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Biochemistry of Groundnut Synthesis and Its Chemical Composition
Biochemistry of Groundnut Synthesis and Its Chemical Composition
A Term Paper
On
Submitted To:
Prof. R.C. Basnyat, Ph.d
IAAS, Kritipur
Submitted By:
Sushmita Thapa (R-2015-AGR-02M)
M. Sc. Agriculture (Agronomy)
IAAS, Kirtipur
September 2016
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is a great pleasure to express my deep sense of thanks and sincere to our subject teacher
Prof R.C. Basnyat, Ph.d, Faculty Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agriculture and
Animal Sciences (IAAS), Tribhuvan University, for his invaluable suggestions and
encouragement for writing this paper His timely advice with kindness and enthusiasm has
helped me to a very great extend to accomplish this work.
I would also like to acknowledge all those authors whose research, experience and ideas
helped me greatly to prepare this paper. I can’t stay without thanking my husband Er. Suwas
Karki, for his continuous support throughout this work.
Sushmita Thapa
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ABSTRACT
The legume Arachis hypogaea, commonly known as groundnut, is a very important food crop
throughout the tropics and subtropics. Groundnut is one of the most widely used legumes due
to its nutrition and taste, and it occupies a rank of major oilseed crop in the world. It has been
recognized as a functional food due to its role in a health promoting effect. Groundnut oil
contains a well-balanced fatty acid and antioxidant profile that provide protection against
harmful substances especially free radicals. This paper gives an overview of scientific
literature available on biochemistry of the seed and the chemical constituents and
composition of the oil content in it.. Owing to its unique organoleptic properties associated
with its cardioprotective and anti-inflammatory properties, groundnut oil has found, recently,
its place on the highly competitive international edible oil market.
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TABLE OF CONTENT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ....................................................................................................... I
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................. II
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 1
1.1 BACKGROUND .............................................................................................................. 1
1.1.1World groundnut production ...................................................................................... 1
1.1.2 Importance of groundnut ........................................................................................... 2
1.2 OBJECTIVES ....................................................................................................................... 4
2. METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................... 5
3. LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................ 6
3.1 PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF GROUNDNUT SEED .................................................................... 6
3.2 NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF THE GROUNDNUT................................................................... 6
3.3 BIOCHEMISTRY OF GROUNDNUT SEED SYNTHESIS ............................................................. 7
3.4 GROUNDNUT PROTEIN COMPOSITION AND ITS PROPERTIES ................................................ 8
3.5 GROUNDNUT OIL AND ITS PROPERTIES ............................................................................... 8
3.6 COMPOSITION OF GROUNDNUT OIL .................................................................................... 9
3.6.1 Fatty Acids Composition ........................................................................................... 9
3.6.2 Triacylglycerol Composition ................................................................................... 10
3.6.3 Free-Fatty Acids (FFAs) and Diacylglycerols (DAGs) ........................................... 11
3.6.4 Phospholipids (PLs) ................................................................................................ 12
3.6.5 Sterols ...................................................................................................................... 12
3.6.6 Triterpenic Alcohols ................................................................................................ 14
3.6.6 Tocopherols ............................................................................................................. 14
3.6.7 Phenolic Compounds ............................................................................................... 15
4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION ....................................................................................... 16
5. CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................... 17
6. REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 18
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Arachis hypogaea, commonly known as groundnut, is very important food crop of tropical
and subtropical areas. This genus is endemic to South America (Bertioli et al., 2011). The
probable center of origin of Arachis hypogaea was in Gran Panatanal (Mato Grosso, Brazil)
and also on the eastern slopes of the Bovilian Andes (FAO, 2011). All species of this genus
are unusual when compared with other legumes as they produce their fruit below the ground.
It is classified as both a grain legume and, because of its high oil content, an oil crop. The
species of this genus are diverse in habitat, including grasslands, open patches of forest and in
temporarily flooded areas. Based on its morphology and sexual compatibilities, the genus has
been subdivide into 80 species and 9 infrageneric taxonomic sections. Most of the wild
species are diploids; however, cultivated groundnut is tetraploid with an AABB-type genome.
