EP SG 4 3-0035 Drilling Well Control Manual PDF
EP SG 4 3-0035 Drilling Well Control Manual PDF
EP SG 4.1–0035
Authorization for Issue Jon Turnbull, Well Engineering Authority, S&OR Agree
Well Control Technical Specialists GWO Well Control Engineering Team Perform
Table of Contents
1 The Origins of Formation Pressure ..................................................................................................... 19
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 19
1.1.1 Subsurface Pressures .......................................................................................................... 19
1.1.2 Pressure Seals ..................................................................................................................... 23
1.1.3 Pressure Gradients .............................................................................................................. 23
1.2 Normal Formation Pressure .......................................................................................................... 24
1.3 Subnormal Formation Pressure .................................................................................................... 25
1.3.1 Causes of Subnormal Formation Pressure .......................................................................... 25
1.3.2 Magnitude of Subnormal Formation Pressures ................................................................... 28
1.3.3 Summary .............................................................................................................................. 28
1.4 Abnormal Formation Pressure ...................................................................................................... 29
1.4.1 Causes of Abnormal Formation Pressure ............................................................................ 29
1.4.2 Magnitude of Abnormal Formation Pressures ..................................................................... 40
1.4.3 Summary .............................................................................................................................. 41
1.5 Shallow Gas .................................................................................................................................. 41
1.5.1 Definition .............................................................................................................................. 42
1.5.2 Origins of Shallow Gas ........................................................................................................ 42
1.5.3 Characteristics of Shallow Gas ............................................................................................ 42
8.1.2 Static Volumetric Control Technique (Choke Pressure used to Monitor Bottomhole
Pressure) ........................................................................................................................................... 310
8.1.3 Lubrication Technique (Lube and Bleed) ........................................................................... 312
8.1.4 Dynamic Volumetric Method .............................................................................................. 313
8.2 Annulus Pressure Profiles .......................................................................................................... 313
8.2.1 Displacing a Kick from the Hole ......................................................................................... 314
8.2.2 Factors that Affect Wellbore Pressures ............................................................................. 319
8.2.3 Calculating Annulus Pressure Profiles ............................................................................... 329
8.3 Safety Factors ............................................................................................................................. 336
8.3.1 Annulus Frictional Pressure ............................................................................................... 336
8.3.2 Heavier than Calculated Kill Weight Mud .......................................................................... 336
8.3.3 Additional Choke Pressure ................................................................................................ 338
8.4 Complications in Well Control ..................................................................................................... 338
8.4.1 Plugged Bit Nozzle ............................................................................................................. 338
8.4.2 Plugged Choke................................................................................................................... 338
8.4.3 Cut-out Choke .................................................................................................................... 338
8.4.4 Pump Failure ...................................................................................................................... 338
8.4.5 Pressure Gauge Failure ..................................................................................................... 339
8.4.6 String Washout................................................................................................................... 339
8.4.7 Stuck Pipe .......................................................................................................................... 339
8.4.8 Wellhead Pressures Approach the MAWHP ..................................................................... 340
8.5 Identifying the Influx Type ........................................................................................................... 340
8.6 Bullheading ................................................................................................................................. 342
8.7 Barite Plugs................................................................................................................................. 342
8.7.1 Characteristics of Barite Plugs ........................................................................................... 342
8.7.2 Design of Weighted Plugs (Settling and Non-settling) for Water-based Mud (WBM) ....... 343
8.7.3 Design of Barite Plugs for Oil-based Mud .......................................................................... 345
8.7.4 Dispersants ........................................................................................................................ 345
8.7.5 Pilot Tests .......................................................................................................................... 345
8.7.6 Slurry Volume..................................................................................................................... 345
8.7.7 Pumping and Displacement Rate ...................................................................................... 345
8.7.8 Preparation of a Barite Plug ............................................................................................... 346
8.7.9 After Pumping a Barite Plug ............................................................................................... 346
8.7.10 Barite Plug Procedure-Settling Slurry ................................................................................ 346
8.8 Well Control Considerations in Slim Hole Well ........................................................................... 347
8.8.1 Slim Hole Characteristics ................................................................................................... 347
8.8.2 Kick Detection System ....................................................................................................... 348
8.8.3 Well Kill Technique ............................................................................................................ 348
8.9 Shallow Gas ................................................................................................................................ 350
8.9.1 General .............................................................................................................................. 350
8.9.2 Gas Encountered with a Riser - Bottom Supported Rigs .................................................. 351
8.9.3 Gas Encountered Drilling Riserless- Bottom Supported Rigs .......................................... 352
8.9.4 Onshore Shallow Gas ........................................................................................................ 352
List of Tables
Table 1.1 Types of Formation Pressure Seals............................................................................................ 23
Table 2.1 Techniques used to Predict, Detect and Evaluate Formation Pore Pressures .......................... 45
Table 4.6 Drillpipe Pressure Schedule for Directional Well ...................................................................... 165
Table 4.7 Expanded Drillpipe Pressure Schedule for Directional Well ..................................................... 166
Table 5.2 Ram Preventer Opening and Closing Ratios ............................................................................ 209
Table 9.2 Procedures for Mitigating SWF While Drilling ........................................................................... 372
Table 9.7 Shut-in with Bit above the BOPs ............................................................................................... 384
Table 9.10 Estimated Chokeline Losses (psi) for Differing Chokeline Lengths (3 in ID) .......................... 387
Table 9.11 Factors Related to Methods of Circulating a Kick to Surface ................................................. 395
Table 9.14 Procedures for Removing Wellhead Connector Hydrates ...................................................... 415
Table 10.2 Example Calibration Sheet for Fingerprinting Flowback ......................................................... 424
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Composite Overburden Load for Normally Compacted Formations ......................................... 21
Figure 1.2 Schematic Diagrams of Subsurface Pressure Concepts .......................................................... 22
Figure 1.3 Relationship Between Piezometric Surface and Ground Level for an Aquifer System ............. 26
Figure 1.4 Temperature-Pressure-Density Diagram for Water Illustrating Subnormal Pressures Caused by
Cooling an Isolated Fluid............................................................................................................................. 27
Figure 1.5 Formation Foreshortening ......................................................................................................... 28
Figure 1.6 Typical Formation Pressures Caused by Compaction Disequilibrium ....................................... 30
Figure 1.7 Interlayer Water and Cations Between Clay Platelets ............................................................... 31
Figure 1.8 Reaction of Montmorillonite to Illite ............................................................................................ 32
Figure 1.9 Water Distribution Curves for Shale Dehydration ...................................................................... 33
Figure 1.10 Diagenetic Stages in the Alteration of Montmorillonite to Illite ................................................ 33
Figure 1.11 Abnormal Formation Pressures Caused by Tectonic Compressional Folding ........................ 35
Figure 1.12 Abnormal Pressure Distribution Around a Piercement Salt Dome .......................................... 36
Figure 1.13 Diagram of a Mud Volcano ...................................................................................................... 37
Figure 1.14 Abnormal Pressure Due to Reservoir Structure ...................................................................... 38
Figure 1.15 Diagram Illustrating Osmotic Flow ........................................................................................... 40
Figure 2.1 Pressure/Depth Plot ................................................................................................................... 47
Figure 2.2 Diagram Illustrating Seismic Reflection System and Seismic Traces ....................................... 49
Figure 2.3 Diagram Showing Common Depth Point Seismic Ray Paths ................................................... 50
Figure 2.4 Plot of Offset versus Two-way Travel Time for Common Depth Point System ......................... 51
Figure 2.5 Example Seismic Velocity Analysis Plot .................................................................................... 53
Figure 2.6 Example of Stacking Velocity Data on a Seismic Section ......................................................... 54
Figure 2.7 Seismic and Sonic ITT Versus Depth Plots for Abnormally Pressured Well ............................. 58
Figure 2.8 Log-log Plot of Seismic Interval Transit Time ............................................................................ 59
Figure 2.9 ITT Departure versus Formation Pressure Gradient ................................................................. 60
Figure 2.10 ITT Ratio Versus Formation Pressure Gradient ...................................................................... 61
Figure 2.11 Example of Drilling Hazard Log Over Shallow Section ........................................................... 63
Figure 2.12 Example Showing Increase in Penetration Rate on Entering an Abnormal Pressure Zone ... 65
Figure 2.13 Effect of Lithology Variation on Penetration Rate .................................................................... 66
Figure 2.14 Effect of Bit Condition on Penetration Rate When Drilling into an Overpressured Zone ........ 67
Figure 2.15 Diagram Showing Typical Response of Corrected d-exponent in Transition and
Overpressured Zones ................................................................................................................................. 69
Figure 2.16 Normal Diagrams Showing Typical dc-exponent Responses ................................................. 70
Figure 2.17 Diagram Showing dc-exponent Response to Over-compaction Caused by Ice Sheet Loading
.................................................................................................................................................................... 72
Figure 2.18 Example of Formation Pressure Determination from the dc-exponent Plot Using the ‘Ratio
Method’........................................................................................................................................................ 73
Figure 2.19 Example Showing the Equivalent Depth Method for Formation Pressure Determination from
dc-exponent Plots ....................................................................................................................................... 75
Figure 2.20 Example Showing Formation Pressure Determination from the dc-exponent Plot Using Lines
Constructed from the Eaton Equation ......................................................................................................... 78
Figure 2.21 Example Showing Normalized Penetration Rate Method form Determination of Formation
Pressures .................................................................................................................................................... 79
Figure 2.22 Diagram Showing Mud Gas Levels as an Indicator of Formation Pressures .......................... 83
Figure 2.23 Example of Mud Gas Levels Showing TG, Kelly Gas (Kelly Cut) and Recycled TG .............. 85
Figure 2.24 Diagram Showing Theoretical Geothermal Gradients and Temperature Profile through an
Overpressured Zone ................................................................................................................................... 87
Figure 2.25 Diagram Showing Expected Flowline Temperature Response on Drilling Through an
Overpressured Zone ................................................................................................................................... 88
Figure 2.26 Example Flowline Temperature Plots Showing Raw Data Plot, End-to-end Plot and Trend-to-
trend Plot ..................................................................................................................................................... 88
Figure 2.27 Example “Horner” Temperature Plot for Estimation of True BHT ............................................ 90
Figure 2.28 Example of Typical Response of Differential Mud Conductivity/Delta Chlorides .................... 91
Figure 2.29 Shale Bulk Density/Depth Plot ................................................................................................. 92
Figure 2.30 Variable Density Column for Measuring Shale Bulk Density ................................................... 93
Figure 2.31 Response of Shale Bulk Density/Depth Plots in Overpressures Caused by Different
Mechanisms ................................................................................................................................................ 94
Figure 2.32 Shale Factor/Depth Response to Overpressure Caused by Compaction Disequilibrium and
Clay Diagenesis .......................................................................................................................................... 95
Figure 2.33 Characterization of Shale Cavings Caused by Underbalanced Conditions and Stress Relief 96
Figure 2.34 Mudlogging Unit Functions and Information Flow Diagram ..................................................... 99
Figure 2.35 Diagram Showing the Operating Principle of the Sonic (BHC) Logging Tool ....................... 102
Figure 2.36 Diagram Showing Shale Sonic Interval Transit Time Response in Overpressures .............. 103
Figure 2.37 Shale Resistivity/Depth Plot Showing Response in Overpressures ...................................... 107
Figure 2.38 Shale Resistivity/Depth Plot Illustrating the Challenges Associated with Formation Pressure
Interpretation ............................................................................................................................................. 108
Figure 2.39 Empirical Correlations for Estimation of Formation Pressures from Shale Resistivity Ratio. 109
Figure 2.40 Log-derived Shale Bulk Plot on Semi-logarithmic Scales ..................................................... 111
Figure 2.41 Diagram Showing the RFT Pre-test and Sampling Principle ................................................. 113
Figure 2.42 Diagram Showing the Operation of the RFT Sample Probe ................................................. 114
Figure 2.43 Example of an RFT Analogue Pressure Recording............................................................... 114
Figure 2.44 Example of a Typical Drillstem Test String (for a High-Pressure Gas Well) Showing Position
of Gauges .................................................................................................................................................. 116
Figure 2.45 Example of a Typical Pressure Chart from a Mechanical Gauge Placed Below the Tester
Valve in the DST String ............................................................................................................................. 118
Figure 8.19 A Comparison of Shoe Pressure during Displacement of a Gas Kick with the Shoe at 6 562 ft
.................................................................................................................................................................. 326
Figure 8.20 A Comparison of Shoe Pressures during Displacement of a Gas Kick with the Shoe at
4 912 ft ...................................................................................................................................................... 327
Figure 8.21 A Comparison of Shoe Pressures during Displacement of a Gas Kick with the Shoe at
3 281 ft ...................................................................................................................................................... 327
Figure 8.22 Choke Pressure during Displacement of a Water Kick using the Wait and Weight Method . 329
Figure 8.23 Annulus Pressure Worksheet ................................................................................................ 330
Figure 8.24 Annulus Pressure Worksheet (cont'd) ................................................................................... 331
Figure 8.25 Graph of Pseudo-crucial Temperature and Pressure for Hydrocarbons ............................... 334
Figure 8.26 Compressibility Factors for Natural Gas ................................................................................ 335
Figure 8.27 Choke Pressure for Various Mud Weights using the Wait and Weight Method .................... 337
Figure 8.28 Shoe Pressure During Displacement of a Gas Kick with Overbalanced Mud ....................... 337
Figure 8.29 Determing Influx Type ............................................................................................................ 341
Figure 8.30 Design of Barite Plug for WBM .............................................................................................. 344
Figure 8.31 Height of a 10 bbl Gas Influx in Annulus ............................................................................... 349
Figure 8.32 Reduction in Bottomhole Pressure due to a 10 bbl Gas Influx .............................................. 349
Figure 8.33 Annular Friction Pressure Drop. ............................................................................................ 350
Figure 8.34 Swab Pressure in a 1 000 ft Hole .......................................................................................... 350
Figure 8.35 Rotating Control Head ........................................................................................................... 355
Figure 8.36 Rotating Blowout Preventer ................................................................................................... 356
Figure 8.37 An Example BOP Stack for UBD ........................................................................................... 357
Figure 8.38 Atmospheric Phase Separation System ................................................................................ 358
Figure 8.39 Four-phase Separator Vessel ................................................................................................ 358
Figure 8.40 Float Valves ........................................................................................................................... 359
Figure 8.41 Drill String Floats for Air Drilling: Fire Stop and Fire Float Valves ......................................... 360
Figure 8.42 Surface Rig-up ....................................................................................................................... 364
Figure 8.43 Air Drilling Well Control (One Float Valve) ............................................................................ 366
Figure 8.44 Air Drilling Well Control (Two Float Valves) ........................................................................... 367
Figure 8.45 The Influence of Pressure on the Combustible ..................................................................... 368
Figure 9.1 Typical Sub-Sea Wellhead ..................................................................................................... 376
Figure 9.2 Kick While Drilling, Floating Rig, Hard Shut-in ........................................................................ 378
Figure 9.3 Use of Kill Line to Monitor for Wellhead Pressure on Rig with Subsea Stack ......................... 389
Figure 9.4 The Effect of Chokeline Losses – Casing Pressure After Initial Circulation is Greater than
Chokeline Pressure (Case A).................................................................................................................... 390
Figure 9.5 The Effect of Chokeline Losses – Casing Pressure After Initial Circulation is Less than
Chokeline Loss (Case B) .......................................................................................................................... 391
Figure 9.6 Comparison of Choke Pressures - During Displacement of a Gas Kick on a Surface BOP and
Subsea BOP ............................................................................................................................................. 392
Figure 9.7 Choke Pressure for Differing Water Depths ............................................................................ 393
Figure 9.8 Determination of the Necessary Rate of Choke Manipulation for a Deepwater Subsea Well. 394
Figure 9.9 Dynamic Volumetric Method - Kill Line Pressure Schedule .................................................... 399
Figure 9.10 Subsea BOP Stack Prior to Removing Gas from Below the Preventers ............................... 403
Figure 9.11 Removing Gas from a Subsea BOP Stack – Lower Pipe Rams Closed, Hang-off Rams
Opened...................................................................................................................................................... 404
Figure 9.12 Removing Gas from a Subsea BOP Stack - Kill and Chokelines Displaced to Kill Weight Mud
.................................................................................................................................................................. 405
Figure 9.13 Removing Gas from a Subsea BOP Stack - Choke and Kill Lines Displaced to Water ........ 406
Figure 9.14 Removing Gas from a Subsea BOP Stack – Gas Pressure Bled Down, Gas Occupies
Chokeline .................................................................................................................................................. 407
Figure 9.15 Removing Gas from a Subsea Stack - Diverter is Closed, the Annular is Opened and the Gas
is Displaced from the Stack....................................................................................................................... 408
Figure 9.16 Temperature and Pressure at which Gas Hydrates will Form (Katz) .................................... 411
Figure 9.17 Natural Gas Expansion - Temperature Reduction Curve (NATCO) ...................................... 412
Figure 10.1 Deepwater 200°F BHT surface density14,8 ppg CaBr2/ZnBr2 14,88 ppg Equivalent Static
Density ...................................................................................................................................................... 422
Figure 10.2 Flow-back is Influenced by Circulating Rate and Hole Depth ............................................... 423
Figure 10.3 Flowback Determination ........................................................................................................ 426
Figure 10.4 Deciding between Flowback and a Real Kick ........................................................................ 427
Figure 10.5 Flow Chart for a Bleed-off Test .............................................................................................. 428
Figure 11.1 Example Overlay Plot for an Offshore Well ........................................................................... 434
Figure 11.2 Example Relief Well SOR ...................................................................................................... 445
Figure 11.3 Example Relief Well SOR (cont’d) ......................................................................................... 446
Figure A.4 Example of Standing Order for Driller while Tripping .............................................................. 453
Preface
The purpose of a well control program is to help assure a well is drilled, completed, produced and
ultimately abandoned with no unplanned influx, surface pressure or discharge. As the complexity
of drilling and production processes has increased, the challenges encountered while achieving
these goals have evolved and gained additional importance.
This is the second revision of the BP Well Control Manual (WCM) and reflects BP’s commitment
to personnel and environmental safety, and provides useful guidance for achieving these
objectives. This WCM primarily addresses drilling operations and provides a “how-to” description
for conformance with BP’s well control-related engineering technical practices. The theory behind
the guidance is also provided in certain areas to better illustrate key points. This manual does not
contain requirements and it is not auditable by Safety and Operational Risks (S&OR).
Discussions within this document of procedures and similar examples are presented only for
illustrative purposes to show guidance on a particular subject. They are not meant to demonstrate
requirements. It is intended to be used in conjunction with the BP Engineering Technical
Practices (ETPs) that supply the mandated requirements with regards to well control.
This manual is intended to provide useful guidance for BP Well Site Leaders (WSL), managers,
engineers, and others but can also be used as a training manual for operational personnel or as
general information guide concerning well control and blowout prevention. This guidance
assumes a preliminary knowledge of drilling practices and well control.
The structure of this volume is intended to provide a comprehensive description of well control
challenges and practices. The first three sections address the primary down-hole characteristics
that affect well control. A working knowledge of the content in these sections will provide the
reader with the background required and some of the challenges that formations present.
Section 4 presents the fundamental well equations that are used in well control planning and
operations.
Section 5 is a discussion of well control equipment and the requirements for its use.
Sections 6 and 7 provide guidance for drilling operations.
Section 8 details special considerations and Section 9 exclusively addresses subsea well control
and the specific challenges it presents.
Section 10 provides guidance on well monitoring and fingerprinting. Section 11 discusses the
methodology and considerations for planning a relief well.
Annex B provides examples of well control drills. Annex C contains blank forms that are used
throughout the document.
This document is intended to provide useful information and guidance to support conformance
with the requirements in applicable series 10 Engineering Technical Practices with respect to well
control. This document does not contain requirements and is not auditable by Central S&OR.
Refer to specifications for all vendor tools and equipment referenced in this document and consult
the appropriate vendor regarding suitability of such vendor tools and equipment for specific
applications. BP Well Control Technical Specialists are available for guidance when assessing
specifications and suitability of vendor tools and equipment.
This guide facilitates standardisation to enable a consistent outcome.
This guide is a vehicle to allow lessons learned to be codified, captured and shared with the
wider global wells organisation (GWO).
This guide is applied by an engineer to facilitate achieving the objectives of a well.
It is the responsibility of the Engineer and Engineering Manger to apply this guide in
achieving the well objectives.
lb/in2
C 0,052
ft x lb/gal
So, in Imperial oilfield units (psi, ft, lb/gal), Equation 1-2 becomes:
P = 0,052 x MW x D (Equation 1-3)
Overburden Pressure
Overburden pressure is the result of the combined weight of the formation matrix (rock) and the
fluids (water, oil and gas) in the pore space overlying the formation of interest.
The average density of a thick sedimentary sequence is equivalent to a density of 19,27 lb/gal.
The overburden pressure (S) is given by:
S = 0,052 x MW x D (Equation 1-4)
Where:
MW = fluid density (ppg)
D = vertical depth (feet)
The Overburden Pressure Gradient (OPG) is given by:
S
OPG 0,052 x MW (Equation 1-5)
D
OPG = 0,052 x 19,2 = 1,0 psi/ft
For the average onshore case of 19,27 lb/gal
Because the degree of compaction of sediments varies with depth, the OPG is not constant.
Worldwide experience indicates the probable maximum overburden gradient in classic rocks
(fragmental sedimentary rocks i.e., sandstone, shale) may be as great as 1,35 psi/ft.
Onshore, with more compact sediments, the OPG may be assumed to be close to 1 psi/ft.
Offshore overburden gradients at shallow depths will be much less than 1 psi/ft due to the effect
of the depth of sea water and large thickness of unconsolidated sediment. Figure 1.1 shows
average overburden gradient for different areas.
Pore Pressure
Pore pressure is pressure acting on fluids contained in the pore space of the rock. This is the
classical meaning of what is generally referred to as formation pressure, which is related to
overburden pressure as follows:
S = Pf + M (Equation 1-6)
Where:
S = overburden pressure (total vertical stress)
Pf = formation pressure (pore pressure)
M = grain-to-grain pressure (matrix stress)
All sedimentary rocks have porosity to some extent. If the pore spaces of the rocks are freely
connected to surface, then the formation pressure at any depth will be equal to the hydrostatic
pressure exerted by the fluid occupying the pore spaces. In this ‘normal’ pressure situation, the
matrix stress (grain-to-grain contact pressure) supports the overburden load. Any departure from
this situation will give rise to ‘abnormal’ formation pressures. Formation pressures less than
hydrostatic pressure are called subnormal (subpressures) and formation pressures greater than
hydrostatic pressure are termed abnormal formation pressures (surpressures) (refer to Figure
1.2).
1.1.2 Pressure Seals
For abnormal pressures to exist there must be a permeability barrier which acts as a pressure
seal. This seal restricts or prevents the movement of pore fluids and thus separates normally
pressured formations from abnormally pressured formations.
The origins of a pressure seal may be physical, chemical or a combination of the two. The types
of formation pressure seals are listed below in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Types of Formation Pressure Seals
P
PG 0,052 x MW (Equation 1-7)
D
Where:
PG = pressure gradient (psi/ft) at depth D (feet)
By converting subsurface pressures to gradients relative to a fixed datum, we can directly
compare formation pressures, fracture pressures, overburden pressures, mud weights, and
Equivalent Circulating Densities (ECDs) on the same basis. The datum chosen is usually sea or
ground level for initial planning purposes. Once a rig has been allocated for the well, the datum
chosen for final well planning and while drilling is the rotary table level (since mud hydrostatic
pressure starts from just below this level).
During drilling operations, it is standard practice to express all pressure gradients in terms of
Equivalent Mud Weight (EMW) in lb/gal. This allows direct comparison of down-hole pressures to
the weight (density) of the mud in use. EMWs can be calculated from rearrangements of Equation
1-7:
P (psi)
EMW (lb/gal) (Equation 1-8)
0,052 x D (ft)
Note: From this point on, ‘ppg’ will be used instead of lb/gal as the abbreviated version of
pounds per gallon.
Example: For a formation pressure of 5 980 psi at 11 500 ft Below Rotary Table (BRT),
what is the Formation Pressure Gradient (FPG) in psi/ft? What is the equivalent
mud weight in ppg?
pressure
FPG
depth
5 980
FPG 0,052 psi/ft
11 500
with depth and formation type. Therefore, the average value of normal formation pressure
gradient may not be valid for all depths. For instance, local normal pressure gradients may reach
0,515 psi/ft and exist in formations adjacent to salt formations where the formation water is
completely salt saturated.
Table 1.2 gives examples of the magnitude of the normal formation pressure gradient for different
areas. In the absence of accurate data, 0,465 psi/ft is often taken to be the normal pressure
gradient.
Table 1.2 Average Normal Formation Pressure Gradients
Piezometric Surface
A piezometric or potentiometric surface is an imaginary surface representing the static head of
ground water and is defined by the level to which the ground water will rise in a well. For
example, the water table is a particular potentiometric surface.
In very arid areas such as the Middle East, the water table may be deep. The hydrostatic
pressure gradient commences at the water table giving a subnormal pressure gradient from the
surface.
A piezometric surface is dependent on the structural relief of a formation and can result in
subnormal or abnormal formation pressures. The piezometric surface for an aquifer system is
shown in Figure 1.3.
This pressure reduction may be great enough to cause subnormal pressures which would be
transmitted to any reservoir rocks associated with the shales.
Formation Foreshortening
Formation foreshortening is a tectonic compression mechanism. It is suggested during a lateral
compression process acting on sedimentary beds, upwarping of the upper beds and
downwarping of the lower beds may occur. The intermediate beds must expand to fill the voids
left by this process, as shown in Figure 1.5. In this case more competent intermediate beds, such
as shales, may have subnormal pressures due to the increase in pore volume.
This mechanism is thought to occur in areas of recent tectonic activity, such as along the flanks of
the Rocky Mountains.
Compaction Disequilibrium
Compaction disequilibrium is also known as ‘undercompaction’ or ‘sedimentary loading’. It is the
process whereby abnormal formation pressures are caused by an imbalance between the
compaction of the clay as a result of sediment deposits (burial of the clay) and the rate of
expulsion of the pore fluids within the clay from the compaction.
Freshly deposited clays have adsorbed water layers and the solid clay particles do not have
direct physical contact. The pore pressure is hydrostatic pressure as the pore fluid is continuous
with the overlying sea water. As sedimentation proceeds, a gradual compaction occurs and as
the clay particles are pressed closer together, pore water is expelled. The clay sediment has
substantial porosity and is permeable in this initial state. So, as long as the expelled water can
escape to surface or through a porous sand layer, pore pressures will remain equal to the normal
hydrostatic pressure gradient of the geology of interest.
For this equilibrium to be maintained, a balance is required between the rate of sedimentation
and burial, and the rate of expulsion and removal of pore fluids. If the rate of sedimentation is
very slow, then hydrostatic pressures will be maintained.
The initial porosity of clays is 60 to 90%, depending on the type of clay, whereas compacted
clay/shale has a porosity of less than 15%. Thus a vast amount of water must be removed from
clay sediments during burial. If the equilibrium between rate of sedimentation and rate of fluid
expulsion is disrupted so fluid removal is impeded, then an increase in pore pressure will result.
This could occur either by an increase in the rate of sedimentation or by a reduction in the rate of
fluid removal (caused by a reduction in permeability or by the deposition of a permeability barrier
such as limestone).
The ‘excess’ pore fluids help support the increasing overburden load, thereby retarding
compaction further, and resulting in abnormal pressured formations. Abnormal pressures
resulting from this process will have a gradient no greater than the overburden gradient. This is
because these pressures are produced by the excess overburden load being supported by the
pore fluids.
If beds of permeable sandstone hydraulically connected to zones of lower fluid pressure are
present within an overpressured zone, adjacent clays will dewater to the sand bed. The adjacent
clays will compact and decrease in permeability and porosity thus restricting further dewatering of
the clay beds. The local pressure gradient across these clay/sand boundaries will be greater than
the overall pressure gradient, but are caused purely by ‘leakage’ from the clays to the sand.
Figure 1.6 illustrates typical overpressures caused by compaction disequilibrium.
Areas in which abnormal formation pressures associated with large sedimentation rates have
been encountered include the North Sea, Gulf of Mexico, and the Gulf of Papua.
Diagenesis
Diagenesis is the alteration of sediments and their constituent minerals during burial after
deposition. Diagenetic processes include the formation of new minerals, the redistribution and
recrystallization of the substances within the sediments, and lithification (sediments turning into
rocks).
Clay Diagenesis
The major constituents of marine shales are bentonitic clays of which montmorillonite is by far the
most common. Montmorillonite has a swelling (expanded) lattice structure and contains
approximately 70 to 85% water at initial burial in sea floor sediments. This water is present in the
form of at least four layers of molecules adsorbed between clay platelets and up to 10 layers held
on the outside of the platelets. The clay platelets have a negative charge imbalance due to their
structure. This causes the adsorption of interlayer water together with different cations (positively
charged ions), principally sodium (Na+) and calcium (Ca++). The interlayer water is shown
schematically in Figure 1.7.
The environment at this initial burial stage would be alkaline, rich in calcium and magnesium (and
of course sodium from salt water), but poor in potassium.
After further burial, compaction expels most of the free pore water (non-adsorbed) and the water
content of the sediment is reduced to approximately 30%. As burial progresses and the
temperature increases, eventually all but the last layer of structured (adsorbed) water will be
desorbed to the pore spaces. This causes the clay lattice to collapse and with the availability of
potassium, montmorillonite diagenesis to illite occurs. This reaction is shown in Figure 1.8. It
involves adsorption of potassium at the interlayer and surface sites as well as the release of a
small amount of silica.
Sulphate Diagenesis
Diagenesis in sulphate formations (gypsum, anhydrite) may cause abnormal pressures by
creating permeability barriers, a fluid source and/or a rock volume change. Carbonate reservoirs
are commonly overlain by evaporite sections (salt, anhydrite).
Anhydrite (calcium sulphate, CaSO4) is formed by the dehydration of gypsum (CaSO4•2H2O)
which liberates large amounts of water. There is 30 to 40% shrinkage in formation thickness
associated with this process. If this occurs at depth and in the presence of a permeability barrier,
abnormal formation pressures may result. (The anhydrite itself is totally impermeable and may act
as a vertical permeability barrier.)
This process may have been the cause of the salt water flow discussed under section 1.4.1, sub-
sub-section ‘Rock Salt Deposition’. Here, a mud weight of 16,2 ppg (0,84 psi/ft) was required to
control a saturated salt water flow from an anhydrite section sandwiched between massive salt
sections.
