in undifferentiated nonbeing before becoming things. There must be
the one-the most honored Original Being, the Real Lord- who trans-
forms and produces them.
They take no-acting, no-intending, and no-arguing as the teaching.
But when you look at their writings and established teachings-are these
not acting? To desire people to follow them-is this not intending? To
argue about the named principles under heaven-is this not arguing?
Their own acts contradict each other, yet they desire to be the masters of
the ten thousand generations. This is wrong.
Humans are more spiritual than the ten thousand things because of
heart, intention, and desire to act. They have the power to pursue pro-
110 Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light
priety and righteousness and to make skillful arguments for right and
wrong. Those who gain the truth will return to the Real, but those who
lose the truth will fall down. How is it possible that the followers of the
heretical principles do not know propriety and righteousness and do
not apprehend right and wrong? They are neither blamed for losing
these, nor praised for gaining them, and their ability is non-wisdom.
Still, there are things that are wholly without heart and intention,
without desire, and without act-such as metal, stone, grass, and trees.
This means that if a sharp sword injures someone, the injured person
d~es not blunt the blade. If a falling stone strikes someone, the struck
person does not attack its hardness. If a thorn pricks someone, the pricked
person does not break the thorn. These things have no intention for
good and evil, so people's joy and anger are not aimed at these bodies,
which have no knowledge and awareness.
By reflecting on this, we see that the teaching of these Taos is that
they want to turn the noblest of the spiritual under heaven into the
meanest of the ignorant. The human species turns around and becomes
a different species. Even worse, they transform human beings into trees
and stones, and then call them ''utmost persons." Is this enough to wit-
ness that all real beings are based originally on what is called "empti-
ness" and "nonbeing''? Thus it is said,
Those who do not understand right and wrong
are indeed a different kind.
Only by establishing the division between true and false
will you begin to be human.
The honored ones transcend the ten thousand levels
because of the ability of wisdom.
Insulting the Tao in ignorance
is like imitating the darkness of things.
This bears witness to that. Ah! Hiding and concealing the Real Lord
of humans and spirits, and sweeping away the scale and measure of the
creative transformation! If something like this could be the Tao, there
could be a country without a ruler and a household without a head.
Moreover, if no one makes the houses, rooms, porches, and all the
tiny vessels and things, it will certainly be impossible for these to come
to be by themselves. The greatness of heaven and earth and the
manyness of the ten thousand things-how could they come to be by
themselves? When one looks at this, this is truly (like the proverb says]:
"A foolish person talking about his dream."
Someone said: If the Real Lord is the most impartial and the most
compassionate, this indicates that even the deluded will return to the
truth. Furthermore, He transforms and produces all these people who
perplex and confuse the people of the world. Why?
The Great Learning of the Pure and Real 111
113
114 Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light
things that we observe in the universe and in ourselves? What are we?
How are we related to God? There are no straightforward answers. The
questions have to be investigated and "verified" by each individual,
which brings us back to the exhortations of the first twelve Gleams.
The nonexistent, fixed entities are called by several other names, such
as "realities" and "quiddities." Jami often refers to them by the word
"task'' (sha>n), a term that Ibn ai-'Arabi derived from the Koranic verse,
"Each day He is upon some task" (55:29). These "tasks" of God are the
things or realities or entities considered as specific activities of the "Reality
of Realities" -God inasmuch as he embraces all realities and entities
without exception (Gleam 25). In the broadest sense "tasks" designate
everything in God that gives rise to the multiple things of the universe.
In Ibn al-'Arabi's discussions, they are usually associated with the idea
of the renewal of creation at each instant (Gleam 26), because of the
Koranic verse's mention of" each day." Ibn al-'Arabi maintains that the
"day" of the Divine He-ness (or Essence) is the present instant, which is
suffused by the He-ness fully and constantly for all eternity. Hence, at
each instant, God is busy with the tasks that are the entities or the crea-
tures, and at each instant the tasks change, so the creatures change. 13
After Ibn ai-cArabi, however, the association of the tasks with creation's
renewal is pushed into the background and the term comes to be em-
ployed, as in Llzwti>il;l, as another synonym for the fixed entities or the
divine atbibutes and relations.
Although God in himself is unknown to us, we know that he knows
all things and that, on the basis of this knowledge, he creates the universe.
Hence we can conceptualize his knowledge of himself, that is, the man-
ner in which he looks upon himseH and knows all things as requisites of
his own infinite and absolute Being. When we look at God as knowing
himself, we can call him the "First Entification" (Gleams 17, 24). At this
level of reality, all the entities become "entified"-which is to say that
they assume form as entities. Although the term" entification" (tacayyun)
is seldom used by Ibn al-'Arabi, it becomes an important tecl)nical term
with Qunawi and his followers. Other translations that have been pro-
posed for it, such as "epiphany," "characteristic," and "phenomenon"
(all Whinfield), ~~individuation" (Richard), and" determination" (lzutsu),
lose sight of the fact that the word is derived from the term 'ayn or" en-
tity." Its basic meaning is to become an entity or to have the situation of
being an entity, and an" entity" is simply a thing (what the philosophers
call a" quiddity" or "whatness," mtlhiyya). Thus the "fixed entities" come
to be discernible at the level known as the "First Entification." In the
plural, the term '' entification" designates all the situations in which things
can be discerned as entities, and hence everything other than the Essence.
The First Entification is also named the "First Self-Disclosure" (Gleams
16, 36), because here we conceive of God as disclosing himself to himself
Liu Chih' s Translation of Lawa·i~ 121
in himself, the first step in a process that eventually leads to the appear-
ance of the universe. Only at the second level of self-disclosure can there
be discussion of the things entering into creation.
In Gleam 17, Jami explains that the First Entification embraces all the
divine names and attributes, which are called the "divine realities." It
also embraces the fixed entities of all things, which are the" engendered
realities." The term "engendered" (kawni) means that they pertain to
the domain of generation and corruption," which is the whole domain
II
that God addresses when he says to the things "Be!" (kun), and they
come to be. In contrast, the" divine realities" -such as knowledge, power,
mercy, and compasson-are eternal and never ''come to be" in them-
selves. Rather, they are the designations for Beings perfections, and as
such they determine the qualities and characteristics that come to be
within the engendered realities. Pure and unsullied knowledge, power,
mercy, and compassion remain the exclusive attributes of the Real Being
as such.
In clarifying the nature of created reality, Jami has frequent recourse
to the divine names Manifest (¢hir) and Nonmanifest (btitin). More spe-
cifically, he likes to talk of the "Manifest of Existence" as contrasted with
the ''Nonmanifest of Existence," a pairing that goes back to the writings
of Sa'id al-Oin Farghani, especially the introductions to both the Persian
and Arabic versions of his commentary on Ibn al-Faricf s Poem of the Way.
The Manifest of Existence is the cosmos, and the Nonmanifest of Exist-
ence is God; the former is the engendered realities, the latter the divine
realities. On closer analysis, however, Existence is one, so both the Mani-
fest and the Nonmanifest are the same Existence. The one Being alone
manifests itself in the universe, but it can be seen and understood only
as clothed and garmented in the traces of the names and attributes. The
fixed entities come to appear as existent entities, but in fact, the only
thing that appears and becomes manifest is the Apparent, the Manifest,
and that is the One Entity of Being.
of the unity of principle (li) and vital-energy (ch'i), or substance (t'i) and
function (yung).
Liu Chih' s translation is far from literal, and on several occasions he
abbreviates the discussion or adds commentary to the text. This is most
obvious with the poetry, which he almost always drops. In the original
Persian, the quatrains that are found in every Gleam alleviate the dense-
ness of the philosophical discussion. H the reader has not quite under-
stood what Jami is getting at in the prose sections, at least the poetry
delights the ear and suggests the point in simpler language. In the trans-
lation, however, Liu Chih is interested only in philosophical and meta-
physical issues, and with two or three exceptions, he makes no attempt
to translate the poems. Hence the Chinese text keeps the high level of
discourse throughout, and readers have no opportunity to refresh them-
selves with poetical diversions.
As Liu Chih explains in a short comment at the end of Gleam 12, he
sees Lawti,i~ as divided into two parts. The first twelve Gleams explain
the necessity of kung or" endeavor," the next twenty-four Gleams expli-
cate the nature of i, a word that means both "righteousness" and" mean-
ing." By endeavor and righteousness/meaning Uu Chih has in mind
what would be called in Islamic terms "practice" (camai) and "knowl-
edge" or" theory" (ciJm, na+J~r). We have already met the term" endeavor"
in the title of Liu Chih' s book, Interpretation of the Five Endeavors, where it
is employed to designate Islam's Five Pillars, that is, the five basic prac-
tices. However, Displaying the Concealment uses the term in the sense of
practice in general, just as Wang Tai-yii does in the Great Learning when
he says, "The endeavor of witnessing the One is indeed the chief task"
(p. 88). As Liu Chih remarks at the end of Gleam 12, endeavor is to seek
and to cultivate the Tao.
I or "righteousness/meaning" stands after jen (humanity) in the lists
of the four or five key Confucian virtues. In Mencius, for whom the sense
of "righteousness" is strong, the word designates the path that must be
followed if people are to achieve true humanity. He writes,
]en is the human heart and i the human path. How sad it is when
a man gives up the right path instead of following it and allows his
heart to be lost without knowing how to seek it. When his chickens
and dogs are lost, he knows that he has to seek for them, but not
when his heart is lost. The Tao of learning is nothing but seeking for
the lost heart. (VIA.lt)
Righteousness/meaning is associated with the spirit of metal among
the Five Agents, and it manifests the principle of what is right, correct,
just, and appropriate. Its semantic range corresponds roughly with that
of Arabic baqq, which means truth, rightness, reality, appropriateness,
Liu Chih' s Translation of Lawa•ib 123
inanimate things are "bodies." Bodies along with spirits are" substan~es."
Substances along with accidents are "possible existents." Possible exis-
tents along with the Necessary Existence are "Existence." Undifferenti-
ated Existence is the One Essence that lies behind all reality.
Although the Greco-Islamic terms in this discussion are totally foreign
to the Chinese tradition, the point of the discussion is to reduce the per-
ceived manyness of the world to the One Principle that lurks behind all
things, and few theoretical issues are closer to the heart of the Neo-
Confucians.16 Liu Chih knew very well that Jami was not trying to teach
people the details of Greek philosophical learning. Rather, he was mak-
ing use of well-known philosophical expressions to teach readers how
to see the world correctly. Hence Uu Chih adds at the beginning of Gleam
18 an alternative, Nee-Confucian version of the reduction of things to
the One. When he finishes it, he runs through }ami's argument, drop-
ping the specifically Greco-Islamic terms and simplifying the discussion
so that it corresponds exactly with the Nee-Confucian world view that
he has just outlined.
In Liu Chih's rewriting of Gleam 18, Real Being is "substance." Sub-
stance, as we have seen repeatedly, is the underlying reality that makes
itself manifest as "function." According to Liu Chih, the Real Being's
function is knowledge and power, which is to say that the Real Being
knows all things and is powerful over all things, and it exercises its power
in accordance with its knowledge. So, having knowledge and power,
the Real Being acts. Once there is activity, the principle" (li) of the activity
II
the appearance and guise to which it gives rise. So, once there are forms
and images, specific activities can be described, whether vegetal attri-
butes like growth and nourishment or animal characteristics like life and
spirit. Looking at the ten thousand things from this point of view, we
have a full differentiation into different classes and types, which may
then be discussed in terms of their names and guises. But all this is simply
the outward appearance, and its reality goes back to the One Principle.
Liu Chih' s most interesting adaptation of the text is probably what he
has done in Gleam 27, where he cleverly avoids a problem caused by
}ami's mention of two proper names-Ash'ari, the founder of the
Ash' arite school of theology, and l:fusbaniyya, a name given in Islamic
texts to the Sophists. Liu Chih had two obvious alternatives as to how to
deal with these names. He could have explained the references, or he
could have dropped the names Gust as he dropped the most technical
part of this chapter, toward the end). Instead, he took inspiration from
the root meaning of the terms and interpreted them as symbols for two
types of mentality. The name Ash'ari derives from the same root as shi<r,
''poetry," and the word tzusbdniyya comes from the same root as tJisab,
"arithmetic." Liu Chih simply calls the two the ''poet" and the '' arithme-
tician," and thereby adds a certain logic to their differing perspectives.
Given the general skill with which he translates the text and his wide
reading in Arabic and Persian sources, it is difficult to believe that this
modification could have been anything but intentional.
The Translations
LAwa>itJ was first translated into English in 1906 by E. H. Whinfield and
Mirza Mu):lammad ~zvini, and this work has been reprinted several
times. Although it is one of the best of the early translations of Sufi texts,
it is more a paraphrase than a translation, and Whinfield' s goal, as is
shown clearly by his introduction, was to fit the text into the now dis-
credited idea that Sufism can be explained by the influence of Nee-
platonism. He made little attempt to situate the text in its own historical
and intellectual context, and indeed that task would have been almost
impossible at the time, since Ibn al-'Arabi and his school of thought were
practically unknown in the West. Given the voluminous scholarship on
Ibn al-<Arabi that has appeared since 1906, LAwa>itJ has long been in need
of a new translation.
Yann Richard's French translation, done in 1982 along with a critical
edition of the Persian text, is much more accurate and reflects some of
the new scholarship, but his introduction and annotations are not quite
enough to provide a real sense of what the text ~s trying to do and how
Liu Chih' s Translation of Lawd'i~ 127
Gleams
Introduction
In the place where he who voiced "I am the most eloquent" 2 threw
down the pennant of eloquence and recognized himself as incapable of
pronouncing Your laudation-how can just any stuttering talker let loose
his tongue, how can just any confused surmiser adorn his speech? Or
rather, making manifest here the admission of incapacity and inadequacy
128
7
129
130 Gleams
is itself inadequacy, and seeking to share in this meaning with that leader
of the religion and this world is far from beautiful courtesy.
Whispered Prayer
"My God, my God, deliver us from occupation with follies, and show
us the realities of things as they are!" 4 Lift the covering of heedlessness
from our insight's eye and show us each thing as it is! Disclose not to us
nonbeing in being's form, and place no curtain of nonbeing on being's
beauty! Make these imaginal forms into the mirror of Your beauty's self-
disclosures, not the cause of veiling and distance! Tum these imaginary
imprints into the capital of our knowing and seeing, not the instrument
of our ignorance and blindness! Our deprivation and rejection come
from ourselves-turn us not over to ourselves! Bestow upon us free-
dom from ourselves, and confer upon us familiarity with Yourself!
0 Lord, give me a pure heart, an aware spirit!
Give me sighs at night and tears at dawn!
In Your self's path, first take my self away from self,
then show me the way, selfless of self, to Yourself!
0 Lord, make all creatures turn against me!
Put me to the side of all the worldlings!
Turn my heart's face from every direction,
give my love one direction and one face!
0 Lord, free me from deprivation-why not?
Give me a road to the lane of gnosis-why not?
Your munificence has turned many a disbeliever into
a Muslim.
Turn one more disbeliever into a Muslim-why not?
0 Lord, free me from need for both worlds,
lift my head high with poverty's harness! 5
Make me a confidant in the path of the secret,
turn me aside from every path not to You!
Displaying the Concealment of the Real Realm 133
direction. It also says that when you talk about the two ranks, "You will
reject the things and run to the Lord."
Tl.Ole: Ch'ien-lung [era], the sixteenth year, the year hsin-wei [1751],
the second month of spring, P'ing-ling, Chiang-tso. Written by P' eng
Hui-o at the government office of West Hill.
Smlllllntroduction
by
Wei I<ang Ch' ui-ch'ih
It was said in ancient times that each person has abilities and inabilities.
Others cannot force me to do what I cannot do, and I cannot force others
to do what they cannot do. None of us can force others to do what they
cannot do, which means that all of us have what we cannot do. Even
those who are surely able can only reach the ultimate by means of "not
forgetting and not helping." 4 This means that those who are surely able
understand the lack of ability.