Cultivated groundnut has very narrow genetic base (Bertioli et al., 2011).
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1.1.2 Importance of groundnut
Groundnut seed is an important source of nutrient considerably rich in oil and
proteinincluding other nutrients.The seed has several uses as whole seed or processed to
make groundnut butter, oil, soups, stews and other products. Groundnuts have many value-
added products that have been developed with a number of applications in bakery,
confectionery, and the general consumer market. The cake has several uses in feed and infant
food formulations. Groundnut provides considerable amounts of mineral elements to
supplement the dietary requirements of humans and farm animals.
Nutritive value
The seeds of most groundnut cultivars contain about 50% oil, and therefore the quality of
the oil and groundnut products depend to a large extend on the oil fraction. The oil
content of groundnut differs in quantity, the relative proportion of fatty acids,
geographical location, seasons and growing conditions. Groundnut seed contains 44 to
56% oil and 22 to 30% protein on a dry seed basis and is a rich source of minerals
(phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, and potassium) and vitamins (E, K, and B group) (
Asibuo et. al, 2008). Groundnut oil contains a well-balanced fatty acid and antioxidant
profile that provide protection against harmful substances especially free radicals. Owing
to its unique organoleptic properties associated with its cardio protective and anti-
inflammatory properties, Groundnut oil has found, recently, its place on the highly
competitive international edible oil market ( Akhter et. al, 2014). Groundnut protein is
increasingly becoming important as food and feed. sources, especially in developing
countries where protein from animal sources are not within the means of the majority of
the populace. Groundnut seeds are reported to contain 9.5 to 19.0% total carbohydrates as
both soluble and insoluble (Asibuo et. al, 2008). Khalil and Chughatai, (1983) observed
that the amount of copper in 100 g of roasted groundnut seed is enough for the daily
requirement of human beings.
Groundnut flour
Groundnut flour is lower in fat than groundnut butter, and is popular because its high
protein content makes it suitable as a flavor enhancer. Groundnut flour is used as a
gluten-free solution. Groundnut flour, because of its high protein content (45–50%), is a
good protein source in addition to its function as a flavoring agent. Groundnut flour at a
level of 4–8% in formulation has been found to extend the shelf life of confectionary
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products. Recent studies reported the rheological, foaming, emulsifying, and water
holding properties of groundnut flour and declared that groundnut flour as a potential
additive to increase the protein contents of various food commodities especially baked
goods (Akhter et. al, 2014).
Groundnut oil
Groundnut oil is often used in cooking, because it has a mild flavor and a relatively high
smoke point. Due to its high monounsaturated content, it is considered healthier than
saturated oils, and is resistant to rancidity. The several types of groundnut oil include:
aromatic roasted groundnut oil, refined groundnut oil, extra virgin or cold-pressed
groundnut oil, and groundnut extract.
Animal feed
Groundnut plant tops are used for hay. The protein cake (oilcake meal) residue from oil
processing is used as an animal feed and as a soil fertilizer.Groundnut cake is a livestock
feed, mostly used by cattle as protein supplements. It is one of the most important and
valuable feed for all types of livestocks and one of the most active ingredient for poultry
rations. Poor storage of the cake may sometimes results in its contamination by aflatoxin,
a naturally occurring Mycotoxins that are produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus
parasiticus. The major constituents of the cake are essential amino acids such as lysine
and glutamine. Other components are crude fiber, crude protein, and fat.
Industrial use
Groundnuts have a variety of industrial end uses. Paint, varnish, lubricating oil, leather
dressings, furniture polish, insecticides, and nitroglycerin are made from groundnut oil.
Soap is made from saponified oil, and many cosmetics contain groundnut oil and its
derivatives. The protein portion is used in the manufacture of some textile fibers.
Groundnut shells are used in the manufacture of plastic, wallboard, abrasives, fuel,
cellulose (used in rayon and paper), and mucilage (glue).