The process is reversible. Anhydrite can take on water to form gypsum. There is an intermediate,
semi-hydrate stage (CaSO4•2H2O) in which the rock volume would increase by 15 to 25%. If such
rehydration was to occur at depth in a closed system, abnormal pressures could be developed.
Diagenesis of Volcanic Ash
Diagenesis of volcanic ash results in three main products: clay minerals, methane, and carbon
dioxide. Formations originally contained large amounts of volcanic ash may become
overpressured due to the production of gases from the volcanic ash.
Areas in which this process has occurred include the northwest coast of the United States and
areas of the South China Sea region (Java as an example).
Tectonic Causes
Compressional Folding
Tectonic compression is a compacting force applied horizontally in subsurface formations. In
normal pressure environments, clays compact, and dewater in equilibrium with increasing
overburden pressures. In a tectonic environment, the additional horizontal compacting force
(tectonic stress) squeezes the clays laterally. If the pore fluids can still escape, then pore fluid
pressures will remain normal. It is more likely the increase in stress will cause disequilibrium. The
pore fluids will not be able to escape at a rate equal to the reduction in pore volume, resulting in
an increase in pore pressure.
Abnormal pressure distribution within a series of compressional folds is shown in Figure 1.11.
Abnormal pressures occur initially within the hinge portion of each compressional fold in a thick
clay sequence.
Faulting
Faults may cause abnormal formation pressures in the following ways:
Slippage of formations along a fault may bring a permeable formation, e.g., a sand bed
laterally against an impermeable formation such as a clay. The flow of pore fluids through the
permeable zone will be inhibited and abnormal formation pressures may result.
Non-sealing faults may transmit fluids from a deeper permeable formation to a shallower
formation. If this shallower formation is sealed, then it will be pressured up by the deeper
formation.
Uplift
If a normally pressured formation is suddenly uplifted, abnormal pressures may be generated.
Uplift is not a unique cause of abnormal pressure, as the process that uplifts a buried formation
will also uplift the overburden. For abnormal pressures to occur there must be a concurrent
geological process that reduces the relief between the buried formation and the surface. Such
processes may be piercement salt domes, shale diapirs, faulting, or erosion.
Note: Uplift and erosion may also cause subnormal formation pressures, depending on the type
of formation and the amount of cooling the formation undergoes as previously discussed
under Temperature Reduction (Section 1.3.1).
Salt Diapirism
Diapirism is the piercement of a formation by a less dense underlying formation. Salt will behave
plastically at elevated temperatures and pressures, and due to its lower density will move
upwards to form piercement salt domes in overlying formations. This upward movement disturbs
the regular layering of sediments and overpressures can occur due to the associated faulting and
folding action. Additionally, the salt may act as an impermeable seal and inhibit lateral dewatering
of clays thereby further contributing to the generation of abnormal pressures.
The typical distribution of abnormal pressure zones around a piercement salt dome is shown in
Figure 1.12.
Abnormally high formation pressures associated with salt domes have been encountered
worldwide, both onshore and offshore.
Shale Diapirism
As with salt diapirism, this mechanism refers to the upward movement of a less dense plastic
formation. In this case, elevated porosity (large water content) shales behave plastically causing
the formation of shale diapirs called ‘mud volcanoes’ (refer to Figure 1.13).
In practice, wherever mud volcanoes occur, there has been rapid Tertiary and/or late Cretaceous
sedimentation. This rapidly loads underlying shales originally having reduced shear strength thus
causing the formation of mud volcanoes. Then formation pressures become abnormal. For
example, pressure gradients of 0,9 psi/ft have been measured around mud volcanoes on
Absheron Peninsula in Azerbaijan.
Earthquakes
Earthquakes may result in compression in subsurface formations which causes a sudden
increase in pore fluid pressures. For example, the 1953 earthquake in California caused
production in the nearby Mountain View oil field to double over a period of several weeks after the
earthquake.
Structural Causes
Piezometric Surface
As previously discussed in section 1.3.1, Subnormal Pressures, a regionally high piezometric
surface such as that caused by artesian water systems will result in abnormal pressures as
shown in Figure 1.3. Artesian systems require a porous and permeable aquifer sandwiched
between impermeable beds. The abnormal pressure is a result of the hydrostatic pressure head
caused by the elevated aquifer intake area.
Examples of areas where abnormal pressures are caused by artesian systems are the Artesian
Basin in Florida and the Great Artesian Basin in Queensland, Australia.
Reservoir Structure
In sealed reservoir formations containing fluids of differing densities (i.e., water, oil, gas),
formation pressures that are normal for the deepest part of the zone will be transmitted to the
shallower end where they will cause abnormal pressures. Examples of such formation are
lenticular reservoirs, dipping formations and anticlines.
Abnormal formation pressures will only be generated if fluids less dense than the pore water are
present, such as in hydrocarbon reservoirs. The pressure at the top of a fluid zone is given by:
PfT = PfB – [Gf x (DB x DT)] (Equation 1-9)
Where:
PfT = formation pressure at top of zone (psi)
PfB = formation pressure at bottom of zone (psi)
Gf = pressure gradient of fluid in zone (psi/ft)
DT = vertical depth to top of zone (ft)
DB = vertical depth to bottom of zone (ft)
In the example shown in Figure 1.14, the formation pressure at the oil/water contact is normal
hydrostatic pressure with a gradient of 0,452 psi/ft. Using Equation 1-9, the pressure at the gas/oil
contact is 4 850 psi which gives an abnormal formation pressure gradient of 0,462 psi/ft.
Similarly, the pressure at the top of the reservoir is 4 784 psi giving an abnormal gradient of
0,486 psi/ft.
In very large structures, especially in gas/water systems with long gas columns, the
overpressures developed at the top of the gas column may be great. One documented example
in Persia quotes a pressure gradient of 0,9 psi/ft (approaching overburden gradient) at a depth of
only 640 ft.
Charged Formations
Normally pressured, or low-pressured porous and permeable formations at shallow depths, may
be pressured up by communication with deeper, over-pressured formations. This ‘charging’ of the
shallower formations may take place by fluid communication along non-sealing faults, behind
casing in old wells, or wells with faulty cement jobs, and while drilling a sequence of permeable
formations with very large differences in pore fluid pressures (causing recharge salt water flows).
Abnormal pressures caused by recharge can be very large, especially if gas is the medium that
transmits the pressure (same mechanics as gas reservoir in Reservoir Structure, but over greater
depth differences). Mud weights equivalent to 19 ppg (0,988 psi/ft) have been quoted as
sometimes required for drilling through shallow charged zones.
Thermodynamic Effects
Thermodynamic processes may be considered as contributing factors in most of the causes of
abnormal formation pressure already discussed. Formation temperature increases with depth in
any geological system and if the system is basically closed, thermodynamic effects will add to the
build-up of abnormal pressures.
Aquathermal Pressuring
Referring to the temperature-pressure-density diagram for water (Figure 1.4), a temperature
increase in an isolated fluid system must take place along a constant density path. The increase
in pressure is very rapid and only small increases in temperature are required to produce large
overpressures.
Shales are not totally impermeable and the time taken to heat the shales during burial should be
long enough to allow most of the excess pressures developed to leak away. The main effect of
heating during burial is to retard compaction, and aquathermal pressuring is not thought to be a
major cause of abnormal formation pressures.
Thermal Cracking
At elevated temperatures and pressures caused by deep burial, complex hydrocarbon molecules
will break down into simpler compounds. Thermal cracking of hydrocarbons will increase the
volume of the hydrocarbons. If contained in an isolated system, this would result in overpressures
being developed. There is no conclusive evidence thermal cracking is a cause of abnormal
formation pressures.
Permafrost
In arctic regions, drilling and production operations may cause extensive thawing of the
permafrost. If this thawed permafrost refreezes later in the life of the well, ‘freezeback’ pressures,
large enough to damage the casing, may result. This situation may be addressed through diligent
well planning and casing design.
Freezeback pressure gradients ranging from 0,66 psi/ft to 1,44 psi/ft have been recorded in
Alaska.
Osmosis
The flow of water from a more dilute to a more concentrated solution when the two are separated
by a semi-permeable membrane is osmosis which is shown in Figure 1.15.
For a given solution, the osmotic pressure (differential pressure across the membrane) is almost
directly proportional to the concentration differential; and for a given concentration differential the
osmotic pressure increases with temperature. Osmotic pressures of up to 4 500 psi can be
produced across a semi permeable membrane with solutions of 8,51 ppg NaCl in water and
saturated NaCl brine.
Clay and clayey siltstone beds can act as semi-permeable membranes. If salinity differences
exist in the sediments above and below such beds, then osmotic flow can occur. If the flow is into
an isolated system, then a pressure increase will occur in this system. Alternatively, the osmotic
pressure developed across these beds may inhibit the vertical flow of water from compacting
shales, thereby contributing to the development of abnormal pressures.
The efficiency of clay beds as semi-permeable membranes in the sub-surface environment is
unknown. It is currently believed osmosis is a minor cause of abnormal formation pressures.
gradients will thus be between the normal hydrostatic pressure gradient (0,433 to 0,465 psi/ft)
and the overburden gradient (generally 1,0 psi/ft).
Locally confined pore pressure gradients exceeding the overburden gradient by up to 40% are
known in areas such as Pakistan, Persia, Papua New Guinea, and the Russian Federation.
These superpressures can only exist because the internal strength of the rock overlying the
superpressured zone assists the overburden load in containing the pressure. The overlying rock
can be considered to be in tension.
In the Himalayan foothills in Pakistan, formation pressure gradients of 1,3 psi/ft have been
encountered. In Persia, gradients of 1,0 psi/ft are common and in Papua New Guinea, a gradient
of 1,04 psi/ft has been reported. In one area of Russia, local formation pressures in the range of
5 870 to 7 350 psi at 5 250 ft were reported. This equates to a formation pressure gradient of 1,12
to 1,4 psi/ft.
In the North Sea, abnormal pressures occur with widely varying magnitudes in many geological
formations.
The tertiary sediments are mainly clays and may be overpressured for much of their thickness.
Pressure gradients of 0,52 psi/ft are common with locally occurring gradients of 0.8 psi/ft being
encountered. An expandable clay (gumbo) also occurs which is of volcanic origin and is still
undergoing compaction. The consequent decrease in clay density would often indicate an
abnormal pressure zone but this is not the case. In some areas, mud weights of the order of
0,62 psi/ft (11,9 ppg) are required to keep the wellbore open because of the swelling nature of
these clays. This is almost equal to the overburden gradients in these areas.
In the Mesozoic clays of the Central Graben, overpressures of 0,9 psi/ft have been recorded in
the North Sea region. One BP well encountered a formation pressure gradient of 0.91 psi/ft in the
Jurassic section. In the Jurassic of the Viking Graben, abnormal formation pressure gradients up
to 0,69 psi/ft have been recorded.
In Triassic sediments, abnormal formation pressures have been found in gas bearing zones of
the Bunter Sandstone in the southern North Sea. Also in the southern North Sea, overpressures
are often found in Permian carbonates, evaporates and sandstones sandwiched between
massive Zechstein salts.
1.4.3 Summary
Of all the processes responsible for causing abnormal formation pressures, it is unlikely any one
will be the sole cause in any particular area. The effects of several processes will probably
combine to cause the observed abnormal pressure.
Some of the processes discussed above are not typically important causes of abnormal pressure.
The primary cause of abnormal formation pressures in depositional basins is compaction
disequilibrium, with aquathermal pressuring contributing to a small extent. Clay dewatering
(diagenesis) typically has little effect. Conditions within clays during dewatering are very similar to
these developed during undercompaction. The two processes probably occur concurrently, while
undercompaction is recognized as the primary mechanism.
The significance of aquathermal pressuring as a cause of abnormal pressure is temperature and
hence depth-dependent. This is also true of the diagenetic process.
With increasing depth, aquathermal pressuring is thought to be a contributory factor in all cases
of abnormal pressure generation.
1.5 Shallow Gas
Shallow gas accumulations present a potential major hazard to drilling operations. Gas influxes
taken at shallow depths cannot generally be shut-in for fear the pressures involved will fracture
the formation at the previous casing shoe, thereby causing a broached underground blowout, or
flow around the casing to the seabed or under the rig if on land.
1.5.1 Definition
For the purposes of drilling operations, shallow gas can be defined as any gas accumulation
encountered at any depth before the first pressure containment casing string is set.
For well planning purposes, gas bearing zones at shallow depths may be identified from shallow
seismic sections (refer to Shallow Gas Hazards [Section 2.3.2]). These are used down to a depth
of roughly 3 000 ft below surface or mud line.
1.5.2 Origins of Shallow Gas
There are two potential origins of shallow gas:
Biogenic Generation
This is the production of gas at shallow depths of burial from the degradation of organic matter
within the sediment. An example of this would be the Pleistocene section of the North Sea which
contains some organic rich clays and occasional peat and lignite formations. A biogenic origin is
considered likely for shallow gas accumulations in the North Sea.
Petrogenic Generation
This is the thermocatalytic degradation of kerogen which occurs under conditions of elevated
temperature and pressure at greater depths. (Kerogen is a complex hydrocarbon formed from the
biogenic degradation of organic matter which also gives off gas as stated above). Burial deep
enough to produce the heat needed for this process to operate is probably not reached in the
shallow depths considered here i.e., down to 3 000 ft.
Migration of gas from deeper petrogenic sources is a consideration. This could occur naturally,
along non-sealing faults for example, or even through the natural permeability of clays at shallow
depths. Alternatively, artificial migration paths may be produced in poorly cemented casing annuli,
allowing gas from petrogenic sources to accumulate in shallower formations. This could result in
shallow gas accumulations forming later in the life of a producing field when early wells showed
no indication of shallow gas.
1.5.3 Characteristics of Shallow Gas
Composition
Shallow (biogenic) gas has the following typical composition:
99% + Methane (CH4)
0,5% Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
less than 0,5% Nitrogen (N2)
less than 0,1% Ethane (C2H6) and more complex hydrocarbons.
Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) may also be present.
Petrogenic gas associated with the generation of oil can contain a larger proportion of ethane and
more complex hydrocarbons.
Configuration of Shallow Gas Accumulations
Shallow gas accumulations are commonly found in sand lenses which are inferred to have been
deposited in a shallow marine shelf environment with tidal influence. In this environment, the
sands would tend to be in the form of sand waves, sand patches and ridges resulting in a
discontinuous and patchy distribution. These sand lenses could thus be sealed by the
surrounding clay sediments.
Knowledge of patchy distribution of shallow gas is helpful. Because several wells have penetrated
a potential shallow gas zone successfully it is not necessarily the case that all future wells will
also be free of shallow gas hazards.
Pressures and Volumes
Most shallow gas accumulations tend to be normally pressured. One area where overpressured
shallow gas sands are encountered is the Gulf of Mexico USA. In this area, overpressuring is
thought to be the result of undercompaction of shales due to rapid deposition (refer to
Compaction Disequilibrium in Section 1.4.1).
One instance of overpressured shallow gas in the North Sea was reported where a gas kick from
a sand at around 800 m subsea gave a calculated formation pressure gradient of at least
10,0 ppg (0,52 psi/ft). Shallow gas accumulations resulting from migration of petrogenic gas may
be overpressured (refer to Charged Formations in Section 1.4.1). Also, overpressured shallow
gas may result from long ‘tilted’ sand lenses, in a manner identical described in Reservoir
Structure in Section 1.4.1.
Estimating the volumes of gas present in shallow gas accumulations is challenging. Estimates
have been made from shallow gas discharges. In one North Sea incident, it has been estimated
8 mmscf of gas was vented. At a depth of approximately 1 345 ft subsea and 600 psi pressure,
3
this corresponds to a bulk rock volume of 950 000 ft , assuming a porosity of 30%. For 15 ft thick
sand, this corresponds to an area of only 230 ft in diameter.
The flowrate of gas in the above incident was estimated at 40 to 50 mmscfd. Flowrates of over
100 mmscf have been reported for shallow gas blowouts in GoM. These large flowrates are a
result of the greater porosity and permeability in shallow large grain sand deposits.
Table 2.1 Techniques used to Predict, Detect and Evaluate Formation Pore Pressures
Exploration Wells
In well explored regions, such as certain areas of the North Sea, the offset well data is usually
reliable enough for a reasonably reliable estimate to be made of the pore pressure profile for the
proposed exploration well. Nonetheless, the offset pressure data is treated with caution when
applying it to the proposed well because the accuracy of the data will vary depending on the
number and proximity of nearby wells. If there is a lack of pressure data available for any one
profile to be predicted, then the alternatives may be considered and evaluated for each particular
aspect of well planning.
The pressure profile predicted from offset wells can be backed up through analysis of seismic
data. In areas where there is no offset well information or they are too far away to be of any use,
then seismic data analysis may be the only method available to predict the pore pressure profile
(refer to Seismic Data [Paragraph 2.3.2]).
The predicted pressure profile is usually compiled by a designated pore pressure specialist. The
pressure depth plot is typically obtained and the data checked by the Drilling Engineer (DE)
responsible for planning the well. The accuracy of the data will vary depending on the number
and proximity of nearby wells.
Geological features such as faults and unconformities in the area are identified. These may affect
the way in which the pressure data is applied to the proposed well.
Notes on formation pressures from offset wells are often given in the Statement of Requirements
(SOR), together with the lithological prognosis and other pertinent data (e.g. well location, target
depths, and total depth). Petroleum Engineers may also be consulted, as they may have
additional pressure information, especially regarding expected reservoir pressures.
2.3.2 Seismic Data
In hydrocarbon exploration, seismic data is mainly used to identify and map prospective reservoir
traps and to estimate the depths of formation tops in the lithological column. Seismic data can
also be used to predict formation pressures quantitatively, or at least to give an indication of the
entrance into abnormal pressures. In new or relatively unexplored areas, seismic data is often the
only information available from which pore pressure data can be derived.
Seismic data can also be used to indicate the presence of shallow gas bearing sands. This is
done using data from high-resolution shallow seismic surveys which are used down to a
maximum depth of around 3 000 ft below surface or the mudline.
Abnormal Pressure Evaluation from Seismic Data
Basic Theory
A seismic wave is an acoustic wave propagated in a solid material – usually a rock. The velocity
at which the wave travels depends upon the density and elasticity of the rock, and the type of fluid
occupying the pore spaces of the rock. Thus the formation type, formation fluid type, and degree
of compaction (i.e., depth) will determine the seismic velocity in a particular formation.
Knowledge of seismic velocities in particular formations over a range of depths enables
geophysicists to make fairly reliable formation lithology predictions from seismic data. It is also
the seismic velocity of shale sequences that permits the use of seismic data for predicting the
presence of overpressured formations, and to estimate the magnitude of the overpressure.
reflections from which will appear on the series of seismic traces. The distance between the shot
point and any particular geophone is termed the ‘offset’.
Figure 2.4 Plot of Offset versus Two-way Travel Time for Common Depth Point System
In practice, the seismic traces from the same CDP are collected together to form a ‘gather’ in
which seismic traces at the offsets are plotted against the reflection time. A simplified plot of
offset versus reflection time is shown in Figure 2.4. With greater offset, the path length of the
wave is longer (refer to Figure 2.3) and the reflection time for the same reflecting bed increases.
Curves can be drawn through the peaks on the seismic traces, corresponding to the same
reflecting beds, as shown by the dashed lines in Figure 2.4.
The geometry of the CDP seismic system is such that the equation of the curve through the
seismic peaks (known as a ‘seismic event’) from a horizontal reflector results in a hyperbola. The
variable defining the shape of the hyperbola is called the ‘stacking velocity’ or the ‘normal move-
out velocity’. In practice, the peaks on the seismic traces do not lie exactly on a hyperbola.
Velocity analyses are performed to determine the velocity value that gives a ‘best fit’ hyperbola to
the data. This is done by investigating the hyperbolic function with a range of stacking velocities
at increasing time increments, and comparing the result to the actual data from the seismic traces
on the gather.
The results from the velocity analysis are output in the form of a plot of stacking velocity versus
reflection times. A typical example plot from an actual analysis is shown in Figure 2.5. The plot
appears as a series of ‘contours’ defining a number of ‘peaks’. Due to the mathematical
computations involved in the analysis, the peaks represent the ‘best fit’ stacking velocity values
and the corresponding vertical two-way reflection times for each reflecting bed.
The stacking velocities obtained are not the true average velocities from the surface to the
reflecting bed. The stacking velocity is usually considered to approximate to the Root Mean
Square (RMS) velocity (as shown on the horizontal axis in Figure 2.5). The RMS velocity is the
average velocity along the actual path of the seismic wave. In many cases, this is also considered
to be equal to the vertical average velocity from the surface to the subsurface reflecting bed. The
velocity-time pairs (as they are called) from the velocity analysis can be used to calculate the
depths of the reflecting beds.
The stacking velocities are used to compute the vertical two-way reflection times for each of the
seismic traces on the seismic gather. The seismic gather can then be ‘stacked’ to form one
‘complete’ seismic trace for that particular CDP. A seismic section is then produced by displaying
the stacked traces for each CDP along a seismic line.
The stacking or RMS velocities are also used to calculate the interval velocities between
reflecting beds, which is the property required to detect and evaluate abnormal pressure.
The Method
The area geophysicist and geologist can help to identify potential challenges such as
substandard seismic data, lithology complications, and errors introduced by formation dip. This
will provide the DE with a better understanding of the challenges involved in predicting a pore
pressure profile for the well being planned.
At this point, it is worth checking the stacking velocities given in the panels against the velocities
obtained from the CDP velocity analyses. This is because stacking velocities are chosen to
produce a good CDP stack (‘clean’ appearance) and may not be equal to the values that would
be obtained from a velocity analysis such as that in Figure 2.5. When determining which stacking
velocities to use, assistance can be provided by a geophysicist, although more often than not, the
velocities given in the panel on the seismic section will suffice.
The interval velocities are then calculated from the two-way time and stacking velocity (average
velocity) using Dix’s formula:
t 2 (V2 ) 2 t1 (V1 ) 2
(V12 ) 2 (Equation 2-1)
t 2 t1
Where:
Vi12 = interval velocity between Reflecting Beds 1 and 2 (ft/s)
t1 = two-way travel time for Reflecting Bed 1 (s)
t2 = two-way travel time for Reflecting Bed 2 (s)
V1 = average velocity to Reflecting Bed 1 (ft/s)
V2 = average velocity to Reflecting Bed 2 (ft/s)
In the example shown in Figure 2.6, the interval velocities have already been computed using
Dix’s formula. The depths to the reflecting beds are calculated from:
t.V
D (Equation 2-2)
2
Where:
D = depth of the reflecting bed (ft)
t = two-way travel time for the reflecting bed (s)
V = average velocity to reflecting bed (ft/s)
Note the two-way time in the panel in Figure 2.6 is given in milliseconds (ms). This needs to be
-
converted to seconds for use in Equation 2-2 (1 ms = 10 3 s).
A table, as shown in Table 2.2, is helpful in the calculations of depths and ITTs. The final step in
the calculations is to convert interval velocities, a term used by geophysicists, into ITTs which is a
term more familiar to DEs. This is done by simply taking the reciprocal of the interval velocity.
ITTs are expressed in microseconds per foot (µsec/ft) (1 µsec = 10-6 s).
A plot of ITT versus depth can then be constructed. The ITT is plotted as a vertical line over the
depth interval, for which it was calculated. This results in a plot similar to a sonic log plot but in
which the data are averaged over long sections and not, as with the wireline sonic log, over a few
feet only. A plot of the data from Table 2.2 is shown in Figure 2.7. The corresponding wireline
sonic log plot is also shown for comparison.
Note: ITT is plotted on a logarithmic scale and depth on a linear scale. The types of scales
used are discussed further in Interpretation.
Table 2.2 Calculation of Depths and Interval Transit Times
Interpretation
As stated, overpressured shales have lower interval velocities and therefore greater ITTs than
normally pressured shales at the same depth. As shown in Figure 2.7, the normal shale
compaction trend line on the ITT depth plot decreases with depth. The increase in ITT away from
the normal trend line in Figure 2.7 indicates the presence of abnormal pressures. From the
seismic ITT plot (stepped profile), the top of the abnormal pressures would probably be estimated
to be at 7 500 ft to 8 200 ft. When the well was drilled, the top of the abnormal pressures was
found to be around 6 600 ft.
There is a certain amount of variation surrounding the types of scales to use for plotting ITT data.
The format used in Figure 2.8 assumes the normal compaction trend is a straight line on semi-
logarithmic scales. This method is recommended by Fertl, as it enables ITT data to be directly
compared with other pressure indicators that are plotted using the same linear depth scale
(composite plots). Alternatively, Pennebaker suggested the normal compaction trend is
represented by a straight line on log-log scales. An example plot of this format is shown in Figure
2.8.
Both the semi-log and log-log plots of ITT versus depth will show approximately the same top of
abnormal pressures. A major difference between the two methods arises when the plots are used
to estimate the magnitude of the abnormal pressures. Charts relating the magnitude of formation
pressures to some function of the ‘departure’ of the observed ITT values from the extrapolated
normal ITT values are available for both methods. For the semi-log plot, the difference between
the observed and normal ITT values is used to estimate formation pressures from a chart such as
the one shown in Figure 2.9. For the log-log plot, Pennebaker presented a chart that required the
ratio of observed ITT to normal ITT in order to estimate the magnitude of the abnormal pressures,
as shown in Figure 2.10.
The two methods of plotting ITT data require entirely separate empirically derived charts to
estimate the magnitude of abnormal pressures. Failure to use the correct chart when estimating
formation pressures will result in inaccurate data.
Different geological areas have vastly different correlations between ITT departure and formation
pressure (refer to Figure 2.10). Obtain the correct correlation for the area being investigated and
then determine a new correlation for the area of interest. This can only be done using actual well
data on a regional basis and with the assistance of the geologists and geophysicists. In
completely unexplored areas, this may be challenging.
Another major challenge in interpreting seismic ITT plots is the placing of the normal compaction
trend line. Referring to Figure 2.7, it would be a challenge to determine the exact position and
gradient of the normal compaction trend line from the seismic data alone. The non-shale
lithologies affect the data considerably and even with the actual sonic log from the well
overplotted, the correct position of the normal compaction trend line is still open to debate. One
solution to this problem is to make numerous seismic ITT (and sonic log ITT, if available) plots for
the region being investigated. We may then determine the position and gradient of an average
normal compaction trend for the region.
A discussion of other challenges associated with the interpretation of seismic ITT plots are further
discussed in relation to the sonic log plots in Formation Pressure Evaluation after Drilling (Section
2.5).
Once the well location has been finalized, the drilling engineer liaises closely with the
geophysicists and geologists to produce a drilling engineering hazard log over the depths covered
by the shallow seismic survey. An example hazard log is shown in Figure 2.11. However,
formation pressures for shallow gas formations cannot be predicted from the seismic data.
Shallow gas bearing formations may be overpressured, though this is not often the case.
2.3.3 Summary
Reliable formation pressure data is important and is to be stressed. The well planning DE will use
the most accurate pressure data that is available under the circumstances.
Pressure data from offset wells is also often used to predict the pore pressure profile for well
planning. Direct pressure measurements such as those from wireline formation testers, drillstem
tests and well kicks give more accurate data than pressures derived from well logs.
Seismic methods of pressure prediction are a secondary prediction method to be used in the
absence of offset well data. Occasionally, seismic analysis may be needed to confirm the data
from offset wells, although there is no guarantee this will be successful.
d-Exponent
In 1965, Bingham proposed a generalized drilling rate equation to relate certain drilling
parameters:
d
ROP WOB
a (Equation 2-3)
N B
Where:
ROP = penetration rate (ft/min)
N = rotary speed (rpm)
B = bit diameter (ft)
WOB = weight on bit (lb)
a = rock matrix strength constant (dimensionless)
d = formation drillability exponent (dimensionless)
Jorden and Shirley rewrote Equation 2-3 for “d”, the drillability exponent. They inserted constants
to allow the use of more common oilfield units and let the matrix strength constant, “a”, equal 1.
This removed the need to derive values for the matrix strength constant, but made d-exponent
lithology dependent:
ROP
log
d 60N (Equation 2-4)
12WOB
log
10 6 B
Where:
d = drillability exponent (d-exponent) (dimensionless)
ROP = penetration rate (ft/hr)
N = rotary speed (rpm)
B = bit diameter (in)
WOB = weight on bit (lb)
6
Note: The constant 10 is simply a scaling factor inserted in the equation in order to give values
of d in a convenient workable range, usually around 1,0 to 3,0.
In constant lithology, d-exponent will increase with depth as the ROP decreases due to the
increased compaction and differential pressures across the bottom of the hole. When an
overpressured zone is penetrated, compaction and differential pressure will decrease and will
result in a decrease in d-exponent. The d-exponent is related to the differential pressure at the
bottom of the hole which in turn is dependent on pore pressure.
Corrected d-exponent
Since the differential pressure across the bottom of the hole is also affected by the mud weight,
then changes in the mud weight will produce unwanted changes in d-exponent. Rehm and
McClendon proposed the following correction to the d-exponent to account for mud weight
variations:
FPGN
dc d x (Equation 2-5)
ECD
Where:
dc = corrected or modified d-exponent (dimensionless)
FPGN = normal formation pressure gradient (ppg)
ECD = equivalent circulating density (ppg)
This correction has no theoretical basis but has been successfully used worldwide. The response
of d-exponent in overpressure is shown in Figure 2.16.
The dc-exponent may be plotted with either semi-log or linear co-ordinate axes. Either system will
produce an approximately linear, normal compaction trend line, as shown in Figure 2.15. In
practice, the semi-log co-ordinate system gives a more proficient data display (values of dc are
usually in the range 0,5 to 2,0) and is a better format for making formation pressure estimates
from dc-exponent.
Commence a dc-exponent plot as soon as drilling begins. Calculate values at 1 to 5 ft intervals,
depending on penetration rate. This is usually done automatically by the mudlogger’s computer
and displayed as required. The values may also be plotted automatically to enable trends to be
spotted early.
It is often challenging to precisely establish the normal dc trend line due to scatter in the dc values
calculated. This variation in dc values is mainly caused by:
Lithology
The d-exponent increases with depth and compaction in constant lithology. This implies d-
exponent is mainly applicable to shales. Changes in lithology will cause changes in the value of
dc. If the lithology change is relatively minor, such as silty shales, then a slight decrease in d c
values may be observed which may not affect the overall trend measurably. Cuttings analysis
helps to identify ‘true’ shale points for use in establishing the normal trend if the d c values show a
large scatter.
overpressure evaluation and may only serve to confuse matters.) The message here is lithology
variations are taken into account when interpreting dc-exponent plots. The response of dc in
differing lithologies is shown in Figure 2.16 (a) and (b).