Concerning the book Displaying the Concealment of the Real Realm, Master
Ching-ch'u5 is surely able, and I am surely unable. However, the master
did not take me as unable, and he asked me again and again to write the
introduction. This is why I do not dare to take the master as unable, and
I have often sought advice from him to get his consent. When two help
each other, in fact they are needed by each other, and when they meet,
both of them will be perfected.
Preface
To continue: This is a treatise named The Gleams on the explanation of
the gnostic sciences and the meanings. It has gleamed forth from the
tablets of the secret hearts and spirits of the lords of gnosis and the mas-
ters of tasting and finding in appropriate expressions and lustrous allu-
sions.6 It is hoped that none will see in the midst him who has embarked
on this explication or sit on the carpet of avoidance and the mat of pro-
test, since the author has no share save the post of translator, and no
portion but the trade of speaker.
I am nothing, and much less than nothing-
no work comes from nothing and less than nothing.
Whatever secret of Reality I speak,
no share have I but the speaking.
In the world of poverty, signlessness is best,
in the story of love, tonguelessness is best.
From him who has not tasted the secrets,
speaking by way of translation is best.
Like the clear in intellect, I've pierced a few pearls
to translate the sayings of the high in rank.
Might it be that from know-nothing me, the trusty
will convey this gift to Hamadan' s king?7
Dispklying the Concealment of the Real Realm 135
How wonderful is this book! First it talks about endeavor, then about
righteousness. In talking about endeavor, it says that the heart should
be one; in talking about righteousness, it says that the reality should be
sought. This can truly give rise to the Taoof"cultivating [the body], regu-
lating [the family], governing [the country], bringing peace [to every-
thing under heaven ]" 8 and the principle of the Three Bonds and the
Five Constants. Without endeavor, no righteousness will be created, and
without righteousness, no endeavor will be seen.
Time: Ch'ien-lung [era], the year i-wei [1775], the fourth month, its
middle third, in the city of Ch'in-ch'eng; by Wei Kang Ch'ui-ch'ih, who
added this introduction to the text at the lodging place of T' o-sui, the
Sheng-chai house.
136 Gleams
"God has not assigned to any man two hearts in his breast" [Koran
33:4). The Howless Presence, who has given you the blessing of being,
has placed within you only one heart, that you may be one-faced and
one-hearted in love, turning away from other than Him and turning
toward Him-not that you should make one heart into a hundred pieces,
each piece wandering after a goal.
0 you who've turned to the qibla of faithfulness,
why make the shell into the kernel's veil?
It's not good for your heart to run after this and that-
with one heart, one friend is enough for you.
CHAPTERl
One Heart
The Classic says, "The Real Lord did not give humans two hearts in
their bellies." The meaning is that the lmageless Imperial Majesty has
bestowed upon you your image, and He entrusted not but one heart to
your image. Why do you not have one heart and one bearing, reject the
things, and run to the Lord? Do not make one heart into a hundred
divisions, each division following a selfish intention, thereby making
your heart into a scrapbook.
CHAPTER2
Collectedness and Division
The Real Lord is timeless and placeless, but He always looks at the
inward and outward of the ten thousand beings. Alas, you people do
not see what He sees, but instead you see other things. You do not walk
the Tao of the Real Lord, but instead you walk different paths.
140 Gleams
Why do you give the reins of acquiescence into the hands of wishes
and hopes? Why do you lean back on these varnishings that undergo
annihilation? Pull your heart out from everything and bind it to God!
Cut off from everything and join with God! It is He who has always
been and always will be. No thorn of any newly arrived thing scratches
the face of His subsistence.
Every heart-tugging form that shows its face to you
will soon be stolen from your eyes by the spheres.
Go, give your heart to someone who, in the stages of existence,
has always been with you and always will be.
Gone-that I should turn my face to the qibla of the fair,
inscribing the words of their heartache on the tablet of
my heart.
I aim for the eternal beauty-
I've had my fill of all loveliness not eternal.
Anything that does not let you tum to subsistence
will at last make you the target of annihilation's arrow.
If you will be parting from a thing when you die,
better to part from it now while you're still alive.
0 great man, let it be property or offspring,
it is clear how long it will subsist.
Happy is he whose heart is tied to that Heart-taker
to whom are joined, heart and soul, the Folk of Heart.
DispliJying the Concealment of the Real Realm 141
CHAPTER4
Everything other than the Lord will certainly alter and perish. Its prin-
ciple belongs to hidden nonbeing, while its image is illusory being. Yes-
terday at origin, it was nonbeing and had not been seen, and today it is
seen, yet it remains nonbeing from the very beginning. Thus you must
awaken to what will be tomorrow.
Thus, you should take the path from the part to the whole and turn
your face from binding to unboundedness. You should not consider the
part as distinct from the whole, lest the bound hold you back from the
unbounded.
I went to look at the roses, but that candle of Tiriz
saw me in the rosebeds and sweetly said,
''I'm the root, the meadow's roses are My branch-
why be held back from the root by the branches?"
What will you do with that elegant stature and lovely cheek?
What will do with those chains of curling locks?
From every side, the unbounded beauty is shining-
0 unaware, what will you do with bounded loveliness?
CHAPTERS
CHAPTER6
The body of human beings is turbid, but their nature is the most spiri-
tual. Because of form, they receive shapes, and when they encounter
things, they become tinged by them. A wise man said, "When human
nature can embody the Real Principle and be seen, the images qua images
cannot obstruct. When the Real and the image become united and they
perfect the form, this is almost the same body as heaven and earth." 10
144 Gleams
The man who carefully guards [the Tao] forgets himself and forgets
the things. He examines the substance and searches for the Real; he clari-
fies that the levels of the ten thousand beings are all locations in which
the Graceful Beauty flows perpetually, and that the ranks of all things
are the places in which the Complete Power manifests and exposes itself.
He obtains in this place the real vein of the utmost Tao, and he employs
his power in this place through mysterious endeavor and subtle appli-
cation. His heart is transformed such that enjoying self is enjoying things,
preserving self is preserving the Lord, and portraying self is portraying
the Lord. The obstructed is the penetrating.
146 Gleams
You must exercise this eminent relation such that in every moment
and in every state you will never be empty of this relation-whether in
coming or going, eating or sleeping, hearing or speaking. In short, in all
movement and rest you must be present with the moment, lest it pass
in vain; or rather, you must be aware of the breath, lest it come out in
heedlessness.
From year to year though You don't show Your face,
there's no worry my love for You will vanish.
In every place, with every person, in every state, I have
hope in my heart and Your image in my eye. 16
You must sbive so that dispersed thoughts strike their tents outside the
breast's courtyard and the light of the Real Being's manifestation-glory
be to Him!-casts its rays on your nonmanifest realm. It will take you
away from you and free you from the jostling of the others. No conscious-
ness of yourself will remain, nor any consciousness of the self's lack of
consciousness. Rather, nothing will subsist but God, the One, the Unitary.
0 Lord, help-so that I may escape from my own animality,
so that I may cut myself off from the bad and escape
from my own evil!
Take my self away from myself in Your own Being
so that I may escape my selfhood and selflessness.
Displaying the Concealment of the Real Realm 147
CHAPrER7
Storing and Piling Up
Storing and piling up this Tao must be such that you not be without it
even for a moment, whether in sleeping or eating, in talking or silence.
In all movement and non-movement, you must preserve your heart, so
that nothing commands you to vanity. You must be self-awake, so that
you do not end up in confusion and ignorance.
CHAPTERS
Conquering Self
If you are watchful, confused considerations will run away, the light
of the Real Being will start displaying, and the ten thousand things will
all be provided within self. 13 There will be no disturbance by the exter-
nal things. There will be no self-awareness, nor will there be awareness
of non-awareness of self. 14 There will be nothing acted upon-only the
Unique One, the Real Lord.
148 Gleams
CHAPTER9
As long as Adam's child is caught in the trap of caprice and fancy, his
constancy in this relation will be difficult. But when the traces of the
attractions of Gentleness become manifest within him and preoccupa-
tion with the objects of sensation and intellect goes far from his non-
manifest realm, taking pleasure in this relation will dominate over the
corporeal pleasures and spiritual comforts. The toil of struggle will dis-
appear from the midst, and the pleasure of witnessing will cling to his
soul. His mind will turn away from the jostling of the others, and the
tongue of his state will begin to hum this tune:
0 nightingale of the soul, I'm drunk from remembering you,
0 footfall of heartache, I'm low from remembering you.
All the world's pleasures are trampled under foot
by the taste that comes to hand from remembering you.
Displaying the Concealment of the Real RttJlm 151
CHAPTER10
CHAPTER 11
Uplifting the Awareness
Human beings constantly fall into the net of selfish desires, so clarity
of perseverance in the Tao becomes difficult. If the ebb and flow of the
Utmost Mercy's uplifting the awareness comes to be seen in them and if
the affairs and tasks of the hidden and the manifest are purified in their
heart, then only does the taste of the Tao begin to overcome the taste of
the bodily mandate. Laborious toil is eased, and the subtle realm be-
comes manifest. Selfish intention is removed, and a song of joy arises.
152 Gleams
CHAPTER 12
Real Guarding
Once the truly sincere seeker obtains the guidance that is the uplift-
ing of his awareness, he must focus his heart and guard it closely so that
it settles down peacefully and does not transgress any boundary. He
must know that this Tao is the most difficult thing to obtain, and so also,
it is difficult to advance toward the ultimacy of what ought to be.
CHAPTER 13
Real Being
The Real Being is only the One, and It has neither place nor sequence.
It is not tainted by the name of change and alteration, nor does It have
anything to do with the meaning of multiplicity. It is the Lord of the ten
thousand transformations, but at root It undergoes no transformation.
It is the subtleness of the ten thousand traces, but at root It has no trace.
No learning can carry It, no eye can see It. It manifests all colors and
guises, 15 but Itself has no color and guise. It is aware of the ten thousand
things, but Itself is beyond the ten thousand things. If you want to ob-
serve Its beauty, the light of your eyes will first be dazzled. If you want
to divulge Its subtleness, your throat and tongue will first become dumb.
If you want to think about Its concealment, your heart's wisdom will
first be perplexed.
154 Gleams
that has being through Its own Essence, while the rest of the existents
have being through It. In reality, there is no existent other than It in the
external world. The other existents occur to It and endure through It.
Thus has given witness the tasting of the great and perfect gnostics and
the lofty folk of certainty.
CHAPrER14
Being
~~Real Being'' is the being of the utmost Reality, and It Itself is the Root
Substance and the Reality upon which all beings depend. Beside this
Being, there is no being. The ten thousand beings are produced by reli-
ance on this Being, and they stand by depending upon It.
When the word "being" is used for the name of the Lord, it has only
this meaning-not the first.
156 Gleams
CHAPTER 15
Substance and Function
Substance and function are not the same, but they cannot be sepa~
rated. They are not the same if we talk about meaning, but they cannot
be separated if we talk about their reality.
The Essence as such is denuded of all names and attributes and rid of
every relation and attribution. It is qualified by these affairs in respect
of Its attentiveness toward the world of manifestation in the First Self-
Disclosure, which is that It discloses Itself by Itself to Itself. Then the
relations of knowledge, light, existence, and witnessing are realized.
The relation of knowledge entails knowerness and knownness. Light
requires manifestness and making manifest. Existence and witnessing
issue forth in finding-existence and being-found-in-existence, witnesser-
ness and witnessedness.
In the same way, manifestation, which is a requirement of light, is
preceded by nonmanifestation; and nonmanifestation has an essential
priority and firstness in relation to manifestation. Thus the names First
and Last, Manifest and Nonmanifest are designated.
So also, in the Second Self-Disclosure, and the Third-as far as God
wills-the relations and attributions are multiplied. The more the mul-
tiplication of the relations and names, the more His manifestation, or
rather, His hiddenness. "So glory be to Him who veiled Himself through
the loci of His light's manifestation and became manifest by letting down
His curtains!" 23
His hiddenness is in respect of the unmixedness and unboundedness
of the Essence, and His manifestation in respect of the loci of manifesta-
tion and the entifications.
I said to my rose-cheeked lovely, "0 you with bud-like mouth,
why keep hiding your face like flirting girls?"
She laughed and said, "Unlike the beauties of your world,
in the curtain I'm seen, but without it I'm hidden."
Your cheek can't be seen without mask,
your eyes can't be seen without veil.
As long as the sun's fully shining,
its fountain will never be seen.
When the sun strikes its banner of light on the sphere,
it dazzles the eyes from afar with its rays.
When it shines from behind a curtain of clouds,
the gazer can see it without falling short.
Displllying the Concealment of the Real Realm 159
CHAPTER 16
Names and Similatives
The Second Movement, the Third Movement, and so on, are cease-
lessly produced, and the names and marks become inexhaustible. The
more secret the hiddenness, the more evident the manifestation; the
more splendid the manifestation, the more concealed the hiddenness. 16
Hence it is said, "How mysterious is the Real Lord-by manifesting light
He hides Himself, and by letting down curtains He displays Himself!"
CHAPTER17
The First Movement is the upright one and the subtle conveyance
that embraces and puts together all the ruling17 conveyances of being
and nonbeing.
If we talk only about substance, that is the level of the Only-One. If
we talk about substance together with function, that is the level of the
First-One. The level of the Only-One is the inward, the origin, and the
beginning. The level of the First-One is the outward, the derivative, and
the end.
As for the similative marks of the level of the First-One, if we talk
about them as the Total Whole, then, facing the things are names of trans-
forming, producing, bestowing, and granting; and not facing the things
are names of knowledge, life, power, and act. These are the names of the
Real Being's substance and function. The Root Nature clothed in all these
names is the known images, which are the principles that are possessed
totally by the Real Being. At this time there are as yet no numbers.
If we talk about [these similative marks] as divisions and separations,
they are called the ''dividing chapters,'' the "individual truths/ the
"manifestations,n and the *revealings," all of which are the mutually di-
vided images of the external things. The Root Nature clothed in all these
similatives is the known images that are the principles possessed by each
thing's being. Now there are numbers for the first time.
All the principles that are possessed by each thing's being are obtained
when the Real Being pervades and goes into the midst of the things,
after which It is capable of manifesting and revealing all the ruling traces.
Those who obtain these completely are the sages and worthies. Those
who obtain these partially are all the ignorant people and the ten thou-
sand things.
162 Gleams
Through the unity of the gathering of Its divine and engendered tasks,
the Presence of the Essence pervades and discloses Itself beginninglessly
and endlessly in all these realities, which are the differentiations of the
level of the One-and-allness-whether in the world of spirits, the world
of images, or the world of sensation and the witnessed; whether in this
world or the last world. 31
The goal of all this is the realization and manifestation of the ''Name-
derived Perfection," which is the perfection of disclosure and seeing dis-
closure. "The perfection of disclosure" means His manifestation in terms
of these respects. ''The perfection of seeing disclosure" means His witness-
ing Himself in terms of these same respects. 31 These are a manifestation
and a witnessing that are plainly viewed and in entity, like the manifes-
tation and witnessing of the undifferentiated within the differentiated.
Thus, all are nothing but the reality and fulfillment of the completeness
of the Real Being's names. This is the level of" the manifesting transfor-
mation," and it is the transformation of the Total Whole within dividing
separativeness.
This is the root power and immeasurable wealth of the real complete-
ness. All the root affairs and encounters of the world, all the similative
marks, and all the manifesting transformations of the necessary, ruling
patterns of all the levels of lordness and thingness-all are as a unified
image put together in the One. Likewise, the ruling images that are
revealed and seen have already been seen in totality within the Root
Nature. This is a wealth beyond the ten thousand beings. The Classic
says, "Only the Real Lord is wealthy beyond the ten thousand worlds."
164 Gleoms
CHAPTER18
When there is Real Being, there is real knowledge. When there is real
knowledge, there is real power. Knowledge and power are the function
of the Substance, and they put forth acting and making. After the putting
forth of acting and making, principle and vital-energy become divided.
After the division of principle and vital-energy, the forms and images
are revealed. After the forms and images are revealed, growth and nour-
ishment take form. After growth and nourishment take form, spirit and
life are produced. Then the kinds of things become discriminated one
from another and the classes of things are divided according to the name.