Groundnut seeds have an important contribution toward diet in many countries, as they are
rich in protein, lipids, and fatty acids for human nutrition. They are rich source of oil. Lipid
chemistry largely affects the flavor and quality of groundnuts and groundnut product (Akhter
et. al, 2014)
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So, this paper is prepared with following objectives, especially to review the important
biochemistry related to groundnut.
1.2 Objectives
To review the important biochemistry of groundnut synthesis
To review the chemical composition of groundnut.
To access the nutritional importance of the groundnut based on its composition.
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2. METHODOLOGY
For the preparation of this term paper, all available resources i.e. journals, magazines, books,
internet and research reports related to the biochemistry of groundnut synthesis and its
chemical composition were reviewed thoroughly mainly focusing to the major finding and
research result. All detail-collected information is incorporated in the part of review of
literature section.
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3. LITERATURE REVIEW
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3.3 Biochemistry of groundnut seed synthesis
Fig1. Changes in the chemical composition of whole kernels during the development of
virgina bunch type groundnuts ( Coolbear, 1994)
The groundnut seed contain different chemical constituents and the level of these constituents
vary as per the growth and development of the seed. The figure clearly illustrates that the
level of oil and protein goes on increasing with the maturity of the kernels. The starch level
goes on increasing upto 6 weeks of flowering and gradually metabolise into simle form,
sucrose which enhances the taste of the mature kernels. Both protein and lipid are stored in
membrane bound bodies within cotyledons. It is likely that the site of both lipid accumulation
and storage protein synthesis in the endoplasmic reticulum , with dicotysomes being
responsible for the accumulation of storage protein in vacuoles. many free amino acids
remained relatively constant during development, there was dramtic decrease in arginine
levels about ten folds down than before. sucrose level rose again as seeds finally matured.
sucrose is by far the most predominant soluble carbohydrate, comprising about 80% of the
total at maturity, with stachyose forming another 16%. starch levels peak around at the end of
stage I of seed development and then begin to fall .a high proportion of the starch during
early development is present in the seed coat during active lipid synthesis the respiratory
quotient of developing kernels approaches two and the high level of lipoxygenase activity to
reduce the levels of polyunsaturated faty acids accumulated by the maturing seeds. Levels of
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conserved lipoxygenase in dried kernels may be important in the subsequent storage
behaviour of seeds ( Coolbear, 1994).
While most of the amino acids are found as the part of protein and peptides, non protein or
free amino acids (FFA) also occur . these are thought to react with glucose and fructose,
produced by hydrolysis of sucrose during the browning process, to produce the typical
roasted groundnut flavour, color and aroma. Specially these are glutamic acid , glutamine,
aspargine , phenylalanine, aspartic acid and histidine. The ratio of these amino acids alters
with seed size, i.e. the different response to roasting depends on the maturity of the seed.
High levels of free arginine, tyrosine , lysine and threonine have been shown to affect the
flavour adversely. Arginine and proline are found in higher concentrations in
immaturekernels . arginine level decreases with seed maturity, while proline level remains
vriable , and threonine and serine level rises with maturity (Akhter et.al., 2014).
The presence of two non protein amino acids ( 𝛾 -methyleneglutamine and 𝛾 -
methyleneglutamic acid) in mature kernels and N-methylhydroxyproline in groundnut flour
has been found ( Savage and Keenan, 1994).
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saturated fats. It consists mostly of oleic acid (n-9), a monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA)
(52%), and linoleic acid (n- 6), a polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) (32%) (Akhter et. al,
2014). It contains 17% saturated fats primarily palmitic acid (Wikipedia).
The oil is also a source of natural occurring compounds such as antioxidants, vitamin E,
phytosterols, squalene, and p-coumaric acid, which are all beneficial in maintaining health.
Groundnut oil shows many positive biological effects, which are mostly connected with its
high oleic acid content. Oleic acid has been shown to have a positive influence on
cardiovascular risk factors, such as lipid profiles, blood pressure, and glucose metabolism
(Akhter et. al, 2014).
.