Hydraulics
Changes in drilling hydraulics may produce changes in dc-exponent. This also applies to
formations that are susceptible to jetting. Therefore, it is often very challenging to establish a
normal dc trend in soft, unconsolidated sediments, such as those commonly drilled in offshore top
hole sections.
Bits
The different drilling actions of different types of bits, i.e., mill tooth or insert, can cause variations
and trend shifts in dc.
Sometimes a ‘smoothed’ curve is plotted to account for trend shifts as shown in Figure 2.16 (c)
and (d). Changes in hole size will also produce a trend shift in dc.
The effect of bit wear is to produce an increase in dc values towards the end of the bit run, as
shown in Figure 2.16 (e). The new bit will result in a new dc trend that continues along the
previous trend provided it is the same type of bit and none of the other parameters have varied.
The effect of drilling into an overpressured zone as the bit dulls is shown in Figure 2.16 (f). A dull
bit may mask the decrease in dc, which would be expected if the bit was fresh. In extreme cases,
bit dulling may totally mask or even produce an increase in dc values even though an
overpressured zone has been penetrated.
Two further noteworthy phenomena that may cause difficulty in interpreting the plots are:
Where:
FPGo = actual formation pressure gradient at depth of interest (psi/ft or ppg)
FPGn = normal formation pressure gradient (psi/ft or ppg)
dco = observed corrected d-exponent at depth of interest
dcn = expected corrected d-exponent on normal trend line at depth
of interest
and substituting known values of FPG n and dc at differing depths, we can calculate a series of
values of dco, equivalent to differing values of formation pressure gradient, FPG p. These series of
values of dco can be plotted on the semi-log dc plot as lines parallel to the normal dc trend line.
The formation pressure gradient at any desired depth can then be estimated directly from the dc
plot. Figure 2.18 shows an example dc plot with equivalent formation pressure gradient lines
drawn in.
The ratio method is a very simple method of making formation pressure estimates from d c-
exponent. It ignores the effect of the variable overburden gradient (refer to Overburden Pressure
in Section 1.1.1, sub-section 2), which controls compaction trends. This effect is reflected in the
dc-exponent trend, but is not accurately defined by it. An alternative method of calculating
formation pressures from the dc plot is the equivalent depth method.
The method assumes the matrix stress (grain to grain contact pressure) is equal at all depths
having the same value of dc. Matrix stress (M) is related to pore pressure (Pf) and the overburden
pressure (S) as shown by Equation 1-6 (refer to Pore Pressure in Section 1.1.1, sub-section 3).
This equation can be rearranged to give:
Pf = S – M (Equation 2-8)
This equation holds at any depth. Therefore, referring to the example dc plot in Figure 2.19, the
actual FPGo at the depth of interest (Do) is given by:
P S Mo
FPGo fo o (Equation 2-9)
Do Do Do
Mo
FPG o OPG o
Do
Where:
OPGo = overburden pressure gradient at depth of interest (psi/ft)
Mo = matrix stress at depth of interest (psi)
The overburden pressure gradient is known because it is continually estimated by the
Mudloggers and updated from wireline formation density or sonic logs. (The overburden gradient
is required for estimating fracture pressures as well as for making pore pressure estimates.) The
value of the matrix stress at the depth of interest is unknown.
A line is then constructed vertically upwards from the value of d c at the depth of interest until it
crosses the normal dc trend line at ‘the equivalent depth’ (De), as shown in Figure 2.20. At this
equivalent depth, both the pore pressure and the overburden pressure are known. Equation 2-8
can be solved for the matrix stress (Me) at the equivalent depth (De):
Me = Se – Pfe (Equation 2-10)
In terms of gradients:
Mg S e Pfe
OPGe FPGe
De De De
Where:
FPGo = formation pressure gradient at depth of interest (psi/ft)
OPGo = overburden pressure gradient at depth of interest (psi/ft)
OPGe = overburden pressure gradient at equivalent depth (psi/ft)
FPGne = normal formation pressure gradient at equivalent depth (psi/ft)
Do = depth of interest (ft)
De = equivalent depth (depth at which dc is equal to value at DO) (ft)
Note: Equation 2-12 can be used directly with gradients in lb/gal or psi/ft and depths in meters
or feet.
The equivalent depth method has been successfully used to estimate formation pressures from
both semi-log and linear scale dc plots. Another situation occurs when the equivalent depth of a
particular overpressured formation is found to be above the rig floor. This will be the case if
overpressures are developed at relatively shallow depths. The method relies on determining the
intersection point of a vertical line with the normal compaction trend line. It therefore becomes
inaccurate when the normal compaction trend line is very steep, as is usually the case on the
semi-log dc plot.
Dividing through by the depth (D), gives the equation in terms of gradients:
1,20
Pfo So So Pfn dco
Do Do Do Do dcn
1,20
D
FPGo OPGo OPGo FPGn co (Equation 2-18)
dcn
Where:
FPGo, FPGn, OPGo, dco and dcn are the same terms as explained for Equations 2-6 and 2-12.
By rearranging Equation 2-18 and substituting known values of FPG n, dcn and OPG, a series of
dco lines equivalent to differing values of FPGo can be plotted (in a similar manner to that
previously explained for the Ratio Method). An example of this construction is shown in Figure
2.20. Formation pressure gradients can then be read directly from the d c plot.
Eaton originally developed the equation for use in estimating formation pressures from shale
resistivity plots (refer to Formation Pressure Evaluation after Drilling [Section 2.5]), but found it
applied equally to corrected d-exponent. The value of the exponent, 1,20 was empirically derived
from actual well data.
All the methods for estimating formation pressures from dc-exponent plots rely on correct
placement of the normal compaction trend. The challenges in achieving this have previously been
discussed and emphasize identification of overpressured zones based on d c-exponent
calculations alone may result in inaccuracies. Check other abnormal pressure indicators, which
are often more basic in nature than dc-exponent calculations. These indicators are then compared
to any formation pressure conclusions drawn from the dc plot.
Drilling factors that are not accounted for by dc-exponent are drilling hydraulics, bit tooth efficiency
(bit wear) and matrix strength (lithology dependent). The relationship between ROP and the
drilling parameters are not as simple as is implied by the dc-exponent equation.
These factors have led to the development of more refined drilling exponents in which attempts
have been made to model the drilling and formation interactions more closely. In particular, mud
logging companies have developed their own drilling exponents from which they make formation
pressure estimates.
The theory of these drilling exponent methods will not be discussed in detail here as their
formulae are proprietary and not generally available. The methods still rely on estimating a
normal compaction trend and spotting deviations from it caused by pore pressure changes and
not by lithology or drilling changes.
Other Drilling Rate Methods
There are a number of other drilling rate methods for estimating formation pressures. However,
these methods are generally more complex than d-exponent methods.
W m Nn ΔP Q
ROPn ROPo x n x
x bitn n
ΔP Q (Equation 2-19)
Wo m No bito o
Where:
ROP = penetration rate (ft/hr or m/hr)
W = weight on bit (lb)
N = rotary speed (rpm)
Pbit = bit pressure drop (psi)
Q = mud flowrate (gallons per minute [gpm])
m = “threshold” bit weight (weight needed to initiate formation failure) (lb)
= rotary exponent
and the subscripts
n = “normal” values
o = observed values
Values of and m are given by Prentice. If the “normal” conditions are chosen so most of a bit
run can be drilled at these conditions, then no corrections will be needed and ROPn will equal
ROPo. Each bit run is treated as an individual unit and is plotted up as shown in the example in
Figure 2.21. Changes in mud weight are also plotted separately.
Drilling trends are fitted to each bit run, or part bit run, at constant ECD, as shown in the example.
Provided that the ECD and formation pressure remain constant, the bit will dull and the ROP n will
follow the dulling trend. If a variance from the dulling trend is noted at constant ECD, this then
indicates either a lithology change or a change in formation pressure. Lithology changes are
generally abrupt, and easily identified. Formation pressure changes show a more gradual
deviation from the dulling trend, as shown in the example plot at approximately 9 950 ft and
10 100 ft.
Vidrine and Benit developed a graphical relationship between differential pressure across the
bottom of the hole and the percentage decrease in ROP caused by this overbalance. Using this
relationship, the extrapolated dulling trend ROP n and the observed ROPo at a particular depth are
used to estimate the actual formation pressure at that depth. The method is detailed in full by
Prentice together with worked examples and a comprehensive discussion of the theory behind
the method. The method is represented by Vidrine, Benit, and Prentiss to be the most responsive
of all methods used to indicate the changes in formation pressure.
Sigmalog
This method was developed by AGIP and Geoservices. Basically, it is a plot of a calculated rock
strength parameter versus depth. The method is based on the following drilling rate equation
(developed by AGIP):
In normally pressured formations, o will increase with increasing depth and compaction. A
normal compaction trend can be established and a decrease in o away from the normal trend
will indicate an increase in formation pressure. When this occurs, the relationship used to correct
t to o is reworked to determine the true bottomhole differential pressure (not the assumed
one). The formation pressure can then be calculated from the differential pressure and the ECD
for the mud weight in use.
Factors such as faults, unconformities, poor bit efficiency, and coring cause ‘shifts’ in the normal
trend. All the normal trends have the same slope, and the shifts of the trend lines are proportional
to the shifts in the values of o. Correct shifting of the normal trend lines is of prime importance
in calculating formation pressures from the Sigmalog. Despite this problem, it is claimed Sigmalog
is an excellent formation pressure evaluation tool and can be applied both in shale and non-shale
lithologies. The Sigmalog is commonly used by Geoservices to estimate formation pressures.
Other Methods
Several other methods of formation pressure evaluation from drilling rate equations have been
put forward. These include methods by Combs, Zoeller, and Bourgoyne. These are not discussed
here but are referenced in case of interest to the reader.
Hole Characteristics
Hole Fill
Hole fill after making a connection or after a trip out of the hole may indicate abnormal pressures.
As discussed above, overpressured shales may squeeze into the wellbore and reduce its
diameter. Then, as the bit is run in the hole to bottom after a connection or trip, it removes the
shale which is pushed to the bottom of the hole. Cavings caused by underbalanced conditions
may also enter the wellbore during a connection or a trip and cause hole fill. Figure 2.33 shows
representations of typical shale cavings caused by underbalanced conditions.
Hole fill may also be the result of poor hole cleaning caused by poor mud properties, or by not
circulating all the cuttings out of the hole prior to tripping.
2.4.3 Drilling Mud Parameters
Gas Levels
Hydrocarbon gases enter the mud system from differing sources during the drilling of a well. The
mud logging unit analyses cuttings from the return mud stream to determine if hydrocarbons are
present. There is no quantitative correlation between measured gas levels and formation
pressure. Changes in gas levels can be accounted for by relating them to the actual drilling
operation in progress (drilling, tripping,) and the mud weight in use. Tentative pore pressure
estimates may then be made.
The main sources of gas in the mud system are:
Gas liberated from drilled cuttings.
Gas flowing into the wellbore due to underbalanced conditions.
The gas levels from these sources are dependent upon the formation gas saturations, the mud
weight and the particular drilling operation.
Gas levels are categorized as follows:
Background Gas
Background gas is the total level of gas extracted from the return mud stream while drilling
ahead. It originates primarily from the unit volume of formation cut by the bit. Hydrocarbons are
often generated within shales and migrate to more porous formations such as sandstones where
they may be trapped. Gas in shale cuttings is released into the mud stream due to the reduction
in pressure as the cuttings are circulated up the hole.
If hydrocarbons are present in any porous formations drilled, there will be relatively large levels of
background gas in the mud stream. If the mud weight in use causes an overbalance, there may
be little, if any, entry of gas into the mud. The overbalance will cause the mud filtrate to ‘flush’ the
gas away from the wellbore.
In underbalanced drilling conditions, gas may enter the mud at a rate that depends on the
permeability of the formations being drilled. Shales may show an increase in background gas
levels, due to an increase in cavings caused by the underbalanced conditions. Background gas
levels usually show a gradual increase as a transition zone to abnormal pressures is drilled.
Background gas cannot be used quantitatively to estimate formation pressures since the levels
depend on mud circulation rate, efficiency of gas extraction from the return mud stream (gas trap
efficiency) and gas composition. If mud properties, drilling conditions and lithology remain fairly
constant, then increasing background gas levels may well indicate the formation pressure
gradient is approaching, or possibly exceeding the mud weight gradient.
Connection Gas
When circulation is stopped to make a connection, the bottomhole pressure of the mud column is
reduced by an amount equal to the annulus pressure loss, i.e., the effective mud weight is
reduced from the ECD to the static mud weight. This reduction in pressure may be enough to
allow a small amount of gas to be produced into the mud column. This is known as connection
gas. Connection gas may also be caused by ‘swabbing’ when picking up the drill string to make a
connection.
When this gas reaches the surface, it usually appears as a peak above the background gas level
on the total gas trace recorded in the mud logging unit. Connection gas peaks are generally short
and sharp depending on the ‘bottoms up’ time, i.e., the longer the bottoms up time, the wider the
peak will be. However, the magnitude of these variations may be masked by other factors and so
are evaluated along with other indicators such as the d-exponent.
Connection and background gas levels can be correlated with the mud weight to give an accurate
estimate of the formation pressure. This is shown in Figure 2.22. As the pore pressure
approaches the dynamic bottomhole pressure, connection gas peaks begin to appear As the pore
pressure increases further, the background gas level also begins to increase and the connection
gas peaks become greater. It is likely that at this point the pore pressure slightly exceeds the
dynamic bottomhole pressure. A slight increase in the mud weight at this point then causes a
sudden decrease in the background gas and the connection gas peaks disappear, indicating that
a slight static overbalance has been established.
One major challenge with this type of interpretation is to distinguish connection gas peaks caused
by effective mud weight reduction due to stopping circulating from gas swabbed into the wellbore
when the drill string is picked up. Swabbing effects are much more challenging to quantify than
simple reductions from the ECD to static mud weight. This may result in greater than actual pore
pressure estimates being made, especially if the connection gas peaks observed are entirely due
to swabbing. If used consistently, connection procedures that minimize swabbing will aid in the
interpretation of connection gas levels.
Miscellaneous Gases
These are mainly “Kelly gas”, recirculated TG and carbide gas.
Kelly gas (also known as “Kelly cut”) is caused by air being circulated around the system from a
partly empty drill string or Kelly after a trip or connection. The air is pumped into the borehole as a
slug of mud aerated with compressed air. This enhances any gas diffusion effects from
formations to the borehole and may result in enrichment of the aerated mud with the hydrocarbon
gases. A gas peak will be recorded when this mud is circulated back to the surface.
Kelly gas due to connections is rarely seen as the Kelly is usually kept full of mud during
connections by closing the lower Kelly valve. After a trip, Kelly gas is sometimes observed (as
shown in Figure 2.23) but are distinguishable from other gas. Although indicating the presence of
hydrocarbon gases, Kelly gas is of no value for formation pressure evaluation.
Recirculated TG (or any other recirculated gas) behaves in a similar way to Kelly gas, and may
be anticipated by the Mudloggers from knowledge of the mud system total circulation time. An
example is shown in Figure 2.23.
Carbide gas is used to check the calculated total circulation time and is caused by the
Mudloggers putting calcium carbide down the drillpipe at a connection. The carbide reacts with
the water in the mud to produce acetylene, a hydrocarbon gas that is detected as a large sharp
gas peak when circulated round to surface. The circulation time can then be used to back
calculate the open-hole volume and thus to check for hole enlargement.
Evaluation of formation pressures from gas levels relies entirely on hydrocarbon gases being
present to some extent in the well being drilled. Occasionally, very “dry” holes are drilled which
may be overpressured, but show reduced background gas levels. In these wells, it is very
challenging to use gas levels as a reliable formation pressure indicator.
Temperature
Due to the radial flow of heat from the earth’s core to the surface, the subsurface temperature
increases with increasing depth. The geothermal gradient is the rate at which the temperature
increases with depth and is usually assumed to be constant for any given area. It has been found
the temperature gradient across abnormally pressured formations is generally larger than found
across normally pressured formations in the same area.
This phenomenon can be explained by considering the thermal conductivity of the formations.
Since water has a thermal conductivity of around one-third to one-sixth that of most formation
matrix materials, then formations with a greater water content (greater porosity) will have a lower
thermal conductivity. These formations will have a larger geothermal gradient across them.
Overpressured shales often have greater water content than usual and will have larger than
normal geothermal gradients across them.
The top of an overpressured shale may be marked by a sharp increase in geothermal gradient.
This may often be reflected by an increase in the temperature of the return mud in the flowline.
Also, the caprock immediately above a pressure transition zone often shows a reduced
geothermal gradient due to increased compaction (greater thermal conductivity) and a lower than
expected temperature at the top of the transition zone. This effect is shown in Figure 2.24. This
may be reflected in the flowline mud temperature by a reduced flowline temperature gradient. In
some cases, the flowline temperature may even fall (negative gradient) and then be followed by a
large increase as the overpressured zone is penetrated, as shown in the plot of flowline
temperature versus depth in Figure 2.25.
The example in Figure 2.25 is an idealized case. The flowline temperature very clearly reflects
the changes in formation temperature and there are no other influences on the mud temperature.
In practice, there are many other factors that affect the flowline temperature and make the
interpretation of flowline temperature plots very challenging, especially offshore. Such factors
include:
Circulation rate.
ROP.
Time elapsed since the last trip (the mud in the hole heats up during a trip).
Volume of the mud system.
Surface treatments such as adding water, mud chemicals or weighting material.
Ambient temperature (diurnal temperature changes, such as those encountered in desert
regions, may cause large fluctuations in flowline temperatures).
Lithology effects (sandstones and limestones generally have greater thermal conductivities
than shales).
Cooling effect of the sea around long marine risers.
Differing methods are used to improve the interpretation of temperature-depth plots. Surface
effects can be minimized by measuring the temperature of the mud in both the flowline and the
suction pit (mud temperature into the hole), and then plotting lagged differential temperature.
A sharp increase in differential temperatures may then indicate entry into a pressure transition
zone. The temperature trends (flowline and differential) are still found to be obscured by
discontinuities at bit trips, wiper trips and other periods with no circulation. These discontinuities
split the temperature depth plot into a series of unconnected depth segments, as shown in the left
hand curve in Figure 2.26. Since overpressure indications are based on temperature gradient
changes rather than on the magnitude of the flowline temperature, each depth segment on the
temperature - depth plot can be investigated separately for gradient changes. It may be helpful to
plot the segments end to end, disregarding the absolute temperatures, to produce a “smoothed
curve”. End to end plotting of the individual segment trend lines may be of value, but care is
required to be sure that this technique does not mask obvious gradient changes within an
individual segment. The three techniques for plotting flowline temperature are shown in Figure
2.26.
Due to the many factors affecting the flowline mud temperature, it is very challenging to interpret
temperature-depth plots to evaluate formation pressures. At least, changes in the gradient of the
plots may suggest that an overpressured zone has been penetrated. It is unlikely that flowline
temperature will be the primary indication of abnormal pressures, though it may well be useful to
support other pressure indicators.
t tl
T Tf c x log c (Equation 2-21)
tl
Where:
T = measured temperature (°F or °C) (from each wireline logging run)
Tf = actual formation temperature (°F or °C)
c = constant
tc = circulation time at TD
tl = time since circulation stopped
A plot of T versus log ((tc + tl)/tl) results in a straight line, as shown in Figure 2.27.
At ‘infinite time’ after circulation was stopped (i.e., tl = infinity), the value of log (tc + tl)/tl) equals
zero. Extrapolating the plot to intercept the temperature axis gives the estimated actual formation
temperature, as shown in Figure 2.27. The geothermal gradients between the logging run end
points can then be calculated. Increases in the geothermal gradient may indicate the presence of
abnormal pressures.
The actual formation temperature can only be estimated at logging points. Thus, only three or
four formation temperatures can be estimated from which geothermal gradients can be
established. These gradients are thus average gradients over large depth intervals and they can
only be established after each hole section has been drilled. They are generally of little use in
pressure evaluation while drilling, but may confirm any flowline temperature trends that were
noticed earlier.
Pore water influxes from more permeable formations may be seen as changes in mud
conductivity or delta-chlorides. A warning of underbalanced conditions may be given. The system
is best suited to situations where there is a large difference between pore water and mud salinity.
In these situations, the response of differential mud conductivity is similar to that of mud gas
levels showing influx peaks at connections or a gradual increase due to underbalanced
conditions. This is shown in Figure 2.28.
Mud conductivity as an abnormal pressure indicator has many limitations. A large salinity contrast
between mud filtrate and formation fluids is required. The method is of little use in saline mud
systems, unless of course, the mud filtrate salinity is much greater than the formation water
salinity. This could be the case with saturated salt and Potassium Chloride (KCl) mud systems,
and may well result in a mirror image plot to that shown in Figure 2.28.
compaction trend line may then indicate the presence of an overpressured zone. A shale bulk
density plot is shown in Figure 2.29.
The magnitude of abnormal pressures can be calculated from shale bulk density plots using the
equivalent depth method (as described previously for d-exponent plots).
Mud Balance
Shale cuttings are added to the mud balance cup until the balance reads 8,33 ppg with the cap
on. The cup is then topped up with fresh water and reweighed (W). The shale bulk density is then
given by:
8,33
Bulk density (SG) (Equation 2-22)
16,66 W
Density Column
A graduated column of fluid is prepared from a mixture of two fluids of different densities such
that the density of the mixture varies with column height. The column is calibrated using beads of
known density which settle at different heights in the column. Selected shale cuttings are then
dropped into the column and the height at which they settle is converted to shale density using
the calibration curve. The method is illustrated in Figure 2.30.
Figure 2.30 Variable Density Column for Measuring Shale Bulk Density
The mud balance method has the advantage of being fast and simple and uses a good quantity
of cuttings to obtain a good average bulk density. The density column requires selection of
individual cuttings and multiple determinations to obtain an average density value. The mud
balance method is probably the more representative method.
Use of shale bulk densities for the detection and evaluation of formation pressures frequently has
the following limitations:
Presence of shale gas in the cuttings decreases the bulk density values determined.
Cavings from shallower portions of the hole may be part of the sample.
The quality of the sample and the care taken when carrying out the density determinations.
Formation age boundaries and unconformities may cause shifts in the normal compaction
trend line. In this case, determine individual normal compaction trends for each geological
age unit.
Variations in the lithology, such as large carbonate content and silty and/or sandy shales,
may cause measurable variations in the bulk density determinations. The value of the plot
depends on only selecting good, clean shales as data points. The presence of heavy
minerals, such as pyrite, will increase bulk density values and may mask the onset of
abnormal pressures.
Density measurements on cuttings from water-based muds are usually diminished due to the
absorption of water by the cuttings. Less reactive muds, such as oil-based muds and inhibited
water-based muds, will give more accurate cutting densities.
40 meq/100 g. Shale factor can be used to identify the montmorillonite and illite content of shale
samples.
For abnormal pressure evaluation the use of shale factor is limited as it is dependent on the
mechanisms that may cause overpressures.
Shale factor decreases with depth as montmorillonite is converted to illite. In overpressured
intervals caused by compaction disequilibrium (refer to Compaction Disequilibrium) clay
dewatering has been restricted, which in turn restricts montmorillonite diagenesis to illite. A larger
proportion of montmorillonite will be present in the overpressured zone, resulting in an increase in
shale factor. This is shown in Figure 2.32 (a).
Overpressures caused by clay diagenesis (montmorillonite dehydration) will show a decrease in
shale factor on entering the overpressured zone. The proportion of montmorillonite has been
reduced by conversion to illite, with the release of large amounts of water. This causes increased
pore pressure if water escape is restricted. This shale factor response is shown in Figure 2.32 (b).
Since compaction disequilibrium is thought to be the major contributing mechanism to
overpressure development in shales, the shale factor response of Figure 2.32 (a) will probably be
the most dominant. The contribution of other overpressure mechanisms will complicate the
interpretation of shale factor plots. This often results in shale factor being of little use in the
detection of abnormal pressures.
Underbalanced drilling.
Borehole stress relief.
In underbalanced drilling conditions, the pore pressure in the formation adjacent to the borehole
is greater than the pressure in the borehole. In impermeable formations, such as shales, the
pressure differential due to an underbalance may be great enough to exceed the tensile strength
of the shales. The shale will thus fail in tension and form cavings which fall into the borehole.
These cavings are usually long, splintery, concave and delicate, as illustrated in Figure 2.33 (a).
The natural stresses that are present in the earth's crust vary regionally and with depth and
lithology. Drilling a hole through formations will relieve some of these stresses depending on the
hole inclination and direction in relation to the principal formation stresses. The result may be that
the formation stresses at the borehole wall are greater than the stress (pressure) due to the mud
column. The borehole wall may then fail either in compression from vertical stresses or in tension
due to horizontal stresses, or a combination of both. Cavings produced in this manner tend to be
blocky and rectangular in shape, as shown in Figure 2.33 (b).
GAS FROM
KELLY POSITION
MUDSTREAM
PUMP RATE
H2S
TOTAL GAS
CHROMATOGRAPH
DISPLAY COMPUTATION
MUD pH/PHS
DATA STORAGE
MUD RESISTIVITY
MUD TEMPERATURE
FORMATION CUTTINGS
PIT LEVEL/PVT
DENSITY
BASIC
Mudlogging Equipment
The equipment contained within a modern mudlogging unit is very complex and there are
numerous different types of sensors available for measuring drilling parameters. Different
methods are also employed to relay the measured data to the mud logging unit. It is not the
intention of this manual to discuss the equipment used by the individual mudlogging service
companies. General sensor specifications are given in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3 General Mudlogging Sensor Specifications
pressure evaluation and drilling optimization), reporting, software, and data storage and
personnel requirements.
2.4.7 Summary
The majority of the ‘while drilling’ formation pressure indicators discussed are only applicable to
massive shale sections interbedded with sandstone and/or siltstones. As most BP drilling occurs
in sedimentary basins containing such sections, the techniques discussed are of direct relevance
to BP drilling operations.
The most reliable abnormal pressure indicators in shales are probably d-exponent (or other
drilling rate method) in combination with gas levels and cuttings character. Occasionally, one
indicator may be particularly effective in showing the onset of abnormal pressures, but this will
probably not be apparent until drilling has progressed well into the overpressured zone.
Carefully examine formation pressure indicators to confirm the abnormal pressures which may be
implied by a particular overpressure indicator. Sharp changes in pressure indicators may indicate
a lithological change.
2.5 Formation Pressure Evaluation after Drilling
2.5.1 General
After each intermediate and reservoir hole section has been drilled, the formations are
electronically logged to evaluate their physical characteristics and hydrocarbon potential. Some of
these logs can be used to estimate formation pressures to confirm or revise the estimates made
while the hole sections were being drilled. Formation pressures calculated from wireline logs are
estimates only.
Significant advances have been made in LWD tools which can in turn be used in the same
manner as wireline logs to determine pore pressures. Sonic, resistivity, gamma ray, and porosity
sensors gather data in real time and the results analyzed during or after the hole section is drilled.
Direct formation pressure measurements are usually taken in the reservoir hole section(s) using
wireline formation testing tools. Also, formation pressures are directly measured in the “shut-in”
(pressure buildup) periods during Drillstem Testing (DST) of potential reservoir formations.
2.5.2 Formation Pressures from Wireline Logs
Sonic Log
The sonic logging tool measures the time, t, required for a compressional sonic wave to travel
through one foot (or meter) of formation. This is known as the interval transit time and is the
reciprocal of formation interval velocity. The principle of operation of the sonic tool (Borehole
Compensated [BHC] tool) is shown in Figure 2.35. Sonic pulses from two transmitters travel
through the formation and are picked up by two pairs of receivers. The time difference between
sonic arrivals at each pair of receivers is measured. The average time difference is then recorded
to compensate for borehole geometry and tool tilt.
Overpressured shales show a greater sonic interval transit times than normally pressured shales
at the same depth. A plot of sonic interval transit time in shales versus depth on semi-logarithmic
axes may result in a straight line compaction trend in normally pressured shales. Departures from
this line towards greater shale interval transit time values indicate abnormal pressures. The
normal compaction trend and sonic log departure in overpressures are shown in the sonic log plot
in Figure 2.36.
T UPPER TRANSMITTER
R1
R2
t1
PAIRED RECEIVERS
∆t=t2-t1 R1+R3/R2+R4
R3
R4
t2
T LOWER TRANSMITTER
MUD CAKE
compaction trend. This is because logs are normally only obtained from below surface
casing.
Different lithologies frequently have vastly different sonic interval transit times. The normal
compaction trend line is established by utilising interval transit time values from a good. clean
shale section. One may then make sonic log plots from several wells (if data is available) in the
area of interest. These may then be used to determine the position and gradient of an average
regional normal compaction trend line.
The BHC sonic tool has a “depth of investigation” of only a few inches into the borehole wall.
Reactive shales that absorb water from the drilling mud may exhibit greater interval transit
time values which are indicative of higher than normal porosity than would be recorded if the
shales were non-reactive. These longer interval transit time values may falsely indicate the
presence of abnormal formation pressures. A deeper reading “Long Spacing Sonic” (LSS)
tool is sometimes run. When available, the sonic log data from this deeper reading tool may
be used in preference to those from the BHC sonic tool.
Unconformities or disconformities may produce a marked sudden shift in sonic interval transit
time values and may require a second separate normal compaction trend line to be
established.
Once the position of the normal compaction trend lines has been firmly established on the semi-
log sonic interval transit –time – depth plot, then the depths and magnitudes of suspected
abnormal pressures may be calculated. Several methods are available for estimating the
magnitude of abnormal pressures from sonic log plots:
Empirical Correlations
Charts relating the magnitude of formation pressures to the difference between the observed
shale ITT value and the extrapolated normal ITT value are available. These empirical correlations
are area-dependent, as shown by the examples in Figure 2.39. The correlation developed by
Pennebaker (Figure Figure 2.40) is not typically used with semi-log interval transit time plots. This
was developed for use in conjunction with log-log seismic interval transit time plots and is
probably only valid for the U.S. Gulf Coast.
The empirical correlations are quick and easy to use as formation pressure gradients are read
directly from the charts. The correlations are area-dependent, so their use is limited to areas for
which correlations are available.
