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Otoo
Otoo
Yokotsuka T and Sasaki M (1998) Fermented protein to coagulate soymilk. Growth conditions, soybean
foods in the Orient: shoyu and miso in Japan. In: Wood variety, and storage conditions influence soymilk
BJB (ed.) Microbiology of Fermented Foods, vol. 2, 2nd characteristics that vary considerably and affect
edn., pp. 351415. London: Elsevier Applied Science. tofu production and yield, as well as characteristics.
Yuba is the thin film of protein that forms on hot
Relevant Websites soymilk when heated openly. Soybeans contain anti-
nutritional factors that must be destroyed by heating
http://www.tempeh.info A general site describing and the soymilk develops a ‘‘beany’’ taste that many
all aspects of tempeh including health aspects and Westerners find distasteful. This flavor is due to the
food recipes using tempeh. Producers of tempeh in action of an enzyme that oxidizes the long-chain un-
the USA, Canada, and Belgium are listed and suitable saturated fatty acids.
cultures for home production are available.
http://www.soyfoods.com The US Soyfoods Direc-
tory with a free soyfoods guide available for down- Introduction
loading, as well as food recipes, mail order and new Soybeans, first cultivated in the Yellow River Valley
soy research. Descriptions of all kinds of soyfoods in China 5000 years ago and on record from
are given. sixteenth to eleventh century BC, contain about
http://en.wikipedia.org This is a site with a free, 34% protein, 20% oil, and about 30% carbohydrate
multilingual encyclopedia. Type in the name of a soy that is comprised of a soluble and an insoluble frac-
product or soy food to search for information. tion. The soluble carbohydrate fraction, about 10%
http://www.japanweb.co.uk A Japanese food and of the bean, is a mixture of sucrose (5%), raffinose
restaurant guide that contains a glossary of Japanese (1%), and stachyose (4%), and the insoluble fraction
foods including soy foods. Information on the use of consists of pectin (30% of insoluble carbohydrate),
soy sauce in various recipes is also given. hemicellulose (50%), and cellulose (20%), and there
http://www.foodreference.com A site dealing in is less than 1% starch. Soy hemicellulose consists
general with all aspects of food. It includes daily mainly of arabinogalactan. About 12% of the protein
food and beverage news, a culinary quiz and is water soluble. In the beginning soybeans were
a ‘‘Today in food history’’ section. There is a wealth cooked and eaten but then in the West Han Dynasty,
of information. 2000 years ago, Liu An, who dates from 164 BC, is
said to have invented tofu that required the extraction
of soymilk from the beans (see Milling and Baking,
History). A major problem with soybeans is that they
contain a trypsin inhibitor, an antinutritional agent
that prevents the intestinal digestive enzymes from
breaking down proteins, and that must be destroyed
Soymilk, Tofu, and Okara by heating for a few minutes (Figure 1) to obtain
D K O’Toole, City University of Hong Kong, maximum nutritional value (see Nutrition: Beriberi,
Hong Kong, People’s Republic of China A Deficiency Related To Grains).
ª 2004, Elsevier Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Because soybeans have a high protein content, they,
and products derived from them, are seen as animal
protein substitutes. In their raw state the concentra-
Soybeans have been grown and consumed in China tion of nutrients is high, by comparison with beef,
for over 4000 years, and about 2000 years ago the eggs, and milk (Table 1), but when prepared for con-
technology for extracting soymilk was developed. sumption soybean products have significantly lower
Following this, three main products are now pro- nutrient concentrations (Table 2). Apart from the
duced using soymilk, tofu, yuba, and okara, the fermented products obtained from soybeans (see
main waste product. With the increasing popularity Nutrition: Guidelines for Grain-Based Foods and
of soymilk and soymilk-based products, okara is be- Soybean: Soy-Based Fermented Foods), there are
coming an increasing disposal problem. Many four main products and by-products: soymilk, tofu,
approaches to using okara are being researched, in- yuba, and okara.