The names and guises depend upon each other, but these are not true
things. There is only the Real Being, which by Itself manifests all Its root
affairs first on the level of knowledge, which is the total container of the
Principle. Then, on the level of power, the images are revealed dividedly
and become the external things. The external things all depend on the
names and guises of the Real Being. Spirit and life depend on growth
and nourishment, growth and nourishment depend on form's disposi-
tion, form's disposition depends on vital-energy, vital-energy depends
on the Principle, and the Principle is the subtle container of the Real
Being's knowledge and power.
If you remove the names and guises that divide and distinguish all
spirit and life, all are nothing but growing and nourishing bodies.
In the same way, if you remove the names and guises that divide and
distinguish all growing and nourishing bodies, all are nothing but one
disposition of vital-energy. If you remove the names and guises that
divide and distinguish all the dispositions of vital-energy, all are noth-
ing but one principle.
166 Gleams
When you eliminate that through which the Necessary and the pos-
sible become distinguished, both are gathered under the reality of the
Unbounded Existent. This is the same as the Reality of Existence.lt exists
through Its own Essence, not through an existence added to Its own
Essence. "Necessity" is the attribute of Its manifest, and "possibility" is
the attribute of Its nonmanifest. [By possibility] I mean the "fixed entities"
that are obtained when He discloses Himself to Himself clothed in His
own tasks. These distinguishing features-whether the differentiae and
specificities or the entifications and individuations-are all" divine tasks"
that are included and contained in the Oneness of the Essence. First, at
the level of knowledge, these features come forth in the form of the
fixed entities, and second, at the level of the eye,36 they take on the form
of the external entities by being clothed in the [fixed entities'] properties
and traces through the Manifest of Existence, which is the locus of dis-
closure and the mirror for the Nonmanifest of Existence.
In the same way, if you remove the names and guises that divide and
distinguish all the principles of the things, all are nothing but the knowl-
edge and power of the one Real Being. Again, if you remove the names
and guises that divide and distinguish all knowledge and power, all are
nothing but the one root nature of the Real, Perfect Penetration.
This is the Only-One, the Real Being, but the manifest names and
guises are not the same. Those who see narrowly do not reach what is
the Root, and thus they think that the Lord is outside the things. The
fact is that the Lord delimits Himself through the ten thousand things.
168 Gleams
CHAPTER19
Because of this we know that the Real Substance embraces the ten
thousand beings just as the requirer embraces the required-not as the
whole embraces the parts, nor as a container preserves water.
170 Gleams
In the same way, the Reality of Existence does not increase in perfec-
tion by becoming clothed in eminent affairs, nor does It accept deficiency
by becoming manifest in base loci of manifestation. Although sunlight
shines on the pure and the filthy, no alteration finds the way to the sim-
plicity of its luminosity-it gains no fragrance from musk, no color from
roses, no shame from thorns, and no blame from stones.36
When the sun adorns the world with its radiance,
well does it shine on pure and on filthy.
No filth leaves a stain on its light,
and nothing pure increases its purity.
Displaying the Concealment of the Real Realm 171
CHAPTER20
C1umge and Alteration
All the similative marks of the Root Affair undergo change and alter·
ation according to the hiding and revealing of the external images, but
this change and alteration of the similative marks cannot change and
alter the substance and function of the Reality-Principle. The similative
marks' change and alteration occurs in nonbeing and has nothing to do
with the Root Substance. If A is sitting on the right side of B, then stands
up and sits on the left side of B, the similative marks of A and B change
and alter, but the substance and function of the root nature of A and B
remain as they were.
When the Real Being clothes Itself with noble things, It does not in·
crease in benefit, and when It is revealed in mean things, It does not
increase in loss. Sunlight shines everywhere, but it is not touched by the
smell of musk, nor does it receive the color of flowers, nor is it destroyed
by a sword.
172 Gle~~ms
The Unbounded is never without the bounded, and the bounded does
not take form without the Unbounded. However, the bounded has need
for the Unbounded, and the Unbounded is independent of the bounded.
Hence requiring is from both sides, but need is from one side. This is
like the movement of a hand and the movement of a key in the hand.
0 You in whose holy sanctum none has any place,
the world appears from You, but You do not appear.
We and You will never be separate,
but we need You, and You don't need us.
CHAPrER21
Penetration and Obstruction (1)
No, rather the lover is the Real and the beloved He, the seeker is the
Real and the sought He. He is the Sought and the Beloved in the station
of Unity's gathering, and the seeker and the lover in the level of differ-
entiation and manyness.
0 You toward whom no one journeys but You,
neither mosque nor monastery is empty of You!
I saw all the seekers and everything sought-
all are You, with no one else in the midst.
Displaying the Concealment of the Real Realm 175
CHAPTER22
Therefore, it is said that the obstructer is the Real and the obstructed
is also the Real; the seeker is the Real, and the sought is also the Real.
The sought and the obstructed are at the level of the Total One, but the
seeker and the obstructer are in the site of separation and division.
176 Gleoms
So, in terms of reality and existence, each thing is either entified Exist-
ence; or it is the entification that has occurred for Existence, and the
entification is the entified thing's attribute. Although in respect of the
concept, "attribute" is other than "object to which it is attributed," in
respect of existence, they are the same. A disparity in terms of concept
and a unification in terms of existence necessitate the soundness of the
predication.38
Neighbor, companion, fellow voyager-all are He.
In beggar's rags, inking's satin-all are He.
In the banquet of dispersion and the private hall of gathering,
all are He, by God-by God, all are He! 39
DispiDying the Conct~~lment of the Real Rmlm 177
CHAPTER23
The "principle" of all things is the Real Being's knowledge and the
movement of a similative of Its root affair; or, it is the root of the Real
Being by Itself in the midst of knowledge, moving as a similative of the
real, root affair.
The "form" of everything is the outward of the Real Being and the
ruling images of all the principles, which become manifest; or, it is the
root of the Real Being, which itself is manifest clothed with those ruling
images. What we call"principle" is the subtle within knowledge, and
what we call "form" is the revealed through power. Knowledge and
power are the functions of the Real Being. If the function is discussed as
real and as reality, it is the substance.
CHAPI'ER24
The Allotment of the Names
Although the Real Being can be explained in the ten thousand kinds
of secret and manifest things, the levels and orders are not the same,
and their classes and degrees should not be disturbed. This is because
each level has a specific and unique name and designation. The similative
marks are different in the distinct levels, like the level of Lord-ruler-
ness and the level of thingness.
If the names unique to the level of Lordness---like An-la and the desig-
nation of the universal compassion- are mentioned in the level of the
ten thousand things, this is the utmost degree of perverse rebellion. If
the names unique to the level of thingness are mentioned in the level of
Lordness, this is the ultimate perplexity and confusion.
180 Gleams
The True 'Existent is not more than one. It is the same as Real Existence
and Unbounded Being. However, It has many levels.40
The third level is the unity of the gathering of all the active, trace-
inducing entifications. This is the level of Divinity.
Displlzying the Concealment of the Real Realm 181
CHAPTER25
The Real Level
The Real Being is only one, not many. It is the True Being and the
Perfectly Penetrating Being. It has many levels.
The first level is the level of Non-Movement, which is the subtle pene-
tration without any obstruction. It has nothing to do with similative
marks, nor does It reveal Itself in sound and hearing. The man of ears
and eyes has no place to use his hearing and clarity, and the man of
wisdom and wakefulness has no place to turn his spiritual insight. It is
the Great Function with total completeness. Wanting to search out Its
concealment, the man of clarity becomes perplexed, and wanting to pene-
trate Its meaning, the man of speech becomes dumb. It has no trace to
be followed and no principle of meaning to be examined.
The second level is Its movement. This movement embraces all the
necessary movements of Lordness and all the powerful movements of
thingness. This level is called the "First Movement," because the true
principle of the Real Being is the beginning of the ten thousand move-
ments. Above it is the level of Non-Movement, nothing else.
The third level is the true Only-One, embracing and putting together
all the movements of the root act's bestowal of traces. This is the level of
Lord ness.
182 Gleams
The fifth level is the unity of the gathering of all the passive entifi-
cations, whose task is accepting traces and being passive. This is the
engendered, possible level.
So, in reality, Existence is not more than one. It pervades all these
levels and all the realities ordered within them. Within these levels and
realities, It is the same as these levels and realities. So also, within It,
these levels and realities were the same as It, since ''God was, and nothing
was with Him.''41
Being manifests Itself in everything,
and if you want to keep track of Its state in each,
Go, look at the bubbles on top of the wine, how
the wine is they in them, and they are wine in the wine.
The fourth level is the level of the dividing separativeness of the level
of Lordness. This is the level of the manifestation of the names and desig-
nations of all the root act's movements.
These two levels act as "the outward of the Real Being." What we call
"the necessary rulings of the Real Principle" are specific to this station
of the division.
The fifth level is the Only-One that embraces and puts together all
the movements of the powerful acts. This is the principle of all beings,
following the level of Lordness, and it sees by itself for itself. This is the
level of the powerful act and thingness.
The sixth level is the level of the dividing separativeness of the level
of thingness, that is, the world.
In sum, Its reality does not coexist with the manyness of the things.
There is only One Real, which pervades and goes into the levels and
orders of the inward and outward of the ten thousand beings. When
existing in the principles of all the images, this One Real is the same as
the principles of all the images. So also, when the principles of all the
images exist in the Real Being, they are the same as the Real Being. "At
origin the Real Lord does not share with anything."
It is also said, lllf you want to discriminate the Real from the things,
you should look at water and waves."
You should not say that the Real and the world were separate before
the time of A-tan. Apart from the world, it is not possible to talk about
the Real.
When the world is in the Real,
it is this very Real,
and when the Real is in the world,
It is not other than the world.
184 Gleams
CHAPTER26
The Reality of the Things
The "principle" of the ten thousand beings is the Real Being's Root
Nature. This means that when the reality-principle of the ten thousand
beings is in the site of the Root Nature, in reality it is One Substance
concerning which two" and llnonbeing" must not be said. However, in
II
There is One Substance, yet all the images of concealment and secret-
ness and of manifestation and revelation are seen as many. In its reality
and origin, it is never many, for there is nothing but One Substance.
In the Bezel of Shu' ayb [chapter twelve of the Fu$il$ al-~ikam 1 the
Shaykh [Ibn al-~bi1 says that the cosmos consists of accidents gathered
together in the One Entity, which is the reality of Being. It undergoes
change and renewal at every breath and every instant. At every instant
a world goes to nonexistence and its likeness comes into existence, but
most of the world's folk are heedless of this meaning, just as God has
said: "No indeed, but they are uncertain of a new creation" [50:15].
As for the Ash' arites, [they were mistaken1because they affinned plural
substances apart from the reality of Existence and held that the changing,
renewing accidents endured through them. They did not know that the
cosmos in all its parts is nothing but accidents undergoing renewal and
change at every breath and gathered together in the One Entity. At each
instant, they disappear from this Entity, and their likenesses are clothed
by It. Hence, the one who gazes falls into error by means of the succes-
sion of the likenesses. He fancies that the affair is one and continuous.
Thus the Ash' a rites say that the likenesses succeed one another in the
accident's locus, without any instant being empty of an individual acci-
dent similar to the first individual. So the gazer supposes that it is one
continuous affair.
An ocean, not decreasing, not increasing,
waves going, waves coming-
Since the world is made up of waves,
it never lasts for two moments, or rather, two instants.
The world-if you can take a lesson-
is an appearance that flows in overtaking stages.
Within all the stages of the flowing appearance
is a mystery-the pervading Reality of Realities.
As for the error of the Sophists, it is that, despite their saying that
constant alteration fills the whole cosmos, they did not become alert to
the fact that the One Reality is clothed in the forms and accidents of the
Displaying the Concealment of tire Real Rt12lm 187
CHAPTER27
The World
A former worthy said that the world is a collectedness that collects all
the manifesting images and gathers and assembles them in the root nature
of the Real One. Moreover, the alteration, change, and ceaseless produc-
tion of the world accords with the pervading and the going, the ebb and
the flow, of vital-energy. In a moment it perishes and in a moment it
arises; one world perishes and another world is produced, but the multi-
tude do not grasp this meaning.
The poet was caught up with images and lost the principle, and the
arithmetician disregarded the principle and became involved with emp-
tiness.18
The poet sought after the principle outside the Real Principle. He said,
''The principles are in numbers. The images of alteration, change, and
ceaseless production depend upon these principles and are established
through them." He did not know that all is of One Root, and that the
world and the ten thousand things are only the complexity of the names
and images. In accordance with vital-energy's number, they change and
become new, but originally they are gathered together in One Root.
However, this One Root's hiding and revealing are not perpetual. At
one moment it becomes manifest in this image, at another moment it
appears in that image. The onlooker sees that the ruling images revolve
and flow and that what is seen later and what was seen before are simi-
lar in form and pattern. So, he finally comes to suppose that this is one
perpetual affair.
188 Gleams
As for the lords of unveiling and witnessing, they see that the Presence
of the Real discloses Itself at each breath with another self-disclosure
and that there is no repetition at all in Its self-disclosure. In other words,
It does not disclose Itself at two instants through one entification and
one task. Rather, at each breath It becomes manifest through another
entification, and at each instant It discloses Itself in another task.
Being, which is not seen plainly in one task for two instants,
at every instant discloses Itself in another task.
Search for this point in uEach day [He is] upon some task" [55:29]
if you need proof from the Speech of the Real.
The secret in this is that the Presence of the Real has contrary names,
some of gentleness and some of subjugation.tS All are perpetually at work,
and ineffectuality is not permitted for any of them. 46 Hence, when one
of the possible realities is prepared for existence because of the obtain-
ment of the preconditions and the elimination of the impediments, the
all-merciful merc:y47 grasps it and effuses existence upon it. Then the
Manifest of Existence, by mean of becoming clothed in this reality's traces
and properties, entities Itself in a specific entification and discloses Itself
in terms of this entification. After that It is stripped of the entification
because of the subjugation of True Unity, which entails the dissolution
of the entifications and traces of the formal manyness.48 At the very in-
stant of stripping, because of what is entailed by the all-merciful mercy,
It becomes entified with another specific entification that is similar to
the previous enti.fication. At the second instant It is dissolved by Unity's
subjugation, and another entification is obtained through the all-merciful
mercy. So it continues, as long as God wills. Hence, in no two instants
does self-disclosure occur through one entification.
At each instant a world goes to nonexistence and another like it comes
to exist. However, those who are veiled, because of the succession of
likenesses and the mutual correspondence of the states, fancy that the
Displaying the Conctt~lment of the Real Realm 189
The poet did not arrive and the arithmetician went too far. Only those
who are with the real discernment see luminously that the Imperial
Majesty of the One Real appears at every breath, and Its appearance is
never repeated. In two moments It does not appear in one affair, and in
two affairs It does not appear at one moment. At this moment It appears
in this affair, at that moment It appears in that affair. These are not the
same and they do not coexist.
world's existence stays in one state and, over consecutive times, has one
manner.
Glory be to God! What a marvelous loving God,
embracing bounty, generosity, mercy, and munificence!
At every breath He takes a world to nonexistence,
and in that very moment He brings another like it.
God it is who gives every sort of gift,
but each of His names gives a gift apart.
To the world's reality at every instant
one name gives annihilation, another subsistence.
The proof that the cosmos is the totality of accidents gathered together
in the One Entity, which is the Reality of Existence, is that, as much as
the realities of the existents are defined, nothing becomes manifest in
their definitions but accidents. For example, it is said, ''The human is a
rationally-speaking animal." "Animal" is a growing, sensate body, moving
by volition. "Body" is a substance receptive to the three dimensions.
"Substance" is an existent that is not in a substrate. Existent" is an essence
II
They do not know that the world is the root nature of the Real One.
The images that are gathered together and assembled within it can never
be portrayed along with the principles of the ten thousand things. Even
if you want to portray them, you can portray nothing but their images.
For example, if we try to portray the human being, we say, nThe human
11
being is a living thing with the power of speech." A living'' thing is
simply a disposition that has the power of awareness and movement
11
and the power of growth and nourishment. Disposition" is simply a
vital-energy that receives various forms, vessels, congealings, and com-
binations. ~~Vital-energy" is simply a principle that becomes manifest
from the bestowed mandate of the Real Being.