Where:
FPGo = formation pressure gradient at depth of interest (psi/ft)
OPGo = overburden pressure gradient at depth of interest (psi/ft)
OPGe = overburden pressure gradient at equivalent depth (psi/ft)
FPGne = normal formation pressure gradient at equivalent depth (psi/ft)
Do = depth of interest (ft)
De = equivalent depth (depth at which sonic ITT is equal to value at D o) (ft)
Note: Equation 2-12 can be used directly with gradients in SG, ppg or psi/ft and depths in
meters or feet.
Obtain overburden pressure gradient data for the well being investigated in order to use the
equivalent depth method. This data is usually available in the form of an overburden gradient-
depth plot in the Mudlogger’s report for the well.
The advantages and disadvantages of this method are discussed in Formation Pressure
Evaluation While Drilling (Section 2.4).
Eaton Equation
The following equation was presented by Eaton for calculation of formation pressures from sonic
ITT plots, the derivation of which is exactly analogous to Equation 2-18, which was developed for
dc-exponent plots:
3,0
FPG o OPG o (OPG o FPGN ) tN (Equation 2-25)
to
Where:
FPGo and OPGo are as defined above and:
FPGN = normal formation pressure gradient (psi/ft)
tN = extrapolated normal trend sonic ITT at depth of interest (µsec/ft)
to = observed sonic ITT at depth of interest (µsec/ft)
The value of the ITT ratio exponent, 3,0, was derived from actual well data.
Despite the challenges outlined earlier, it is considered that the use of sonic ITT data provides the
most reliable method of formation pressure evaluation from well logs. The use of an empirical
correlation provides the quickest method of estimating the magnitude of abnormal pressures from
sonic ITT plots. If a correlation is not available for the area of interest, the equivalent depth
method or the Eaton equation (or both) may be used. These latter methods require overburden
pressure gradient data which is available in Mudloggers’ reports for the well(s) under
investigation.
Resistivity Log
The resistivity of shale depends on the following factors:
Porosity.
Salinity of pore water.
Temperature.
Temperature varies approximately linearly with depth and hence formation resistivities can be
corrected for temperature. The salinity of the pore water does not vary greatly with depth.
Porosity is the major factor controlling shale resistivity.
Under normal compaction (i.e., in normal pressure environments), shale resistivity increases with
depth since porosity decreases. A plot of shale resistivity versus depth will show an increasing
trend with depth. In clean shale sections, any departure from this normal trend towards lower
shale resistivity may indicate an increase in porosity and overpressures.
Shale resistivity (Rsh) is plotted on a log scale versus depth on a linear scale. The shape and
slope of the normal trend line will vary with the age and type of shales present. This will lead to
individual normal compaction trends being developed for each area investigated. It is unlikely that
any two areas will have identical normal compaction trends. A shale resistivity plot in relation to
depth is shown in Figure 2.37. The normal compaction trend line may be a curve or may
approximate to a straight line over certain depth intervals, depending on the area under
investigation.
Originally, shale resistivity was plotted from the Amplified Short Normal (ASN) curve of the now
absolute Electrical Survey (ES) logging suite. Today, a variety of resistivity logging tools are run,
from which shale resistivity plots may be made. The tools are designed for differing depths of
investigation from shallow to very deep. The deep reading tools record the true resistivity of virgin
formation and near borehole effects (shale hydration, mud filtrate invasion in permeable zones)
do not affect the resistivity values recorded.
Use the deep reading logs for resistivity plots. The LLd curve from the Dual Induction Laterolog
(DIL) tool and the LLd curve from the Dual Laterolog (DLL) tool. The DLL tool requires a
conductive mud, so it will not work in oil-based muds. The DIL tool will work in oil-based or water-
based muds and tends to be the resistivity log that is usually run.
Challenges that may be encountered with shale resistivity plots are:
Only shale resistivity in thick clean shales must be plotted. Plot shale resistivities using thick
clean shales obtained from the well logs. Use the deepest reading resistivity curve available
to plot true shale resistivity.
It may be very challenging to firmly establish the shape and position of the normal
compaction trend line from the resistivity plot for just one well. An average regional trend may
have to be established from the resistivity plots of many wells in the area of interest.
Unconformities, disconformities, and variations in geological age may show sudden changes
in shal resistivity which will affect to position of the normal trend line.
Changes in formation water salinity may give false pressure indications. For example, shale
in the proximity of large salt masses (e.g. salt domes) has reduced resistivity due to
increased pore water salinity. This may indicate greater than actual formation pressures.
Shale at depths less than 3 000 ft below surface or the mudline usually contain formation
water fresher than sea water. This results in resistivity values that may indicate lower-than-
actual formation pressures.
The challenges associated with interpreting shale resistivity plots are illustrated in Figure 2.38.
Once the normal compaction trend has been firmly established, the magnitude of any abnormal
formation pressures indicated by the shale resistivity plot may be estimated. Again, there are
several methods available:
Empirical Correlations
At depths where the observed shale resistivity values (Rsh[o]) diverge from the normal trend value
(Rsh[n]), the ratio of normal to observed shale resistivity (Rsh[o]/Rsh[n]) is calculated. The
corresponding formation pressure gradient is then read from a chart such as the one shown in
Figure 2.39. As can be seen from this chart, the correlations are area-dependent.
Where:
DE = equivalent depth (depth at which shale resistivity is equal to the
value at the depth of interest, Do) (ft)
and FPGo, OPGo, Do, OPGE, and FPGNE are as previously defined in connection with dc-exponent
plots and sonic ITT plots. As explained previously, overburden gradient data is obtained (from
Mudloggers’ report) in order to use this method.
Eaton Equation
Equation 2-25 was proposed by Eaton for calculating formation pressures from shale resistivity
plots (derivation analogous to Equation 2-18, developed for dc-exponent plots):
1,20
R
FPGo OPGo (OPGo FPGN ) sh(N) (Equation 2-27)
R sh(o)
Where:
FPGo, OPGo and FPGN are as defined for Equation 2-24 (sonic log plots), and
Rsh(n) = extrapolated normal trend shale resistivity at depth of interest (ohm-m)
Rsh(o) = observed shale resistivity at depth of interest (ohm-m)
The value of the shale resistivity ratio exponent, 1,20, was derived from actual well data.
Overburden pressure gradients for the well are also required (from Mudloggers’ well report) in
order to use Equation 2-25.
A plot of shale bulk density versus depth on either linear or semi-log scales will show a straight
line normal compaction trend. Since the bulk density of shales is inversely proportional to
porosity, and an increase in shale porosity indicates abnormal pressures, then a decrease in
shale bulk density from the normal compaction trend line will indicate abnormal pressures. The
semi-log type plot is shown in Figure 2.40.
Plot the densities from non-washed-out pure shale sections. After the normal compaction trend
line has been established, the equivalent depth method (refer to Offset Well Data [Section 2.3.1])
will be used to estimate the magnitude of formation pressures.
The use of shale bulk density trends from the formation density log may be a fairly reliable
overpressure indicator. It has been found that unless borehole is of uniform gauge, the formation
density log will not be as accurate or reliable for pressure evaluation as other techniques based
on sonic or resistivity logs.
Other Logs
Other wireline logs that have been used to evaluate formation pressures include the SP log, the
Neutron Porosity Log (CNL), the Thermal Neutron Decay Time Log (TDT) and also down-hole
gravity and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) logs.
The use of LWD logs for formation pressure evaluation, as previously discussed, has had a
positive impact on this process.
2.5.3 Direct Pressure Measurements
Formation testing tools continuously run in the string while drilling have been previously
mentioned, however, after a hole section has been completed wireline tools are available which
can measure formation pressures and obtain fluid samples from permeable formations.
Inasmuch as they obtain an actual pressure measurement rather than a calculation, they are
definitive in evaluating pore pressure.
The Repeat Formation Tester (RFT) was developed from the Formation Interval Tester (FIT)
which is only able to take one, less accurate, pressure measurement while taking a sample. The
original FIT was also able to take a pressure measurement and sample from inside casing by first
perforating a hole.
A diagram of the RFT pre-test and sampling principle is shown in Figure 2.41.
FILTER PROBE
PACKER
FLOWLINE
PRESSURE GAUGE
EQUALIZING VALVE
(TO MUD COLUMN)
CHAMBER No 1
CHAMBER No 2
PRETEST
CHAMBER
Figure 2.41 Diagram Showing the RFT Pre-test and Sampling Principle
When the tool is set, a packer moves out on one side and back-up pistons move out on the
opposite side. This forces the packer against the borehole wall and holds the body of the tool
away from the wall to reduce the chances of differential sticking. The probe is then forced into the
formation and opened by retracting the filter probe piston. This operation is shown in Figure 2.42.
The two pre-test chambers are then operated sequentially, each sampling a small volume of the
formation fluid at different rates (assuming that the formation is permeable). A filter in the flowline
probe prevents sand entry into the tool and the piston cleans the filter when the tool is retracted.
A strain gauge pressure transducer monitors the pressure during the pre-test. The pressure is
continuously recorded at surface in both analogue and digital form. An analogue pressure
recording from a typical pre-test is shown in Figure 2.43.
MUD CAKE
PACKER
PROBE
PISTON
UNCONSOLIDATED
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
SAND
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
FLOWLINE
FILTER
Figure 2.42 Diagram Showing the Operation of the RFT Sample Probe
FLOWRATE, Q
q2
q1
SHUT-IN
TIME, t
t=0 t1 t2
HYDROSTATIC
PRESSURE, P
PRESSURE FORMATION
PRESSURE
∆P1
∆P2
TIME, t
chamber is full (at time t2). The pressure then builds up towards a final pressure, which is usually
of the original formation pressure. Finally, the probe and packer are retracted and the mud
hydrostatic pressure is again measured.
The RFT provides three distinct pieces of pressure data:
The mud column hydrostatic pressure (two readings).
The formation pressure.
The pressure transient induced by the withdrawal of a small sample of formation fluid (2 x 10
cc).
The two mud hydrostatic pressure readings are compared to verify the stability of the tool’s
recording system. The tools stability is validated given the two values are within a few psi of each
other.
The formation pressure is used to verify estimates made while drilling the well and to construct a
reservoir pressure profile. This will yield data on the pressure gradients and nature of the
reservoir fluids.
The pressure, flowrate, and time data from the pre-test sample withdrawal can be used to
calculate reservoir characteristics, such as permeability.
The RFT provides accurate data on formation pressures. Formation pressure data can only be
obtained from permeable formations such as reservoir sandstones. These formations may or may
not be at the same pressure as adjacent shales.
RFTs are usually run at the request of the geologists/petroleum engineers to seek information on
potential reservoir formations. In deep high-pressure wells, the RFT is being increasingly run to
obtain accurate formation pressures before potentially troublesome drilling operations (such as
coring) are commenced. Accurate knowledge of formation pressures in such wells allows fine
mud weight adjustments to be made to minimize the risk of swab or surge pressure issues.
Other considerations regarding repeat formation testers include:
If possible, use tools that utilize quartz pressure transducers (gauges) instead of strain
gauges. The former are more accurate, by an order of magnitude (0.1 psi vs. 0.01 psi)
The tools are heavy and tend to stick so high strength cables are typically used.
These tools work best in 8.5” holes, but may obtain satisfactory results in hole diameters up
to 12.25”.
Hole conditioning is crucial to success, not only in sampling and measurement but also to
mitigate any tool sticking.
Mud weights are designed to assure hole stability but not provide an excessive overbalance.
The tools do not work well in bi-center drilled holes.
Limit tool sets in dog legs which might result in keyseating.
Verify that any lost circulation material in the mud and hole is compatible with the tools.
Consider possible sand washouts when picking tool setting depths.
The tools may be run on drill pipe in highly deviated wells. In this case, the wireline is run
inside and continuity with the tool restored via a “wet connector”.
Temperature stabilization is achieved by stopping at the casing shoe for the amount of time
recommended by the vendor.
Depth control is crucial to success. This involves frequent tie-ins.
Improved models of these tools are now available which operate on the same principles but can
obtain multiple fluid samples and analyze them downhole in addition to obtaining multiple
pressure measurements.
hole pressure during the sequence of flow and shut-in periods that comprise the DST. The
pressures recorded during the test are used to calculate reservoir characteristics, such as
formation pressure, permeability, skin damage and productivity index.
Different types of pressure gauges are available. These are run in conjunction with clocks and
recorders, and include:
Mechanical gauges – usually Bourdon Tube (BT) type pressure gauges with mechanical
clocks and recorders. These gauges do not record temperature, thus a second gauge can be
run to record this data. These gauges are generally only used as a back up to an electronic
gauge in non-high pressure high temperature (HPHT) environment tests. These gauges can
be utilized in HPHT environments, especially where the wellbore temperature exceeds
electronic instrument ratings. If properly maintained, they provide relatively accurate
information.
Electronic gauges – strain gauge, capacitance transducer (gap capacitance and quartz
capacitance), vibrating crystal (quartz) transducer, and sapphire crystal transducer.
o Capacitance gauges are a common general purpose gauge for testing, offering better
accuracy and resolution when compared to mechanical or strain gauges, and are better
suited to hostile environments when compared to crystal (quartz or sapphire) gauges.
o Quartz crystal gauges initially carried two crystals, one for recording and one for
reference. While very accurate, these required time to thermally stabilize and were
intolerant to shocks. Newer gauges use a mono crystal and provide generally increased
accuracy. Recent developments have produced quartz gauges that are rated to 390F and
35,000 psi environments.
o Sapphire crystal gauges were designed for the most hostile environments, exceeding the
pressure and temperature limits of the quartz gauges, however at lower accuracy and
resolution.
The mechanical and electronic gauges can be run in differing ways and in different positions in
the test string:
Set in a wireline nipple or with a gauge hanger (hence retrievable during or after a test). This
places the gauge directly in the flow stream, however presenting some flow restriction in the
cross sectional area.
Hung off in the tailpipe located below the packer using a DST hanging kit. Putting gauges in
this location exposes them to the full shock of perforating, causing damage or failure. As a
back-up, gauges are run above the packer in case the packer becomes stuck and the gauges
cannot be retrieved.
Placed in a ‘bundle carrier’ or ‘gauge carrier’ in the string. These carriers are available in both
instream and external configurations. The instream models generally carry up to four gauges.
External configurations may have as many as 10 gauges. Gauge carriers are typically placed
above the packer (and safety joint) and below any slip joints.
Most current downhole pressure gauges have the ability to be coupled to a surface readout
(SRO) system. The SRO system is designed to provide (near) real time surface readout of
downhole pressure and temperature. Available telemetry methods applicable for DSTs include:
wireline (generally only during shut in periods); wired drill string, electromagnetic wave
propagation, and acoustic wave propagation. A DST string for a gas well test utilizing a
permanent packer is shown in Figure 2.44. This illustrates the positions of the pressure gauges in
the DST string.
After a DST has been successfully completed, the test string is pulled and the pressure gauges
are retrieved for the pressure charts to be read. A typical valid pressure chart from a mechanical
gauge placed below the tester valve is shown in Figure 2.45. A linear plot of the pressures
recorded by an electronic gauge will typically have the same general form as Figure 2.45, without
the baseline.
Analysis of the pressure buildup data from the shut-in periods can then give accurate estimates of
the reservoir formation pressure. An example of this analysis is given in the BP Guide to Testing
Operations.
Data from drillstem tests can give accurate estimates of formation pressures. The pressure data
is obtained from permeable reservoir formations that may have hydrocarbon potential enough to
warrant the expense of a drillstem test. As with pressure data obtained while logging (e.g., RFT,
MWD), the reservoir pressure calculated from DST data may or may not be the same as the
pressures in adjacent shales.
2.5.4 Summary
The most accurate estimates of formation pressures are obtained from wireline formation tester
measurements and drillstem test pressure data. These direct measurements only work in
permeable formations such as sandstones and limestones. These methods are not applicable to
impermeable shale sections (where the majority of overpressures are developed).
Estimates of formation pressures from wireline logs are restricted to shale sections, with
assumptions made as to the pressures in any adjacent permeable sections. The recognition of a
normal shale compaction trend line is of vital importance when estimating formation pressures
from log-derived shale properties. Of all the logs available, the sonic log is usually the best log for
quantitative pressure evaluation as it is relatively unaffected by changes in hole size, formation
temperature and formation water salinity.
Software is utilized to better quantify pore pressures from all data available. Pressure transient
analysis is always used to obtain a corrected value when interpreting the outputs from these
models.
3 Fracture Gradients
3.1 General
The absolute upper limit of conventional well control is the point at which the wellbore pressure
equals the fracture pressure of the exposed formation. At this point a fracture is initiated and the
wellbore can no longer be considered to be a closed system. This will lead to loss of mud from
the hole and the possibility of the loss of primary control.
During the well planning stage, fracture gradients can be estimated from offset well data. If this
information is not available, then Daines’ Method can be used to predict the fracture gradient.
Leak Off Tests (LOT), or FITs, are generally carried out once in each open-hole section after
drilling out of the shoe to assess the pressure holding capability of the open-hole. In most cases,
the leak-off point will represent a pressure that is less than the actual fracture initiation pressure.
The leak-off pressure is converted to an EMW which determines the upper limit of primary control
for the next hole section. It is not necessary to conduct a LOT at every change in formation.
3.2 Stresses in the Earth
At any point below the earth’s surface, the resultant stress in the rock can be resolved into the
following three principal stresses that act at right angles to each other:
The maximum stress.
The intermediate stress.
The minimum stress.
In most cases, the maximum stress will be vertical due to the pressure of the overlying rock and
pore fluid. This is defined as the overburden pressure.
In a tectonically relaxed area the maximum stress will, in most cases, be vertical and the stresses
in the horizontal plane will be equal. At shallow depths, the horizontal stress may be greater than
the vertical stress, even in a tectonically relaxed area. Figure 3.1 shows the effect of tectonic
forces on the principal stresses. A small tectonic force makes sure the two principal stresses in
the horizontal plane are no longer equal. This has the effect of creating an actual intermediate
stress.
result of the first LOT carried out in a competent formation is used to measure the subsurface
stress regime directly. The coefficients that are used to calculate the fracture pressures are
specific to each lithology but are applicable worldwide. As a result, once the first LOT has been
carried out, we can predict the fracture pressure in subsequent formations with some degree of
accuracy. This technique has proved particularly accurate in wildcat wells in the North Sea.
3.5 Daines’ Method of Fracture Gradient Prediction
The following procedure can be used after the first LOT (assuming the maximum effective stress
to be vertical and due to the overburden):
(1) Calculate the magnitude of the tectonic stress.
The magnitude of the tectonic stress is calculated at the depth of the first LOT. This is done
using the following formula:
t Pfrac '1 Pf (Equation 3-1)
1
Where:
t = tectonic stress (psi)
Pfrac = fracture pressure (psi)
'1 = maximum effective principal stress (psi)
µ = Poisson’s ratio for the rock
Pf = formation pore pressure (psi)
And
'1 = S – Pf (Equation 3-2)
Where:
S = overburden pressure (psi)
The overburden pressure is determined from density logs or from bulk densities determined from
the cuttings.
(2) Calculate the tectonic stress coefficient.
The tectonic stress coefficient can be calculated as follows:
= t / '1 (Equation 3-3)
Where = tectonic stress coefficient
This value is used to predict the magnitude of the tectonic stress throughout the next hole
section until the next LOT can be used to recalculate the figure. It is generally the case that
'1 remains directly proportional to t throughout the well if the rock strata is horizontal and
the basin structure does not change greatly with depth.
Having calculated the above figures at the first LOT, the fracture pressure can be calculated as
drilling in the following manner:
(3) Calculate the maximum principal stress at the point of interest.
The magnitude of the maximum principal stress is calculated from the pore pressure and
the overburden pressure as follows:
'1 = S – Pf
Where:
S = overburden pressure (psi)
Pf = pore pressure (psi)
The overburden pressure can be calculated from density logs or from the bulk density
values determined from the cuttings.
(4) Calculate the tectonic stress at the point of interest.
The magnitude of the tectonic stress is calculated from the maximum principal stress and
the tectonic stress coefficient as follows:
t = '1 x
(5) Calculate the fracture pressure at the point of interest.
Using Table 3.1 to determine a value for the Poisson’s ratio for the rock, the fracture
pressure can be calculated from the following formula:
Pfrac t '1 Pf (psi )
1
Where:
Pfrac = fracture pressure at the point of interest (psi)
This procedure can be repeated as the well is drilled in order to map the trend in fracture gradient
with depth.
Pfrac t '1 Pf (ppg) (Equation 3-4)
1
at 1 970 ft BRT the fracture pressure is calculated (assumes =0,4 and an overburden gradient of
14,9 ppg):
0 ,44
Pfrac 0 ,4 x (14,9 8 ,34 ) (14,9 8 ,34 ) x 8 ,34
1 0 ,44
0 ,01
Pfrac 0 ,4 x (14,9 8 ,34 ) (14,9 8 ,34 ) x 8 ,34
1 0 ,01
t Pfrac '1 Pf (ppg)
1
from the result of the LOT:
0 ,2
t 15,0 (16,3 12,8 ) x 12,8
1 0 ,2
σt = 1,325 ppg
The tectonic stress coefficient is given by:
t 1,325
0 ,38
' t (16,3 12,8 )
and this value is used to calculate the tectonic stress in subsequent rock strata.
From the 18-5/8 in shoe to 9 450 ft, the fracture gradient increases in line with the overburden
gradient. At 9 450 ft, the pore pressure gradient begins to decrease, causing a reduction in the
calculated fracture gradient to 15,7 ppg at 10 170 ft.
At 10 235 ft, the formation changes to a sandstone interbedded with siltstone. A Poisson’s ratio of
0,06 is chosen for these loose fine-grained sands which results in a reduction in the calculated
value of the fracture gradient to approximately 14,35 ppg.
At 10 565 ft, the formation changes to limestone, for which a Poisson’s ratio of 0,28 is used. At
11 150 ft, the fracture gradient is calculated as follows using Daines’ formula:
Pfrac t '1 Pf
1
Where:
'1 = S – Pp = 18,7 – 10,4 = 8,30 ppg
0,28
Pfrac 3,15 8,30 x 10,4
1 0,28
Similarly, LOTs or FITs are typically not performed when the casing string is not a pressure
containment string or is set prior to air, mist or foam drilling. It is noted that when an LOT or FIT is
not conducted, the second purpose of the test outlined above (i.e. testing the effectiveness of a
cement job) is lost.
3.8 Leak-off and FIT Procedure
The following general procedure can be used for conducting LOT and FIT:
(1) Use calibrated pressure gauges.
A pressure gauge with a maximum pressure limit higher than, but as close as possible to
the expected LOT or FIT surface pressure that has been serviced and calibrated within the
last 12 months
(2) Assess the upper limit for the test.
An FIT will suffice in a development well where pore and fracture pressures are well
defined. The predicted upper limit for all types of tests will be the overburden gradient at
current depth. However, there can be a range of uncertainty in this prediction depending on
the accuracy of the overburden model.
Note: This may be lower than 19,2 ppg or 1 psi/ft, as is common in deepwater offshore.
(3) Determine the estimated fracture pressure.
The subsurface team will provide an estimate of the fracture pressure at current depth. This
figure may be used as an upper limit for the test or to interpret any anomalies observed
during the test.
(4) Test the casing prior to drilling out of the shoe.
An estimate of the volume of fluid required to pressurize the hole can be determined from
the bulk modulus of elasticity of the fluid that is in the hole.
ΔP x V
ΔV (Equation 3-5)
K
When:
V = volume required to pressurize hole (bbl)
V = volume to be pressurized (bbl)
P = required increase in pressure (psi)
K = bulk modulus of elasticity (psi)
The bulk modulus of elasticity of a drilling fluid is determined by the characteristics of the
base fluid as well as the solids content of the fluid. The following figures can be used:
K, water = 290 000 – 335 000 psi
K, BP H3HF Base Oil = 160 000 – 260 000 psi
The bulk modulus of actual drilling fluids will be greater than these figures by an amount
related to solids content.
(5) Plot a graph of pressure versus mud pumped to establish linearity and use as a baseline
for the LOT.
(6) Drill out the cement shoe track, cleanout rathole, and drill 10 to 15 ft of new formation or as
otherwise specified in well-specific program.
(7) Circulate cuttings out of the wellbore and condition the mud. Obtain a consistent surface
sample mud weight by utilising pressurised scales.
(8) Pull bit up into the casing shoe and space out to close the correct BOPs.
(9) While keeping drill string still, circulate up consistent downhole equivalent static densities
(ESDs) from the pressure while drilling (PWD) tool to achieve < 0,05 ppg consistency. (If
using a PWD Tool)
(10 Displace the accepted choke or kill line to fresh mud.
Note: The test may be performed in one of three ways. The first option is to pump down the drill
pipe. The second option is to pump down the drill pipe-casing annulus. The third option is
to pump down the drill pipe and the annulus simultaneously to reduce friction pressure.
(11 Line up a pump as required to perform the test (drill pipe, drill pipe-casing annulus, or drill
pipe and drill pipe-casing annulus) and displace all lines to the well with fresh mud.
(12) Break circulation through the appropriate line(s)
(13) Close the correct surface valve on the drill pipe side, and the correct choke/kill line valve at
the BOP. Test lines to a value above max test pressure.
(14) Bleed off test pressure but do not completely drain lines. Open valves and break circulation
through the appropriate line(s).
(15) Shutdown and re-zero pressure gauge at cement unit to account for hydrostatic between
cement unit and rig floor. (This is more applicable in offshore environments due to the
elevation difference between the cement unit and the rig floor.)
(16) Close applicable BOP and monitor the return line. The test does not need to have any
observable returns to be valid.
(17) Perform LOT or FIT, pumping a maximum of 1/2 barrel per minute (bpm) at a constant rate.
Note: Record volume pumped and surface pressure consistent with pump rate. For example, if
pumping 1/2 bpm, record data every 1/2 bbl. If pumping 1/4 bpm, record data every
1/4 bbl.
(18) Monitor the pressure buildup, and record the volume of mud pumped. Plot pressure versus
volume of mud pumped on a Surface Pressure versus Volume Pumped/Time graph.
(19) If performing an FIT, once the desired surface pressure is achieved, shutdown the pumps
and monitor pressure for 10 m. If performing a LOT, continue pumping until the pressure
curve flattens or decreases (pump until the subsequent pressure is equal to or lower than
the previous pressure), then shutdown the pumps..
(20) Record Initial Shut-in Pressure and continue recording pressure for a minimum of 10 m or
until pressure is stable for 2 m.
(21) Bleed back mud from the well and compare with the volume pumped and record.
(22) Open BOP and re-align manifold for regular circulation.
Recording Results
There are four potential values to extract from conducting this test:
a. Surface Fracture Initiation Pressure: Maximum Surface Formation Pressure Integrity.
b. Downhole Fracture Initiation Pressure: Maximum Downhole Formation Pressure
Integrity.
c. Surface (LOT): Minimum horizontal stress for wellbore stability and stress cage
calculations.
d. Downhole (LOT): Minimum horizontal stress for wellbore stability and stress cage
calculation.
Note: When there is little to no mud compressibility, such as with water-based muds, the surface
and downhole measurements are equal.
(23) Record the following data on the IADC report and BP daily report:
a. Formation Integrity Test (FIT) or Leak Off Test (LOT) data:
b. Maximum Surface Pressure ____ psi (note, Fig 3.2, point 4)
c. Applied Surface Test Pressure ____ psi (note, Fig 3.2, point 3)
d. Test Surface Mud Weight ____ ppg
e. Total Vertical Depth of the Shoe ____ ft
f. Surface Equivalent Mud Weight ____ ppg
(24) Record the following data in the BP drilling reporting system in use.
a. Formation Integrity Test (FIT) or Leak Off Test (LOT) data:
b. Maximum Surface Pressure ____ psi (note, Fig 3.2, point 4)
c. Applied Surface Test Pressure ____ psi (note, Fig 3.2, point 3)
d. Test Surface Mud Weight ____ ppg
e. Total Vertical Depth of the Shoe ____ ft
f. Surface Equivalent Mud Weight ____ ppg
g. Surface Maximum Pressure Integrity Test = ____ ppg
h. Downhole Maximum Pressure Integrity Test = ____ ppg
i. Surface Measured FIT/LOT data = ____ ppg (if leak-off reached)
j. Downhole Measured FIT/LOT data = ____ ppg (if leak-off reached)
(25) Record and plot the Maximum Anticipated Surface Pressure (MASP) (psi) versus Mud
Weight (ppg) and post on the rig floor. MASP calculations are discussed in Section 4.
3.9 Interpretation of Results
Figure 3.2 shows the result of a typical LOT carried out in a consolidated reduced permeability
formation in a tectonically relaxed area.
From Points 1 to 2, the exposed rock is deforming elastically as the relationship between
pressure and volume pumped is linear.
At Point 2, the pressure in the wellbore at the exposed formation is equal to the sum of the pore
pressure and the minimum horizontal effective stress. In other words, any cracks that exist at the
wellbore and in the vertical plane will be in a state of equilibrium, the applied pressure exactly
counteracting the naturally occurring compressive forces. At Point 3, which represents the
leak-off point (because it is the first noted deviation from the linear relationship), the pump would
be stopped and the pressure bled down.
If the pump was left running, the pressure would eventually build to fracture pressure as shown.
From Points 2 to 4, the formation is deforming plastically. The difference between the pressure at
Point 2 and the pressure at Point 4 represents the pressure required to initiate the fracture.
If the pump was stopped at Point 4, as shown in the diagram, the fracture would not propagate
further into the formation and the pressure will drop to Point 5. The pressure at Point 5 will
approximately be equal to the pressure at Point 2. If the pressure is then bled down, the returned
volume is expected to be equal to the volume pumped into the hole; if it is less, then the fracture
may still be open.
If the pump was kept running after Point 4, the fracture would propagate into the formation at a
pressure lower than the fracture initiation pressure. This is represented by the relatively flat line
portion (Point 5), which is the fracture propagation pressure.