cluding fermentation methods for food products or
industrial products, and its use as a food additive. The
Soymilk Production
production of tofu involves the use of the traditional
calcium or magnesium salts, or the modern use of The traditional soymilk production method invol-
glucono-delta-lactone from which acid is produced ves soaking the beans to rehydrate them, rinsing,
186 SOYBEAN/Soymilk, Tofu, and Okara
resuspension in water and grinding of the beans, fol- and the need to use mechanical means to filter the
lowed by filtration to separate the soymilk and fibrous hot mixture, as well as increased energy costs. Usually
residue. The Japanese developed a slight variation in the ratio of water to beans is in the range from 8 : 1 to
the traditional Chinese method (Figure 2) that im- 10 : 1. About 70% of bean solids, 80% of bean
proved soymilk yield and improved filtration charac- protein, and 89% of the oil end up in the soymilk.
teristics but at the cost of a tendency to burn the slurry The residue left is known by a variety of names:
okara, draff, tofukasu, soy pulp, tofu residue, tofu
cake, dou zha (Chinese), bejee (Korean), and tempeh
100 gembus (Indonesian).
3.1 During soymilk production distinctive flavors de-
Table 1 The gross composition, and vitamin and mineral content of whole soybeans compared with other protein sources from
animals in the uncooked state
Food (kJ/100 g) Gross composition (g per 100 g) Vitamins and minerals (mg per 100 g)
Carbohydrate Protein Lipid Retinol Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin Ca P Fe
a
Soybean (1653) 30 36.1 17.7 2 660 220 2.2 226 546 8.8
Beef (464) 21.0 3.0 5 130 170 5.5 12 224 3.2
Eggs (631) 12.3 11.3 530 100 300 0.1 73 224 3.1
Cow milk (264) 5 3.1 3.5 38 40 653 0.2 114 102 0.1
a
Nutritionally most of this carbohydrate is not available to humans.
Vitamin contents may change when the foods are cooked.
Table 2 The gross composition, and mineral and vitamin contents, of some soybean-based products
Food Gross composition (g per 100 g) Minerals and vitamins (mg per 100 g)
Water Proteina Fat Carbohydrate Crude fiber Ca Fe Zn P Thiamine Riboflavin
Soymilkb 93.3 2.8 1.9 1.8 1.1 4 0.51 0.23 0.16 0.07
Tonyuc 89.4 4.5 22 0.52 78
Okara 81.6 3.2 1.7 12.5 4.1 80 1.30 0.02 0.02
Okarac 78 5.1 50 0.6 86
Tofu 84.6 8.1 4.8 1.9 0.1 105 5.36 0.80 0.08 0.05
Tofuc 86.3 7.0 78 0.75 105
Yubac 7.1 46.2 321 4.08 707
Tempeh 55.0 19.0 7.7 17.0 3.0 93 2.26 1.81 0.13 0.11
a
Kjeldahl N 5.71.
b
Concentration of components in soymilk depends on the soybean : water ratio used to make the slurry.
c
Values from a Japanese paper, tonyu is the Japanese term for soymilk.
SOYBEAN/Soymilk, Tofu, and Okara 187
2
Drain Waste
Water rinse,
2–3 times
Rinse Waste
Water : bean
ratio − 6 : 1
Filter to separate
Heat slurry to near
soymilk from fibrous
boiling temperature
residue (okara)
Okara
to
waste
Filter to separate soymilk
Boil soymilk for from fibrous residue
a few minutes (okara)
Soymilk
Figure 2 A schematic diagram of the production of soymilk by the Chinese and the Japanese methods. Soybeans may be de-hulled
before they are put in to soak or the hulls may be removed at the end of the soaking stage, or the hulls may not be removed at all. Okara
is a major by-product from the process.
COOH
COOH
O2
CH3
CH3
OOH
O COOH CHO
An oxo acid Hexanal
Figure 3 The lipoxygenase enzyme is responsible for the ‘‘beany’’ flavor commonly noted in soymilk. The reaction catalyzed by
the enzyme involves water, the unsaturated oil, and oxygen and the end-product hexanal is one of the compounds responsible for the
beany flavor.