All are portrayed like this, and they are simply names and images,
except for the substance of the undifferentiated nature within all the
names and images. Those who reach the final stage cannot portray it
with names and images.
192 Gleams
Real Existence and True Being that endures by Itself and makes these
accidents endure.
The lords of theory say that concepts like this are not differentiae.
Rather, they are requirements of differentiae that are given expression
as differentiae" because the differentiae's realities cannot be expressed
II
The claim that there is here a substantial something beyond the One
Entity is in the furthest limit of nullity, especially when the lords of the
Reality's unveiling-which is lit from the candle-niche of prophecy-
bear witness in contradiction, and the opponent is unable to offer any
proof. "And God speaks the truth, and He guides on the path" [33:4].
Don't seek to realize the meanings from the expressions,
don't seek without lifting the bindings and respects.
If you want to find Healing from the disease of ignorance,
don't seek The Canon of Deliverance from The Allusions.49
You are content with stopping at The Stopping Places-
aiming for The Goals has kept you from the goal.
If you don't remove the veils, you will never find
the lights of Reality rising from The Rising Pltlces. 50
Strive to lift the veils, not to gather books-
if you gather books, you'll never lift the veils.
How can love appear from the folds of your books?
Fold them up, turn to God, and repent!
Displilying the Concealment of the Real Realm 193
The greatest veil and the densest mask over the beauty of the true
Oneness is the essential bindings and plurality that occur in the Manifest
of Existence by means of Its becoming clothed in the properties and traces
of the entities fixed in the Presence of Knowledge, which is the Nonmani-
fest of Existence.
It appears to those who are veiled that the entities have become existent
in the external world. In fact, no aroma of external existence has reached
their nostrils; they have always been and will always be in their root
nonexistence.52 What is existent and witnessed is the Reality of Existence,
but in respect of being clothed in the properties and traces of the entities,
not in regard to being disengaged from them, because in this regard,
nonmanifestation and hiddenness are Its requirements. Thus, in reality,
the Reality of Existence remains in Its true Oneness as It was without
beginning and as It will be without end. However, because of being veiled
by the form of manyness's properties and traces, It comes forth in the
11
view of the 0thers" as bound and entified and appears as plural and
multiple.
Existence is an ocean, its waves eternal-
of it the world's folk have seen only waves.
Look at the waves coming from the inside of the ocean
to the outside, the ocean hidden within.
Gaze on the world, the divine secret hidden-
like the water of life, hidden in darkness.
Swarms of fish appear from the sea,
the ocean hidden by the swarming fish.
Displaying the Concealment of the Real Realm 195
CHAPTER28
Images and Similatives
The greatest and thickest veil over the Real One's beautiful face is the
Root Nature's displayed obstructions and manifest numbers. By clothing
various forms and images, the Root Being displays the traces of forms
and colors on Its external surface.
Those who are separated by the veil think that all the forms and images
have become external things. They do not know that the external things
have not yet taken form and always remain in the Non-Ultimate, and
each one of them is fully complete and presently disclosed in the Root
Nature. What is gained and seen at present is nothing but the Real Being.
The Real Being is only one, and from the beginning to the end, It is as It
is. The sight and hearing of the blind and dumb are nothing but block-
age, obstruction, and manyness.
The old ocean gives birth to new waves-
seeing the waves, you don't see the ocean.
The ocean is hidden inside the waves,
but the waves are manifest outside the ocean.
THE 'IWENTY-EIGHTH GLEAM
The Reality of Being, along with all the tasks, attributes, relations, and
respects that are the realities of all the existents, pervades the reality of
each existent. This is why it has been said, "Everything is in everything."
The author of the Gulshan-i rtiz says,
Split the heart of a single drop-
out will come a hundred pure oceans. 53
CHAPrER29
MJmifestation
Whenever the world manifests the shape of a form for the first time,
what becomes manifest is not the site of manifestation. What becomes
manifest is one thing, the site of manifestation something else. Moreover,
what becomes manifest is a form and a shadow, not the true substance.
Water and mirrors are like this. Only the Root of the Real Being's perfect
penetration is not like this. What becomes manifest is the same as the
site of manifestation. Everything manifest in the sites of manifestation
is the Root Substance.
CHAPrER30
The Principle
One Principle possesses all and contains the ten thousand principles.
The ten thousand principles are gathered together and contained by
the one Principle. Therefore it has been said, "In each of the ten thousand
things, there are the ten thousand principles.":m
11
A worthy said, If you open the heart of one drop, a hundred rivers
flow out evenly."
THE THIRTIETH GLEAM
Every power and act that emerges in the manifest from the loci of
manifestation is in reality manifest from the Real manifest within those
loci of manifestation, not from the loci themselves. In "The Wisdom of
the High," the Shaykh says, "The entity has no act. Rather, the act belongs
to its Lord within it. So the entity is at peace from the attribution of any
act to it."SA
Hence, power and act are attributed to the servants from the direction
of the Real's manifestation in their form, not from the direction of their
souls. Read '1\nd God created you and what you do" [37:96], and know
that your existence, power, and act come from the Presence of the
Howless.
From us are sought only incapacity and nonbeing-
being and its subordinates are all held back.
It is He who appears in our form-
that is why power and act are ascribed to us.
Since your essence is negated, 0 man of understanding,
keep silence in ascribing acts to yourself.
Listen to a sweet proverb, don't show a sour face-
"First put up the roof, then paint."
How long this praise of self to spite the envier?
How long promoting goods that no one buys?
You are nonexistent, and imagining your being
is perverse. How long this perverse imagining?
Displaying the Concealment of the Real Realm 199
CHAPTER31
All the power and acts that are made manifest from various sites of
manifestation are in reality manifest from the Real Being, not from the
site of manifestation. Therefore it is said, ~~People do not have acts. Acts
are only from the Lord. Yet people are happy with what returns to them-
selves."21
Hence, whenever we talk about the power and acts that are attrib-
uted to human beings, it is correct to say that they are the Real Being
becoming manifest in the human image, not that they are becoming
11
manifest through the human substance. The Oassic says, The Real Lord
transforms you and what you do."
THE THIRTY-FIRST GLEAM
The attributes, states, and acts that are manifest in the loci of manifes-
tation are, in reality, ascribed to the Real that is manifest in these loci of
manifestation. So, if from time to time an evil or a deficiency occurs in
some of them, this may be from the direction of the nonexistence of
something else, because existence qua existence is sheer good. When-
ever an evil is imagined from an affair of existence, this is because some
other affair of existence does not exist, not because of that affair of exist-
ence qua affair of existence.
Every description pertaining to good and perfection
is a description of the pure and transcendent Essence.
Every attribute counted as evil and bane
goes back to the inadequacy of the receptivities.
In the same way, for example, killing is evil. Its evilness is not in re-
gard to the killer's power to kill, or the weapon's cuttingness, or the
receptivity of the bodily member to cutting. Rather, it is in regard to
life's disappearance, and this is an affair of nonexistence. And so on with
other examples.
Wherever existence journeys, 0 heart,
know for certain that it is Sheer Good, 0 heart.
Every evil comes from nonexistence, not from existence,
so all evil is entailed by the "other," 0 heart.
Displaying the Concealment of the Retll Realm 201
CHAPTER32
All the natures, the feelings, and the turnings of vital-energy, and all
the acting and making that become manifest in all the sites of manifesta-
tion, are in reality related to the Real Being, who becomes manifest in all
these sites of manifestation. Thus, if an evil or an injury is seen in a site
of manifestation, the reason may be the nonbeing of a different affair,
because everything that has being is unmixedly limpid and "utmost
good." 22 So, if something is regarded as evil, this is because of the
nonbeing of another affair, not because this affair has being.
For example, hail harms fruits, and it is evil in relation to fruit. How-
ever, what makes it evil is not that the pattern and shape of hail's being
is not good, for in discussing the shape and pattern, it is judged to be
complete. Rather, that is because it caused the fruit not to reach com-
pleteness.
So also, killing is evil. What makes it evil is not the power of the killer,
the sharpness of the knife or the sword, or the ease of separating the
limbs from the one killed. Rather, it is simply because life has been
changed and removed. The change and removal of life is nonbeing.
Therefore, it is said that all being is good, and evil is also good. How-
ever, goodness is completeness, and it is from the affair of the Root Na-
ture; evilness is injury, and it belongs to a thing's being receptive to-
ward the endowment of ruin and such things.
202 Gleams
CHAPTER33
The ten thousand things all have knowledge, and each of them has
difference of more or less. The difference of more or less is based on the
completeness or incompleteness of receptivity toward the endowment
of the Real Being. When something receives the Real Being completely,
its knowledge is also complete. When something receives the Real Being
slightly and lackingly, its knowledge is little in itself.
Truly, the Real Being's knowledge goes throughout the ten thousand
beings. Therefore, without any doubt, all things large or small, manifest
or concealed, have knowledge. However there are two sorts of knowl-
edge. One can be called "knowledge" according to the common people's
opinion, and the other cannot be called "knowledge" according to their
opinion. Both kinds are called "having knowledge" by those who possess
real eyes.
For example, in the common people's opinion, it is not said that water
has knowledge. Nonetheless, we see that water has the power of divid-
ing between high and low. It leaves the high and has the power to go
down. When it encounters emptiness, it enters into it, and when it en-
counters fullness, it runs against it. If it is possible for it to go, it goes; if
not, it stops. All these come from the power of knowledge.
204 Gleams
Not only knowledge, but also all the powerful affairs possessed by
the Real Being pervade fully and go throughout the ten thousand beings.
All ten thousand things are endowed with the powerful affairs of the
Real Being. However, some have supremacy and some are subservient,
and the difference of more or less is nothing but the difference of com-
pleteness and incompleteness. 23
CHAPTER34
The Union of Reality and Thing
The Substance of the Real Being, which pervades and goes into the
ten thousand substances, is the Substance of the ten thousand beings,
and so also, the Substance of the ten thousand beings, which are put
together in the Real Substance, is the Substance of the Real Being. The
functions of the Real Being, which are distributed to the ten thousand
beings, are the functions of the ten thousand beings, and so also the
functions of the ten thousand beings, which are contained in the Real
Function, are the functions of the Real Being.
In some places in the Fu$U$, the Shaykh' swords indicate that the exist-
ence of the entities of the possible things and of the perfections subordi-
nate to existence are attributed to the Presence of the Real (glory be to
Him and high indeed is He!); in other places, that everything attributed
to the Presence of the Real is this very effusion of existence, nothing
else, and that existence's subordinates are among the things entailed by
the entities.
These two statements are reconciled by the fact that the Presence of
the Real has two self-disclosures. One is the absent, knowledged self-
disclosure, which the Sufis have called "the most holy effusion." 56 It is
the Real's manifestation to Himself from eternity without beginning in
the Presence of Knowledge within the entities' forms, receptivities, and
preparednesses.
Displaying the Concealment of the Real Realm 207
CHAPTER35
All is one Real. The True Being is Its substance," and knowledge and
II
power are Its "function." The manifestation of Its function is Its act,"
II
CHAPTER36
Discriminating Meanings
Some chapters say that the substance and function of the ten thou-
sand things are wholly related to the Real Lord. It is also said that what
is related to the Lord is only the substance of things; their functions are
related to the self-perfection of the things. Why?
The transformation of the form is seen in power and is issued into the
outward. Its act is creative transformation, which is the function required
for perfecting the ten thousand things. The silent transformation is the
Unique Act, and the creative transformation combines with the acts of
the things. The "substance" is that which possesses the principle of the
things before the thing, and the "function" issues forth properly following
the substance.
It is said that both substance and function are related to the Lord when
there is talk about silent and creative transformations together. It is said
that the substance is related to the Lord, but the function to the things,
when there is talk specifically about the creative transformation. In sum,
all are in reality the Real's acts, and the things are the imprints and traces
of the Real's acts.
210 Gleams
Postscript
What was intended by these expressions and sought by these allu-
sions was alerting to the essential encompassment by the Presence of
the Real-glory be to Him and high indeed is He!-and to the perva-
sion of all levels of existence by His light. Then the aware travelers and
alert seekers will not be neglectful of witnessing the beauty of His Es-
sence while witnessing any essence, nor will they become heedless of
examining the perfection of His attributes in the manifestation of any
attribute.
What was mentioned was sufficient to accomplish what was intended
and adequate to clarify what was sought. Therefore, it was confined to
this measure and is cut short with these few quatrains:
}ami, enough! How long weaving words?
How long casting spells and telling tales?
Manifesting realities in words is illusion-
a simple man, how long playing with illusions?
In the rags of poverty, covering defects is better,
on the subtle points of love, sharpness of wit is better.
Since words are a mask on the face of the goal,
silence is better than talking and listening.
Until when will you cry and shout like a bell?
For a moment, keep silent from this empty talk.
You will not become a treasure for realities's pearls
as long as you do not become all ear like an oyster.
0 you whose nature has taken on the disquiet of words,
if you're of the folk of knowledge, watch your words.
Don't loose your tongue in unveiling the secrets of Being-
that pearl can't be pierced with the diamond of words.
Scratch one line through defects, another through virtue,
then pull back the veil from the Absent Beauty.
That beauty's disclosure is not outside of you,
so pull feet under skirt and head under hood.
0 you whose shroud has been rent by heartache for Him,
don't stain your pure consciousness with speech.
Since you can stay dumb about it, if you open
your lips after this-may dirt fill your mouth! 57
Notes
Foreword
1. Lee Cheuk Yin, "Islamic Values in Confucian Terms: Wang Oaiyu (a. 1580-
1658) and His Zhenjiao Zhenquan (Genuine Annotation of the Orthodox Teach-
ings)," in Islam and Confucwnism: A CiviliZiltiomd Dialogue, edited by Osman Bakar
and Cheng Gek Nai (Kuala Lumpur: Center for Civilizational Dialogue, Uni-
versity of Malaya, 1997), pp. 75-94.
2. Jacqueline Armijo-Hussein, "Sayyid Adjall Shams AI Din: A Muslim from
Central Asia, Serving the Mongols in China and Bringing 'Civilization' to
Yunnan" (Harvard Ph.D. Dissertation, 1998).
3. See Raphael Israeli, IsLzm in China: A Critical Bibliography (Westport: Green-
wood Press, 1994) and Donald Daniel Leslie, Islam in Traditional China: A Short
History to 1800 (Canberra: Canberra College of Advanced Education, 1986). See
also Bai Shouyi, Zhongguo huijwo xiaoshi rA short history of Chinese Islam"), in
Zhongguo yisilanjiao shi cungao rThe preserved manuscripts on the history of
Chinese Islam," Yinchuan: Ningxia renmin chubanshe, 1988).
4. Jin Yijiu, Yisilanxiao shi rHistory of Islam," Beijing: The Chinese Academy
of Social Sciences, 1990), pp. ~56.
5. See Zhang Xiong's dissertation on Matteo Ricci with emphasis on the
shift from "cultural accommodation" to "intellectual colonization" (History of
Science, Harvard University, 1995).
6. See I<uwata Rokuro and An Mutao, trans., "Mingmo Qingchu zhi huiru"
("The Muslim Confucians at the end of the Ming and early Qing"), in Zhongguo
yisilanjiao shi cankao ziliao xuanbian ("Selections of reference materials on the
history of Chinese Islam"), edited by Li Xinghua and Feng }inyuan (Yinchuan:
Ningxia renmin chubanshe, 1985), Vol. 1, pp. 584-88.
7. This statement, chapter XXII of the Doctrine of the Mean, may not appear
as textual evidence of Liu's anthropocosmic vision, but it is obvious that the
logic of mutuality between Heaven and man (in the gender neutral sense of
humanity) implicit in the statement underlies much of Liu' s understanding of
Confucian moral metaphysics.
Introduction
1. Fletcher, Studies on Chinese and Islamic Inner Asia, p. Xl.3.
2. On Chinese Islamic literature, see Leslie, Islamic Literature in Chinese; idem,
Islam in Traditional China; Isaac Mason, "Notes on Chinese Mohammedan Lit-
erature."