80 ft
SEA LEVEL
300 ft
SEA BED
700 ft
(3) Calculate the pressure loss for the pipe section, assuming laminar flow:
L x PV x v L x YP
P psi (Equation 4-3)
1 500 x di 2 225 x di
f x L x MW x v 2
P psi (Equation 4-7)
93 000 x di
(2) Calculate the pressure loss for the section of annulus assuming laminar flow:
L x PV x v L x YP
P psi (Equation 4-9)
200 dhc do
2
1 000 x dhc do
(3) Calculate the effective viscosity:
300 x YP x dhc do
PV centipoise (Equation 4-10)
v
(4) Calculate the Reynolds number:
15,47 x MW x v x dhc do
Re (Equation 4-11)
The critical Reynolds number is assumed to be 3 000 for Bingham fluids. If Re is less than 3 000,
the flow in this section of the annulus is assumed to be laminar and the pressure loss is
calculated using the formula in Step (2). If Re is greater than 3 000, the flow is assumed to be
non-laminar and the pressure loss is recalculated using the formulae in Steps (5) and (6):
(5) Calculate the Fanning friction factor:
0,046
f
Re0,2
(6) Calculate the pressure loss for the section of the annulus in non-laminar flow:
f x L x MW x v 2
P psi (Equation 4-12)
93 000 x ( dhc do )
V 2 x MW
Pbit n psi (Equation 4-14)
1 122
Where:
2
An = total nozzle area (in )
dhc = (Internal Diameter [ID] of hole or casing (inch)
di = ID of pipe (in)
do = OD of pipe (in)
f = fanning friction factor, dimensionless
L = length of section of pipe/annulus (ft)
MW = mud weight (ppg)
P = section pressure loss (psi)
Pbit = bit pressure loss (psi)
PV = plastic viscosity (centipiose)
Q = pump output (gal/min)
Re = Reynold’s Number, dimensionless
v = mud velocity (ft/min)
vn = nozzle velocity (ft/sec)
2
YP = yield point (lbf/100 ft )
= effective viscosity (centipiose)
2
Θ300 = Fann viscometer reading at 300 rpm (lbf/100 ft )
2
Θ600 = Fann viscometer reading at 600 rpm (lbf/100 ft )
These formulae may be used to estimate the pressure drop in each section of pipe and annulus.
The drillpipe circulating pressure may be estimated from the sum of the pressure losses across
the bit and in all sections of the pipe and the annulus. The ECD at the bottom of the hole may be
estimated from the total annulus pressure loss.
The annulus pressure losses may also be estimated when circulating by subtracting the
calculated pressure drop in the drill string and the bit from the actual drillpipe pressure
(accounting also for surface pressure losses).
This technique is likely to yield a more accurate estimate of the annulus pressure losses for the
following reasons:
The inside measurements of the drill string are more accurate than the open-hole internal
diameter.
The pressure drop through the bit is accurately modelled by the formula presented.
The effect of loading the annulus with cuttings is measured directly.
The main disadvantage of this technique stems from the fact that the majority of the pressure
loss in the system is in the drill string and across the bit. A small error in the calculated
pressure drop will cause a relatively large error in the estimate of the annulus pressure loss.
Figure 4.5 Pressure Surges Associated with Lowering Pipe into a Borehole
The latest swab and surge software models the behaviour of the mud as a transient phenomenon
and also accounts for the following factors:
The compressibility of the mud.
The elasticity of the wellbore.
The change in rheological properties of the mud with pressure and temperature.
The temperature profile in the wellbore.
The elasticity of the pipe.
4.5.1 Swab and Surge Calculations
Swab and surge software is able to model the transient response of the mud to pipe movement.
The formulae used for the steady-state model are relatively easy to use and, may be used in the
field to approximate swab and surge pressures.
The following example may be used to calculate swab and surge pressure for either open or
closed pipe:
(1) Estimate the velocity of the mud in the annulus for a given pipe running speed.
For closed pipe:
do 2
v CL x v p ft / min (Equation 4-15)
d 2 d 2
hc o
do 2 di2
v CL
x v ft / min (Equation 4-16)
d 2 d 2 d2 p
hc o i
Where:
v = velocity of the mud (ft/min)
CL = clinging constant
do = outside diameter of pipe (in)
dhc = diameter of hole or casing (in)
di = inside diameter of pipe (in)
Vp = average running speed of the pipe (ft/min)
The clinging constant, CL, is assumed to equal 0,45 in the absence of detailed formulae
that are used to predict this quantity.
(2) Determine the maximum mud velocity.
The maximum mud velocity is generally taken to be 1,5 times the average velocity as
calculated in Step (1).
(3) Determine the swab and / or surge pressures due to the pipe movement.
The swab and/or surge pressure resulting from the pipe movement may be estimated by
substituting the maximum annular mud velocity as calculated in Step (2) into the formula for
annular pressure loss (Bingham or Power Law).
The swab and/or surge pressure is added to the hydrostatic pressure of the mud if the pipe
is being run into the hole and subtracted if the pipe is being pulled.
Therefore:
P
EMW at po int of interest MW ppg (Equation 4-17)
0,052 xD
Where:
P = sum of swab and surge pressure (psi)
D = vertical depth to point of interest (ft)
MW = mud weight (ppg)
Preston Moore developed a method which is presented below that may be used to approximate
swab and surge pressures due to the movement of a drill string that contains a bit with nozzles.
The range of swab and surge pressures predicted by this technique is often low.
The upper limit for swab and surge pressures for a drill string with a bit with nozzles will be
represented by the value calculated for closed pipe.
The procedure for calculating swab and surge pressures for a drill string that contains a bit with
nozzles is as follows:
(1) Calculate the velocity of the mud around the drillpipe for open pipe.
Use the formulae as shown for the previous technique.
(2) Calculate the swab and/or surge pressure generated by the drillpipe due to the pipe
movement.
The swab and/or surge pressure may be calculated by substituting the annular mud
velocity in the formulae for annular pressure loss (Bingham or Power Law).
(3) Calculate the velocity of the mud around the collars.
Use the following formula:
A dp
v ( drillcollar ) v ( drillpipe) x ft / min (Equation 4-18)
A dc
Where:
v(drill collar) = velocity of mud around drill collars (ft/min)
v(drillpipe) = velocity of mud around drillpipe (ft/min)
2
Adp = cross-sectional area of drillpipe annulus (in )
2
Adc = cross-sectional area of drill collar annulus (in )
(4) Calculate the swab and surge pressure generated at the collars due to pipe movement.
Use the formulae for annular pressure loss (Bingham or Power Law) and v(drill collar) as
calculated in Step (3).
(5) Calculate the total annular swab and surge pressure.
This is equal to the sum of the swab and/or surge pressures at the drillpipe and the collars,
or the sum of Steps (2) and (3).
(6) Calculate the swab and/or surge pressure inside the drill string.
Using the assumption that the fluid level outside the pipe equals the level inside the pipe,
the velocity of the mud inside the pipe equals the velocity outside.
(7) Calculate the swab and/or surge pressure generated inside the drillpipe.
Assuming the mud velocity outside the pipe equals that inside the pipe, use the formulae
for internal pressure loss (Bingham or Power Law).
(8) Calculate the swab and/or surge pressure generated inside the drill collar.
Assuming the mud velocity outside the drill collar equals that inside the collar, use the
formulae for internal pressure loss (Bingham or Power Law).
(9) Calculate the swab and/or surge pressure generated at the bit.
Using the formulae (equation 4-13 and 4-14):
Q
Vn ft / sec
An x 3,12
vn2 x MW
Pbit psi
1 122
In this case the mud flow rate, Q (gal/min), is equal to the mud flow rate through the collars.
(10) Calculate the total internal swab and surge pressure due to the pipe movement.
This is equal to the sum of the swab and surge pressures inside the drill string, Step (6)
plus Step (8), plus the bit swab and surge pressure as calculated in Step (9).
(11) Estimate the actual swab and surge pressure due to the pipe movement.
It is assumed the actual swab and surge pressure will be between the values calculated in
Steps (5) and (10).
The resultant swab and surge pressure is added to the hydrostatic pressure of the mud if
the pipe is being run into the hole and subtracted if the pipe is being pulled the same as
equation 4-17. Therefore:
P
EMW at po int of interest MW ppg
0,052 x D
Where:
P = sum of swab and/or surge pressure (psi)
D = vertical depth to point of interest (ft)
MW = mud weight (ppg)
Note: The method shown here is reasonably accurate for WBM applications but may not be
accurate for NAF. Fluids provider simulation software will improve accuracy.
4.6 Pump Calculations
4.6.1 Pump Outputs
Pump output may be calculated based on the volume of each cylinder in the mud pump. Triplex
pumps are the easiest since they pump in only one direction. Duplex pumps will pump in both
directions and the rod diameter is subtracted from the volume on the return stroke.
The volumetric efficiency of a pump is estimated. Mud pumps are not 100% efficient so the
volume will be less than the volume of the cylinder. It is common in the industry to assume the
volumetric efficiency of a triplex pump is between 95 and 98%. Duplex pumps are less capable
because they are not fed with a charge pump. Duplex pump efficiencies range from 85 to 90%.
Pump efficiencies change with time. As the pump parts (liners, swabs, valves and seats) wear
out, the volumetric efficiency will decline. When the pump is repaired, the efficiency will increase.
Pump efficiency may be checked by pumping into a pit of known volume. When pumping into a
pit, there is usually little or no pressure on the pump and efficiencies may change when pressure
is applied.
Triplex Pumps
A triplex pump has three cylinders that pump in one direction only. The output may be calculated
based on the volume of each cylinder. The diameters and stroke lengths are generally given in
inches so the volumes will have to be converted to gallons. The conversion factor to gallons per
stroke is 98 for a triplex pump.
2
dl x STKLength x Veff
Vpump gals/ stk (Equation 4-19)
98
Where:
Vpump = pump output volume per stroke (gals/stk)
dl = internal diameter of liner (in)
STKLength = length of stroke (in)
d 2 d 2 d 2 x STK
l l r Length x Veff
v pump gals/ stk (Equation 4-20)
147
Where:
Vpump = pump output volume per stroke (gals/stk)
dl = internal diameter of liner (in)
dr = external diameter of rod (in)
STKLength = length of stroke (in)
Veff = volumetric efficiency of pump, fraction (90% would be 0,90)
4.6.2 Pump Rates
The pump rate may be determined by multiplying the pump output per stroke by the strokes per
minute.
Q Vpump x SPM gals/ min (Equation 4-21)
Where:
Q = pump rate (gals/min)
Vpump = pump output volume per stroke (gals/stk)
SPM = pump speed (stks/min)
4.6.3 Hydraulic Horsepower
The pump hydraulic horsepower may be calculated by multiplying the drillpipe pressure times the
flow rate and dividing by the constant in order to convert it to hydraulic horsepower. If the
pressure is in psi and the flow rate is in gpm, the constant is 1 714. Equation 4-22 will calculate
the pump hydraulic horsepower.
Pdp x Q
HHP (Equation 4-22)
1 714
Where:
HHP = pump hydraulic horsepower (hydraulic horsepower)
Pdp = drillpipe pressure (psi)
Q = flow rate (gpm)
Example:
Given a Continental Emsco F-1300 triplex pump with 6 in liners and a 12 in stroke, calculate the
pump rate at 102 strokes per minute (spm) assuming a 97% volumetric efficiency. Calculate the
hydraulic horsepower if the pressure is 3 400 psi.
Pump output per stroke:
2
dl x STKLength x Veff 6 2 x 12 x 0,97
Vpump 4,28gals/ stk
98 98
Pump rate at 102 spm:
Q Vpump x SPM 4,28 x 102 437 gpm
Figure 4.7 is the same pressures and flow rates plotted on log-log paper. The pressure losses
become a straight line on log-log paper. An equation may be written for the line in Figure 4.7 as
follows:
Where:
Pdp = drillpipe pressure (psi)
Q = flow rate (gpm)
K1 = constant that depends upon well geometry and mud properties
s = slope of line similar to Figure 4.7
The slope of the line in Figure 4.7 may be determined from any two flow rates in the well. The
flow rates may be two slow circulation rates or a slow circulation rate and usual circulating
pressure while drilling. The slope may be determined from the following equation:
logPdp2 logPdp1
s (Equation 4-24)
logQ2 logQ1
Where:
s = slope of line between two flow rates similar to Figure 4.7
Pdp2 = drillpipe pressure at flow rate Q2 (psi)
Pdp1 = drillpipe pressure at flow rate Q1 (psi)
Q1 = flow rate at condition 1 (gpm)
Q2 = flow rate at condition 2 (gpm)
Once the flow rate is known, the constant, K1, in equation 4-23 may be determined. With K1 and
the slope, s, the drillpipe pressure at any flow rate may be determined.
Example:
Given the following slow circulation rates, calculate the slope of pressure versus flow rate curve
on log-log plot. Then calculate the estimated drillpipe pressure at 45 spm.
SPM GPM Pdp
30 107 260
40 142 410
50 178 590
Note: The flow rate may be used in spm or gpm, as long as the units are consistent.
logPdp2 logPdp1 log ( 590 ) log ( 410 )
s 1,63
logQ2 logQ1 log ( 50 ) log ( 40 )
Pdp K1 x Qs
Pdp 590
K1 1,0035
Qs 501.63
Calculate the estimated drillpipe pressure at 45 spm:
Where:
Disp = displacement (bbls)
VDisp = displacement of drillpipe (bbls/ft)
LStand = average length of a stand (ft)
NStands = number of stands
While tripping in the hole with a float (non return valve) in the drill string, the pipe will not fill and
displacement values will be larger. Equation 4-25 may still be used to calculate the displacement.
If the drill string or casing contains a float, the inside diameter, di, may be entered into equation 4-
25 as zero. For drillpipe, the increased volume due to external upsets may be obtained from a
data book and added to the displacement calculated with equation 4-25.
Example:
Calculate the displacement of the following drill string elements: each stand of drill collars, every
three stands of heavy weight drill pipe, and every five stands of drill pipe.
6-1/4 in by 2-3/4 in drill collars, average 90 ft per stand
5 in, 49,3 lb/ft, heavy weight drillpipe, average 93 ft per stand
5 in, 19,50 lb/ft, Grade G, XH (21,92 lbs/ft with tool joints, average 94 ft per stand
4.8.1 Drill Collars
The displacement per foot of the drill collars:
2 2
do di 6,252 2,752
VDisp 0,03060 bbls/ ft
1029,4 1029,4
The displacement of the drill collars per stand:
Disp VDisp x LS tan d x NS tan ds 0,03060 x 90 x 1 2,75 bbls
Drill Pipe
The displacement per foot of the drillpipe:
Wf 21,92
VDisp 0,00797 bbls/ ft
2 750 2 750
The displacement of the drillpipe per five stands:
Disp VDisp x LS tan d x NS tan ds 0,00797 x 94 x 5 3,75 bbls
Tripping in the hole with a float or non return valve above the bit, the displacement per five stands
of drillpipe would be:
2 2
do di 52 02
VDisp 0,02429 bbls/ ft
1029,4 1029,4
Note: The displacement would be slightly greater because of the external upset from the
couplings. A reference book indicates that the external upset of a tool joint is
approximately 0,01 bbls per tool joint. Since there are two tool joints per joint of pipe, and
15 joints in five stands, the volume to add to five stands would be: 0,01 x 2 x 15 =
0,30 bbls per five stands. The adjusted displacement volume for drill pipe would then be
3.75 + 0.30 = 4.05 bbls per five stands and 11.42 + 0.30 = 11.72 bbls per five stands,
without and with a non return valve, respectively.
4.9 Kill Sheet Calculations
A number of calculations are used to kill a well and fill out a kill sheet. Electronic kill sheets will
use more complicated equations and will have slightly different results than the simplified
equations presented here.
4.9.1 Density of Kill Mud
After the well has been shut-in and the pressures have stabilized, the density of the kill mud is
determined. Equation 4-28 may be used to calculate the density of the mud required to kill the
well.
Pdp
MW2 MW1 ppg (Equation 4-28)
TVD x 0,052
Where:
MW2 = density of the kill mud (ppg)
MW1 = density of original mud weight (ppg)
Pdp = stabilized shut-in drillpipe pressure (psi)
TVD = true vertical depth of kick zone (ft)
4.9.2 Initial Circulating Pressure
The Initial Circulating Pressure (ICP) is calculated based on the shut-in drillpipe pressure and the
friction losses in the system. Friction losses are measured at the slow circulation rate or SCR.
ICP Pdp Pscr (Equation 4-29)
Where:
ICP = initial circulating pressure (psi)
Pdp = stabilized shut-in drillpipe pressure (psi)
Pscr = circulating pressure at the SCR with MW1 (psi)
4.9.3 Final Circulating Pressure
The Final Circulating Pressure (FCP) is the estimated friction losses when the kill mud reaches
the bit.
MW2
FCP Pscr x (Equation 4-30)
MW1
Where:
FCP = final circulating pressure (psi)
Pscr = circulating pressure at the SCR with MW1 (psi)
MW 2 = density of the kill mud (ppg)
MW 1 = density of original mud weight (ppg)
4.9.4 Strokes to Bit
In order to calculate the total number of Strokes to the Bit (STB), the internal volume of the drill
string is calculated. The volume of each component of the drill string is calculated and the
volumes are summed to get the volume of the drill string. The capacity per foot for each
component may be calculated with the following formula based on the inside diameter:
2
di
Vcap (Equation 4-31)
1029,4
Where:
Vcap = capacity of drill string component (bbls/ft)
di = internal diameter (inch)
The total volume would be the capacity of each component, Vcap, times the length of each
component.
Vtot ( Vcap x L dp ) ( Vcap x Lhw ) ( Lcap x L dc ) ...bbls (Equation 4-32)
Where:
Vtot = total drill string volume (bbls)
Vcap = capacity of drill string component (bbls/ft)
Ldp = measured length of drillpipe (ft)
Lhw = measured length of heavy weight (ft)
Ldc = measured length of drill collars (ft)
… = capacity and length of any additional components
The STB are calculated with the total drill string volume and the pump capacity as follows:
Vtot
STB (Equation 4-33)
Vpump
Where:
STB = total strokes from surface to bit (stks)
Vtot = total drill string volume (bbls)
Vpump = pump output volume per stroke (bbls/stk)
4.9.5 Drillpipe Pressure Schedule (Vertical Well)
One other calculation that is required when using the Wait and Weight Method is a drillpipe
pressure schedule. The equations here are simplified and apply to a relatively simple drill string
(i.e., drillpipe, heavy weight and collars) and a vertical or low-angle well. Electronic kill sheets will
generally use a more complicated calculation that takes all changes of pipe diameter into
account.
When the kill weight mud is pumped down the drill string, the pressure is reduced by the increase
in hydrostatic pressure while still considering friction losses. By the time the kill weight mud gets
to the bit, the increased hydrostatic pressure is subtracted from the drillpipe pressure and the
increased friction losses (due to a greater mud weight) is added to the drillpipe pressure. If it is
assumed the reduction due to hydrostatic pressure and the increase due to friction loss are linear,
the calculations are simplified. To monitor the pressure as pumping progresses, the STB may be
divided into an equal number of increments (Ninc) as follows:
STB
STB (Equation 4-34)
Ninc
Where:
ΔSTB = number of pump strokes per increment (stks)
Ninc = number of equal increments
Simply stated, if it was better to use 10 equal increments in the drillpipe pressure schedule, the
STB is divided by 10 to get the number of pump strokes in each increment. The pressure
reduction per increment may be calculated with equation 4-35.
ICP FCP
P (Equation 4-35)
Ninc
Where:
ΔP = drillpipe pressure reduction per increment (psi)
ICP = initial circulating pressure (psi)
FCP = final circulating pressure (psi)
Ninc = number of equal increments
A drillpipe pressure schedule may be constructed using the ΔSTB and ΔP. At zero strokes, the
drillpipe pressure will be equal to the ICP. After each incremental stroke, the drillpipe pressure will
be reduced by the ΔP. This is best illustrated by an example. Assume the ICP will be 1 000 psi
and the FCP will be 500 psi. Assume that the number of increments is 10 and the STB is 1 000.
The ΔSTB will be:
STB 1 000
STB 100 stks
Ninc 10
For every 100 strokes, the drillpipe pressure is reduced by 50 psi. Table 4.1 shows the
calculations needed to get the drillpipe pressure schedule. Table 4.2 shows the calculations and
results for this example.
0 STK0=0 P0=ICP
1 STK1=STK0+ΔSTB P1=P0-ΔP
2 STK2=STK1+ΔSTB P2=P1-ΔP
3 STK3=STK2+ΔSTB P3=P2-ΔP
4 STK4=STK3+ΔSTB P4=P3-ΔP
5 STK5=STK4+ΔSTB P5=P4-ΔP
6 STK6=STK5+ΔSTB P6=P5-ΔP
7 STK7=STK6+ΔSTB P7=P6-ΔP
8 STK8=STK7+ΔSTB P8=P7-ΔP
9 STK9=STK8+ΔSTB P9=P8-ΔP
10=Ninc STK10=STK9+ΔSTB=STB P10=P9--ΔP=FCP
0 STK0=0 P0=ICP
0 1000
1 STK1=STK0+ΔSTB P1=P0-ΔP
STK1=0+100 P1=1000-50
100 950
2 STK2=STK1+ΔSTB P2=P1-ΔP
STK2=100+100 P2=950-50
200 900
3 STK3=STK2+ΔSTB P3=P2-ΔP
STK3=200+100 P3=900-50
300 850
4 STK4=STK3+ΔSTB P4=P3-ΔP
STK4=300+100 P4=850-50
400 800
5 STK5=STK4+ΔSTB P5=P4-ΔP
STK5=400+100 P5=800-50
500 750
6 STK6=STK5+ΔSTB P6=P5-ΔP
STK6=500+100 P6=750-50
600 700
7 STK7=STK6+ΔSTB P7=P6-ΔP
STK7=600+100 P7=700-50
700 650
8 STK8=STK7+ΔSTB P8=P7-ΔP
STK8=700+100 P8=650-50
800 600
9 STK9=STK8+ΔSTB P9=P8-ΔP
STK9=800+100 P9=600-50
900 550
Table 4.3 shows the table with only the results of the calculations.
Table 4.3 Drillpipe Pressure Schedule
0 0 1 000
1 100 950
2 200 900
3 300 850
4 400 800
5 500 750
6 600 700
7 700 650
8 800 600
9 900 550
10 1 000 500
Example:
Make the required kill sheet calculations for the following well.
Total depth 9 670 ft Measured Depth (MD) and TVD.
270 ft of 5 in, 49,3 lb/ft, Heavy Weight Drillpipe (HWDP), 3 in ID.
300 ft of 6-1/4 in by 2-3/4 in drill collars.
9 100 ft of 5 in, 19,5 lb/ft, Grade G, XH drillpipe (4,276 in ID).
Casing shoe at 8 000 ft MD and TVD.
Casing inside diameter is 8,835 in.
Diameter of bit is 8-1/2 in.
Frac gradient at casing shoe is 13,5 ppg.
Mud weight is 9,8 ppg.
Shut-in drillpipe pressure is 400 psi.
Shut-in casing pressure is 600 psi.
Pit gain is 20 bbls.
Slow circulation rate is 40 spm.
Slow circulation pressure is 310 psi.
Pump output is 0,0829 bbls/stk.
0 0 710
1 134 685
2 267 660
3 401 635
4 535 610
5 668 585
6 802 560
7 936 535
8 1 069 510
9 1 203 485
10 1 337 460
11 1 470 435
12 1 604 410
13 1 738 385
14 1 871 360
15 2 005 335
Where:
1
2
= size factor for drillpipe section 1 (ft/in )
L1 = length of drillpipe section 1 (ft)
di1 = ID of drillpipe section 1 (in)
If there is more than one drillpipe section (tapered string), then calculate the size factor for each
of the sections. The BHA may be treated as part of the drillpipe section.
FCP Pscr
(Equation 4-37)
1 2
Where:
2
= drillpipe friction constant (psi in /ft)
1,2 =
2
drillpipe size factors for sections 1 and 2 (ft/in )
FCP = final circulating pressure (psi)
Pscr = slow circulating pressure with original mud MW 1 (psi)
(2) Calculate the friction pressure increase when the kill mud reaches each of the distinct
directional profile inflection depths in the drillpipe (e.g., kick-off, end-build, end-tangent).
If the inflection depth is above or at the drillpipe section crossover point, then:
MD
Pfriction x 2
(Equation 4-38)
di1
If the inflection depth is below the drillpipe section crossover point, then:
( MD L1 )
Pfriction x 1 (Equation 4-39)
di22
Where:
ΔPfriction = friction pressure increase due to kill weight mud (psi)
MD = measured depth at the point of interest (ft)
2
= drillpipe friction constant (psi in /ft)
1,2
2
= drillpipe size factors for sections 1 and 2 (ft/in )
L1 = length of drillpipe section 1 (ft)
di1 = ID of drillpipe section 1 (in)
di2 = ID of drillpipe section 2 (in)
(3) Calculate the static pressure when the kill weight mud reaches each of the inflection depths
(pressure is due to increased hydrostatic pressure):
TVD
Pstatic Pdp x 1,0 (Equation 4-40)
TVDh
Where:
Pstatic = static drillpipe pressure (psi)
Pdp = stabilized shut-in drillpipe pressure before the kill weight mud is circulated
(psi)
TVD = vertical depth at the point of interest (ft)
TVDh = vertical depth at the open-hole kick zone (ft)
(4) Calculate the drillpipe pressure when the kill weight mud reaches each of the inflection
depths.
Where:
Pdp = drillpipe pressure (psi)
Pscr = slow circulating pressure with original mud MW 1 (psi)
ΔPfriction = friction pressure increase due to kill weight mud (psi)
Pstatic = static drillpipe pressure (psi)
Example:
Calculate a drillpipe pressure schedule for a directional well with the following information:
Total depth 9 670 ft MD and 6 994 ft TVD.
270 ft of 5 in, 49,3 lb/ft, HWDP, 3 in ID.
300 ft of 6-1/4 in by 2-3/4 in drill collars.
9 100 ft of 5 in, 19,5 lb/ft, Grade G, XH drillpipe (4,276 in ID).
Casing shoe at 8 000 ft MD and 6 150 ft TVD.
Casing inside diameter is 8,835 in.
Diameter of bit is 8-1/2 in.
Frac gradient at casing shoe is 13,5 ppg.
Mud weight is 9,8 ppg.
Shut-in drillpipe pressure is 400 psi.
Shut-in casing pressure is 600 psi.
Pit gain is 20 bbls.
Slow circulation rate is 40 spm.
Slow circulation pressure is 310 psi.
Pump output is 0,0829 bbls/stk.
Directional data:
Table 4.5 Directional Data for Example Problem
Calculate the total volume to the top of the BHA at 9 100 ft MD:
Vtot 4 ( Vcap x L dp ) ( Vcap x Lhw ) ( Vcap x L dc )
(1) Calculate the drillpipe size factor () and the friction constant (β). This is needed in order to
calculate the friction pressure increase due to the kill weight mud.
L1 9 670
1 2
2
528,87 ft / in2
di1 4,276
There is one drillpipe size and the BHA was considered to be part of the drill string. No
other pipe size factor is required.
(2) Calculate the friction pressure increase when the kill mud reaches each of the inflection
depths in the drillpipe (e.g., kick-off, end-build, end-tangent).
Friction to kick-off point of 2 150 ft MD:
MD 2 150
Pfriction1 x 2
0,06618 x 8 psi
di1 4,2762
(3) Calculate the static pressure when the kill weight mud reaches each of the inflection
depths:
Static pressure at the kick-off point of 2 150 ft MD, 2 150 ft TVD:
TVD 2 150
Pstatic1 Pdp x 1,0 400 x 1,0 277 psi
TVDh 6 994
Static pressure to end of curve at 5 510 ft, MD 4 911 ft TVD:
TVD 4 911
Pstatic 2 Pdp x 1,0 400 x 1,0 119 psi
TVDh 6 994
TVD 6 150
Pstatic 3 Pdp x 1,0 400 x 1,0 48 psi
TVDh 6 994
TVD 6 701
Pstatic 4 Pdp x 1,0 400 x 1,0 17 psi
TVDh 6 994
TVD 6 994
Pstatic Pdp x 1,0 400 x 1,0 0 psi
TVDh 6 994
(4) Calculate the drillpipe pressure when the kill weight mud reaches each of the inflection
depths.
Calculate the drillpipe pressure when the kill weight mud reaches the kick-off point of
2 150 ft MD:
Pdp1 Pscr Pfriction1 Pstatic1 310 8 277 595 psi
Calculate the drillpipe pressure when the kill weight mud reaches the end of the build curve
at 5 510 ft MD:
Pdp2 = Pscr + Pfriction2 + Pstatic2 = 310 + 20 + 119 = 449 psi
Calculate the drillpipe pressure when the kill weight mud reaches 8 000 ft MD:
Pdp3 = Pscr + Pfriction3 + Pstatic3 = 310 + 29 + 48 = 387 psi
Calculate the drillpipe pressure when the kill weight mud reaches the top of the BHA at
9 100 ft MD:
Pdp4 = Pscr + Pfriction4 + Pstatic 4 = 310 + 33 + 17 = 360 psi
Calculate the drillpipe pressure when the kill weight mud reaches the bit at 9 670 ft MD:
Note: It will calculate the same as the FCP.
Pdp = Pscr + Pfriction + Pstatic = 310 + 35 + 0 = 345 psi
The drillpipe pressure schedule may be determined based on the calculated data above.
Table 4.6 Drillpipe Pressure Schedule for Directional Well
0 0 710
Stks1 461 595
Stks2 1 181 449
Stks3 1 714 387
Stks4 1 949 360
STB 2 005 345
Unfortunately, the increments in Table 4.6 are too large and it would be challenging to follow the
schedule. The increments between pressures may be increased similar to what was done in the
vertical well (by calculating ΔP and ΔSTB between the intervals). Table 4.7 is the expanded
drillpipe pressure schedule. Alternatively, the data may be plotted as in Figure 4.8.
0 0 710
1 154 672
2 307 633
Stks1 461 595
1 605 566
2 749 537
3 893 507
4 1 037 478
Stks2 1 181 449
1 1 358 428
2 1 536 408
Stks3 1 714 387
Stks4 1 949 360
STB 2 005 345
Where:
Pf = shut-in bottom hole pressure (psi)
Pdp = shut-in drillpipe pressure (psi)
MW 1 = original mud weight in hole (ppg)
TVD = true vertical depth of well (ft)
With the shut-in bottom hole pressure, the hydrostatic pressure of the influx may be calculated
based on the annulus pressure and the hydrostatic pressure in the annulus. The TVD height of
the influx is calculated first:
Vb x cos ( lavg )
hb (Equation 4-43)
Vacap
Where:
hb = height of the influx in the annulus (TVD height) (ft)
Vb = volume of the influx (pit gain) (bbls)
Vacap = capacity of the annulus where influx is located (usually drill collar
annulus) (bbls/ft)
Iavg = average inclination where influx is located (degrees)
Directional wells make the calculation of the influx density relatively complicated because
hydrostatic pressure is based on TVD. In a horizontal well, it is very challenging to determine the
weight of the influx if the kick is in the horizontal section. The influx will have no TVD height.