188 SOYBEAN/Soymilk, Tofu, and Okara
Hydration ratio
60 30
2.0
insoluble, may introduce cooked flavor, and affect soy 40
protein function. However, lipoxygenase is of value
30
for the organoleptic qualities of tofu and soymilk,
1.5
because tofu made with lipoxygenase-deficient soy-
beans lacks ‘‘mouthfulness’’ or richness, and soymilk
made with similar soybeans results in soymilk with 1.0
a darker yellow color. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Soak time (h)
Modern continuous production systems try to bal-
ance these factors. Recognized processes include: Figure 4 The time to maximum water uptake (hydration) by
soybeans depends on the temperature of the soak water.
Cornell method. Soybeans are de-hulled and
ground in a hot grinder with hot water at 80
100 C. The slurry is then boiled in a steam-jacketed are vaporized and stripped out. The soymilk is also
kettle and constantly stirred for 10 min, followed rapidly cooled as it expands into chamber.
by centrifugation or filtering to remove okara. Whether or not the soybeans should be de-hulled
Illinois method. Soybeans are de-hulled and either before processing is debatable, because the process
presoaked and placed in boiling water for 10 min, can damage the cotyledon thus releasing the enzyme
or placed dry in hot water for 20 min, then drained but some benefits include elimination of a ‘‘green or
and ground in sufficient cold water to make raw’’ flavor, and reduced soaking time. Soaking time
a slurry with 12% solids that is then heated to to full soybean hydration is fastest at 8090 C and
93.3 C and homogenized. Added sodium bicarbon- much slower at room temperature (Figure 4). During
ate (0.250.5%) in the early stage may be used to maceration to produce the slurry, the seedcoat does
hasten enzyme inactivation and has to be neutral- not behave the same way as the cotyledon cells.
ized after homogenization. The resulting product,
while bland in flavor, unfortunately has a chalky
Tofu
feel in the mouth. Soybean hulls are the only solid
waste product. Tofu resembles a soft white cheese and can be defined
Rapid hydration hydrothermal cooking method. as ‘‘a water extracted and salt- or acid-coagulated soy
Soybeans are ground into flour, mixed with hot protein gel with water, soy lipids, and other constit-
water, okara removed by centrifugation and soy- uents trapped on its network’’ that was developed in
milk pumped to a steam injection head where live China and spread through East Asia (see Nutrition:
steam is injected to increase temperature instantly Soy-Based Foods). It was introduced into Western
(UHT conditions, 154 C for 30 s), and the soymilk cuisine less than 100 years ago. The manufacture of
is held in a holding tube to deactivate trypsin in- tofu with consistent quality and yield is difficult as
hibitors. Okara waste results (e.g., the Tetra many things can affect the outcome.
AlwinTM Soy system). In the production of tofu, various coagulants are
Full fat soy flake method. The process begins used to solidify the soymilk. They include magnesium
with a product called MicroSoy Flakes made by chloride, calcium sulfate, and glucono-delta-lactone.
the MyCal group of Iowa, USA, from de-hulled The general process is outlined in Figure 5. Factors
soybeans. affecting the quality and yield of tofu include:
Commercial integrated production systems. Some
Size, shape, and color of hilum and cotyledon of the
of these systems are designed to be continuous and
soybean. Light colors are favored and although
incorporate steps to minimize ‘‘beany’’ flavor de-
a large size, 200 mg per seed or larger, is
velopment, such as procedures to minimize incor-
a traditional Japanese requirement, there seems
poration of oxygen that reacts with lipoxygenase.
to be no scientific basis for it.
Large soymilk manufacturers may include Total protein and the 11S7S protein ratio (see
a deodorization step at the conclusion of soymilk ex- Soybean: Soy Concentrates and Isolates). Japanese
traction. The hot soymilk is injected into a chamber manufacturers prefer soybeans containing 13%
under strong vacuum in which volatile off-flavors, moisture with a 38% or greater protein content.
such as sulfur flavors, short chain fatty acids and The 7S fraction is b-conglycinin and the 11S frac-
vinyl or sterol compounds, and air in the soymilk, tion is glycinin and the concentrations and ratio
SOYBEAN/Soymilk, Tofu, and Okara 189
Glucono-
Coagulant: choice of delta-lactone
gypsum (CaSO4),
nigari (MgCl2)
Cool to 78°C, add Cooled
solution and stir soymilk
vigorously for 30 s,
Water solution quiescent 30 min
Figure 5 A schematic diagram of the production of tofu. Traditionally calcium and magnesium salts have been used as coagulants but
a more recent innovation is the use of an acid coagulant, gluconon-delta lactone that slowly hydrolyzes to gluconic acid to cause the
coagulation of the proteins. The final product is manipulated in various ways to form the final shape and form of the tofu being produced.