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unsaturation. Generally, it has been proved that oleic acid increases and linoleic acid
decreases with seed maturity. When the seed progressed from intermediate through nearly
mature to mature stages, palmitic and linoletic acids decreased while oleic acid increased.
The variety affected the composition of groundnut oil grown in USA. Generally, the three
major fatty acids (Palmitic, oleic, and linoleic acid) were more affected than the minor fatty
acids. (Akhter et.al, 2014).
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3.6.4 Phospholipids (PLs)
In groundnut, the major constituents of the cell membrane are PLs and has a high degree of
unsaturation . The PL content (0.3–0.7%) is low in groundnut oil. Following are the major PL
in conventional groundnut oils: phosphatidylcholine (PC: 38.3–66.4%), phosphatidic acid
(PA: 2.2–11.8%), phosphatidylethanolamine (PE: 13.3–21.9%), phosphatidylinositol (PI:
15.7–30.9%), and phosphatidylglycerol (PG: nonreported up to 2.5%). PL composition
ranges of high oleic groundnut cultivars varies comparing breeding lines with their parental
lines. Although statistical differences were found among the PL contents and the composition
of breeding lines and parent lines, these variations were within the range reported for
traditional groundnut varieties. Premature harvesting of groundnut may also results in
changes in PL concentration. Along with premature harvesting other factors are also
important, these include curing at a high temperature and/or exposed to freezing temperatures
. In many cases, oil refining becomes difficult as the quality of oil is affected. Singleton and
Stikeleather (1995) studied the effects of these stress events and proved that immature seeds
presented higher total PL content and higher concentrations of PA, PE, and PC than mature
groundnuts. It was explained that the decrease in concentration of PA and PC with maturation
was due to these PL as these are the precursors to the formation of the other PL. The
concentration of all PL was increased in the heat-damaged sample (at 408◦C), except for PG,
whereas in the freeze-damaged sample, a significant increase in concentration was observed
for PA and PG. However, the concentrations of PC and PE decreased to very low levels when
compared with the control sample. Major PC molecular species were also determined. In
mature groundnuts, 40.7 and 59.3% of C18:2 and C18:1 was found. Immature groundnuts
resulted in greater concentrations, but equal proportions of the above-mentioned species.
Molecular species found in the high temperature cure sample had a higher degree of
saturation due to the presence of C18:1 and C16:0 molecular species (72.8%).This was
attributed to the oxidation of the more unsaturated molecular species by heat stress (Akhter
et. al, 2014).
3.6.5 Sterols
Sterols are the predominant compounds in the unsaponifiable material of vegetable oils,
accounting for 60–80%. Remaining 10–25% is covered by hydrocarbons, tocopherols, and
others. Vegetable oil sterols, generally known as plant sterols, can be divided into three
groups: 4-desmethylsterols (the cholestane series), i.e., normal phytosterols (PSs); 4-
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monomethylsterols (usually known as methylsterols); and 4, 40-dimethylsterols (the
lanostane series, also known as triterpene alcohols). The three sterol groups are different in
the conformation of carbon 4 in the steroid skeleton (Wretensjo, 2004). The desmethylsterols
have no methyl group at position 4, whereas the 4 monomethyland 4, 40-dimethylsterols
contain one and two methyl groups at this position, respectively. The desmethylsterols (or
normal PSs) usually account for more than 50% of the unsaponifiable ma- terial, whereas 4-
monomethylsterols and 4, 40-dimethylsterols together constitute 10–30%. Sterols are mainly
found as free molecule or sterol ester forms, but they also can occur as sterol glucosides and
acylated sterol glucoside. Groundnuts and its products, including groundnut oil, groundnut
butter, and groundnut flour, are good sources of phytosterols and these are in comparison
with other high-quality edible oils. Depending on the groundnut variety, roasted groundnuts
contain 61–114 mg PS/100 g, 78–83% of which is in the form of β-sitosterol. Groundnut oil
has higher percentage of _-5-avenasterol than soybean oil. The unsaponifiable fraction of
groundnut oil contains 0.15–0.90% hydrocarbon sterol esters and 0.59–1.22% free sterols.