The annular capacity may be calculated very similar to the drill string capacity.
2 2
dh do
Vacap (Equation 4-44)
1029,4
Where:
dh = diameter of the hole (in)
do = outside diameter of pipe (in)
The hydrostatic pressure of the influx may be calculated from surface pressure, hydrostatic
pressure and shut-in bottom hole pressure. The surface pressure plus the hydrostatic pressure is
equal to the shut-in bottom hole pressure on the annulus side:
Pf Pa [ 0,052 x MW1 x ( TVD hb ) ] Pi (Equation 4-45)
The equation may be rearranged to solve for the hydrostatic pressure of the influx, Pi:
Pi Pf Pa [ 0,052 x MW1 x ( TVD hb ) ] (Equation 4-46)
Where:
Pi = hydrostatic pressure of the influx (psi)
Pf = shut-in bottom hole pressure (psi)
Pa = shut-in annulus pressure (psi)
TVD = TVD depth of the well (ft)
hb = height of the influx in the annulus (TVD height) (ft)
The density of the influx may be calculated based on the hydrostatic pressure and height:
Pi
Wi (Equation 4-47)
0,052 x hb
Where:
Wi = weight of influx (ppg)
Pi = hydrostatic pressure of the influx (psi)
hb = height of the influx in the annulus (TVD height) (ft)
Example:
Calculate the density of the influx fluid in the following well:
Total depth 9 670 ft MD and TVD.
270 ft of 5 in, 49,3 lb/ ft, HWDP, 3 in ID.
300 ft of 6-1/4 in by 2-3/4 in drill collars.
9 100 ft of 5 in, 19,5 lb/ft, Grade G, XH drillpipe (4,276 in ID).
Diameter of bit is 8-1/2 in.
Mud weight is 9,8 ppg.
Shut-in drillpipe pressure is 400 psi.
Shut-in casing pressure is 600 psi.
Pit gain is 20 bbls.
Since the height is greater than the length of the drill collars, the gas bubble will occupy the collar
annulus and most of the HWDP annulus. Calculate the total volume of the drill collar annulus:
Vtot = Vacap x L dc = 0,03224x 300 = 9,67 bbls
The volume of the influx that is above the drill collars is:
20 - 9,67 10,33 bbls
Since that is less than the length of the HWDP, the influx does not extend up into the drillpipe
annulus. Calculate the total height of the influx:
hb = 300 + 225 = 525 ft
The mud weight at the shaker will not suddenly increase from the original mud weight to the kill
mud weight due to mixing in the annulus. It will gradually increase from the original mud weight to
the kill mud weight and may take several bottoms up to remove all gas and stabilize mud weight.
Additionally, if the influx contains gas, the gas may migrate through the mud while circulating and
arrive at the surface earlier than calculated.
Equation 4-44 may be used to calculate annular volume in each hole section. The annular volume
divided by the pump output will yield the strokes to any particular point in the well.
Example:
Calculate the strokes to the casing shoe and the strokes to surface for the following well:
Total depth 9 670 ft MD and TVD.
270 ft of 5 in, 49,3 lb/ft, HWDP, 3 in ID.
300 ft of 6-1/4 in by 2-3/4 in drill collars.
9 100 ft of 5 in, 19,5 lb/ft, Grade G, XH dill pipe (4,276 in ID).
Casing shoe at 8 000 ft MD and TVD.
Casing inside diameter is 8,835 in.
Diameter of bit is 8-1/2 in.
Frac gradient at casing shoe is 13,5 ppg.
Mud weight is 9,8 ppg.
Shut-in drillpipe pressure is 400 psi.
Shut-in casing pressure is 600 psi.
Pit gain is 20 bbls.
Slow circulation rate is 40 spm.
Slow circulation pressure is 310 psi.
Pump output is 0,0829 bbls/stk.
Using Equation 4-44 calculate the annular capacity of the drill collar annulus:
2 2
dh do 8,52 6,252
Vacap 0,03224 bbls/ ft
1029,4 1029,4
Calculate the annular capacity of the drillpipe and HWDP annulus:
2 2
dh do 8,52 52
Vacap 0,04590 bbls/ ft
1029,4 1029,4
Calculate the total annular volume to the casing shoe at 8 000 ft.
Note: The length of the drillpipe may be calculated from the measured depth length minus the
length of the collars and HWDP.
Lengthof drillpipe= (9 670 - 8 000) - 270 - 300 = 1100 ft
The strokes to the casing shoe may be calculated by taking the total volume and dividing by the
pump output:
Vtot 72,56
STKS 875 stks
Vpump 0,0829
Where:
STKS = number of strokes to point of interest (stks)
Vtot = total volume to point of interest (bbls)
Vpump = pump output volume per stroke (bbls/stk)
The strokes to the surface may be calculated by calculating the strokes from the casing shoe and
adding it to the strokes to the shoe. Calculate the annular capacity of the casing:
d 2 do2 8,8352 52
Vacap h 0,05154 bbls/ ft
1029,4 1029,4
Calculate the total annular volume in the casing annulus:
Vtot = ( Vacap x Ldp ) = ( 0,05154 x 8 000 ) = 412,32bbls
The strokes from the casing shoe to the surface would be:
Vtot 412,32
STKS 4 974 stks
Vpump 0,0829
The cumulative strokes from the bit to the surface would be:
Strokes to surface = 875 + 4 974 = 5 849 stks
4.10.3 Annulus Pressure Profile
Note: Reader may want to review The Driller’s Method and the Wait and Weight Method before
continuing with this section.
The annulus pressure may be calculated if it is assumed that the gas bubble remains a discrete
bubble and does not migrate while circulating. In reality, the gas may mix with the mud and will
not remain a discrete bubble. If it mixes with the mud and gets strung out, the surface pressures
will be lower than the calculated pressures. The gas will be migrating through the mud while
circulating and arrive at the point of interest quicker.
If the influx is oil with a reduced Gas Oil Ratio, (GOR) or salt water, the annular pressures will not
change substantially from the original shut-in pressure. If the oil has an elevated GOR, the
pressures will start changing when the oil gets below the bubble point pressure.
Driller’s Method
The Driller’s Method is the simplest calculation because there is no change in mud weight in the
annulus. The equations for calculating the pressure at the top of the gas bubble are as follows:
1/ 2
S 2 K x MW1 x 0,052 S
PD (Equation 4-48)
4 C 2
S = ( TD - D ) x MW1 x 0,052+ Pi - Pf (Equation 4-49)
Po x Vo x ZD x TD
K (Equation 4-50)
Zo x To
Where:
PD = pressure at the top of the gas (psi)
S = intermediate calculation (1)
K = intermediate calculation (2)
Note: If the compressibility and temperature are ignored, the equation reduces to K = P o x Vo.
MW 1 = original mud weight (ppg)
C = average annular capacity of the influx at point of interest (bbls/ft)
TD = total depth (ft)
D = depth to the top of the influx (ft)
Pi = hydrostatic pressure of influx (psi)
Pf = shut-in bottom hole pressure in kick zone (psi)
Po = formation pressure = Pf (psi)
Vo = original influx volume (bbls)
Zo = original influx compressibility factor
To = original influx temperature (°R)
TD = influx temperature for influx at depth D (°R)
ZD = influx compressibility factor for influx at depth D
Wait and Weight Method
With the Wait and Weight Method, the calculations for the Driller’s Method are used until kill
weight mud reaches the annulus. After the kill mud enters the annulus, then the Wait and Weight
Method calculations apply:
1/ 2
S 2 K x MW2 x 0,052 S
PD (Equation 4-51)
4 C 2
Where:
PD = pressure at the top of the gas (psi)
S = intermediate calculation
K = intermediate calculation as in Driller’s Method
MW 1 = original mud weight (ppg)
MW 2 = kill mud weight (ppg)
C = average annular capacity of the influx at point of interest (bbls/ft)
TD = total depth (ft)
D = depth to the top of the influx (ft)
Pi = hydrostatic pressure of influx (psi)
Where:
Pi2 = hydrostatic pressure of influx at point of interest (psi)
Pi1 = hydrostatic pressure of influx at original conditions (psi)
C1 = average original annular capacity (bbls/ft)
C2 = average annular capacity at point of interest (bbls/ft)
Example:
Use the Driller’s Method and the Wait and Weight method to calculate the maximum annular
pressure when the top of the influx is at the casing shoe and the surface (ignore compressibility
and temperature effects):
Total depth 9 670 ft MD and TVD.
270 ft of 5 in, 49,3 lb/ft, HWDP, 3 in ID.
300 ft of 6-1/4 in by 2-3/4 in drill collars.
9 100 ft of 5 in, 19,5 lb/ft, Grade G, XH drillpipe (4,276 in ID).
Casing shoe at 8 000 ft MD and TVD.
Casing inside diameter is 8,835 in.
Diameter of bit is 8-1/2 in.
Frac gradient at casing shoe is 13,5 ppg.
Mud weight is 9,8 ppg.
Shut-in drillpipe pressure is 400 psi.
Shut-in casing pressure is 600 psi.
Pit gain is 20 bbls.
Slow circulation rate is 40 spm.
Slow circulation pressure is 310 psi.
Pump output is 0,0829 bbls/stk.
Calculate S and K at the casing shoe ignoring compressibility factor and temperature:
S = ( TD - D ) x MW1 x 0,052+ Pi - Pf
Calculate the pressure at the top of the gas bubble when the bubble gets to the casing shoe at
8 000 ft:
1/ 2
S 2 K x MW1 x 0,052 S
PD
4 C 2
1/ 2
4 4212 106 560 x 9,8 x 0,052 4 421
PD 4 674 psi
4 0,04590 2
The annulus pressure at surface would be the pressure at the top of the gas bubble (shoe) less
the hydrostatic pressure of the mud above the bubble.
Pa = PD - ( 0,052 x MW1 x D )
The annulus pressure has dropped slightly because the influx has moved fully into the drillpipe
annulus and the length of the bubble is shorter. To calculate the pressure when the gas first gets
to the surface, the hydrostatic pressure is adjusted for the drillpipe-casing annulus.
C1 0,03810
Pi2 Pi1 x 68 x 50 psi
C2 0,05154
The value K remains constant since temperature change and compressibility are being ignored.
Calculate S at the surface:
S = ( TD - D ) x MW1 x 0,052+ Pi - Pf
Calculate the pressure at the top of the gas bubble when the bubble gets to the surface at 0 ft:
1/ 2
S 2 K x MW1 x 0,052 S
PD
4 C 2
1/ 2
3502 106 560 x 9,8 x 0,052 350
PD 1 216 psi
4 0,05154 2
The annulus pressure is the same as the pressure at the top of the bubble since there is no
hydrostatic pressure of mud above the gas.
Calculate the pressure at the casing shoe and surface using the Wait and Weight Method.
The annulus pressure when the top of the bubble first gets to the casing shoe is the same as the
Driller’s Method. The annulus capacity from the bit to the shoe was previously calculated to be
72,56 bbls, but the capacity of the drill string was previously calculated to be 166,2 bbls. The kill
mud has not exited the bit and the equations for the Driller’s Method are used. The annulus
pressure when the top of the bubble is at the shoe is 597 psi.
Calculate the annulus pressure when the gas gets to the surface.
The height of the original mud (from the drill string) in the annulus below the gas is calculated
next. The drill string volume was previously calculated to be 166,2 bbls. All the volume will be in
the drillpipe-casing annulus since the casing annulus volume is 412,32 bbls.
The height would be the drill string volume divided by the annular capacity:
v tot 166,2
H1 3 225 ft
Vacap 0,05154
1/ 2
822 106 560 x 10,6 x 0,052 82
PD 1 109 psi
4 0,05154 2
The surface pressure calculates to be lower since the kill weight mud adds hydrostatic pressure
to the annulus. Less surface pressure is required to balance bottom hole pressure.
4.11 Lubricate and Bleed Calculations
This technique is also referred to as Lube and Bleed. It is applicable when the influx is
predominately gas, because the influx must migrate to the surface. It is used to vent the influx
from below the stack while maintaining constant bottom hole pressure. Lubrication is most suited
to fixed offshore and land rigs. It may be used to vent gas from the stack after implementing the
Static Volumetric Method, and to reduce surface pressures prior to an operation such as
stripping, snubbing or bullheading.
The hydrostatic pressure is increased by the amount of mud that is lubricated into the wellbore.
The surface pressure may be reduced by the amount of additional hydrostatic pressure by
bleeding dry gas only. Gas does have some hydrostatic pressure. When gas is bled from the
well, the hydrostatic pressure of the gas is decreased so the pressure that may be bled from the
annulus is the increased hydrostatic pressure of the lubricated fluid minus the reduced hydrostatic
pressure of the gas after it is bled.
Example:
Total depth 14 080 ft MD and TVD.
Kick formation at 13 913 ft.
Surface pressure, Pa = 1 420 psi.
Original mud weight MW 1 = 11,7 ppg.
Kill weight mud density MW 2 to be lubricated = 12,8 ppg.
Fracture gradient at shoe depth of 12 097 ft = 0,702 psi/ft.
Casing is 7 in, 26#/ft, S-95 at 12 097 ft (dh = 6,276 in ID).
Drillpipe OD, do = 3,5 in.
Gas specific gravity is assumed to be 0,6 (mostly methane).
Bottom hole pressure at 13 913 ft, Pf = 8 442 psi.
Surface temperature, Ts = 540°R.
Surface compressibility factor, Zs = 0,82.
The drillpipe is plugged and the well may not be circulated. Gas has migrated to the surface.
Determine the height of the gas bubble near the surface based on the bottom hole pressure and
the shut-in annulus pressure. First calculate an estimated gas gradient:
Sg x Pa
Gi (Equation 4-54)
53,3 x Z s x Ts
Where:
Gi = influx gas gradient (psi/ft)
Sg = specific gravity of gas
Pa = surface pressure (psi)
53.3 = universal gas constant
Zs = compressibility factor at surface conditions
Ts = surface temperature (°R)
Sg x Pa 0,6 x 1 420
Gi 0,036 psi / ft
53,3 x Zs x Ts 53,3 x 0,82 x540
The bottom hole pressure on the annulus side has to be the surface pressure plus all the
hydrostatic pressures in the annulus as in equation 4-45. Equation 4-45 may be rearranged to
solve for the height of the bubble where Pi is Gi x hb:
Pf = Pa + [ 0,052 x MW1 x ( TVD - hb ) ] + Pi
Where:
Vs = gas volume at the surface (bbls)
hb = height of the gas bubble (ft)
Vacap = annular capacity (bbls/ft)
Vs 2 250 x 0,02636 66,4 bbls
Calculate how much pressure increase may be tolerated at the casing shoe. The estimated
pressure at the shoe may be calculated based on the surface pressure and the hydrostatic
pressure in the annulus:
Pshoe ( Gi x hb ) Pa [ 0,052 x MW1 x ( Dshoe hb ) ] (Equation 4-56)
Where:
Pshoe = pressure at the casing shoe (psi)
Gi = influx gas gradient (psi/ft)
hb = height of the gas bubble (ft)
Pa = annulus pressure (psi)
MW 1 = original mud weight in well (ppg)
Dshoe = depth of interest (casing shoe in this case) (ft)
Pshoe = ( 0,036 x 2 520 ) + 1 420 + [ 0,052 x 11,7 x ( 12 097 - 2 520 ) ] = 7 337 psi
The frac pressure at the shoe may be determined by the frac gradient:
Pfrac Fg x Dshoe (Equation 4-57)
Where:
Pfrac = fracture pressure at depth (psi)
Fg = frac gradient (psi/ft)
Calculate the maximum increase in surface pressure and hydrostatic pressure that will not result
in fracturing of the casing shoe:
Pt Pfrac Pshoe (Equation 4-58)
Where:
ΔPt = maximum increase in surface pressure and hydrostatic pressure (psi)
Pfrac = fracture pressure at depth (psi)
Pshoe = pressure at the casing shoe (psi)
Pt = Pfrac - Pshoe = 8 492 - 7 337 = 1155 psi
Calculate the volume of kill weight mud with the density of MW 2 that will yield ΔPt:
1/ 2
2 Pt x Vacap x Vs
V1 X1 X1 (Equation 4-59)
0,052 x MW2
Where:
ΔPHyd = change in hydrostatic pressure from kill mud lubricated into the well (psi)
Vacap = annular capacity (bbls/ft)
V1 = volume of kill weight mud (bbls)
Pump 20 bbls of kill mud into the annulus at a reduced rate and record the shut-in annulus
pressure when pumping is stopped. Allow the gas to migrate through the kill mud. (This may take
several hours). The surface pressure will increase due to gas migration.
The surface pressure may now be reduced by bleeding dry gas only from the annulus. Calculate
the estimated new minimum annulus pressure:
Pnewa Pa PHyd (Equation 4-62)
Where:
Pnewa = new minimum annulus pressure after bleeding (psi)
ΔPHyd = change in hydrostatic pressure from kill mud lubricated into the well (psi)
Pa = original annulus pressure (psi)
Pnewa = Pa - PHyd = 1 420 - 505 = 915 psi
The estimated new annular surface pressure is used to determine the effective hydrostatic
pressure at the kick zone (13 913 ft). Equation 4-45 may be modified to include the hydrostatic
pressure of the kill mud.
Pf = Pa + [ 0,052 x MW1 x ( TVD - hb ) ] + Pi
Pf Pa [0,052 x MW1 x (TVD hb h1)] (Gi x hb ) (i x hb ) (0,052 x MW2 x h1) psi (Equation 4-63)
Where:
Pf = shut-in formation pressure (psi)
Pa = annulus pressure (psi)
MW 1 = original mud weight (ppg)
TVD = true vertical depth of kicking formation (ft)
Gi = influx (gas) gradient (psi/ft)
MW 2 = density of kill mud (ppg)
hb = height of gas in annulus (ft)
h1 = height of kill mud in annulus (ft)
The height of the gas in the annulus will be the remaining kick volume divided by the annular
capacity. The remaining kick volume is the original kick volume (66,4 bbls) less the volume of kill
mud pumped (20 bbls):
Vs
hb (Equation 4-64)
Vacap
Where:
hb = height of gas in annulus (ft)
Vs = gas volume at the surface (bbls)
Vacap = annular capacity (bbls/ft)
Vs 66,4 20
hb 1 760 ft
Vacap 0,02636
The height of the kill mud (h1) may be calculated with the volume of kill mud and the annular
capacity:
V1
h1 (Equation 4-65)
Vacap
Where:
h1 = height of kill mud in annulus (ft)
V1 = volume of kill mud pumped the first time (bbls)
Vacap = annular capacity (bbls/ft)
V1 20
h1 759 ft
Vacap 0,02636
Calculate the new gas gradient at the lower pressure using equation 4-54:
S g x Pnewa 0,6 x 915
Gi 0,022 psi / ft
53,3 x Z s x Ts 53,3 x 0,866 x 540
Pf = 915 + [ 0,052 x 11,7 x ( 13 913 - 1760 - 759 ) ] + ( 0,022 x 1760 ) + ( 0,052 x 12,8 x 759 )
Pf = 8 391psi
The bottom hole pressure is less than the formation pressure of 8 442 psi. The new minimum
annulus pressure will have to be increased by the difference between the calculated hydrostatic
pressure and the formation pressure:
Pa = 915 + ( 8 442 - 8 391 ) = 966 psi
The calculations are repeated for each lube and bleed cycle and may be made by use of Global
Wells Engineering Toolkit (GWETK).
4.12 Bullheading Calculations
Bullheading is the pumping of kill fluid into the well against any pressure and regardless of any
resistance the well may offer. The kill fluid is either pumped into a formation with good
permeability (lost circulation is a problem in the kicking zone) or the kill fluid is pumped into the
formation where the fracture pressure has been exceeded. Many formations will not accept mud
containing large quantities of solids. In order to accept whole mud, the formation needs to have
great permeability such as a fractured or vugular permeability.
Bullheading is applicable when the formation has enough permeability to accept whole mud or
the last casing seat is set near the top of the kicking formation. If casing is set considerably off
bottom and the formation will not take whole mud, bullheading will probably not work.
The bullhead process is best illustrated by example. The following shows where bullheading will
not be effective.
Example:
A well is being drilled and has taken a kick. The option is to bullhead the formation fluids back into
the formation. The conditions in the well are as follows:
Total depth 9 670 ft MD and TVD.
270 ft of 5 in, 49,3 lb/ft, HWDP, 3 in ID.
300 ft of 6-1/4 in by 2-3/4 in drill collars.
9 100 ft of 5 in, 19,5 lb/ft, Grade G, XH drillpipe (4,276 in ID).
Casing shoe at 8 000 ft MD and TVD.
Casing inside diameter is 8,835 in.
Diameter of bit is 8-1/2 in.
Frac gradient at casing shoe is 13,5 ppg.
Frac gradient in the kicking formation is assumed to also be 13,5 ppg.
Mud weight is 9,8 ppg.
Shut-in drillpipe pressure is 400 psi.
Shut-in casing pressure is 600 psi.
Pit gain is 20 bbls.
The well took a kick while drilling so the gas in the annulus is not a bubble. It is mixed with the
mud that was being circulated as the formation kicked. The frac gradient will have to be exceeded
to get mud with solids back into the formation. Calculate the frac pressure at the kick zone using
equation 4-57:
Pfrac = Fg x TVD = 0,052 x 13,5 x 9 670 = 6 788 psi
In order to pump the mud and gas back into the formation at the bottom of the hole, the pressure
at the shoe may not exceed 5 616 psi.
To simplify the calculations, assume there is no gas in the annulus and there is 9,8 ppg mud from
the casing shoe to the kick zone. This would yield the lowest pressure at the casing shoe when
bullheading. Actual pressures would be greater. The pressure at the shoe would be the frac
pressure at 9 670 ft minus the hydrostatic pressure to 8 000 ft.
PD Pfrac [ 0,052 x MW1 x ( TVD Dshoe ) ] (Equation 4-66)
Where:
PD = pressure at depth of interest D (psi)
Pfrac = the fracture pressure at depth TVD (psi)
MW 1 = mud weight in well between depth TVD and D (ppg)
TVD = true vertical depth of well (ft)
Dshoe = true vertical depth of casing shoe (ft)
PD = 6 788 - [ 0,052 x 9,8 x ( 9 670 - 8 000 ) ] = 5 937 psi
The pressure at the casing shoe has to be at least 5 937 psi in order to exceed the frac gradient
at the kick zone. Unfortunately, when the pressure exceeds 5 616 psi at the casing shoe, lost
circulation will occur at the casing shoe. Any mud pumped into the annulus will exit at the casing
shoe and the kick will remain between the bottom of the hole and the casing shoe.
If the formation has good permeability and lost circulation is a problem, it may be challenging to
circulate out the kick using classic well control procedures. With lost circulation in the kick zone, a
slight increase in pressure may cause lost circulation while a slight decrease in pressure may
allow additional influx. In this case bullheading may be an option but formation damage may
become a factor.
Example:
A well is being drilled and has taken a kick. The option is to bullhead the formation fluids back into
the formation. The conditions in the well are as follows:
Total depth 9 670 ft MD and TVD.
270 ft of 5 in, 49,3 lb/ft, HWDP, 3 in ID.
300 ft of 6-1/4 in by 2-3/4 in drill collars.
9 100 ft of 5 in, 19,5 lb/ft, Grade G, XH drillpipe (4,276 in ID).
Casing shoe at 8 000 ft MD and TVD.
Casing inside diameter is 8,835 in.
Diameter of bit is 8-1/2 in.
Frac gradient at casing shoe is 13,5 ppg.
Frac gradient in the kicking formation is assumed to also be 13,5 ppg.
Mud weight is 9,8 ppg.
Shut-in drillpipe pressure is 400 psi.
Shut-in casing pressure is 600 psi.
Pit gain is 20 bbls.
The kick zone has very good permeability and will accept mud with drill solids at or slightly above
formation pressure. Previously, the shut-in formation pressure was calculated to be 5 328 psi
based on the shut-in drillpipe pressure. The density of the kill mud was calculated to be 10,6 ppg.
The 10,6 ppg kill mud can be pumped down the annulus displacing the kick back into the
formation as long as the pressure does not exceed 5 616 psi at the casing shoe (weak point).
With the well shut-in, the pressure at the casing shoe is the surface pressure plus the hydrostatic
pressure of the mud to the shoe:
P8 000 Pa ( 0,052 x MW1 x Dshoe ) (Equation 4-67)
Where:
P8000 = annulus pressure at 8 000 ft (psi)
Pa = shut-in annulus pressure (psi)
MW 1 = mud weight in well from surface to shoe (ppg)
Dshoe = true vertical depth of casing shoe (ft)
P8 000 = Pa + ( 0,052 x MW1 x Dshoe ) = 600 + ( 0,052 x 9,8 x 8 000 ) = 4 677 psi
The frac pressure was previously calculated to be 5 616 psi at the casing shoe so there is a lot of
room for pressure on the annulus. If it takes only a few hundred psi to pump into the formation,
bullheading is an option. The kill mud will have to be displaced from the surface to the bit by
pumping into the kill line. The volume will have to be the annular volume plus some extra. The kill
mud will mix with the existing mud as it is pumped into the well. The kill fluid is typically over-
displaced into the formation on the order of 10 to 20%. Unfortunately, the exact hole volume is
usually not known. Some excess volume will have to be added for hole enlargement below the
casing shoe. The excess volume is an estimation based on field knowledge and hole conditions.
Calculate the volume of 10,6 ppg mud that will have to be bullheaded down the annulus
assuming 15% excess volume and 25% hole enlargement volume in the open-hole.
The open-hole volume will be the capacity of the drill collar and HWDP-drillpipe annulus plus the
excess for hole enlargement. The casing annulus does not require any excess for enlargement.
Vtot {[( Vacap x Ldc ) ( Vacap x Lhw ) ( Vacap x Ldp )] x Vfhe ( Vacap x Ldp )} x Vfe bbls (Equation 4-68)
Where:
Vtot = total volume to be pumped into the annulus (bbls)
Vacap = annular capacity (bbls/ft)
Ldc = length of the drill collars (ft)
Lhw = length of the heavy weight drillpipe (ft)
Ldp = length of the drillpipe in open-hole and casing annulus (ft)
Vfhe = open-hole volume factor for hole enlargement (25% would be 1,25)
Vfe = volume factor for excess volume (15% would be 1,15)
The annular capacities will have to be calculated first using equation 4-44.
For the drill collars:
2 2
dh do 8,52 6,252
Vacap 0,03224 bbls/ ft
1029,4 1029,4
For the drillpipe and heavy weight annulus:
2 2
dh do 8.52 52
Vacap 0,04590 bbls/ ft
1029,4 1029,4
For the drillpipe in the casing:
2 2
dh do 8,8352 52
Vacap 0,05154 bbls/ ft
1 029,4 1 029,4
Calculate the total mud volume to be pumped down the annulus through the kill line:
Vtot = { [ ( Vacap x L dc ) + ( Vacap x Lhw ) + ( Vacap x L dp ) ] x Vfhe + ( Vacap x L dp ) } x Vfe bbls
Vtot = {[(0,03224 x 300)(0,04590 x 270) + (0,04590 x 1100)] x 1,25 + (0,05154 x 8 000)} x 1,15
Vtot = 578 bbls
Bullheading is generally done at rates great enough to produce a solid column of liquid that
overcomes the gas migration rate. At slow rates, the mud can merely bypass the gas which will
not drive the influx back down the hole. This is given consideration if bullheading is to be
successful.
Bullheading will be ineffective if the maximum surface pressure while pumping exceeds the frac
gradient of the weak spot in the well. In this case, pump rates that would exceed the maximum
surface pressure may induce lost circulation at the shoe. The maximum surface pressure may be
estimated by taking the difference between the frac pressure and the hydrostatic pressure of the
kill mud to the shoe. This method will be conservative because it assumes kill mud is already at
the shoe and friction losses are zero. When kill mud is initially pumped, the annulus pressure may
be 333 psi greater due to the density difference between the kill mud and original mud in the
wellbore (10,6 – 9,8)(0,052)(8 000). If the influx is above the shoe, the pressure may be even
greater though it is challenging to calculate that value.
Where:
Pamax = maximum annulus surface pressure (psi)
Fg = frac gradient (ppg)
MW 2 = density of kill mud (ppg)
Dshoe = true vertical depth of casing shoe (ft)
Pamax = 0,052 x ( Fg - MW2 ) x Dshoe = 0,052 x ( 13,5 - 10,6 ) x 8 000 = 1 206 psi
After the annulus is displaced, the drillpipe is also displaced with kill mud while keeping the BOP
closed. The volume to be displaced will be the strokes to bit plus an excess to overcome the rise
of the bubble. A typical excess may be 50-100%.
4.13 Subsea Calculations
If a kick is taken from a floating rig, the influx will be displaced to the surface through a small
diameter choke line that is attached to the drilling riser. The fundamental difference between well
control procedures on a fixed and a floating rig originate from the necessity of having to circulate
through this longer choke line.
4.13.1 Calculation of Choke Pressure with Gas at the Surface
The annulus pressure will increase when the gas enters the choke line in deep water. The
capacity of the choke line is substantially smaller than the annulus below the BOP. The bubble
will get much longer resulting in a loss of hydrostatic pressure. To compensate, the annulus
pressure increases in order to keep the bottom hole pressure constant.
Example:
Calculate the maximum choke pressure when the gas reaches the surface for the following well
using the Wait and Weight Method:
Total depth 11 483 ft MD and TVD.
591 ft of 6-1/4 in by 2-3/4 in drill collars.
10 892 ft of 5 in, 19,5 lb/ft, Grade G, XH drillpipe (ID = 4,276 in).
BOP at 3 281 ft (length of choke line).
Casing shoe at 6 562 ft MD and TVD (ID = 8,681 in).
Mud weight is 14,2 ppg.
Shut-in drillpipe pressure is 650 psi.
Shut-in annulus pressure is 1 000 psi.
Pit gain is 20 bbls.
Hole size is 8-1/2 in.
Choke line is 3 281 ft long with a 3 in inside diameter.
Bottom hole temperature is assumed to be 140°F or 600°R.
Average temperature when the gas is at the surface is assumed to be 50°F or 510°R.
Ignore compressibility factor.