Table 3 Soybean cultivars vary in their protein content and the ratio between the protein fractions 11S and 7S and they have an
impact on the tofu yield and tofu firmness
Cultivar Soybean (g per 100 g soybeans) 11S/7S ratio in protein Tofu firmness (N)
Moisture Protein Tofu yield
of these vary with seed cultivar (Table 3). The 11S concentration of protein in the soybeans rises
fraction controls hardness, brittleness, and gum- from 31% to 38%. The recommended concentra-
miness of resulting tofu, and the 7S fraction requires tion is 0.020.04 mol, but in practice experienced
more calcium or magnesium for coagulation. tofu makers know if the amount is correct by whey
Hence, the ratio of these two proteins in a soymilk color and curd texture. If concentration is just right,
influences the process and product characteristics. the whey is transparent with amber or pale yellow
The 11S fraction, the a0 polypeptide of 7S, and the color and sweet taste, and if too much coagulating
basic polypeptide of 11S seem to each affect tofu agent is added the whey is slightly bitter and the
yield but they are not related to tofu firmness. curd has a coarse texture.
However, there is a relationship between tofu firm- As grinding temperature rises from 2 C to 50 C,
ness and the 11S fraction, the 7S fraction, and the firmness of resulting tofu declines. This is due
their ratio. The effect of the 11S : 7S ratio may be to the activity of the lipoxygenase enzyme whose
modified by the processing conditions. reaction by-products, the peroxides, oxidize the
When calcium sulfate is used for coagulation, the SH groups on the soybean protein being
concentration of the salt for optimum tofu quality released during the grinding and so reduce protein
declines from 0.8% (w/w) to 0.4% as the cross-linking.
190 SOYBEAN/Soymilk, Tofu, and Okara
The percentage of total solids in soymilk is related glucono delta lactone tofu, suppresses retort-induced
to the water : soybean ratio. The water value used is water release during sterilization at 115 C for 20 min.
the total amount of water absorbed by the dry Tofu is classified into soft (silken), firm, and extra
beans plus the final addition of water for grinding firm varieties. Subsequent processing results in
plus any rinse waters from the residual okara added a range of products. Silken tofu contains 8890%
back to the slurry. Maximum protein yields are water and 6% protein and is made with soymilk con-
obtained at a ratio of 10 : 1, water : soybean, but taining 1012% solids. The curds, when broken and
at a ratio of 9 : 1 pressed tofu has the lowest pressed, result in firm and extra firm tofus. The firm-
fresh yield and cohesiveness, and highest brittleness ness makes it easier to handle the small curd blocks so
and hardness. they keep their shape during slicing and cooking by
The coagulation temperature depends on type and deep frying or pan frying.
concentration of coagulant, how the coagulant is Products, depending on subsequent handling, in-
added in, and tofu type to be produced. Generally, clude plain tofu, frozen tofu (a 10001500 year
as the temperature used is increased (5090 C) old Chinese tradition), dried-frozen tofu, deep-fried
tofu yield decreases, but at the lower temperatures tofu, grilled tofu, and fermented tofu (see Soybean:
tofu is soft and at higher temperatures tofu is hard Soy-Based Fermented Foods). Frozen tofu has an in-
and uneven. Consequently, the optimum tempera- teresting characteristic. On freezing the tofu solids
ture range is 7080 C. congeal into a firm network, and on thawing the
If the soymilk is stirred with added coagulant, the water is released from the tofu block leaving behind
resulting tofu has a hard curd and a low fresh yield a product with a sponge-like texture that is tough and
is obtained. High-speed stirring favors hard curd chewy but it absorbs flavors easily. The thawed tofu,
production and low-speed stirring for a short when dried (dried-frozen tofu), keeps well (up to 12
time favors softer curds. months), is easily handled and stored, and is a highly
Although soybean variety affects tofu qualities and concentrated source of protein and energy.
yield, the growing season for the production of the
soybeans has a major impact on tofu texture, due to
the effect of environmental growth conditions on
Soymilk- and Tofu-Based Foods
the 11S : 7S ratio in the protein.