Steryl ester and free sterol components of two commercial groundnut varieties were
examined resulting that free PSs of both Florunner- and Startype groundnuts consisted of
about 65% of the total sterols in the oil. Unrefined groundnut oil contains up to 434 mg
PS/100 g while refining the oil results in reduction in PS concentration in the oil. Further
refining, such as deodorization, results in significant loss in PSs. However, hydrogenation
after refining has a minimal effect on PS loss. Conventional refining does not significantly
affect sterol composition expressed as percentage of total sterols. The relative proportions of
the major sterols remain constant throughout the process . It is found that a high oleic
groundnut line (Tamrun OL 01) had higher total PS content (725 mg/100 g oil) than those for
the parent lines (670 and 350 mg/100 g oil.(Akhter et.al, 2014).
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Fig 2 . Functional compounds present in groundnut oil (Source: Akhter et.al, 2014)
3.6.6 Tocopherols
Tocopherols are natural antioxidants. Four types of tocopherols are found in groundnuts oil.
Refined groundnut oil contains tocopherols of 53 mg/100 g and mostly as α- and γ
tocopherol. Tocopherol content increases with higher precipitations and lower soil
temperatures Higher tocopherol content was consistently found in groundnuts produced in the
United States compared with those produced in China or Argentina. The highest levels
reported in US groundnuts on a whole seed basis were almost 250 ppm, whereas the lowest
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levels were about 100 ppm. Groundnut oil has antioxidant activity of 0.17% (W/V),
respectively (Akhter et.al, 2014).
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4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
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5. CONCLUSION
Ground nut is a typical tropical or subtropical nodulated crop which is considered as both
legume crop and oil seed crops since it is rich is protein and oil content. Groundnut seed
contains 44 to 56% oil and 22 to 30% protein on a dry seed basis and is a rich source of
minerals (phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, and potassium) and vitamins (E, K, and B
group).the proportion of the constituents of the seed varies as per the growth stages, as per the
species , varities and sometime the environmental influences. They are a good source of oil
containing desirable lipid profile, which is higher in unsaturated fatty acids, than in saturated
fatty acids and other minor compounds like phenolic compounds, tocophenols. Groundnut oil
is naturally trans fat free, cholesterol free, and low in saturated fats. Groundnut oil shows
many positive biological effects, which are mostly connected with its high oleic acid content.
Oleic acid has been shown to have a positive influence on cardiovascular risk factors, such as
lipid profiles, blood pressure, and glucose metabolism. Since the seed is composed of many
helath benefiting chemical components, groundnut is considered as important crop to be
added as dietary component to reduce the malnutrition in the prone areas.
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6. REFERENCES
Akhtar, S., Khalid, N., Ahmed, I., Shahzad, A. and Rasul Suleria, H.A.2014.
Physicochemical Characteristics, Functional Properties, and Nutritional Benefits of Peanut
Oil: A Review, Critical Reviews .Food Science and Nutrition. 54:1562-1575.
Awad, A. B., Chan, K. C., Downie, A. C. and Fink, C. S. 2000. Peanuts as a source of b-
sitosterol, a sterol with anticancer properties. Nutrition and Cancer 36:238–241.
Ayoola, P.B., Adeyeye, A. and Onawumi,O.O. 2012. Chemical evaluation of food value of
groundnut (Arachies hypogaea) seeds. American Journal of Food and Nutrition.3: 55-57.
Bertioli, D. J., Seijo, G., Freitas, F. O., Valls, J. F. M., Leal-Bertioli, S. C. M. and
Moretzsohn, M. C. 2011. An overview of groundnut and its wild relatives: Characterization
and utilization. Plant Genetic Research. 9:134–149.
FAO. (2011). FAO-STAT Data Base. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations. http://faostat.fao.org/ Accessed September 10, 2016.
Khalil JL, Chughatai MID 1983. Chemical composition and nutritional quality of five
groundnut cultivars grown in Pakistan. Plant Food for Human.5: 57-63.
Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peanut
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