211
212 Notes to pp. 4-19
1. Chinese-Language Islam
1. For a survey of Islam in China today, see Gladney, Muslim Chinese: Ethnic
Nationalism in the People's Republic.
2. Leslie, Islam in Traditional China, p. 31.
3. According to Leslie (Islam in Traditional China, p. 70), different dates were
given by the Chinese Muslims themselves. By far the most thorough study of
Islam's history in China is the already mentioned work by Tazaka, Chugoku ni
okeru kailcyo no denrai to sono gutsu. For an overview, see Rossabi, I#Islam in China."
For a good study of six of the classic Chinese-language works on Islam, see
Fran~oise Aubin, "En islam chinois."
4. For a detailed discussion of the Islamic tradition in terms of these three
dimensions, see Murata and Chittick, The Vision of Islam.
5. To speak of "the school of Ibn ai-<Arabi is problematic. The expression
should not be taken as delineating a narrow group of authors with fixed view-
points. Rather, it designates a broad approach to theoretical issues within the
context of a great deal of diversity. See Chittick, "The School of Ibn 'Arabi." For
a scholarly investigation of many facets of Ibn al-<Arabi's controversial legacy
in the central Islamic lands, see Alexander D. Knysh, Ibn <Arabi in the Later Islamic
Tradition.
6. D. Leslie and M. Wassel provide details as to how transliteration was at-
tempted for Arabic into Chinese and Chinese into Arabic in 'habic and Persian
Sources used by Liu Chih." See also Aubin, "En islam chinois," especially pp.
496-98.
7. For a few more examples of Chinese terminology, see Aubin, "Ta~wwuf
6. In Chinese Islam;" idem, "En islam chinois."
8. Leslie, Islam in Traditional China, p. 117.
9. See, for example, Wang Tai-yii, Cheng-chiao chen-ch'uan (1987), pp. iv-vii,
1, 3-4, 6; anonymous, Hui-hui yuan-lai, pp. 15-18; Yu Zhengui and Yang
Huaizhong, Chung-kuo i-ssu-lan wen-hsien chu-i t'i-yao, pp. 69-73; Jin Yijiu, "Notes
of the Quarter," p. 332.
10. Wang, Cheng-chiao (1987), p. 4.
Notes to pp. 20-25 213
41. Leslie, Islamic Literature, p. 23; Tazaka, Chugoku, pp. 1278--80, 1405-10.
42. Leslie, Islamic Literature, p. 49. I checked the Chinese text against Nih4yat
al-mas>ul fi riwayat al-rasul, a work by 'Abd ai-Salim ibn 'Ali ibn l:fusayn Abarqiihi.
This is a careful translation of the Arabic Mawlud al-n~~bi, the book by 'Afif's
father, Sa<id al-Oin Mul;lammad ibn Mas'iid ai-Kiziriini. According to the editor
of Niluiyat al-mas,ul, Abarqiihi' s translation was made during the lifetime of al-
Kiziriini, who died in 758/1357. 'Afif al-Oin made his own translation, which
has not been published, in 760/1359. The editor says that there is no great differ-
ence between the two translations. If this is so, we are on safe ground in employ-
ing Nihdyat al-mas>ul to judge the faithfulness of Liu Chih's Chinese version.
43. Tazaka, Chugoku, pp. 1365 and 1426, note 6.
44. Ma Fu-chu, Han-i tao·hsin chiu-ching, p. 1. See Chang-I<uan Lin, "Three
Eminent Chinese 'Ulama> of Yunnan," pp. 103-8.
45. The translator, J. Peter Hobson, does not give the original title, but renders
it as ~~The Three-Character Rhymed Classic on the l<a'bah." Lin (previous note)
does not appear to mention this work in his list of Ma' s writings.
46. Ma, Ta-hua tsung-kuei, p. 3.
47. Yu and Yang, Chung-kuo i·ssu-lan, pp. 89-94.
48. Chan, Source Book, p. 14.
49. Ibid., pp. 460, 589-90.
SO. Ch' en, Neo-Conjucian Terms Explained, p. 105.
51. Ibid., p. 112.
52. See Source Book, 460-65. For the diagram itself, a different translation, and
much commentary, see Kalton, To Become a Sage, pp. 37-50.
53. Source Book, pp. ~5. Cf. Ch' en, Neo-ConfuciJln Terms Explained, pp. 115-
20,188-89.
54. Source Book, p. 519.
55. Ibid., p. 641. In this passage and several others that are cited from Source
Book and Neo-Conjucian Terms Explained, I have modified the text slightly for the
sake of preserving consistency in translating Chinese terms.
56. Neo-Conjucian Terms, p. 190 (see alsop. 39).
57. On the significance of the heart in the Koran and Islamic thought, see my
Tao of Islam, Chapter 10.
58. Source Book, p. 614.
59. Ibid., p. 638.
60. Ibid., p. 789.
61. Ibid., p. 594.
62. For a good discussion of these two terms in the Neo-Confucian context,
see the first two chapters of Ch' en, Neo-Conjucian Terms, pp. 37-56.
63. Source Book, p. 23.
64. Wilhelm, I Ching, p. 371; cf. Lynn, The Classic of Changes, p. 129.
65. Source Book, p. 597.
66. Ibid., p. 613.
67. Ibid., p. 621.
68. Ibid., p. 667.
216 Notes to pp. 43-56
being that he act beautifully toward his parents" (46:15; cf. 2:83, 6:151, 17:22-
24, 29:8).
24. This hadith is found in Bukhari, Muslim, and other standard sources.
Razi cites it twice in Mir~d al-'ibtid (Algar, Path, pp. 415, 474).
25. This is probably a reference to the hadith cited earlier (p. 38). The analogy of
the human being to a country ruled by a king is a popular one in Islamic texts,
employed by, among others, Ghazali toward the beginning of his Kimiyti-yi Slttidat.
26. The standard Persian translation of this saying (which follows the Arabic
text rather closely), is given by 'Attar in Tadhkirat al-awliyti' (p. 97): uBayazid was
asked about renunciation (zuhd]. He replied, 'Renunciation has no worth. I was
a renouncer for three days-on the first day in this world, on the second day in
the next world, and on the third day in everything other than God."'
27. This is most likely an allusion to the purported hadith, commonly cited
in Sufi texts, "Die before you die!"
28. One of the several versions of this hadith reads, ~~Reflect upon God's bless-
ings, but do not reflect upon God." Another has, "Reflect upon everything, but
do not reflect upon God's Essence." Suyiip, al-/tfmi' al-~ghir, vol. 3, pp. 262-63.
29. The Koranic verse Wang has in mind seems to be 49:13, which can be
translated, "Surely the noblest among you in God's sight is the most god wary."
Godwariness (taqwti) derives from a root that means to take care and to fear. It
implies carefully taking into account one's own ultimate destiny by fearing the
consequences of disobeying God. It is often considered the most important
and comprehensive of the virtues, which helps explain why it is sometimes
translated as ~~piety." Sufi authors frequently discuss its ramifications in terms
similar to those Wang offers here. For a summary of the word's Koranic signifi-
cance, see Murata and Chittick, Vision of Islam, pp. 282-85.
30. The worthy who visited Rabi<a was J:lasan of Basra. For 'Attar's version
of this story, which in no way suggests Wang's conclusion, see 'Attar, Muslim
Saints and Mystics, pp. 44-45 (read fat soup" for ''a little onion pulp").
11
31. Wang probably has in mind the common description of wine as umm al-
klulbd•ith, u the mother of loathsome things," which can be traced back to a saying
by 'Uthman, the fourth caliph (cited in Nasa~, Ashriba 44).
32. This chapter is a good commentary on the Koranic verse that reads, "The
life of this world is naught but a game [la'b] and a diversion [lahw}" (6:32, 29:64,
47:36, 57:20).
33. The saying has the tone of a hadith, but I could not find the Arabic. A
hadith of the same sort tells us, "This world is the home of those who have no
home and the property of those who have no property. Those who gather for it
have no intelligence." Cited by Suyiip in al-/timi' al-~ghir 3:545.
34. This is a hadith that is cited among others in Razr s Mir~d al-'ibdd (Algar,
Path, pp. 93).
35. The discussion in this paragraph has a decidedly Taoist flavor. Cf. Source
Book, p. 326.
36. The transliteration of Arabic l;uJwwti as Chinese lulo-wa illustrates one of
the literary tools of the Chinese Muslims that deserves serious study. Usually,
the meaning of the characters making up transliterated words has no relation
with the meaning of the original Arabic or Persian words. However, sometimes
218 Notes to pp. 6~77
pletely merged with the Principle of Heaven in one body without any alter-
ation." Neo-Confucian Terms Explained, p. 193.
9. Source Book, p. 685.
10. Ibid., p. 675.
11. On the second, see Chittick, Sufi Path of Knowledge, Chapter 20; for the
third, see idem, Sufi Path of Love, pp. 173-75. The first is discussed in both books.
12. The 1987 edition does not have this notation, but this is no proof that it
was not found in the 1931 edition, upon the basis of which the 1987 edition was
prepared.
13. Mason, "Note on Chinese Mohammedan Literature," p. 185.
14. Tazaka, Chugoku, pp. 1392-95.
15. Wang, Cheng~hiao (1987), p. 326.
16. The Interpretation is a book of sixty-three short chapters, in twenty-nine
folios, on the Five Pillars of Islam (see Leslie, Islamic Literature, p. 48, no. 35).
Seven chapters discuss the general foundation of the Five Pillars, twenty-five
the principles of the Five Pillars, and thirty-one the meaning of the Five Pillars.
I could not find in it any expressions similar to those of the Great Learning.
17. Leslie records editions that appeared in 1794,1832, 1876,1852, 1875,1918,
1921, and 1931 (Islamic Literature, p 24). I could obtain only one of these, that of
1921 (both from Harvard Yenching Library and from Toyo Bunko). However, I
also obtained two other editions-the most recent, 1987 edition, and an un-
dated edition from Tenri University Library. The Tenri catalogue lists the latter
together with an edition of Wang's True Answers of the Very Real dated 1827. The
binding of the two books is similar, but the Great Learning itself is not dated,
and the librarian in charge had no idea why, in 1944, these two books had been
catalogued together. The three editions that I could obtain can be described as
follows: (1) The undated edition from Tenri University. The cover tells us that
the book was written by the Old Man of the Pure and Real and that the en-
graved blocks belong to the Pure and Real Hall (Ch'ing-chen T'ang). The book
includes the undated introduction by Ch'ing-chen Pi-jen {"the Rustic of the
Pure and Real") and a table of contents. (2) The 1921 edition. The cover inscrip-
tion reads: "the elder of the real Hui of Chin-ling [Nanjing], Master Wang Tai-
yii eminently wrote A Summary of the Important Points for Enlightening the Young."
It also says that the engraving blocks are held by The Pure and Real Book Store
(Ch'ing-chen Shu-pao-she) on Ox Street in Beijing. The book has the introduc-
tion by the Rustic of the Pure and Real and a second introduction by Yang Tsan-
hsiin, dated 1852. This edition also has "A discarded pearl," which is the preface
to a completely different book, Ch'ing-chen chih-nan by Ma Chu (a book written
in 1683). But the author of this introduction is not known, nor is it included in
the 1869 and 1988 editions of Ma's book. (3). The 1987 edition in the collected
works of Wang. This is presented as based upon the 1931 edition, but the charac-
ters have been modernized. The 1931 edition was published by the Chung-hua
book shop. In addition to the introduction by the Rustic of the Pure and Real, it
has a preface by Chin Shih-ho of Nanjing, who says that he is a descendent of
Chin T'ien-chu, the author of Ch'ing-chen shih-i, written in 1738. There is a Japa-
nese translation of the Great Learning by Kadono Tatsudo, but he follows Tazaka
and therefore leaves out the "General Discussion."
220 Notes to pp. 79-85
18. The introduction to his poetry reads as follows: "Know that those who
have received the ultimate Tao of the Pure and Real are human beings. Intention
and thought are the human's root. To know the real and false of the sages and
worthies is to serve honorably and without mistake. Examining the heterodoxy
and truth of the teachings is to run in the right direction without delusion. How-
ever, if there is no wisdom and insight, there is no discrimination, even though
this is the first duty in cultivating the Tao. In leisure time I casually composed
eight poems. I began with wisdom and insight, and the sequence that follows
discusses the man of clear wisdom." The topics are as follows: knowledge and
wisdom, the human level, intention and thought, the sages, the worthies, the
teachings of shih (Buddhism), the mysterious gate (Taoism), and creating images.
1. This sentence may be inspired by a line from Wang's poem at the end of
The Great Learning.
2. In other words, compare Islam to Confucianism. The Confucians often
discuss their own path in terms of its wideness and broadness. As Ch'en remarks,
"This is why the teachings of the Buddha, Lao Tzu, Chuang Tzu, and Lieh Tzu
(c. 450-c. 375 BC) are heretical and perverse and are the robbers of our Way.
The concrete learning of the Confucian School, however, is as level as the broad
and smooth highway." Neo-Confucilm Terms Explained, p. 109.
3. The expression "one thread" (i-kuan) is drawn from the Analects, where
Confucius says that one thread runs through all his teachings (4.15, 15.2). Wang
employs the expression in the Great Learning itself. Ch' en begins his chapter on
the term by writing, .,I ["one"] is simply principle, which is undifferentiated in
its totality, the one great foundation. Kuan is this one principle spreading out in
its operation and penetrating the ten thousand things. The heart of the sage,
undifferentiated in its totality, is simply one principle, which is the great foun-
dation.'" Neo-Confucilm Terms Explained, p. 94.
4. Again, this is typical Confucian language to describe the true Tao that
should be pursued.
5. There is no question that in this passage Wang has his eye on the Confu-
cian Great Learning (as quoted in the introduction). However, he may have been
familiar with this hadith, found in Razi'sMir$1fd al-<ibdd (Algar, Path, p.179): "By
Him in whose hand is my soul! The faith of none of you will be upright
[mustaqim] until his heart is upright, his heart will not be upright until his tongue
is upright, and his tongue will not be upright until his deeds are upright."
6. This passage expands on the Koranic verse of the Trust that was accepted
only by human beings: "We offered the Trust to the heavens and the earth and
the mountains, but they refused to carry it and were afraid of it. And the hu-
man being carried it" (33:72).
7. Color (se) and subtlety (miao) can be taken as equivalents to the Arabic
pairs manifest (~hir) and nonmanifest (bdtin), or form (~ura) and meaning
(ma<na), or body (jism) and spirit (ru~). Color is what can be seen of the human
being, and subtlety is what cannot be seen but appears through its traces.
Notes to pp. 86-91 221
33. Riimi uses the same argument in the Mathnawi. ,.If (the painter] cannot
make ugly pictures, he is imperfect: That is why God creates both unbeliever
and sincere servant" (II 2542; cited in Chittick, The Sufi Path of Love, p. 55).
34. There is an allusion here to the Confucian Great Learning: "Things have
roots and branches, affairs have beginnings and ends. Knowing what is before
and what is after-then one is close to the Tao" (cf. Chan, Source Book, p. 86).
The word central (chung) calls to mind the Doctrine of the Mean (chung-yung).
35. This can be taken as a reference both to the Islamic idea of fitra, the in-
nate disposition of all people to profess taw~id, and to Mencius' s declaration of
the essential goodness of human nature (e.g., 6A.6), a teaching that became
normative for the Confucian tradition. Compare Ch'en: "This is the goodness
bestowed on us by the Lord on High, and this is the normal nature the people
keep. Because all people share it and thus their minds are unobstructed, intel-
ligent, and not beclouded, it is called the clear virtue (ming-te)" (Neo-Confucian
Terms Explained, p. 177). Onfitra, see Murata and Chittick, Vision, pp. 137-39.
36. As Wing-tsit Chan points out, "The analogy of the ocean and many waves
for the relationship between substance and function is a favorite Buddhist one"
(Source Book, p. 769).1t is also a favorite Islamic one. Compare Jamrs quatrain in
Gleam 27 and its translation by Liu Chih.