When soybeans are stored under adverse conditions Although the name ‘‘soymilk’’ is commonly used,
of high temperature and relative humidity, the there is some resistance to the use of ‘‘milk’’ in the
tofu yield decreases and tofu hardness increases name, because milk has been more commonly asso-
(Table 4). ciated with the bovine-derived product. Conse-
quently, it is sometimes named ‘‘soy beverage.’’
During the production of tofu, additives are some-
Many modern products have been referred as sec-
times included to change the tofu characteristics or to
ond-generation soy foods because they are modern
improve textural characteristics. Added blood in
inventions as opposed to the traditional products
Japan, algal cells (Chlorella sp.) in Korea, and chit-
above, but a clear-cut definition of these products is
osan have also been used to improve tofu texture.
difficult. Broadly, they can be placed into three cate-
Commercial transglutaminase or glucose at a low
gories: dairy analogs, meat analogs, and tofu-based
level, when added at 5 mg l1 to soymilk to make
foods.
The soymilk-based dairy analogs are foods basi-
Table 4 The affect of storage of soybeans under adverse con- cally the same as dairy products, but soymilk and
ditions, at 85% relative humidity and 30oC, on phytate concentra- soy constituents are used instead of milk and milk
tion in the soybeans and the yield of tofu and the brittleness and
constituents. Consequently, the soy-based analogs in-
hardness of the tofu measured in grams
clude frozen soy deserts such as soy ice cream and
Months of storage Phytate Tofu yield Brittleness Hardness frozen soy yogurt. Generally, dairy ice cream is
(g per 100 g of (g) (g) made from a mixture of ingredients that include
soybeans) water, high fructose corn sweetener (or sucrose),
0 1.33 512 1020 2090
fruits, vegetable gums, salt, and colorant but in soy
1 1.21 505 1033 2182 ice cream the dairy constituents are replaced with soy
2 1.18 481 923 2465 oil, tofu, isolated soy protein, and soy lecithin. Frozen
3 1.16 421 873 2704 soy yogurt is basically made from a mix similar to that
4 1.10 389 920 3080 found in soy ice cream except that it is cultured with
5 1.06 362 945 3278
6 1.05 233 45000 45000
the two yogurt lactic acid bacteria (see Soybean: Soy-
Based Fermented Foods) and frozen and whipped as
SOYBEAN/Soymilk, Tofu, and Okara 191
for normal ice cream. The product resembles a regular a sauce-like product using a soy sauce manufacturing
soft serve frozen product. technique (see Soybean: Soy-Based Fermented Foods),
Attempts to make fermented dairy analogs such as the resulting product has an excellent flavor with
cheese and yogurt from pure soymilk have generally a light and bright color, but total amino acids and
failed for a variety of reasons. They include that the glutamic acid are lower than found with a 1 : 1 mix-
soy protein molecules are larger than milk proteins ture of defatted soybean meal and wheat. Okara is not
and have different functional groups and characteris- suitable for ethanol production.
tics; the fat to protein ratio in tofu is lower than in
cheese, 0.55 : 1 versus 1.1 : 1, that results in a hard Preservation of Okara
product; sugars in soymilk do not support growth
Due to its high water activity and microbial contam-
of dairy bacterial cultures; and acid production by
ination, okara can putrefy quickly so if it is not used
the usual dairy microorganisms in soymilk is variable.
immediately it must be preserved. It is desirable that
Consequently, processes used for dairy products man-
during preservation the okara should retain its white
ufacture cannot be easily adapted to soymilk. Pro-
color and ability to easily absorb water. For short-
ducts similar to cheese can be made but it requires
term storage a lactic acid fermentation will suffice, but
addition of dairy constituents and enzymes to obtain
drying is the preferred solution.
products similar to dairy cheeses.