First, calculate the density of the kill mud using equation 4-28:
Pdp 650
MW2 MW1 14,2 15,3 ppg
TVD x 0,052 11 483 x 0,052
The density of the kill mud calculates out to be 15,2885 ppg so it is rounded up to 15,3 ppg. The
mud weight is always rounded up and not rounded down.
Calculate the capacity of the drill string by first calculating the capacity (bbls/ft) of the drill string
components using equation 4-31.
Drillpipe:
2
di 4,2762
Vcap 0,01776 bbls/ ft
1 029,4 1 029,4
Drill collars:
2
di 2,752
Vcap 0,00735 bbls/ ft
1 029,4 1 029,4
Calculate the total volume using equation 4-32:
Vtot = ( Vcap x L dp ) + ( Vcap x Lhw ) + ( Vcap x L dc ) + ······
Calculate the height of the gas bubble in the drill collar annulus. The annular capacity (bbls/ft) is
calculated with equation 4-44:
2 2
dh do 8,52 6,252
Vacap 0,03224 bbls/ ft
1 029,4 1 029,4
Calculate the height of the bubble using equation 4-43:
Vb x cos ( lavg ) 20 x cos ( 0 )
hb 620 ft
Vacap 0,03224
Since the height is greater than the length of the drill collars, some of the gas extends into the
drillpipe annulus. Calculate the volume of the drill collar annulus:
Vtot = Vacap x L dc = 0,03224x 591= 19,05bbls
The volume of the influx that is above the drill collars is:
20 - 19,05 = 0,95 bbls
Calculate the annular capacity (bbls/ft) of the drillpipe annulus:
2 2
dh do 8,52 52
Vacap 0,04590 bbls/ ft
1 029,4 1 029,4
The height of the gas would be the length in the drill collar annulus plus the drillpipe annulus:
hb = 591+ 21= 612 ft
Where:
Vtot = total volume of choke line (bbls)
Vcap = capacity of choke line (bbls/ft)
Lcl = length of choke line (ft)
Vtot = Vcap x L cl = 0,00874 x 3 281= 28,68bbls
Where:
Po = formation pressure = Pf (psi)
Vo = original influx volume (bbls)
Zo = original influx compressibility factor
To = original influx temperature (°R)
PD = pressure at the top of the influx (psi)
VD = volume of influx at depth D (bbls)
TD = influx temperature for influx at depth D (°R)
ZD = influx compressibility factor for influx at depth D
Assume a surface pressure of 2 500 psi and calculate the height of the gas bubble at the surface
by rearranging equation 4-71 and solving for VD. The compressibility factor will be ignored so one
may be entered as the compressibility factor:
Po x Vo x ZD x TD 9 129 x 20 x 1 x 510
VD 62,08 bbls
PD x Zo x To 2 500 x 1 x 600
The total height of the gas when it gets to the surface is the length of the choke line plus the
height in the drillpipe – casing annulus:
hb = 3 281+ 683 = 3 964 ft
Calculate the hydrostatic pressure of the influx at the surface using equation 4-53:
C1 0,03268
Pi2 Pi1 x 102 x 213 psi
C2 0,01566
Calculate the height of the original mud below the influx. The mud from the drill string will be in
the drillpipe – casing annulus. The mud actually extends into the drillpipe – open-hole annulus,
but the open-hole below the casing is more likely to be the casing size than the bit size in most
formations.
The height of the mud below the influx is the drill string volume divided by the annular capacity:
Vtot 197,79
H1 4 043 ft
Vacap 0,04892
S = ( 11483 - 0 ) x 15,3 x 0,052 - [ 4 043 x 0,052 x ( 15,3 - 14,2 ) ] + 213 - 9 129 = - 11,4
1/ 2
11,4 2 155 193 x 15,3 x 0,052 11,4
PD 2 814 psi
4 0,01566 2
Since the pressure is greater than the assumed 2 500 psi, a second iteration will be required,
assume a pressure of 2 900 psi.
Recalculate the volume of the gas bubble at 2 900 psi:
Po x Vo x ZD x TD 9 129 x 20 x 1 x 510
VD 53,51 bbls
PD x Zo x To 2 900 x 1 x 600
The total height of the gas when it gets to the surface is the length of the choke line plus the
height in the drillpipe – casing annulus:
hb = 3 281+ 508 = 3 789 ft
Calculate the hydrostatic pressure of the influx at the surface using equation 4-53:
C1 0,03268
Pi2 Pi1 x 102 x 236 psi
C2 0,01412
S = (11 483 - 0) x 15,3 x 0,052- [4 043 x 0,052 x (15,3 - 14,2)] + 236 - 9 129 = 11,6
1/ 2
11,62 155 193 x 15,3 x 0,052 11,6
PD 2 951psi
4 0,01412 2
Since the pressure is greater than the assumed 2 900 psi, a third iteration will be required,
assume a pressure of 2 975 psi.
Recalculate the volume of the gas bubble at 2 900 psi:
Po x Vo x ZD x TD 9 129 x 20 x 1 x 510
VD 52,17 bbls
PD x Zo x To 2 975 x 1 x 600
The total height of the gas when it gets to the surface is the length of the choke line plus the
height in the drillpipe – casing annulus:
hb = 3 281+ 480 = 3 761ft
Calculate the hydrostatic pressure of the influx at the surface using equation 4-53:
C1 0,03268
Pi2 Pi1 x 102 x 240 psi
C2 0,01387
S = ( 11483 - 0 ) x 15,3 x 0,052 - [ 4 043 x 0,052 x ( 15,3 - 14,2 ) ] + 240 - 9 129 = 15,6
1/ 2
15,6 2 155 193 x 15,3 x 0,052 15,6
PD 2 976 psi
4 0,01387 2
The maximum pressure at the surface when the gas first gets to the choke will be 2 976 psi
ignoring compressibility factor.
Where:
TVDres = Vertical depth of the reservoir
PPG = Pore Pressure Gradient, ppg
HCwb = Equivalent gradient of the fluid in the wellbore taken at reservoir pressure and
temperature, psi/ft
For the case where a fully evacuated wellbore is considered, HCwb used for the calculation will
typically be a gas gradient between 0,1 and 0,15 psi/ft. It is more conservative to use lower
numbers for design loads.
For cases where a partially evacuated wellbore is considered, HCwb used for the calculation will
typically be the gradient resulting from a column that contains both formation fluid and mud.
(2) The surface pressure that will result from the fracture pressure at the casing shoe (or open-
hole weak point) minus the hydrostatic pressure of the column of fluid in the wellbore above
the shoe (or open-hole weak point).
MASP frac -shoe = [ ( 0,052 ( FG frac - shoe ) ( TVD shoe ) ] - [ ( HCwb ) ( TVD shoe ) ] (Equation 4-72b)
Where:
TVD shoe = Vertical depth of the shoe (or open-hole weak point)
FG frac-shoe = Equivalent downhole mud density of the fracture pressure at the casing
shoe or open-hole weak point
4.14.2 Calculation of Maximum Anticipated Wellhead Pressure (MAWHP)
MAWHP is the highest predicted pressure that may occur at the wellhead in each hole section of
a well while drilling, or completing the well, or during a well intervention. For surface wellheads,
MAWHP will be equal to MASP. For subsea wells, MAWHP is calculated in the same way as
MASP, except that instead of TVD the depth in the calculations is taken from the subsurface
wellhead.
Similar to the MASP calculations above, MAWHP is calculated as the lesser of the following:
(1) The wellhead pressure that will result from the pore pressure less the hydrostatic pressure of
the column of fluid in the wellbore. The calculation is:
MAWHP pore = [( 0,052 ) ( PPG ) ( TVDres ) ] - [ ( HCwb ) ( TVDres - TVDwellhead )] (Equation 4-73a)
Where:
TVDwellhead = vertical depth of the wellhead, ft.
(2) The wellhead pressure that will result from the fracture pressure at the casing shoe (or
open-hole weak point) less the hydrostatic pressure of the column of fluid in the wellbore
above the shoe (or open-hole weak point) to the wellhead.
MAWHP frac - shoe = [ (0,052 ( FG frac - shoe ) ( TVD shoe ) ] - [ ( HCwb ) ( TVD shoe - TVDwellhead ) ] (Equation 4-73b)
Where:
Pshear,atm = actual or calculated surface shear pressure at atmospheric conditions
SR = shearing ratio
4.15 Kick Tolerance
4.15.1 General
Kick tolerance changes as a function of hole depth, BHA geometry, mud weight, formation
pressure, and influx volume and type. This section explains how to calculate simple kick
tolerance.
Kick Tolerance Calculation Methods
A number of methods exist for kick tolerance calculations. In general, these methods can be
classified into two categories:
Simple Methods
In these methods, kick tolerance calculations are simplified based on several assumptions as
demonstrated in the BP GWETK:
The kick influx is a “single bubble”.
At the initial shut-in condition, the influx is at the bottom of the open-hole.
The effects of the gas migration, gas dispersion, gas solubility are ignored.
These assumptions have wide acceptance in the drilling industry because they are simple, easy
to calculate, and generally yield conservative kick tolerance, but they do not consider how quickly
an influx may grow.
(3) Calculate the maximum allowable height of the influx in the open-hole section.
MASPkick tolerance SF (Pf 0,052 x MW x TVDh )
Hmax ( ft) (Equation 4-75)
0,052 x (MW Gi )
Where:
Hmax = maximum allowable vertical height of the influx (ft)
Gi = influx gradient (ppg)
Pf = formation pore pressure (psi)
TVDh = true vertical depth of open-hole (bit) (ft)
(4) Calculate the maximum allowable influx volume that H max corresponds to the initial shut-in
conditions.
Vbh = Hmax x C1/cos(qbh)(bbl) (Equation 4-76)
Where:
Vbh = maximum allowable influx volume at initial shut-in condition (bbl)
C1 = annular capacity around BHA (bbl/ft)
qbh = hole angle in the bottomhole section (degree)
°
If the bottomhole section is horizontal (or above 90 ), the hole angle used in the calculation
should be the open-hole angle immediately above the horizontal section. The kick
tolerance should be the sum of the calculated volume (Vbh) plus the annular volume of the
horizontal section.
In cases where Hmax/cos(qbh) is greater than the length of BHA, the maximum allowable
volume (Vbh) is calculated partly based on the annular capacity around BHA and partly
around the drillpipe.
(5) Calculate the maximum allowable influx volume that H max corresponds to when the top of
the influx is at the open-hole weak point.
Vwp = Hmax x C2/cos(qwp)(bbl) (Equation 4-77)
Where:
Vwp = maximum allowable influx volume when top of the influx is at the open-hole
weak point (bbl)
qwp = hole angle in the open-hole section below the weak point (degree)
In cases where Hmax/cos(qwp) is greater than the open-hole drillpipe length below the weak
point, the maximum allowable influx volume (Vwp) is calculated partly based on the annular
open-hole capacity around drillpipe and partly around BHA.
(6) Convert the maximum allowable influx volume at the weak point (Vwp) to what it would be at
the initial shut-in condition.
Based on Boyle’s law, the maximum allowable influx volume at initial shut-in corresponding
to Vwp will be:
Pleak
Vbh' Vwp x (bbl) (Equation 4-78)
Pf
(7) The actual kick tolerance is the lesser of Vbh (Step 4) and Vbh' (Step 6).
Example:
Bit depth: 13 123 ft
Current hole size: 12-1/4 in
Hole angle: Vertical
Mud weight in hole: 13,4 ppg
BHA length/OD: 597 ft/8 in
Drillpipe OD: 5 in
Estimated pore pressure at 13 123 ft: 13,2 ppg
Last casing shoe: 8 842 ft
LOT EMW: 14,4 ppg
Annular back pressure at SCR: 70 psi
Safety margin for choke operator error: 150 psi
Influx Gradient 0,2 ppg (assumed)
(a) Estimate the safety margin to be applied to MASPkick-tolerance, which is the annular
friction losses above the casing shoe at the Slow Circulating Rate (SCR) plus the
choke operator error safety margin:
SF = 70 + 150 = 220 psi
(b) Calculate MASPkick-tolerance:
Leak-off pressure, Pleak = 0,052 x 14,4 x 8842 = 6 621 psi
MASPkick-tolerance = Pleak – 0,052 x MW x TVDwp
MASPkick-tolerance = 6 621 – 0,052 x 13.4 x 8 842 = 460 psi
(c) Calculate the maximum allowable influx height in the open-hole section:
Pore pressure, Pf = 0,052 x 13,2 x 13 123 = 9 008 psi
MASPkick tolerance SF (Pf 0,052 x MW x TVDh )
Hmax
0,052 x (MW Gi )
(e) Calculate the maximum allowable influx volume when the top of influx is at the casing
shoe:
2 2
Annular capacity around open-hole Drill Pipe (DP), C2= (12,25 – 5 )/1029,4 =
0,1215 (bbl/ft)
Open hole DP length = 13 123 – 8 842 - 597 = 3 684 ft (>Hmax of 548 ft)
Vwp = 548 x 0,1215 = 67 bbl
(f) Convert Vwp to the initial shut-in condition:
Vbh' = 67 x 6 621/9 008 = 49 bbl
Since the volume of kick tolerance is the lesser of Vbh and Vbh', for this example, the final result is
a kick tolerance volume of 46 bbl.
4.15.3 Considerations for High-Angle and Horizontal Wells
In high-angle and horizontal wells, reservoirs are often drilled at a high or horizontal angle with
the last casing or liner string set on top of the reservoir. When considering kick tolerance for the
reservoir section, it is often the case that the maximum allowable gas height (determined on the
following page in Step 3) extends from the open-hole bottom to inside the casing or liner. This
implies the well can tolerate an infinite volume of gas influx without fracturing the open-hole weak
point.
On the other hand, because of the long open-hole section through the reservoir in a high-angle or
horizontal well, the influx volume can be potentially large. So when the influx is circulated to
surface, it may fill up the entire annuli of the vertical and low-angle sections and result in elevated
choke pressures at surface. When calculating kick tolerance for this type of well, calculate the
MASPkick-tolerance for both the shoe and open hole weak point, calculate the MASPkick-tolerance for the
casing burst strength and the pressure ratings of the surface equipment. The lesser of these two
values is the kick tolerance.
When drilling a high-angle or horizontal well, the following procedure may be used to determine
the kick tolerance:
(1) Calculate kick tolerance volume as V1 using the method as described in Section 4.15.2,
Steps 1-7.
(2) Determine the maximum allowable wellhead pressure Pwellhead based on the casing burst
strength and the pressure ratings of the surface equipment (BOP stack, choke manifold,
etc). Note the difference with MAWHP), which is based on anticipated pore pressure and
the formation fracture gradient at the weak point.
(3) Calculate the maximum allowable gas height Hmax when the gas influx top has reached the
surface:
(Pwellhead SF) (Pf 0,052 x MW x TVDh )
Hmax (Equation 4-79)
0,052 x (MW Gi )
Where:
Gi = influx gradient (ppg)
Pf = formation pore pressure (psi)
SF = safety factor mainly determined by the choke operator error margin (psi)
TVDh = true vertical depth of open-hole (bit) (ft)
(4) Calculate the influx volume that Hmax corresponds to when the gas influx top has reached
the surface:
Vsurf = Hmax x Ccsn (bbl)
Where:
Vsurf = maximum allowable influx volume when the influx top reaches surface (bbl)
Ccsn = annular capacity in the casing near surface (bbl/ft)
(5) Convert Vsurf to the corresponding volume at the initial shut-in condition:
Psurf
V2 Vsurf x (bbl) (Equation 4-80)
Pf
(6) The actual kick tolerance volume is the lesser of V2 (Step 5) and V1 (Step 1).
4.15.4 Global Well Engineering Tool Kit Kick Tolerance Calculator
The online GWETK has a module dedicated to calculating kick tolerance. The GWETK module
uses the same calculation method described in Procedure for Kick Tolerance Calculations, but
the GWETK module:
a) Takes into account the down-hole pressure and temperature effects on gas compressibility
(yielding a more accurate, but slightly less conservative results than the simple method
previously described).
b) Utilises the pressure at the mid-point of a gas influx.
c) Utilises a more robust directional model.
This is a simple way to perform a quick investigation into kick tolerance sensitivities with changes
in parameters such as estimated fracture and pore pressures, and mud weight. GWETK module
can easily be used to calculate the envelope of values needed to satisfy Drilling and Well
Operations requirements.
Deepwater Drilling Considerations
Traditional kick tolerance calculation is based on circulating the kick out. Deepwater drilling is
subject to particular complications due to tight mud weight and/or fracture margins and large
chokeline friction pressures which would render some wells non-drillable with traditional methods.
In such an event, a different approach can be adopted based on dynamic control methods, or
keeping the problem down-hole and utilising bullhead techniques or applicable.
FLOWLINE
FILL UP LINE
8
ANNULAR
BOP
BLIND RAM
5
KILL LINE CHOKE LINE
CHOKE
4 3 6 MANIFOLD
7
PIPE RAMS
SECTION
1 1 A
2
CASING SPOOL
1. Flanged gate valves - 2 in nominal diameter - same working pressure as ‘A’ section. The outside valve
is the working valve during drilling operation. This valve is removed and reused after completion.
2. Tee with tapped bullplug, needle valve, and pressure gauge.
3. Flanged gate valve - 2 in nominal diameter - same working pressure as BOP stack.
4. As 3 or flanged spring-loaded type check valve – 2 in nominal diameter – same working pressure as
BOP stack.
5. Drilling spool - two flanged side outlets - 2 in nominal diameter choke and 2 in nominal diameter kill
line.
6. Flanged hydraulically controlled gate valve - 2 in nominal diameter - same working pressure as BOP
stack.
7. Flanged gate valve - 2 in nominal diameter - same working pressure as BOP stack.
8. Top of annular preventer must be equipped with API flange ring gasket.
9. All flange studs must be in place.
FLOWLINE
FILL UP LINE
8
ANNULAR
BOP
PIPE RAMS
BLIND RAM
5
KILL LINE CHOKE LINE
CHOKE
4 3 6 MANIFOLD
7
PIPE RAMS
SECTION
1 1 A
2
CASING SPOOL
1. Flanged gate valves – 2 in nominal diameter – same working pressure as ‘A’ section. The outside valve
is the working valve during drilling operation. This valve is removed and reused after completion.
2. Tee with tapped bullplug, needle valve, and pressure gauge.
3. Flanged gate valve – 2 in nominal diameter – same working pressure as BOP stack.
4. As 3 or flanged spring-loaded type check valve – 2 in nominal diameter – same working pressure as
BOP stack.
5. Drilling spool – two flanged side outlets – 2 in nominal diameter choke and 2 in nominal diameter kill
line.
6. Flanged hydraulically controlled gate valve – 2 in nominal diameter – same working pressure as BOP
stack.
7. Flanged gate valve – 2 in nominal diameter – same working pressure as BOP stack.
8. Top of annular preventer must be equipped with API flange ring gasket.
9. All flange studs must be in place.
The majority of annular preventers currently in use are manufactured by Hydril with types MSP,
GK, GL, GX (not pictured), Shaffer (spherical) and Cameron (see Figure 5.4). These are
illustrated in Figure 5.5 to Figure 5.8 together along with a summary of major operating features.
Most annular preventers are designed to use wellbore pressure to assist in maintaining closure.
In some circumstances and depending on the preventer size, the well pressure may maintain
closure without any closing hydraulic pressure being applied. However, removing all closing
pressure from the preventer (when closed) is normally avoided as the sealing element may
suddenly open with only a small surge or reduction in well bore pressure. The pressure seal may
be lost around the body of the drillpipe after a tool joint passes through the element during
stripping operations.
A function of annular preventers is to facilitate the stripping of the drillpipe in or out of the well,
with pressure on the wellhead. Undue wear of the element is avoided by the use of a pilot-
operated hydraulic regulator which controls closing pressure or a stripping surge bottle attached
to the close side of the annular hydraulic port.
When stripping, the closing pressure is regulated to the minimum required for a slight seepage of
mud past the element. Closing pressures greater than this will increase element wear. The pipe is
moved slowly, particularly as tool joints pass through the element. Vendors provide information
regarding suggested closing pressures during stripping operations. Surge vessels on the closing
ports will help to eliminate surge pressures as tool joints pass through the element.
If the annular packing element wears out during stripping or well killing operations, the element
can be changed without pulling the pipe. After the pipe rams are closed and locked below the
annular preventer and the hydraulic and well pressure bled off, the cover of the preventer can be
removed and the packing element lifted out with a hoist line. With the element above the
preventer, the damaged unit can be split and removed from the pipe. New packing elements for
Hydril and Shaffer annular preventers can be split in the field and installed in reverse order.
Reciprocation of pipe in closed annulars can be carried out with the accepted measures in place.
If in doubt, contact the equipment vendor for any limitations. Rotation of drillpipe through a closed
annular introduces an increased potential of drill string parting.
The numerous operational aspects of annular preventers include:
Sealing element life is maximised by conformance with vendor’s suggestions for pressure
testing and operational use of the preventers. Excessive closing pressures, when coupled
with wellbore pressure sealing effects, cause internal stresses in the element and reduce
element life.
A good practice is to flush the cavities and inspect the elements following each well,
Preventers are usually stripped and inspected annually. Seals are replaced and all sealing
surfaces inspected.
Cap seals are replaced when changing elements.
Run cautiously through BOPs with drilling tools, especially rock bits, to minimise element
damage. Elements of annular preventers do not always retract fully.
The type of elastomer (natural rubber, synthetic rubber, neoprene) used for a packing
element is selected for a particular wellhead environment. Refer to Table 5.1.
Closing pressures are regulated to the pressures specified by the vendors. This information is
available at the rig site.
Only OEM approved replacement parts are used. A 1 in valve may be installed on both the
opening and closing lines next to the annular preventer. These valves remain in the open
position at all times except when testing hydraulic lines and hydraulic chamber seals. These
valves are used to test for seal leaks between the opening and closing chambers of an
annular preventer.
To increase life and operability of the annular, a stripping bottle can be mounted close to the
annular.
Identification
Packing Unit Operating Drilling Fluid
Type Temp Range Compatibility
Colour Code
Typically, for surface BOP stacks, this device is manual and consists of locking screws, extension
rods and large diameter hand wheels. If the locking screws are used as a contingency to close
the ram, the closing unit handle is placed in the closed position. This will facilitate closure by
eliminating the possibility of hydraulic oil being trapped on the opening side of the actuating
pistons.
Subsea BOP stacks are fitted with a hydraulic lock mechanism (Cameron’s Wedge Lock,
Shaffer’s Poslock and Hydril’s MPL). This system may be used in place of locking screws to lock
the rams in the closed position for surface BOP stacks. The hydraulic lock holds the rams closed
until unlocking pressure is applied even though the primary control pressure is released.
Note: Specifications are subject to change. Verify with actual equipment in use.
Ram preventers have specially designed opening and closing ratios, as shown in Table 5.2.
These are the ratios between the well pressures and the operating pressures needed to open or
close the rams. Closing ratios are generally in the range of six-to-one to nine-to-one. This means
that a preventer having a closing ratio of six to-one would require 500 psi closing pressure to
close the preventer when the wellbore pressure is 3 000 psi. Opening ratios are much lower
because the wellbore pressure acts behind the ram to oppose opening. Ratios of two-to-one are
common. For elevated wellbore pressures, operating pressures greater than 3 000 psi may be
needed to open some ram preventers.
Bonnet (or door) seals are exposed to wellbore pressures and fluids. Since they may be
subjected to elevated pressures and temperatures without being backed up by another seal,
bonnet seals are crucial to the integrity of the BOP system. The seals are generally of fibrous
and/or rubber construction and need careful handling and installation as suggested by the
vendor.
Bonnet seals are replaced each time bonnets are opened. Bonnet seals, as with all elastomers,
are handled carefully, particularly on installation, and are stored at controlled temperatures in
darkness according to OEM’s suggestions. They are discarded after lengthy storage in
accordance with OEM suggestions.
Bonnet bolts are made up to vendors’ suggested torques, which may be very high with some
compression-type seals. The OEM specifies the type of lubricant that is used.
Bonnet faces, preventer faces and seal grooves are cleaned and dried before seal installation
and assembly. Bonnet seals are tested after installation.
Pipe rams are not closed on open hole or on mismatched pipe. This induces excessive extrusion
of the elastomer and may cause cracking or bonding failures.
Additional maintenance practices considered are washing out ram recesses and inspecting the
ram element following each well and following milling or cementing operations. Preventers are
stripped, inspected (particularly all sealing surfaces) and seals are replaced per OEM
maintenance procedures. If rams have been operated during milling and or cementing operations,
ram sealing abilities may be compromised.
When in good operating condition, ram preventers will close with 300 psi or less hydraulic
pressure without wellbore pressure. If elevated closing pressure is required during test
operations, the preventer is checked first for debris in the ram cavity and then inspected for piston
rod misalignment or other mechanical problems.
Ram preventers are designed to hold pressure from below and are not designed to be pressure
tested from the top side. If pressure is applied to the top, damage to the sealing elements may
occur. If the BOP is inverted, the ram will hold pressure, but if the ram block is inverted, it will not
seal.
Ram preventers are more likely to leak with a reduced wellbore pressure than an elevated one.
They are tested to both low- and high-pressure. The low-pressure test is conducted before the
high-pressure test.
Ram preventers will usually close faster than annular preventers, especially in the larger sizes.
Usually, ram preventers need only one-third, or less, of the hydraulic fluid volume to close
compared to an annular. In instances where mechanical problems prevent rapid closure of the
annular preventer or large flow rates are experienced, a ram preventer may be closed to minimise
additional well flow.
The main closing unit control handle for operating blind or blind shear rams is protected against
accidental closure with pipe in the hole. Numerous costly incidents have resulted from
accidentally closing the blind rams and flattening or cutting the drillpipe during well control or
drilling operations. A flip-up cover is the common device installed to cover the blind or blind shear
ram actuator lever or electronic push button on remote control stations. This prevents the
individual who is initiating a BOP control panel function from a remote station from accidentally
engaging the actuator lever or button for the blind or blind shear rams.
When aluminium drillpipe is used, special consideration is given to ram size selection. For
example, 5 in aluminium drillpipe has an outside body diameter of 5,150 in, versus a 5 in body
diameter for 5 in steel pipe. Regular 5 in ram blocks will be slightly modified to seal and not
damage the main tube section of aluminium pipe. 5 in aluminium pipe has a tapered transition
zone for a length of 41 in to 46 in on both the box and pin ends from 5,150 in OD up to 5,688 in
OD. Standard rams will not seal on the tapered end sections. Variable bore rams may be used to
seal on the body and end sections of aluminium drillpipe.
difference between the two is that shearing and sealing rams have the capability to cut the pipe
within the wellbore and seal wellbore pressure, but are more limited as to what size, weight and
grade of tubular that can be cut. Shear only rams usually have a greater shearing capacity but do
not have the ability to seal.
The casing shear may be manifolded separately from the rest of the stack functions so that
greater pressure (up to 3 000 psi) may be applied directly to the operator and not the 1 500 psi
generally carried in the control manifold.
Shear Ram Blade Selection
Shear ram blade design is essential when selecting shear, blind shear or casing shear rams. It is
fundamental that the blades are able to sever all of the drillpipe run into or out of the well.
Shearing ram upper and lower blades may have different geometries. The blade shapes dictate
what the range of shearing capabilities are and the hydraulic force required to effectively sever
what is in the well bore. Shear blades have a specific range of shearing capabilities. Not all
designs can shear wireline or production screens. Most blade geometries and ram design lack
the capability to shear drill collars and thick wall pipe. Some designs have a contact point which
actually pierces the casing or pipe then starts cutting. This reduces the force required to shear
and when full pressure is applied, it increases the shearing capability of the ram.
5.3 BOP Stack Sizes and Pressure Ratings
Table 5.3 shows the availability and bore of BOPs from the major vendors.
The test pressure rating of BOP equipment is a one-off test, conducted on the BOP (or valve)
body at the time of manufacture to a pressure 50% greater than the working pressure. Typically,
when in service, BOP equipment is used for operations where the rated working pressure of the
equipment exceeds the MAWHP.
It is common practice to use annular preventers rated at 5 000 psi less than the rams for certain
10 K and 15 K applications.
Stack Configurations
Minimum stack configuration requirements for all categories of land and offshore operations are
detailed in GP 10-10. Figure 5.1, Figure 5.2 and Figure 5.9 show examples of stacks for surface
applications. The particular details of each well will dictate the best stack for each application.
5.3.1 5 M Surface BOP Onshore Stack (Figure 5.2)
The following points are considered regarding this stack arrangement:
The stack is comprised of three ram preventers and one annular preventer. This arrangement
may be used for stripping pipe through annular preventer but it is not used for ram combination
stripping.
Annular access below the lowermost ram may be achieved through the wellhead outlets. These
outlets are commonly used for monitoring purposes. The wellhead outlets are rarely used for
flowing the well as a failure may result in a release that cannot be isolated and secured.
The lowermost ram is a dedicated safety ram and is not used for stripping operations.
If casing rams are needed, they are positioned in the top ram preventer cavity.
5.3.2 10 M/15 M Surface BOP Stack (Figure 5.11)
The stack is comprised of three ram preventers and one annular preventer. In a 15 M stack, a
fourth ram preventer may be considered.
With this stack configuration, pipe can be stripped through the annular preventer and between the
annular and upper pipe ram. Ram preventer combination stripping may be performed if blind
rams are replaced with pipe rams provided that space is available between top two ram type
preventers. A bleed off line is rigged up between the top two ram preventers to facilitate ram
combination stripping. The lowermost ram is maintained as a safety ram and is not used for
stripping.
Annular access below the lowermost ram through a wellhead outlet is used for well monitoring.
With this stack, the well can be circulated either under the annular preventer or, under the upper
pipe rams. If casing rams are required, they are positioned in the upper cavity.
9
FLOWLINE
FILL UP LINE
8
ANNULAR
BOP
OUTLET FLANGE
(USED ONLY FOR
RAM COMBINATION
STRIPPING)
BLIND RAM
5
KILL LINE CHOKE LINE
DRILLING CHOKE
4 4 SPOOL 8 MANIFOLD
7
SECTION
B
3 3
2
SECTION
1 1 A
2
1. Flanged gate valves – 2 in nominal diameter – same working pressure as ‘A’ section. The outside valve is the
working valve during drilling operation. This valve is removed and reused after completion.