37. Wang cites the first two lines of this poem as part of the poem ,life and
death" in his collection of twelve poems.
38. This may be a reference to the hadith of the Hidden Treasure.
39. Oearly a banslation of the saying, "He who knows himself knows his Lord.n
40. These two clauses are almost identical with a sentence already cited from
Wang's True Answers (p. 45).
41. A translation of Koran 51:56:,1 created jinn and mankind only that they
should worship Me." Already the Prophet's companion Ibn <Abbas interpreted
"worship,. to mean "know."
42. This may be a reference to Koran 25:43: "Have you seen him who takes
his own caprice to be his god?"
43. Compare Mencius: "Even if you had the keen eyes of U Lou and the skill
of Kung-shu Tzu, you could not draw rectangles and circles without square
and compass.... The compass and square are the ultimate of circle and rect-
angle. The sage is the ultimate of the human bonds" (4A.1-2).
44. The word is yeh, the standard Chinese term for this Buddhist concept.
45. This is the third version of Koran 67:2 that we have seen in Wang's writings.
46. The material in brackets is added to make sense of this proverbial expres-
sion. Someone dreamed that he was a great king, but then he woke up to the
millet that was in fact his everyday fare.
47. In chapter ten of the Real Commentary, Wang quotes this same passage
from Hsing-li ta-ch'uan.
48. These are the words of the Buddha when he emerged from the womb.
49. The famous T'ang dynasty physician Ch'en Ts'ang-ch'i wrote in Pen-ts'ao
shih-i that human flesh can cure wasting diseases, and froin that time on filial
piety would sometimes drive people to feed their own flesh t6 their parents
(Kuwabara Jitsuzo, Chugoku no IeOda, pp. 121-24).
50. Compare Chu Hsi's remarks on Buddhism and Taoism: "The mere fact
that they discard the Three Bonds ... and the Five Constants ... is already a
224 Notes to pp. 109-125
crime of the greatest magnitude. Nothing more need to be said about the rest"
(Source Book, p. 646). Ch'en writes, "The Taoists want purity and vacuity and
loathe to do things, and the Buddhists reject human affairs. They all look upon
principle as something above things and mysterious, and regard human affairs
as on the lower level and coarse and therefore want to avoid them" (Neo-Confu·
cian Terms 'Explained, p. 107).
51. Wang may be criticizing Taoists here, but he is making use of Chuang
Tzu's own imagery to do so. In 14:5 Chuang Tzu writes, "Scattering chaff blinds
the eye such that heaven, earth, and the four directions change their sites."
Wang uses the same imagery several times in the Real Commentary.
17. We have checked our translation against Richard's and are fully aware of
the many passages where our interpretation does not agree with his. In choos-
ing English equivalents for technical terms, we have followed those employed
in Chittick's studies of Ibn al-'Arabi, with a few exceptions.
18. A microfilm of the Chinese edition was kindly supplied by the ToyO Bunko
library in Tokyo. I have not found references to any other edition in the cata-
logues. A copy of the same edition is found in the New York Public Library.
19. Islamic Literature in Chinese, p. 41.
6. Gleams
10. ,.Unboundedness" and "binding" translate itliUJ and taqyid. This is a stan-
dard pair of Arabic terms used to contrast the Real Existence of God with the
existence of things (on this pairing in Ibn al-'Arabi, see Chittick, Sufi Path of
Knowledge, index under "delimitation"; and idem, Self-Disclosure, index under
"unbounded"). In a philosophical context, mutlaq is usually translated as "abso-
lute," but this is often inadequate in Sufi texts, especially if we translate muqayyad
as "relative" (as does Whinfield in this passage; Richard uses absolu and deter-
mination, and, for the adjectival form, inconditionne and conditionni). "Unbound-
edness" and "binding" give a better sense of the concrete meaning implied by
the terms. For his part, Liu Chih translates the two terms rather consistently
throughout the text as "penetrating" and "obstructed" (see especially Gleam
21). The Chinese pairing suggests the concrete meaning of the Arabic words,
but this is lost when we have recourse to abstract terms like "absolute" and
"relative. n
It was noted earlier that penetration and obstruction are commonly con-
trasted in Neo-Confucian thought. We saw that Chu Hsi explains the difference
between human beings and animals in terms of their possession of a principle
that penetrates the obstructions of impurity (p. 41 ). Discussions of the two terms
often apply them to the issue of achieving perfection by actualizing the heart's
oneness with Principle or by realizing the fullness of jen. Thus Chu Hsi was
asked, "How can the heart by means of Tao penetrate all things without limit?"
He replied, "The heart is not like a side door which can be enlarged by force.
We must eliminate the obstructions of selfish desires, and then it will be pure
and clear and able to know all" (Chan, Source Book, p. 630). In Islamic terms, this
penetration of all things is a characteristic of the Real Being, which is unbounded
and infinite, whereas each specific thing represents a binding and blocking of
its infinite light. As Rumi put it, "If you pour the ocean into a jug, how much
will it hold? One day's store" (Mathnawil 20).
11. For "philosophers" Jami uses the term ~ukama>, plural of ~akim, meaning
"wise" or "sage," but he means the term in the sense of falasifa, the "philoso-
phers," as is commonly the case in both Persian and Arabic. This is manifestly
clear in his usage of the same word in the full title of his Precious Pearl. Avicenna
offers an example of the teaching Jami has in mind:
The soul continues on like this until she fully achieves in herself the guise
of all of existence. She turns into an intelligible world, parallel with all the
existent cosmos. She witnesses what is absolute comeliness, absolute good,
and real, absolute beauty while she is unified with it, imprinted with its
likeness and guise, strung upon its thread, and coming to be of its sub-
stance. (Ibn Sini, ai-ShiftJ>, pp. 425-26. Cf. Ibn Sina, al-Najat, p. 293.)
12. Mathnawi II 277-78.
13. As already explained, "relation" (nisbat) in this passage and in Gleams 7,
8, 11, and 12 is a Naqshbandi technical term. It refers to a subtle connection that
is established between the disciple and the master through picturing the image
of the master's face and concentrating on the name of God. Jami provides a
detailed explanation of the term in Shar~-i rulxNyyat (edited by Afshar, pp. 88-
89). He begins with two quatrains, both of which play on the name of the founder
Notes to pp. 144-146 227
One must exercise this relation such that one is never empty of this relation.
If one is heedless of it for a moment, one must return to the work in the
manner that was said. One must be present constantly. In the house and
the bazaar, in buying and selling, in eating and drinking, and in all states
one must keep the corner of the heart's eye on one's own all-gathering
reality. One must place it before one's eyes and keep it present. One must
not become heedless of it through particular forms. Rather, one must know
that all things endure through it, and one must try to witness it in all
existents, whether they are considered beautiful or not beautiful, until
one sees oneself in all. One must know that all things are the mirror of
one's own perfect beauty. Or rather, one must see that all are parts of
oneself.... One must know that this all-gathering reality is the locus of
manifestation for the totality of God's Essence and atbibutes, not that
God dwells within it-high is God beyond that! Rather this is like the
manifestation of a form in a mirror.
17. As noted, "poverty" is a common designation for the Sufi path. For the
text on poverty from which Jimi may have taken this specific saying, see Chittick
and Wilson, Fakhruddin 'Iraqi: Divine Flashes, pp. 111-13.
18. Jimi has in view here standard Sufi discussions of annihilation. For a
good collection of these, see Nurbakhsh, Sufism, pp. 85-115. However, "annihi-
lation of annihilation" is not a common expression, so he may be looking at
specific Naqshbandi teachings. In NafabQt al-uns (p. 395) he quotes a saying from
'Ali, al-Oin 'Attar (d. 802/1400), a major disciple of Bahi, al-Oin Naqshband:
~~when the Kingdom and the Sovereignty [i.e., both worlds] come to be hidden
from the seeker and are forgotten, this is 'annihilation.' When the being of the
wayfarer comes to be hidden from the wayfarer himself, this is' annihilation of
annihilation.'"
19. The Sufis take ~~the language of the birds" as a Koranic allusion to the
mysteries of the path to God. It is of course the title of Farid al-Oin 'Attar's
famous poem, whose title is usually mistranslated in English. See 'Attar, The
Conference of the Birds.
20. Whinfield' s translation here is more or less correct but it loses the techni-
cal nature of the discussion, whereas Richard misses the point entirely, as shown
by his punctuation. The text should read yadkard-i l;raqq, not yad kard, ~q. Yadlcard
is a relatively unusual word, since, as already pointed out, it is a technical term
pertaining specifically to Naqshbandi teachings. Jami says that it is a technical
term (i~tilli~) in his Shar~-i rubti'iyyat (p. 99). He defines it as "remembrance (dhikr]
of the Real by the tongue or the heart." He has taken most of his discussion of
the term from Baha, al-Oin Naqshband' s Qudsiyya, p. 36.
21. The word translated as "obtainment" is ~~UI, whose basic meaning is to come
to hand, as gold from a mine or harvest from a planting. Dictionaries give English
equivalents such as setting in, occurrence, happening, attainment, achievement.
Whinfield and ~zvini render the whole phrase rather loosely as ~~the state of
being or existing," and Richard translates ~u~ul into French as acquisition.
22. The Ash' arites resolved the theological issue here in the Kulla bite formula,
"They [the attributes] are neither He nor other than He," a statement that Ibn
al·'Arabi sometimes rejects. He often formulates the issue in terms of what he
Notes to pp. 1~160 229
calls the .,two denotations" of the Essence. See Chittick, Sufi Path of Knowledge,
pp. 36-37; Chodkiewicz et al., Les Illuminations de Lll Mecque/The Mecca Revelations,
p. 114 (Futu~t IV 197.22).
23. This Arabic prayer is probably }ami's own composition. The pattern goes
back to a famous prayer uttered by Abu Bakr, the first caliph: .,Glory be to Him
who assigned the creatures no path to His knowledge save the incapacity to
know Him!"
24. "One-and-allness" translates wa~idiyya, a term that began to be contrasted
with .,Unity" (aJ.uuliyya) with the writings of Qiinawi and Farghani. As explained
on p. 75, these two terms are derived from two Koranic names of God, al;rad and
watlid, both of which mean "one." According to many commentators, God is
al;rad inasmuch as he is uniquely one, incomparable, and transcendent, and he
is wdtlid inasmuch as his one reality gives rise to all things. Hence .,unity" can
be said to designate a transcendent oneness that is contrasted with the manyness
of the things, whereas "'One-and-allness" can designate the immanent oneness
that is implied by the plurality of divine names and attributes, a oneness that
entails all multiplicity. Whinfield translates the two terms as "unity" and "single-
ness." Richard, following Henry Corbin, translates them as unitude divine and
unite seconde. Liu Chih's translation of the two as .,Only-One" (chih-r) and .,First-
One" (ti-r) nicely catches their contrasting meanings.
25. "'Lastness" (dkhiriyya), which is derived from the divine name Last (tikhir),
means also "'latterness." The word tilchir is both a comparative and a superlative
adjective, so if one thing comes after another-in this case wdtlid after al;rad-
the second is the "latter" and hence deserves this attribute.
26. .,Gathering" (jam•) is God's attribute inasmuch as all attributes and possibil-
ities are prefigured within Him. The term is derived from the word jtimi', which
is both a Koranic divine name ('''All-gathering" or "All-comprehensive") and a
basic description of the name Allah, which is called the "all-gathering name"
(al-ism al-jtimi•), because all the other divine names come under its compass. In
Ibn al-•Arabi' s vocabulary, the attribute of gathering is closely associated with
the perfect human being, who is the ., all-gathering engendered thing" (al-kawn
al-jtimi•), mentioned at the beginning of the first chapter of the Fu$il$ (see also
Chittick, Self-Disclosure, pp. 171, 178--Sl).ln Gleam 2, gathering was discussed
in much the same manner as it is discussed in the classic Sufi manuals, where it
designates the collectedness and concentration achieved by one-pointed focus
on the One. The present context reminds us that for Ibn ai-<Arabi' s school of thought,
the theoretical elaboration of the classic concepts of gathering and dispersion
demands attention to the true nature of human beings as "all-gathering engen-
dered things," created in the image of the One who embraces all of reality.
27. The first two terms, differentia (/a$1) and specificity (klul$$Q), are philo-
sophical designations for the characteristics that set things apart from each other,
whereas entification" (ta'ayyun) came to be used among Ibn al-•Arabi's foUowers
II
to designate all things inasmuch as they are distinct entities having specific
characteristics.
28. As this passage illustrates," divine" (iltihi) and engenderedH (kawni) are
II
contrasting terms. The first designates what pertains specifically to God consid-
ered as the Divinity (uluhiyya), the second to everything that derives from the
230 Notes to pp. 160-162
engendering act of God, which is his saying to a thing ''Be!" (kun). "Realities"
are the things as known to God, or, the things as present within the Reality of
Realities (Gleam 25). The engendered realities may be considered in their non-
existence, in which case they are identical with the fixed entities, or they may
be considered as existent in the world, in which case they may be called the
"existent entities" and, as in the next paragraph, the ''external entities." On the
entities, see Chittick, Sufi Path of Knowledge, pp. 83-88. Richard translates the
r
term •ayn entity") as "individual essence," which is misleading and loses sight
of the context of the discussion. On why" essence" is inappropriate for •ayn, see
Chittick, Self-Disclosure, p. 389n9.
29. Essential necessity (wujub-i dhtiti) is the fact that the Being of the Essence
is necessary, which is to say that the Essence cannot not be. Every other divine
attribute can become manifest generally in creation and specifically in perfect
human beings. Created things always remain "possible things" (mumkin), which
is to say that their existence can never belong to them by essence, only by bor-
rowing from the Necessary in Being. They can have necessity, but only 11 through
the other" (bi'l-ghayr), not through their own essences.
30. "Individuals" translates afrtid, which seems to have no specifically Sufi
meaning here. It is used in the same sense at the beginning of the next Gleam,
when Jami mentions the "individuals of the species." In Ibn al-•Arabi's vocabu-
lary, it can better be translated as" solitaries" and designates those perfect human
beings who are outside the scope of the Pole (qutb). See Chittick, Self-Disclosure,
p. 142 (and index for other references).
31. These are two standard divisions of the worlds. Vertically, there are three
worlds: the world of bodies, of images, and of spirits. Horizontally, there are
two: the world in which we now dwell and the world of the resurrection and
beyond. See Murata and Chittick, Vision, p. 224.
32. Thispairingofterms-"disclosure" (ja/a')and 11seeingdisclosure" (istijla')--
seems to have been made current by Qunawi. For an explanation of some of
what it implies, see the discussion of distinct-manifestation" and distinct-
II N
vision" in Chittick and Wilson, Fakhruddin •Iraqi: Divine Fli.rshes, pp. 21 ff. For
some of Farghani's explications, see Muntaha'l-mad4rik, vol. 1, pp. 45-46,72. Liu
Chih seems to consider this discussion too technical, since he drops the passage.
33. Jami has taken this complex sentence almost verbatim from Farghani,
Mllshdriq al-dardri, p. 17. The basic meaning of the Koranic term ghinti is wealth
and riches, though it can also be translated as "independence" or "lack of need."
Here Liu Chih chooses to look at the primary sense of the word, and we follow
his lead. Ibn ai-'Arabi frequently discusses this divine attribute to assert the
transcendence of the divine Essence (see Chittick, Sufi Path of Knowledge and
Self-Disclosure, indexes under "independence"), and Farghani's passage sum-
marizes the basic point: The Essence is utterly transcendent because it has no
need of anything whatsoever outside itself, given that everything is already
present within it by virtue of its infinite knowledge. After the phrase, "by the
inclusion of all within Its oneness," Farghani' s original sentence has, "like the
inclusion of all the numbers and their levels in one [wa~id], and unit [a~d].n
Compare the even more complex Arabic version of this sentence in Farghani,
Muntaha'l-madtirik, vol. 1, pp. 13-14.
Notes to pp. 166-182 231
34. "Eye" here translates 'ayn, which elsewhere in this passage is translated
as" entity." In this specific context, however, it is contrasted with 'ilm or ~~knowl
edge," which means the stage of the fixed entities in their nonmanifestation.