Fresh okara tends to be lumpy so there are homo-
The idea of making meat analogs from soybean
geneity problems during drying. Successful drying
dates from the 1950s. There are two basic processes
systems depend on the initial moisture content of
for manufacturing meat burger-like products, namely
the okara. Dehydration methods include addition
fiber spinning and thermoplastic extrusion. Fiber
of water-absorbing synthetic polymers in various
spinning is used to make fibrous meat-like products
forms to the okara; the use of a patented pro-
that are used in the production of ‘‘meat’’ pies, cas-
cess involving a pneumatic conveying drier and
seroles, seasoned vegetables, and sandwich fillings.
a pulverizer; or a pneumatic drying system with hot
Flavors such as bacon flavor can be added to the
air (208254 C) at a low velocity (192 m min1) in
product. Thermoplastic extrusion is used to make
a large drying tower. Other drying systems include
textured vegetable protein (TVP) that can be formed
a vibro-fluidized bed under vacuum, and drying in
into continuous slabs for eventual cutting into desired
pellet form (3 mm 10 mm) in hot air. Sterilized
shapes such as burger shapes. Various flavors and
wet okara can be produced continuously by finely
spices can be added to make the product flavorful.
dividing it and feeding it into a scraper-type heat ex-
These meat analogs can be marketed as low fat and
changer at not less than 120 C followed by cooling,
cholesterol free as well as being vegetarian.
filling, and sealing aseptically in a suitable container.
Tofu is very versatile and can be used to make very
many Western style foods. Tofu has been used to
Okara Composition
make cheesecake, dips, pies, cream cheese, mayon-
naise, Italian meatballs, and almost any Western The main components of okara are ruptured cotyle-
style food. don cells and the seedcoat. The proximate composi-
tion of the wet okara depends on the water extraction
efficiency from the slurry phase and soybean cultivar
Okara
from which it is extracted, amongst other factors.
About 1.1 kg of fresh okara is produced from every kg Okara has a pH of 6.7, and on a dry-weight basis
of soybeans processed for soymilk. Okara contains its proximate composition is 27% protein, 10%
30% of the whole soybean solids, 20% of the crude fat/oil, and 14% soluble fiber, 42% insoluble
bean protein, and 11% of the oil. Huge quantities fiber, and 3% ash. The proximate insoluble fiber con-
of okara are produced, e.g., in Japan 700 000 ton tent is 12% hemicellulose, 5.5% cellulose, 11.5%
(t) of okara were produced from the tofu production lignin, and 0.2% phytic acid. Other nutritionally
industry in 1986, and its disposal is a significant prob- important compounds include vitamins: thiamine,
lem. The okara is used as an animal food, is dumped in riboflavin and nicotinic acid, as well as calcium,
landfills, is used as a fertilizer, and, in Japan, most is phosphate, zinc, iron, copper, and magnesium
burnt. It has been used as a base for a low cost arti- (Table 5). The phytic acid (inositol hexa-phosphate),
ficial food for silkworms for the first to the third larval when consumed in large quantities in the diet, reduces
instar stages of growth. Research is ongoing to devise calcium balance and metal ion availability, and the
uses for okara including the development of other zinc has low bioavailability. Soluble carbohydrates
processed human foods. When dry okara is mixed include sucrose as well as raffinose and stachyose
with rice powder in the ratio of 25 : 75 to prepare that cause meteorism (flatulence) (Table 6).
192 SOYBEAN/Soymilk, Tofu, and Okara
Nicotinic
Fractionation of Okara
1.01
0.82
1.04
acid
Okara, as a waste product, is a cheap resource, so to
add value to it various components can be isolated in
Riboflavin
fractionating steps to produce high-value products
such as proteins and carbohydrates that can be
0.04
0.03
0.03
used as food additives.
0.59
0.49
0.48
Minerals and vitamins (mg per 100 g)
2.5
3.1
2.3
to total amino acids is similar to tofu and soymilk.
Protein extracted from heat-treated and nonheat-
3.8
3.5
6.4
Zn
56.6
58.1
52.8
42.0
43.6
40.2
9.3
Oil
Prima
Table 6 Carbohydrate (not fiber) contents on a dry matter basis, of okara from three cultivars of soybeans (g per 100 g)
The monosaccharides units in the polysaccharides in intermedia. The resulting product has no soybean
the insoluble fiber components, when enzymatically flavor, smooth mouth feel, and, when fried, the
digested, include galacturonic acid, glucose, xylose, texture of okara ontjom resembles chicken (see
arabinose, and galactose. Soybean: Soy-Based Fermented Foods).
The tempeh fungus, Rhizopus oligosporus, and the
Human Consumption soy sauce fungus, Aspergillus oryzae, improve protein
The dietary fiber content of okara is greater than digestibility, and availability of nutrients in the fer-
50%, so its energy content is only half that of mented okara along with its antioxidant activities.
wheat flour. Okara alone has some antinutritional In rats fed with a diet containing 50% okara protein
qualities; however, fermented okara may have definite enriched with okara koji fermented with A. oryzae,
dietary advantages. It can act as a suitable replace- plasma- and liver-cholesterol levels and triglycerides
ment for digestible food in a food prepared to reduce (compared with a casein-based control diet) are
calorie intake, when consumed, it can reduce choles- lower. The protein and fiber components in okara
terol levels in the blood stream, and as a food that koji made with A. oryzae and R. oligosporus affect
contains antioxidant activity, similar to vitamin E, it lipid metabolism in rats. Plasma levels of cholesterol
can reduce the level of free radicals in the body. and bile acid are significantly lower in okara tempeh
fed animals apparently due to cholesterol and bile
Nonfermented products Haarman and Reimer acid being more strongly bound to okara fiber than
Corp. in the USA developed an okara-based snack cellulose fiber and so they are excreted in the faeces.
bar, and the Japanese National Food Research Insti- Dietary fiber, particularly that from the soybean, may
tute patented a process for converting okara to a tex- be effective in modifying colonic conditions in
tured soybean product. Biscuits fortified with 60% a positive way (see Nutrition: Guidelines for Grain-
okara to give protein and dietary fiber contents of Based Foods). Rats fed with fermented okara absorb
8.72% and 5.98%, respectively, are acceptable to more iron than those fed with unfermented okara,
consumers. The Japanese patented a process to pro- possibly due to reduced levels of phytic acid.
duce okara coated with shortening for use as a wheat Fermented okara, compared with unfermented
substitute for making cakes acceptable to consumers. okara, contains more of an antioxidant, called NTX,
A nougat candy based on peanut, glucose, hydroge- that has an anti-inflammatory effect on gastric injury in
nated oil, sugar, and natural essences with added the gastric mucosa. In in vitro tests NTX scavenges the
okara has been developed in Argentina. The candy superoxide anion, a process that also occurs in vivo.
contains 18.3% okara and 27.4% peanut. Acceptable When foot pad edema is induced in rats by subcutane-
corn tortillas can be made with 10% added okara, and ous injection of croton oil, NTX fed rats exhibit re-
the tortillas have increased lysine and tryptophan lev- pressed edema but rats fed with a control diet or
els, amino acids that are nutritionally limited in corn. vitamin E show no repression of edema. The antioxid-
ants in A. oryzae fermented okara seem to be g-and
Fermented products A traditional Chinese product d-tocopherol, the isoflavones genistin, daidzein, genis-
is meitauza that is produced with okara using the tein, and 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid. In vitamin-
fungus Actinomucor elegans in a solid-state fermen- E-deficient rats fed with okara supplemented with the
tation, and another is pickled okara. However, much oxidizedoil,thebodyweightgainwaslowerandplasma
recent work has to do with using some traditional peroxidase activities lower than in those fed with fer-
fungi and bacteria to produce nutritious and flavor- mented okara suggesting that the antioxidants in the
some okara-based products. fermented okara scavenged lipid peroxides in vivo.