Hence 'ayn refers to the stage in which the entities fixed in knowledge become
manifest to the eye as existent entities. Whinfield has caught the implication of
the term by translating it freely as ~~sensible world."
35. This passage is probably derived from a much more complicated version
of the discussion found in Farghani, Muntaha'l-m~~darik, vol. 1, p. 7.
36. Jami is answering here one of the attacks made by opponents of Ibn a)-
' Arabi's school such as Ibn Taymiyya and 'Ala, al-Dawla Simnani. As Knysh
tells us in his review of Ibn Taymiyya' s polemic, "According to the Hanbali
scholar, Ibn 'Arabi makes no distinction between the existence of God and that
of 'jinn, devils, unbelievers, sinners, dogs, swine.'" Ibn 'Arabi in the Later Islamic
Tradition, p. 100.
37. The "knowledged forms" (~uwar-i 'ilmiyya) are God's "objects of knowl-
edge" (ma'lumlit) and, as the Koran tells us, Not a leaf falls, but He knows it"
11
(6:59). It would be absurd to suggest that God does not know the leaf, or else he
would be touched by ignorance. And since God is outside of time, he knows all
things for all eternity. Ibn al-'Arabi calls this divine omniscience God's "conclu-
sive argument'' against the creatures. See Chittick, Sufi fbth of Knowledge, pp.
297-301.
38. "Predication" (~ami) is to ascribe a "predicate" (ma~mul), that is, an at-
tribute or characteristic, to a "subject'' (mawt!u'), that is, whatever is described
by the attribute. The point is the same that was made more briefly in Gleam
15-that the attributes are identical with the Essence in respect of existence
and different in terms of denotation.
39. On the expression'~ are He" (lulma ust) and its connection to the debate
in later Sufism over the term wa~dat al-wujud ("the oneness of existence"), see
Chittick, "Wa~dat al-shuhud and wa~dat al-wudjud," Encyclopaedia of Islam.
40. A good portion of this description of the six levels seems to be taken from
Jandi, Shar~ FU$U$ al-~ikam, p. 613.
41. The Manifest of Existence (;tihir-i wujud) is often contrasted with the
Non manifest of Existence (batin-i wujud), as we saw in Gleams 18 and 22. Here,
however, it is contrasted with the Manifest of Knowledge (;Qhir-i 'ilm), which
will be mentioned shortly. The contrast is discussed in detail by Farghani (and
the sentences relevant to these two terms in the present passage are not found
in Jandi's version). Farghani explains that at the level of Divinity-the level
that Ibn al-'Arabi sometimes calls the HOne/Many"-there is both the oneness
of the Real Existence and the manyness of the divine knowledge. In other words,
God is truly one through his Being, but he embraces the principles of all multi-
plicity through his knowledge of all realities. This true oneness is called the
"Manifest of Existence," and the manyness is called the"Manifest of Knowledge."
The Manifest of Existence is the form of Unity (a~adiyya) and has the attribute
of necessity; it has a real oneness and a relative manyness. The Manifest of
Knowledge is the form of One-and-allness (wa~idiyya) and has the attribute of
possibility. In other words, the objects of God's knowledge are the "possible
things" (mumkinlit), to which God may give external existence. The Manifest of
232 Notes to pp. 182-206
.Knowledge has a real manyness and a relative oneness (Milshdriq al-darari, p. 22;
cf. Muntaha'l- madarik, vol. 1, p. 15). As for the "Nonmanifest of Existence" and
the "Nonmanifest of Knowledge," these two pertain to the Essence and its tasks.
42. A saying of the Prophet, made famous in this version by Ibn al-'Arabi.
See Chittick, Sufi Path of Knowledge, p. 393n13.
43. Compare Ibn al-'Arabi, .,So the nonmanifest of the Real is the manifest of
creation, and the nonmanifest of creation is the manifest of the Real" (Chittick,
Self-Disclosure, p. 370). For many other passages in which Ibn al-<Arabi describes
God and the world in terms of manifest and nonmanifest, see ibid., pp. 205-23.
44. For an analysis of this argument in the Fu~u~, see Izutsu, Sufism and Tao-
ism, pp. 212-15. For passages from the Futu~t covering the same ground, see
Chittick, Sufi Path of Knowledge, pp. 97 ff.; idem, Self-Disclosure, pp. 19, ~9.
45. Ibn al-'Arabi frequently discuss the two categories of contrary (mutaqabil)
names, some associated with mercy, majesty, and gentleness (/ut./), some with
wrath, beauty, and subjugation (qahr). See indexes, under "contrariety/ of
Chittick, Sufi Path of Knowledge, and idem, Self· Disclosure.
46. .,Ineffectuality" renders ta<til, which is a technical term in I<alam for the
heretical position of declaring that God is not actively at work in the cosmos.
The mu'atfila, or "those who believe in ineffectuality," are commonly criticized
in theological texts.
47. The" aU-merciful mercy" (rabmat·i ra~m4niyya) is contrasted with the" com-
passionate mercy" (ra~mat-i ra~imiyya). The first pertains to the Breath of the
All-merciful that gives existence to the cosmos, and the second to mercy that
gives rise to paradise, as contrasted with the wrath that gives rise to hell.
48. The term subjugation is derived from the divine name qahhdr, the "All-
subjugating," which is paired with the divine name one (wd~id) in all six of its
Koranic occurrences. The verse most often cited to show its relevance to the
present discussion-that is, the fact that it negates all "'otherness"-refers to
the Last Day, that is, the day when true relationships become dear to every-
one. "The day they sally forth, and naught of theirs is hidden from God. 'Whose
is the kingdom's today?' 'God's, the One, the All-subjugating'" (40:16).
49. These are the four most famous books of Avicenna, the greatest of the
Muslim philosophers: al-Shifti), al-Qtinun, al-Najat, and al-Ish4rat wa'l-tanbihat.
SO. These are the names of books by three famous scholars: al-Mawtiqif in
I<alam by 'A<;iud at-Din iji (d. 756/1355), al-Maqti~id in I<alam by Sa'd al-Oin
Taftazani (d. 793/1390), and al-Mafali' in logic by Siraj al-Oin Urmawi (d. 68'1/
1283).
51. This Gleam is probably inspired by the last na~~ of Qunawi"s Nu~u~, p. 88.
52. This sentence refers to a passage from the fourth chapter of the Fu~u~ al-
~ikam that was quoted earlier (p. 119).
53. Ma}:tmud Shabistari, Gulshan-i rdz, in Uhiji, Mafdtib al-i'jtiz, verse no. 145
(with slight textual discrepancies).
54. Fu~il$ aHtikam, p. 91.
55. Jamis Persian translation of the Arabic passage is accurate, but not exact.
The text is found toward the beginning of al-Nu$il~, p. 13.
56. The source of this expression is towards the beginning of the first chap-
ter of the Fu$il~ al-~ikam, where Ibn al-e Arabi writes, '1\mong the characteristics
Notes to pp. ~210, 131-133 233
of the divine ruling is that He never proportions a locus that does not receive a
divine spirit, which He has called 'blowing into it.' ... The receptacle derives
only from His most holy effusion" (p. 49). Jami says "Sufis" not because he does
not know that Ibn al-'Arabi coined the expression, but because the comple-
mentary expression, 11 holy effusion," is not found in his writings (see }:lakim,
al-Mu'jam al-$ufi, pp. 888-92). Its source may be the writings of $adr al-Oin
Qunawi, specifically toward the beginning of his Mir,dt al-'arifin ("'The mirror
of the gnostics"), where he writes, "Glory be to Him who entified the entities
through the most ancient, most holy effusion; who engendered the engendered
things through the precedent, holy effusion; and who made eternity manifest
through temporality, and temporality through eternity" (text in S. H. Askari,
Reflection of the Awakened, p. 3). Despite the fact that Ibn al-'Arabi does not explic-
itly formulate this pair of terms, his commentators and followers frequently
discuss it, typically ascribe it to him, and draw the explication of what the termi-
nology means from his writings. For example, he makes the same distinction in
the second chapter of the FU$U~ in terms of" essential gifts" and "name-derived
gifts" and in the twelfth chapter in terms that are also being discussed here,
that is, the two self-disclosures that are the "absent" and the "witnessed.''
57. The common expression uMay dirt fill your mouth!" can have an impre-
catory sense and can also mean, "Keep your mouth shut!" or uBe ashamed of
what you have said." Richard offers a mystical interpretation that is farfetched.
1. Compare this verse from the Zen Platform Scripture: ~~The heart is the tree
of perfect wisdom. /The body is the stand of a bright mirror) The bright mirror
is originally clear and pure) Where has it been defiled by any dust?" (Chan,
Source Book, p. 432).
2. There is a reference here to a Neo-Confucian discussion based on a passage
from the ancient Book of Documents (2.2.15): NThe human heart is in danger, the
Tao heart is concealed; be refined, be one! Hold fast to the center!" For Chu
Hsi's explanation of the two hearts from his introduction to the Doctrine of the
Mean, see Kalton, To Become a Sage, p. 167.
3. This refers back to the sentence, "In talk of endeavor, righteousness is
there, and in talk of righteousness, endeavor is lodged within." The second
half will be explained shortly.
4. The allusion here is to a passage in Mencius (2A.2): "Let the heart not
forget, but let there be no helping by force." Mencius illustrates what he means
about Nnot helping" with a story:
There was a man from Sung who pulled at his rice plants because he was
worried about their failure to grow.... 'I am worn out today,' he said to
his family, 'I have been assisting the rice plants to grow.' His son rushed
out to take a look and there the plants were, all shrivelled up. There are
few in the world who can resist the urge to help their rice plants grow.
(Translated by Lau, Mencius, p. 78)
234 Notes to pp. 133-153
•••
chen-chung I zhenzhong !l~
chen-hsin I zhenxin ta•L'
chih-i I zhiyi (knowing one) ~
chih-i/ zhiyi (only one) J.t~
chih-jen I zhiren ~ le
chen-hui lao-jen I zhenhui laoren chih-sheng I zhisheng £ ~
!Jl@J~A. ch'in-ch'a/ qinchai ~~
chen-i I zhenyi iJl- chin-shih I jinshi ~1!t
chen-sheng/ zhensheng • ~ Chin Shih-ho I Jin Shihe ~'tit fl]
chen-tsai I zhenzai
chen-tz'u I zhenci ,;ag
a* ching I jing *'
ch'ing-chen chiao/ qingzhen jiao
chen-yu I zhenyou a
fi ~-tt
cheng I zheng (witnessing) iiE ch'ing-chen pi-jen I qinzhen biren
ch'engl cheng (sincerity) • lW!Jl.A.
cheng-chiao I zhengjiao iE ~ ch'ing-chen shu-pao-she I Qinzhen
Ch' eng Hao I Cheng Hao fiM shubaoshe tlta Wftli±
cheng-hsueh I zhenxue iE • ch'ing-chen-ssu I qingzhensi ita~
Ch' eng I I Cheng Yi filli Ching-chio I Jingjue ~
ch' eng-i I chengyi ~ Ching-ch'u I Jingchu •m (~UIIi'F)
cheng-ming I zhengming lE 6P chio/jue W
chi/ ji fi ch'iu/ qiu >J(
ch'i I qi (unity) ~ chiung-i I jiongyi iflft
238 Glossary
fu-lu I fulu m•
fu-fu I fufu 7cffll jen-chi I renji A fi
Jen-ching ching/ Renjing jing
A.*l
Hao-wa I Haowa ~M jen-i I renyi ~
ho/he ~ jen-p'in I renpin A~
Ho Han-ching I He Hanjing fP1 il f{ jen-tsu I renzu .A ill
hou-shih I houshi ti tlt jen-tz' u I rend t ~
hou-t'ienlhoutian fl~ ju/ru 111
hsi/xi ~
hsi-i I xiyi ~- I<o-chih ch'uan-ching I Gezhi quan-
hsiang I xiang (guise) -+§ jing t3B:~*I
hsiang I xiang (image) It ko-wu/gewu t3t'l.J
hsiao I xiao ~
Hsieh Sheng-wu I Xie Shengwu
kuang I guang *
Kuei-chen pi-yao I Guizhen biyao
D~§
hsien I xian (appearance) Jl
hsien I xian (worthies) If
··~\·
kuei/ gui Jl
kuei-i I guiyi Jl ~
hsien I xian (manifestation) II k'unlkun t$
hsien-shen I xianshen 111J . . k'ung/ kong ~
hsien-t'ien I xiantian $!;~ kung I gong J}J
hsin I xin (faithfulness) f!
hsin /xin (heart) 'L' li I li (principle) Jl
hsing I xing (form) ~ li IIi (propriety) j l
hsingl xing (nature) 'fi li IIi (strength) jJ
hsing-li hsueh I xingli xue ttl! • li-ku I ligu fljft
Hsing-li ta-ch' uan I Xingli daquan li-ming/ liming flj~
1111*~ li-pai I libai ilff.
hsing-ming I xingming t! $ li-pai ssu I libaisi ilff. ~
hsiu I xiu tJ Liang 1-chun I Liang Yijun ~ J;.J. if
hsu I xu IS ling/ling •
hsu-jen I xuren til~ Liu I-ts' an I Liu Yican I'J- ~
Hu Kuang/Hu Guang NJJI Lu Hsiang-shan I Lu Xiangshan
hua/hua ft. ~-ili
Glossary 239
·-
molmo Ill shun-i I chunyi (unmixed one) ~
Mu-han-me-te I Mu-han-mo-de shun-i I shunyi (following one)
I list below all the Chinese Islamic texts that I have used in my research.
For a more complete bibliography, see Leslie, Islamic Literature in Chinese.
Asterisks designate the fifteen books that were reproduced by photo-
offset in the fifty-five volume set Hui-tsu ho chung-kuo i-szu-lan chiao ku-
chi tzu-lillo hui-pien @)~~cp Eff!'Wfllltl3'8Jf*llfili ('/\.collection of
materials in Chinese classical Islam"). Ningxia, 1987.
241
242 Bibliography
Other Sources
Abarquhi, 'Abd al-Salam ibn <Ali ibn l:fusayn. Nihtiyat al-mas,ul fi riwayat
al-rasul. Edited by Mul:tammad Ja<far Yal:taqqi. Tehran: Shirkat-i
Intisharat-i 'llmi wa Farhangi, 1366/1987.
Algar, H. The Path of God's Bondsmen from Origin to Return. Delmar, NY:
Caravan Books, 1982.
Askari, S. H. Reflection of the Awakened. London: Zahra Trust, 1983.
'Attar, Farid al-Oin. The Conference of the Birds. Translated by A. Darbandi
and D. Davis. New York: Penguin, 1984.
--.Muslim Saints and Mystics. Translated by A. J. Arberry. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1966.
- - . Tadhkirat al-awliya>. Edited by M. Isti<lami. Tehran: Zuwwar, 1346/
1967.
Aubin, Fran~oise. "En Islam chinois: Quels Naqshbandis?'' In Naqshban-
dis: Cheminements et situation actuelle d'un order mystique musulman,
edited by M. Gaborieau, A. Popovic, and Th. Zarcone.lstanbul: Editions
Isis, 1990, pp. 491-572.
Bibliography 243
Yu Zhengui *li•
wen-hua. ffJ'WiiJWcp~)(ft, Ningxia, 1995.
and Yang Huaizhong tl11tfl. Chung-kuo i-ssu-lan
wen-hsien chu-i t'i-yao tfl MJfttWTIJ::>c&t;a:~m~. Ningxia, 1993.
Zurcher, Erik. '1esuit Accommodation and the Chinese Cultural Impera-
tive." In The Chinese Rites Controversy: Its History and Meaning, edited
by D. E. Mungello. Nettetal: Steyler Verlag, 1994, pp. 31-64.