Okara-based natto has been produced using se-
Fermentation for Nonfood Products
lected strains of Bacillus natto. Indonesian ontjom
(oncom), an orange colored product, has been Some unusual and possibly useful chemicals, new and
prepared from okara using the fungus Neurospora previously described, including iturin A and surfactin,
194 SOYBEAN/Soymilk, Tofu, and Okara
have been produced by some microorganisms Roundup Ready beans, in a batch is of interest.
growing on okara only but not other substrates in Using a Polymerase Chain Reaction process the
a solid-state fermentation (see Soybean: Soy-Based Agrobacterium derived enzyme, 5-enol-pyruvyl-shiki-
Fermented Foods). When growing on okara, Penicil- mate-3-phosphate synase gene used in the modifica-
lium brasilianum Batista JV-379 produces two tion process, can be detected at the level of one
compounds, namely brasiliamide A and B, that modified soybean in 5000 unmodified seeds.
cause convulsive responses in silkworms. Strains of
the fungus P. simplicissimum produce okaramines, See also: Milling and Baking, History. Nutrition:
some with insecticidal properties. In addition, they Beriberi, A Deficiency Related to Grains; Guidelines for
produce a unique oleanane triterpene, and another Grain-Based Foods; Soy-Based Foods. Soybean: Soy
species of Penicillium produces two new dihydroqui- Concentrates and Isolates; Soy-Based Fermented Foods.
nolinones, one toxic for the classic toxin indicator
Artemia salina at an LC50 value of 20 mg ml1.
Yamaguchi F, Ota Y, and Hatanaka C (1996) Extraction ‘‘Post Harvest Operations’’ to obtain comprehensive
and purification of pectic polysaccharides from soybean information about postharvest treatments of soy-
okara and enzymatic analysis of their structures. beans. The site is multilingual.
Carbohydrate Polymers 30: 265273. http://www.wishh.org The site of the World
Initiative for Soy in Human Health, an initiative
Relevant Websites from the United States of America. The site includes
news items.
http://www.dietobio.com A combined French and http://www.soya.be Information on soyfoods
English site concerned with vegetarian foods. Choose including recipes as well as a wide range of foods.
language and go to ‘‘Articles’’ for information on soy News items are also included.
foods. http://www.aces.uiuc.edu A University of Illinois
http://www.ellenskitchen.com A site dealing with website dealing with soybeans.
recipes and special diets for those with metabolic http://www.foodsubs.com The Cook’s Thesaurus
dietary problems, as well as vegetarian diets. and Encyclopedia covering thousands of recipes and
http://hcf-nutrition.org The site of the HCF kitchen tools.
Nutrition Foundation with a focus on the nutritional http://www.soyfoods.com The US Soyfoods Direc-
aspects of foods, in particular soyfoods, and how tory with a free soyfoods guide available for down-
they are all related to disease. loading, as well as food recipes, mail order and new soy
http://www.fao.org The site of the FAO of the research. Descriptions of all kinds of soyfoods are given.
United Nations. Type ‘‘soybean’’ in the search http://www.soybean.on.ca From the Ontario
window to obtain information. Go to ‘‘World soybean growers in Canada and includes information
Agricultural Information Centre’’ and under ‘‘En- on the nutritive value of soybeans as well as recipes
gineering, Technology and Research.’’ Go to the and descriptions of soyfoods.
STARCH
Contents
Uses of Native Starch
Analysis of Quality
Chemistry
Modification
Synthesis
Uses of Native Starch in starch have found their way into either human or
animal food. Due to the abundance of these starchy
J W Lawton, National Centre for Agricultural Utilization natural materials, it is not surprising that applications
Research, USDA, Peoria, IL, USA
other than its caloric value have been found for starch.
Published by Elsevier Ltd. Early in human history, starch was used to coat
papyrus and the Romans documented the production
of paste from white flour and vinegar. The variation
Introduction
found in the different sources of starch gives it great
Foods high in starch have always been an important versatility in the types of uses. Starch can contribute
part of the human diet. Traditionally, these foods high to adhesion, viscosity, film forming, binding, and