Index of Chinese Names and Terms
247
248 Index of Chinese Names and Terms
251
252 Index of Persian and Arabic Names and Terms
(Includes anglicized Arabic and Chinese words as well as modern proper names.)
absence (ghaybat), 127; absent (ghayb), attributes (~ifat), 176, 178, 196, 208;
19,162,206,210,233 (and/or names) of God, 19, 29-30,
act (fi<l), 29-30,55, 75, 117, 198, 199, 56,71-72,90-92,118-21,142,156,
200,206-9;root,75,89,91-92,95, 158,160,166,170,174,180,182,184,
183; activity (ch'ien), 87, 94, 95, 97, 190,204,206, 227, 231; categories
98, 103; active Cfti<ili), 75, 180,204 of,29,49,75, 123-24,235
Adam, 18, 60-64, 121, 182, 121 -+ Aubin, Fran~oise, 3, 113
ancestor, human beings Avicenna,226,232
Addendum (sheng-yu) -~ Wang Tai-yii awareness (chio), 47, 52, 61, 67, 83, 86,
after-heaven (hou-t'ien)--+ heaven 109,110,111,145,149,151,153,191;
afterworld -+ world non-, 147,149,151,234
Agents, Five, 37, 112
Ahung (a-heng), 78, 83 beauty, 132, 138, 140, 142, 144, 145,
All-Merciful (ra~man) --+ mercy 152,153,194,210,226,'128;and
Allah, 17, 121, 178, 229 ugliness, 84, 103
alms,55,83 before-heaven (hsien-t'ien) - heaven
An Mu-t' ao, xi beginning, 26, 48, 50, 52, 53-54, 70, 86,
Analects --+ Confucius 87, 90, 103, 157, 181; original, 48,
ancestor (tzu), 57; human, 18, 27, 54, 60, 62, 64, 84, 93; and end, 52, 75,
61-62, 86, 87, 97, 100; ancestor 92, 94, 95, 99, 111, 159, 161, 163,
worship, 5 --+ Adam 165; beginningless, 26,48, 52, 75,
angels, 18, 30, 61-62, 76 84, 89, 92, 106, 109, 112 --+ return
animals, 30, 41,46-47,52,56, 97, 105, being (Ch. yu, Pers. hasti, bud), 101,
126, 164, 190; sacrifice of, 46,58-59 117-18,136,150,152,155,186,195,
annihilation (janti)), 140, 148, 228; and 196, 198,206, 207; Original, 48, 51,
subsistence, 56, 77, 190 56,84,89,91-92,98,99, 106, 109;
appearance (hsien), 27, 86, 124, 131, Pbwerful,48,84,91-92,93,94,95,
159, 185, 189 101-2, 104; Real, 27, 90, 106, 109,
Appendix (fu-lu) .... Wang Tai-yii 116,123,146,147,153,155,161,163,
Arabia (t'ien-Jang), 20, 25, 129; Arabic, 165, 167,171,177,179,181, 182,185,
5,13-14,17,20 189, 193, 202; ten thousand, 27, 66,
Aristotelian, 125 100, 139,145, 155, 163,169, 183, 185,
ascent and descent, 60, 99-100; arcs 203, 205, 207; and nonbeing, 52, 57,
of, 27, 52 87, 90, 94, 97, 123, 141, 155, 161 _.
Ash'arites, 126, 186, 224,228 existence
attachment (ta<alluq), 136, 150 binding (taqyid), 154,194- unbound-
attentiveness (tawajjuh), 158, 227 edness
255
256 General Index
body (Ch. t'i, hsen; Ar. jism), 27, 46, Confucianism, 7-10, 20, 22-23
47, 52, 58, 59, 61, 62, 63, 67, 84, 143, Confucius, 18, 24, 66, 69, 73; Analects,
164, 190; oneness of, ix, 62, 63,76- 40,55,56,59,220,222
77, 96, 105, 143; and heart, 38, 54, conquering self, 46, 56, 58, 77, 99, 147,
56, 57 ---+ cultivation, embodiment, 149
recognition Constants (ch'ang), 54, 57, 81, 98;
Bonds (kang), 54, 57, 81, 84, 98, 109; Five,39,52,55,83,135,223
~ee,39,52,95, 135,223 Corbin, Henry, 229
bones, one hundred, 38, 56, 57, 61, corporeal (jismdni), 144; and spiritual,
96 29-30, 142, 150
Buddha, 18, 47-48, 66, 109; buddhas, cosmology, 6, 34, 74, 213-14
51, 112; Buddhism, 7-10, 25, 35, cosmos ('tilam), 116, 121, 182, 184, 186,
37,48,54, 72-73,123,216,220, 188 -+world
223, 234; criticisms of, 21-22,50- creation (Ch. tsao, Ar. khalq), 23, 37,
51,66,72,79,105,108-10,220,223- 50,61,63,67,74-75,97,119;pro-
24 cess of, 25-31; renewal of, 120, 186,
188 ---+ transformation
causes (Ar. asbdb), 136, 138, 172, 225; cultivation (hsiu), 10, 22, 23, 24, 38-39,
(Ch. yin), and conditions, 47, 62, 54, 57, 83, 85, 100; of body, (10, 22,
100,108,216 23,24),38-39,69,70,85,89,107,
central (chung), 103, 133, 234 135; of Tao, 51, 58, 129, 131, 133,
Chan, Wing-tsit, 36, 37, 39, 40, 49, 53, 153,220
54,65,69,74
change (Ch. i, Ar. tabaddul), 37, 40, 86, death -+life
90,97, 102,131,152,153,170,171, demons (kuez), 18, 53, 76, 94; devils
173, 186, 187, 189 (mo), 59, 62-64
character traits, 39, 56, 101 descent (tanazzul), 142-+ ascent
children- parents, progeny desire (irtida), 118, 119, 150, 156, 202
Chin Chi-t' ang, 78, 127 destiny (ming), 40 -+ mandate
Christianity, ix, 5, 6, 24, 71 devils -+ demons
clarity, clarification (ming), 81, 82, 87, dharma, 48, 108, 235
93, 98, 99, 102, 104, 105, 106, 129, differentia (Ja~l), 160, 164, 166, 184,
181;ofheart,50,54,70,82,89,106 192, 229; differentiation (tahil),
-+virtue 30,31,118-19,162,174,182,222,
Classic (=Koran), 18, 43, 44, 53, 57; 227
(= hadith), 57, 59, 60, 67 discernment (shih), 27, 50, 67, 137,
collectedness (chu), 47, 108, 137, 187 143, 151, 189
color (Ch. se, Pers. rang), 85, 93, 220; disclosure, 94, 99, 103, 106, 175, 195,
world of, 19, 163; and guise, 81, 87, 230; self-disclosure (tajalli), 117-18,
92, 153, 234; colorless, 152, 163 124,132,142,162,166,182,184,188;
command (amr), 30, 40-41 First, 120, 158, 208; levels of, 119,
compassion (tz'u), 49, 91, 104, 108, 158, 206, 233; locus of (majla), 144,
111, 179 166
completeness, 41, 87, 103, 163, 181, discrimination (pien), 82, 85, 88, 89,
201,203,205,235 98,102,131,165,183,207,220
conditions (yuan), 85, 86, 97, 98, 108, disengagement (tajarrud), 150, 160,
131, 137, 141 ---+causes 184
General Index '157
gentleness (lutf), 150, 188, 232, 233 honored (hsun), 93; most, 45, 89, 91,
gnosis (cirfan, macrifa), 132, 134, 148, 109; originally, 75, 93,95
150, 180, 225; gnostic, 134, 154, 180, human beings (Ch. jen, Ar. insdn), 9,
196 52, 190, 191; creation of, 27, 31,61-
God, 17-18, 74-77---. atbibutes, es- 62; divine image of, 56, 76; unique
sence status of, 45, 46-47, 51, 52-53, 62,
good and evil (Ch. slum-o, Ar.lcJuayr 66,67,74,82,85,88,94-95, 100,
wa sharr), (41), 49,51-52,57, 58,59- 109-10,220- Adam, Ultimate,
60,63-64,103,110-111,162,200, humanity (jen), 39-40, 42, 52, 56, 76-
201 77,88,107,157,189,235
governing (ch'ih), (the country), 10, Husbanids,126, 186
22,23,42,50,69,70,85, 135
Great Learning, 10, 24, 38, 65, 69-73, I, 27, 28,86-87, 163; no-1, 57
77, 223, 235; steps of, ix, 23, 69-70, Iblis (Satan), 53
77, 234; Great Learning of the Pure illusion, illusory (Ch. huan), 44, 47, 60,
and Real - Wang Tai-yii 81, 86, 102, 107, 118, 123, 131, 141,
Greek thought, 6, 15 145, 146, 155, 189; (Ar. wahm), 140,
guise (hsiang), 89, 126, 165, 167 ,. 166
color image (Ch. hsiang), 27, 48, 94, 97, 102,
109, 125, 137, 143, 155, 161, 165, 171,
Hadith, 20, 43 183, 191,193,195,199,207,220;
hajj, 55,58 ruling, 163, 177, 185, 187; ten thou-
Hamadan, 134 sand, 50, 52, 95, 96, 101, 185, 189;
He/not He (huwa Ia huwa), 117, 119 (Ar. mitluil, lchayal), 162, 188
He-ness (huwiyya), 120 imagination (khayal), 227
heart (hsin, qalb), 15, 27, 38-40, 47-48, immortals (hsien), 112; heavenly, 18,
56,57-58,59,64,65,68,77,82,88, 44,46-47,53,54,61-64,73,76,92,
90, 96, 98, 102, 105, 107, 109-10, 111, 93,94
122-23,131,132,133,135,136,137, inanimate (jamdd), 30, 125
138, 140, 144, 145, 147,150,153, 196, inclusion (indirdJ), 162, 164, 166, 168,
220, 226, 227, 233; human and Tao, 196,208
131,233;true,10,38,42,54,55,56, incomparability (tanzih), and similar-
57, 69, 85--86, 105, 107, 234; levels ity, 8, 71-72, 124
of, 52, 54, 131; no-heart, 48, 54-55, lndia,44
234 _,.body, clarification ink- pen
heaven (t'ien, ch'ien) and earth, 29-31, intellect, intelligence (caql), 30, 38,
45,46,50,66,87,95,108,143,222; 150, 164, 180; First, 29-30, 76; intel-
and ten thousand things, 18, 42, 45, ligible (macqul), 154, 226; intellec-
46,50,51,58,61,62,66,67,75,76, tion (tacaqqul), 154
77,84,87,88,94,96,99, 100,106; intention, 56, 109-10, 151, 220; sincer-
before- and after-heaven, 27,51- ity of, 10, 68, 69, 85, 98
52, (67), 87, (94), 96, 99, (100), 106; Interpretation of the Five Endeavors -•
heavenly country, 18, 57, 62, 63, 66 Liu Chih
heedlessness (ghafla), 132, 210,228 investigation of things (ko-wu), 36,
hell - paradise 39,50,77,99,234
heretical teachings, 104, 107-10, 178, inward and outward, 27, 99, 131, 139,
220 161, 183, 189, 222 - manifest
General Index 259
Islam, 3,4, 15-16, 22, ~51, 58; rules Original, 60, 101, 106, 112; Real, 8,
of, 59, 60; and Chinese traditions, 18,34,35,46,48,50,54,57,62,72,
ix-xi, 71-77; dimensions of, 14-17, 84,86-87,89,91,97-98,99,106,
32 --+ Pure and Real, Teaching 110, 139, 207; and servant, 46, 84-
issuance (fa), 91, 93, 94, 103, 106, 124, 85, 86, 98, 101, 104; Lordness, 163,
159,185 179, 181, 183; Lordship (rububiyya),
lzutsu,Toshihiko,viti,120 160,174,178
love (Ch. ai, Ar. 'ishq), 39,62, 132, 134,
Jesuits, ix, x, 5, 24 138,152,157,162,174,180,210
jinn, 18, 30, 76 loyalty (chung), 42, 45, 46, 53, 55, 64,
jurisprudence (fiqh), 14, 17,20 82,88,97,98, 106,107,108,111
peace, bringing, 23, 69, 70, 77, 135 and image, 27,141,183,191-
Pen, 76, 93; and Tablet, 222; and ink, vital-energy
91, 95,96 production (sheng), 37, 50, 109, 111,
penetration, 155, 159, 167; and ob- 112,161,183,187,189
struction, 41, 143, 145, 173, 175, progeny (muwalladlit), 29,31
181,185,226 property (~ukm), 142, 160, 162, 178,
perfection, 9, 14, 27, 32, 49, 62, 68, 202; and trace (athar), 160, 166, 176,
138, 142, 144, 152, 162, 200, 204, 188,194,208
206,208,226;g,eat95,96;perfect prophecy, 9, 16, 23, 24, 25, 65, 192;
human beings, 33, 49, 53, 74-75, 89, prophets, 10, 15, 18, 32, 34, 38, 40,
99,118-19,160,222,229 160
Persia, 13, 114; Persian, 5, 1~14, 31 propriety (It), 38, 39, 46, 56, 73, 83, 84,
philosophy (Jalsafa), 8, 15, 16, 26, 52, 86,98,109-10
115,117,120,125,138,142,154, puppet, 60,81-82
200, 226, 229 Pure and Real (ch'ing-chen), 18, 24, 47,
Philosophy of Arabia - Liu Chih 50,59,60,72,84,107, 111,131
piety, filial (hsiao), 39, 42, 44, 46, 55-
56,88,98, 107,108 quiddity (m4hiyya), 120, 154
Pillars, Five, 15, 16, 55, 122,219 quietude (ching) - movement
Porphyry, 125
possible (mumkin), 146, 164, 188,206, Ramadan, 55
230- necessity Real (Ch. chen, Ar. ~q), 71r-73, 123;
poverty (faqr), 132, 134, 148, 210, 225, person, 34, 47, 106 - Lord, One,
227 Pure
power (Ch. neng, Ar. qudra), 87, 90, Real Commentary - Wang-Tai-yii
145,156,198,199,202,209- reality (Ch. shih), 27, 28, 112, 135, 155,
knowledge 177, 189, 205; (Ar. ~qiqa), 19, 30,
Powerful - Being 120,140,142,144,152,154,162,
practice (Ch. hsi, Ar. (am~~l), 22, 44, 54, 166,176,182,188,190, 196,230;
65, 82, 116, 122, 133; practicing one, divine and engendered, 121, 160,
8, 19, 55, 76,97 162; of realities, 49, 75, 120, 184,
prayer (~tat), 18, 55, 76, 221 186,230
predetermination (ch'ien-ting), 49, 51, realization (tal:raqquq), 118, 154, 156,
91 160, 162
preparedness (isticdlid), 160, 206, 208 reason (rational faculty) ((aql), 15,
presence (~adra), 182, 198; of Knowl- 154, 156 --• intellect
edge, 176, 194, 206; of the Real, receptivity (Ch. k'un, Ar. qabiliyya),
154,188,206 96,123,124,160,190,200-4,206,
principle (Ch. lr), 8, 19, 24-25, 27, 36- 208,222
38,39,41-42,51,54,57,58,62,64, recognition Uen), 50, 55, 67, 76, 96-
66,67,83,84,85,88-94,96,99, 102, 100, 111; with body, 44, 88, 96, 97-
103,105,108,123,125-26,161,163, 99, 105
165, 167, 181, 185, 197; (Ar. a~l), 4, regulation (of family), 10, 22, 23, 38,
16, ~24; Real, 8, 27, 73, 129, 143, 69, 70, 85, 135
153, 183, 187, 203; ten thousand, relation (nisbat), 116, 144, 146, 150,
93, 163, 197; Utmost, 85, 131; of 152,156,158,170,174,178,184,
heaven, 40, 42; and form, 177, 207; 196,206,226-27,234
262 General Index
world (Ch. chiai, Ar. (alllm, Pers. jahan), worship (li-par), 18, 34, 47, 55, 56
19, 45, 61, 66, 71, 104, 118-19, 147, worthy (hsien), 18, 89; cited, 87, 99,
163, 182-91, 197; earthly, 45, 60, 63, 187, 197 --+ sage
64, 66; external, 154,188, 194; three,
60, 162, 230; two, 19,163, 230; this Zen, 21,216,233
and next, 32, 49, 57, 60, 67, 162, 163 Zurcher, Erik, 5, 22
--+cosmos