2. Tee with tapped bullplug, needle valve, and pressure gauge.
3. Flanged gate valve – 2 in nominal diameter – same working pressure as ‘B’ section.
4. Flanged gate valve – 2 in nominal diameter – same working pressure as BOP stack.
5. Drilling spool – two flanged side outlets – one 3 in nominal diameter and one 2 in nominal diameter – same working
pressure as BOP stack
6. Flanged hydraulically controlled gate valve – 3 in nominal diameter – same working pressure as BOP stack.**This is
part of the choke line and is shown as ‘8’ not ‘6’, change drawing to ‘6’ as item 8 below agrees with the other ‘8’ In
the figure**
7. Flanged gate valve – 3 in nominal diameter – same working pressure as BOP stack.
8. Top of annular preventer are equipped with API flange ring gasket.
9. All flange studs are in place.
10. The ID of the bell nipple must be less than the minimum ID of the BOP stack.
Figure 5. 5.100 10 M/15 M Surface BOP Stack
Figure 5.11 10 M/15 M Surface BOP Stack
5.3.3 Drilling Spools
Choke and kill lines are generally connected to the BOP stack using a drilling spool. Using a BOP
outlet for the choke or kill line is discouraged.
Drilling spools are installed between BOPs and provide choke and kill line outlets for BOP stack
arrangements (subsea BOP stacks and low-pressure surface stacks are excluded). The spool
localizes erosion during well control operations in the spool rather than the preventer body.
Drilling spools are designed and fabricated in accordance with API 6A, ‘Specifications for
Wellhead Equipment’. Most wellhead vendors can fabricate drilling spools to any dimensions
specified. Table 5.4 shows dimensional data for Hydril’s drilling spools.
5.3.4 BOP Stack Connections
There are three types of connections available for BOP units – flanged, studded or clamped.
Bolted flanges or studs are the most common type of connection used. The tensile rating of the
bolts used in these connections can withstand the maximum load which may be imposed. Also,
the torque applied to the nuts and bolts is in accordance with API suggested values.
API high-pressure flange connections are pressure sealed by means of ring-joint gaskets made of
soft iron, low-carbon steel or stainless steel. API Type RX and Type BX ring-joint gaskets are
pressure-energized seals but are not interchangeable. API ring gaskets are single use items.
Correct torquing sequence and flange face standoff are observed. Rings that have been coated
with Teflon, rubber or other resilient materials are not satisfactory. All flanges in the stack and
side-outlets are fitted with new ring-joint gaskets each time they are assembled. The flange ring
groove is cleaned and dried prior to assembly.
API 6A ‘Specifications for Wellhead Equipment’ provides specifications for flanged wellhead
fittings. API Type 6B flanges are available in the following pressure ratings: 2 000 psi to 5 000 psi
range. API Type 6BX flanges are available for the 5 000 psi to 30 000 psi range. Figure 5.12 lists
specifications for BOP flanges, ring gaskets and bolts. Correctly sized bolts are used for the
specific bolt holes and are made of the correct material for the environment.
Hub and clamp connectors are principally used on subsea BOP stacks to reduce the weight and
height. The bolts are designed for easier installation, especially in cramped quarters, because the
wrench movement is downward instead of horizontal.
When clamp connectors were first used there were numerous problems within the industry, with
the clamp loosening during drilling operations and in well control situations. This problem has
been greatly reduced by the vendors furnishing suggested bolt torque make-up values and the
availability of power torque wrenches on the rigs.
Clamp connections are installed on most major vendors’ hub and clamp preventers. When a
clamp connected BOP stack is used, suggested torque values are obtained from the vendor and
bolts are made up and maintained using power torque wrenches.
7-1/16 in 71/16 in 3 000 Flange 3-1/16 in 3 000 Flange 510 16,50 13,25
7-1/16 in 7-1/16 in 3 000 Flange 3-1/16 in 5 000 Flange 525 16,50 13,25
7-1/16 in 7-1/16 in 5 000 Flange 3-1/16 in 5 000 Flange 510 16,50 13,50
7-1/16 in 7-1/16 in 5 000 Flange 3-1/16 in 5 000 Flange 500 19,75 13,50
7-1/16 in 7-1/16 in 5 000 Flange 4-1/16 in 5 000 Flange 525 19,75 13,50
7-1/16 in 7-1/16 in 10 000 Flange 3-1/16 in 10 000 Flange 1 025 21,12 15,18
7-1/16 in 7-1/16 in 10 000 Flange 4-1/16 in 10 000 Flange 1 075 21,12 15,18
7-1/16 in 7-1/16 in 15 000 Flange 4-1/16 in 15 000 Flange 1 400 22,38 16,44
9 in 9 in 3 000 Flange 3-1/16 in 3 000 Flange 700 18,12 15,00
9 in 9 in 3 000 Flange 3-1/16 in 5 000 Flange 725 18,12 15,00
9 in 9 in 5 000 Flange 2-1/16 in 5 000 Flange 710 18,12 15,25
9 in 9 in 5 000 Flange 3-1/16 in 5 000 Flange 725 18,12 15,25
11 in 11 in 3 000 Flange 3-1/16 in 3 000 Range 950 18,62 16,50
11 in 11 in 3 000 Flange 3-1/16 in 5 000 Flange 975 18,62 16,50
11 in 11 in 5 000 Flange 3-1/16 in 5 000 Flange 1 065 23,38 17,25
11 in 11 in 5 000 Flange 4-1/16 in 5 000 Flange 1 290 22,38 17,25
11 in 11 in 10 000 Flange 3-1/16 in 10 000 Flange 2 190 25,12 18,62
11 in 11 in 10 000 Flange 4-1/16 in 10 000 Flange 2 215 25,12 18,62
11 in 11 in 10 000 Hub 3-1/16 in 10 000 Hub 1 285 25,12 18,62
11 in 11 in 10 000 Hub 4-1/16 in 10 000 Hub 1 310 25,12 18,62
11 in 11 in 15 000 Flange 4-1/16 in 15 000 Flange 1 710 29,75 22,50
13-5/8 in 13-5/8 in 3 000 Flange 3-1/16 in 3 000 Flange 1 055 19,38 17,25
13-5/8 in 13-5/8 in 3 000 Flange 3-1/16 in 15 000 Flange 1 080 19,38 17,25
13-5/8 in 13-5/8 in 5 000 Flange 3-1/16 in 5 000 Flange 1 755 22,38 19,00
13-5/8 in 13-5/85/8 in 5 000 4-1/16 in 5 000 Flange 1 780 22,38 19,00
13-5/8 in Flange 3-1/16 in 5 000 Flange 1 050 22,38 19,00
13-5/8 in 13-5/8 in 5 000 Hub 4-1/16 in 5 000 Hub 1 075 22,38 19,00
13-5/8 in 13-5/8 in 5 000 Hub 3-1/16 in 10 000 Flange 3 325 27,75 20,88
13-5/8 in 13-5/8 in 10 000 Flange 4-1/16 in 10 000 Flange 3 355 27,75 20,88
13-5/8 in 13-5/8 in 10 000 Flange 3-1/16 in 10 000 Hub 1 925 27,75 22,88
13-5/8 in 13-5/8 in 10 000 Hub 4-1/16 in 10 000 Hub 1 950 27,75 22,88
20-3/4 in 13-5/8 in 10 000 Hub 3-1/16 in 3 000 Flange 2 590 27,12 22,52
20-3/4 in 20-3/4 in 3 000 Flange 3-1/16 in 5 000 Flange 2 615 27,12 22,52
20-3/4 in 20-3/4 in 3 000 Flange 4-1/16 in 5 000 Flange 2 540 27,12 22,52
20-3/4 in 20-3/4 in 3 000 Flange 3-1/16 in 3 000 Hub 2 565 27,12 22,52
21-1/4 in 20-3/4 in 3 000 Hub 7-1/16 in 2 000 Flange 1 850 23,38 21,75
21-1/4 in 21-1/4 in 2 000 Flange 3-1/16 in 5 000 Flange 1 800 23,38 21,75
21-1/4 in 21-1/4 in 2 000 Flange 4-1/16 in 5 000 Flange 1 850 23,38 21,75
21-1/4 in 21-1/4 in 2 000 Flange 3-1/16 in 5 000 Hub 1 850 23,38 21,75
21-1/4 in 21-1/4 in 2 000 Hub 4-1/16 in 5 000 Hub 1 825 23,38 21,75
*29-1/22 in 21-1/4 in 2 000 Hub 7-1/16 in 500 Flange 2 380 31,75 25,25
*29-1/2 in 29-1/2 in 500 Flange 12 in 500 Flange 2 320 31,75 25,00
*30 in 29-1/2 in 500 Flange 7-1/16 in 5 000 Flange 2 500 40,00 27,52
*30 in 30 in 1 000 Flange 12 in 1 000 Flange 2 450 40,00 27,52
30 in 1 000 Flange
Figure 5.12 API Specifications for BOP Flanges, Ring Gaskets, Flange Bolts and Nuts
15 000 psi working pressures. Other reputable valve vendors’ equipment is typically used for
choke line service after reliability and experience is verified.
5.5 Choke Manifold
A choke manifold is an arrangement of valves and chokes intended to be used to control the well
after an influx of formation fluid and the BOPs have been closed. An example 5 K choke manifold
layout is shown in Figure 5.13. All choke manifolds are basically the same with the difference
being redundancy. In crucial situations, there is duplication of systems in the event of failure.
Upstream from the chokes, the components of the choke manifold are rated at least equal to the
working pressure as the BOP stack. However, since the chokes create a pressure drop, the
elements of the choke manifold downstream from the chokes may be rated below the elements
upstream from the chokes. For example, a 10 000 psi choke manifold would outfit the
components upstream of the chokes, including the inlet flange of the choke, with equipment rated
to 10 000 psi, while everything downstream of the choke may be rated to 5 000 psi.
Figure 5.13 is an example manifold for a drilling operation. Generally, the nominal diameter of a
choke manifold is equal to the choke line nominal diameter. Only flanged connections and gate
valves are used upstream from the chokes. Gate valves and flanged connections are preferred
downstream from the chokes. Gate valves are designed to be open or closed and not intended to
be used in the same manner as a choke. Chokes are designed and intended to regulate flow from
the well.
Typically, there is one remotely operated choke and one manual choke in the manifold. For 5 M
configurations, the manual chokes are seldom used. In any crucial operation, two remotely
operated drilling chokes are preferred.
The choke is the heart of the well control operation. All chokes are of two basic types. One type
consists of a tungsten carbide piston moving in and out of a tungsten carbide sleeve. The
Cameron remotely operated choke is an example of this type. The other type consists of two
tungsten carbide plates mated together with openings in the plates. One plate is stationery and
the other rotates to make the opening larger or smaller as required. A Swaco drilling choke is of
this type. Chokes have usually proven very reliable in well control operations. One may have a
specific feature that makes it better for a particular condition or operation.
The control panel for the hydraulic chokes is usually near the Driller’s station, and has readouts
for drillpipe manifold pressure, choke manifold pressure and pump stroke counters. A pressure
gauge, reading drillpipe pressure, is located at the choke manifold if manual chokes are used
during a well kill operation. A recording chart for drillpipe pressure and choke manifold pressure
may also be considered.
Typically, the chokes discharge into a header, Figure 5.16. The header is often of lesser strength
than other components in the manifold, and can have stress risers because of its layout, and thus
may become a point of failure. In severe well control cases, it is subject to erosion and may need
to be replaced. If there is failure in the header, the entire choke manifold is compromised creating
risk to people and ancillary equipment. Therefore, the header is designed with the appropriate
factor of safety.
The line through the choke manifold header that usually goes to the reserve pit is commonly
referred to as the “panic line”. The panic line is usually one ID size larger than the rest of the
manifold. If the well pressures approach well design burst ratings, the panic line is opened and
the well is vented directly to the pit. The function of the panic line is enhanced when it is as
straight and long as feasible.
The alignment of the choke line and manifold may vary. Under regular drilling conditions, the
hydraulic valve in the choke line is closed as well as the valve to the secondary choke. The valve
to the primary choke is open and the choke itself is closed. With this alignment, a shut-in can be
made in the minimum amount of time. Figure 5.13, Figure 5.14 and Figure 5.15 illustrate
examples of choke manifolds for onshore, offshore and HPHT operations.
5.5.1 Pressure Gauges
Pressure gauges used on the choke manifold or in other locations (i.e., hydraulic choke control
panel) for the purposes of well control are:
Certified for abrasive fluid service.
Of a range equivalent to the pressure rating of the choke manifold.
Accurate to +/- 1%.
Of a size allowing the operator to read (or interpolate) increments to 1% of the gauge range.
Dampened.
Installed as per OEM suggestions.
1 1
To Mud Plts 3
To Reserve/ 1 1 1 1 From
Slush Pit BOPE
To
Gauges
1
1. 2-9/16 in (min) 500 psi gate valves
2. Remote controlled choke
1 3. Manually adjusted choke
1
1 1
To Mud Plts MGS 2
To Gas
Vent/Flare
MGS 1
2
BYPASS
1
1
1
MUD GAS SEPARATOR
1 1
2
1
3 1
1
1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1
TO GAUGE TO GAUGE
1 GATES VALVE
1 1 1 1
2 REMOTE CONTROLLED CHOKES FLOWLINE
3 MANUALLY ADJUSTED CHOKES
CHOKE
CHOKE
FLARE
GLYCOL
INJECTION
VALVE
FLARE
SHAKER
CHOKE
CHOKE
TOP VIEW
TRIP TANK
GLYCOL
INJECTION HIGH PRESSURE HEADER
VALVE
FLARE
PANIC LINE
SIDE VIEW OF CENTER LINES
X X X
TO MUD/GAS
SEPARATOR TO TRIP TANK
X X
Separator Vessel
The separator vessel is an essential component of the MGS where the separation of mud and
gas takes place. The vessel diameter is the crucial factor in determining the mud gas separation
capacity. When the mud gas mixture flows into the vessel at an elevated velocity, a large quantity
of mud droplets will be formed. The design basis for an MGS is to determine the correct ID and
height for best separation of the gas from the mud. The main function of the internal surface area
(baffles) is to provide enough plane area so mud droplets settle faster than the gas rise rate. The
height component is crucial to allow the mud droplets enough time for separation.
During well control operations, the flowing mud gas mixture can cause considerable vibrations.
The vessel is well anchored, and all connections are welded, flanged, or screwed.
Mud Gas Inlet
The inlet is connected to the vessel so that the mud gas mixture flows into the vessel tangentially.
This will spread mud flow onto the vessel wall and the induced centrifugal force will promote gas
separation. The mud gas mixture may contain erosive material such as drilled cuttings, so a
target plate is mounted on the vessel wall to minimise erosion. In order to limit the inlet velocity,
the inlet pipe usually has a minimum ID of 6 in. for a length of at least 10 ft prior to entering the
vessel. The distance from the inlet to the vessel top is usually within 3.5 to 4.5 ft or 1.2 to 1.5
times the vessel diameter. This allows the top part of the vessel to be used as a gas chamber and
the bottom part for gas separation, mud retention, and surges.
Gas Vent Line
The purpose of the gas vent line is to direct the gas flow away from the rig to a safe area. The
vent line exits the vessel at the top and has a minimum-ID of 8 in. The pressure loss along the
vent is minimised in order to maximise the capacity of the vent line and the MGS. The vent line is
routed such that bends, especially sharp bends, and the total length are minimised.
A pressure gauge (usually 0 to 20 psi) is fitted on the vent line near the separator outlet and the
pressure gauge reading is visible from the choke control position. When circulating a gas kick out,
if the separator pressure is approaching the maximum allowable pressure (determined by the
liquid seal in the U-tube) or determined by well conditions, the circulation rate can be reduced or
the well shut-in. If surface pressures prevent the previous options, the returns can be bypassed
around the separator directly to the flare line.
Mud Outlet (U-tube)
The mud U-tube on the mud outlet line provides a liquid hydraulic seal to prevent gas from exiting
the bottom of the separator. The hydrostatic pressure head available in the U-tube will determine
the maximum allowable pressure under which an MGS may operate. In the absence of pressure
gauge data, the liquid in the U-tube is assumed to be a hydrocarbon (0.3 psi/ft) and the maximum
allowable pressure calculated accordingly.
In most cases, the U-tube will have a hydrostatic pressure head of at least 10 ft. On High
Pressure High Temperature (HPHT) wells, a hydrostatic pressure head of 25 ft may be needed.
The U-tube design is configured so the static mud level of 2 to 4 ft in the vessel can be
maintained. The top of the U-tube is usually at the uppermost point of the entire mud outlet pipe.
To prevent the U-tube from being vacuumed by the mud flow downstream, an open-ended
vertical siphon breaker is fitted on top of the U-tube and extended to above the top of the
separator vessel. The mud outlet line is usually designed to handle viscous, contaminated mud
returns and has a minimum ID of 8 in to minimise pressure loss and the risk of blockage.
In pressurized systems, control instruments direct flow through the mud gas separation
equipment. These systems are used to maintain enough pressure and fluid levels to effectively
enhance operation of these units. Pneumatically controlled valves may quickly adjust for varying
flow rates and maintain fluid levels for best separation.
A large, high-pressure gas kick is usually pumped out at a slow rate. This is a crucial time to
carefully monitor and maintain the separator’s fluid seal. If the surface gas release rate is
expected to exceed the separator capacity, the circulation rate is reduced to the minimum
possible. If the fluid seal is still at risk of failing an alternate technique is used to remove the gas
from the well. This may include routing the mud gas flow to bypass the separator directly to the
vent line or the lube and bleed technique may be used. This will help prevent creating a
hazardous environment in a work area. In certain offshore areas, regulatory standards prohibit
bypassing mud returns to the vent line. It is essential, in areas known for kicks of this caliber, that
the MGS be suitably sized for these operations.
Ps Heff x MGrad (psi ) (Equation 5-1)
Where:
Ps = separator pressure (psi)
HEff = effective fluid height (ft)
Mgrad = mud gradient (psi/ft)
Calculate the separator pressure:
Where:
Heff = 10 (ft)
Mgrad = mud gradient (psi/ft)
Ps Heff x MGrad 10 x 0,65 6,5 (psi )
Figure 5.18 shows typical dimensions as a function of vessel ID based upon suggestions in the
MGS model together with a schematic from the MGS model to illustrate inputs for performing
modeling.
7
1. Separator height
Mud Leg
Option No. Vessel ID Vessel Height Inlet Height from Vessel Top Height of Mud in Bottom of Vessel*
Min Min Min
inches feet feet feet
1 30 10 3 2
2 36 12 3.6 2
3 42 14 4.2 2
4 48 16 4.8 2
5 60 16 4.8 2
6 72 16 4.8 2
* For conical bottoms, at least 2 ft above maximum diameter of full cross section
5.6.2 Maintenance
Following the remediation of a well control event, the MGS undergoes an inspection and
additional maintenance. This onsite maintenance is not as extensive as, nor does it replace, a
thorough inspection of the mud gas separator in a shop which includes:
Thickness tests of the vessel.
Examination of welds.
Pressure tests of the vessel.
Subsequent to a well control event, the mud gas separator is examined and maintenance is
performed as follows:
Note: The interior of a mud gas separator may be extremely hazardous due to trapped
hydrocarbon gasses. Before opening the vessel, confirm that the vessel is flushed and
there are no open flames, sparks or static charges that may cause ignition.
(1) Open hatch and inspect baffles for integrity, corrosion, or erosion.
(2) Check float, float valve, and float arm for integrity and freedom of movement.
(3) Check mud leg and associated piping for leaks and erosion.
(4) Check integrity of valves.
(5) Check condition of nozzles.
(6) Check for obvious leaks and unapproved welding on the exterior (or interior).
(7) Check pressure gauges for correct function.
(8) Repair as needed.
Minimum
observed
Surface ram closure
BOP 30 seconds 45 seconds 30 seconds N/A time
Minimum
observed
Subsea ram closure
BOP 60 seconds 60 seconds 45 seconds 45 seconds time
Where:
P = pressure (psia)
V = volume (gal)
T = temperature (°R)
Z = compressibility factor
Since temperature is a constant, it may be ignored except when determining the compressibility
factor. So in this case:
P1 x V1 P2 x V 2 P3 x V 3
(Equation 5-3)
Z1 Z2 Z3
Where:
P1 = pre-charge pressure (psia)
P2 = minimum operating pressure (psia)
P3 = maximum operating pressure (psia)
10 150
V2 8,52 gal
1191
10 150
V3 3,57 gal
2 844
Therefore:
P1 = 1 000 + 15 + (1 500 x 8,6 x 0,052) = 1 686 psi Z1 = 1,01 T1 = 80°F
P2 = 1 200 + 15 + (1 500 x 8,6 x 0,052) = 1 886 psi Z2 = 1,02 T2 = 40°F
P3 = 3 000 + 15 + (1 500 x 8,6 x 0,052) = 3 686 psi Z3 = 1,09 T3 = 40°F
Where:
P1 = pre-charge pressure (psia)
P2 = minimum operating pressure (psia)
P3 = maximum operating pressure (psia)
V1 = bladder internal volume at pre-charge pressure (gal)
V2 = bladder internal volume at P2 (gal)
V3 = bladder internal volume at P3 (gal)
Z1 = compressibility factor for nitrogen at P1
Z2 = compressibility factor for nitrogen at P2
Z3 = compressibility factor for nitrogen at P3
T1 = temperature at P1 (°R) (°F + 460 = °R)
T2 = temperature at P2 (°R)
T3 = temperature at P3 (°R)
Using the gas law or equation 4-73:
P1 x V1 P2 x V 2 P3 x V 3
Z1 Z2 Z3
1 686 x 10 1 886 x V 2 3 686 x V 3
1,01 x 540 1,02 x 500 1,09 x 500
Simplifying:
30,91 = 3,70 x V2 = 6,76 x V3
Solving for V2:
30,91 = 3,70 x V2
30,91
V2 8,35 gal
3,70
Solving for V3:
30,91 = 6,76 x V3
30,91
V3 4,57 gal
6,76
The usable volume per bottle is given by equation 4-74:
Usable Volume per Bottle = V2 – V3 = 8,35 – 4,57 = 3,78 gal/bottle
has ram sizes marked, controls for each BOP stack function, and covers, or interlocks, for crucial
functions. Visual and/or audible warning devices for low accumulator pressure, air pressure or
fluid levels may be included.
5.8 Auxiliary Equipment
As drilling operations become more complex, additional equipment may be useful. This
equipment may improve performance, elevate the level of safety, and allow personnel to
effectively monitor the well.
5.8.1 Pit Volume Measurement
Accurately knowing the volume of mud in the pits, and whether mud is being lost or gained, is
essential. There are numerous systems available to accurately and satisfactorily accomplish this
objective. A calibrated read-out and audio alarm may be installed at the driller’s station and in
every office on location.
Level sensors are provided for each tank and electronically integrated to provide the volume and
gain or loss.
Section 10 discusses Pit Volume Measurement in more detail.
5.8.2 Flowline Measurement
A device is installed in the line of flow from the well which is designed to measure the rate of mud
returns from the well. It may be as basic as a flow paddle which will measure flow as a relative
percentage to as advanced as a coriolis meter that will provide a flow rate of fluids out of the well
and will also provide the density of the fluid passing through the device.
5.8.3 Trip Tank
A trip tank is a small tank that may be isolated from the main system and used to measure mud
volumes during specific operations such as tripping. Trip tanks are used to fill the hole on trips,
measure mud or water into the annulus when circulation has been lost, and monitor the hole
when tripping, logging or other similar type operations.
Blowouts have occurred due to swabbing or not keeping the hole filled while tripping the drill
string out of the hole. To provide more precise fluid measurements, trip tanks were developed to
accurately measure, within ±0.5 barrel. As the drill string is pulled from the hole, the mud level will
drop due to the volume of metal being removed. If mud is not added to the hole as pipe is pulled,
the hydrostatic pressure will be reduced to less than formation pressure. When this happens, a
kick will occur. Swabbing may occur when pipe is pulled too fast, and friction between the pipe
and the mud column causes a reduction in hydrostatic pressure to a value less than formation
pressure.
The trip tank volume is typically measured using a calibrated internal ladder type scale such as
used by service providers in pump truck tanks. The industry typically uses pump type trip tanks.
The pump type system provides for safer and more expedient trip operation. The trip tank is
independent from the surface mud system to prevent volume changes in the surface mud system
from affecting the monitoring process.
To prevent loss of hydrostatic pressure while tripping pipe, the hole is filled on a regular schedule,
or continuously, using a trip tank and monitored to keep track of the fluid volume required. The
metal volume of the pipe being pulled may be calculated, but mud additions to replace hole
seepage losses due to filtration effects can only be predicted by comparison to the mud volumes
pumped to keep the hole properly filled on previous trips. For this reason, a record of mud volume
pumped versus the number of stands pulled is maintained on the rig in a trip book for every trip
made. Tripping operations cease when the trip tank is being filled or emptied to assure the hole is
monitored accurately.
The fact that there is a connection, that may be used as either an inlet or outlet, which may
be used as a choke line immediately below the upper pipe ram means that the possibility of
trapped gas after a well control operation is minimised.
Variable bore rams can be fitted in the pipe ram preventers.
BOP gas may be removed from this stack by taking returns up the lower kill line as the riser is
U-tubed.
The upper annular preventer may be recovered with lower marine riser package for element
replacement.
The lowermost ram is not used for stripping operations.
5-Ram Moored Subsea BOP Stack (Figure 5.22)
The following points are for consideration regarding this stack:
The stack is comprised of five ram preventers and two annular preventers, in line with
applicable BP requirements for high pressure subsea BOP stacks.
A minimum of four connections that can be used as inlets or outlets provided in order to
maximise flexibility of the stack.
For normal kill procedure, the drill string is hung off on the middle pipe rams and the well is
circulated through the lower choke line. Prior to hang-off, the string weight is checked against
the OEM stated hang-off capacity of the ram.
The lower kill line is used as the kill line monitor.
In the event of failure of the middle pipe rams, or the upper choke line upstream of the fail
safes, the well can be shut-in and hung off on the lower pipe rams and returns taken up the
lower kill line.
In the event of failure of the choke line downstream of the fail-safes, the well can be
circulated through the kill line if the pipe is hung off.
The fact that there is a connection, that may be used as either an inlet or outlet, which may
be used as a choke line immediately below the middle pipe ram means that the possibility of
trapped gas after a well control operation is minimised.
Variable bore rams can be fitted in the pipe ram preventers.
BOP gas may be removed from this stack by taking returns up the lower kill line as the riser is
U-tubed.
The upper (primary) annular preventer can be recovered with lower marine riser package for
element replacement.
The lowermost ram is not used for stripping operations.
5-Ram DP Subsea BOP Stack (Figure 5.23)
The following points are considered regarding this stack:
The stack is comprised of five ram preventers and two annular preventers, in line with
applicable BP requirements for high pressure subsea BOP stacks.
A minimum of four connections that can be used as inlets or outlets are provided in order to
maximise flexibility of the stack.
When choosing which pipe ram to use for hang-off, calculations are made to determine that
only pipe body will be across both the blind shear ram and casing shear ram. It is important to
have the ability to shear the pipe quickly and reliably during a well control operation.
The upper pipe ram is the preferred hang-off ram. The lower kill line is used as the kill line
monitor.
In the event of failure of the choke line downstream of the fail-safes, the well can be
circulated through the kill line if the pipe is hung off on either of the pipe rams.
The fact that there is a connection, that may be used as either an inlet or outlet, which may
be used as a choke line immediately below the upper pipe ram means that the possibility of
trapped gas after a well control operation is minimised.
Variable bore rams can be fitted in the pipe ram preventers.
BOP gas may be removed from this stack by taking returns up the lower kill line as the riser is
U-tubed.
The upper annular preventer may be recovered with lower marine riser package for element
replacement.
The lowermost ram is not used for stripping operations.
6-Ram DP Subsea BOP Stack (Figure 5.24)
The following points are for consideration regarding this stack:
The stack is comprised of six ram preventers and two annular preventers, in line with
applicable BP requirements for high pressure subsea BOP stacks.
A minimum of four connections that can be used as inlets or outlets provided in order to
maximise flexibility of the stack.
For normal kill procedure, the drill string is hung off on the middle pipe rams and the well is
circulated through the lower choke line. Prior to hang-off, the string weight is checked against
the OEM stated hang-off capacity of the ram.
The lower kill line is used as the kill line monitor.
In the event of failure of the middle pipe rams, or the upper choke line upstream of the fail
safes, the well can be shut-in and hung off on the lower pipe rams and returns taken up the
lower kill line.
In the event of failure of the choke line downstream of the fail-safes, the well can be
circulated through the kill line if the pipe is hung off.
The fact that there is a connection, that may be used as either an inlet or outlet, which may
be used as a choke line immediately below the middle pipe ram means that the possibility of
trapped gas after a well control operation is minimised.
Variable bore rams can be fitted in the pipe ram preventers.
BOP gas may be removed from this stack by taking returns up the lower kill line as the riser is
U-tubed.
The upper annular preventer can be recovered with lower marine riser package for element
replacement.
The lowermost ram is not used for stripping operations.
Cameron Valves
Cameron produces Tailrod Hydraulic Gate Valves in a variety of sizes from 1-13/16 in up to 6-
3/18 in with working pressures of 2 000 to 5 000 psi. These valves are designed with dampening
for protection against shock loading. For more rugged environments, the MCS gate valve is
another option. The standard size is 3-1/16 in but other sizes are available on request. This valve
has a working pressure of 10 000 to 15 000 psi, and may operate in water depths up to 10 000 ft.
Unions and swivels are used in the BOP stack area to preclude stressing of the lines.
BOP closing and opening lines are routed to minimise the risk of damage in the event of a fire
or falling debris.
A simple hook-up usually cannot be achieved for subsea applications. There are too many
individual lines to be handled easily, and the pressure drop through the length of line would
be too great for satisfactory reaction times. Instead, hose bundles are employed which
contain one large capacity (1 in) conduit (to transfer the hydraulic fluid required to operate all
functions and recharge the subsea accumulators) and up to 64 pilot (3/16 in) lines (to direct
and control the flow of fluid to a particular function). The bulk line is ‘teed’ with the subsea
accumulators and terminates at a regulator which reduces the accumulator pressure to
operating pressure.
The output of the regulator is manifolded to the pilot valves. The pilot lines terminate in
function dedicated pilot (Subbase Plate Mounted [SPM]) valves which respond to
accumulator pressure when a function is selected. Each then allows regulated fluid to flow,
via a shuttle valve, to a particular function. The displaced fluid from the opposite function is
vented at its pilot valve.
The pilot valves and regulators are housed in a pod, which is duplicated to provide
redundancy. In hydraulic systems, shuttle valves located at each function allow control by
either pod.
BOP control systems are duplicated in all hydraulic and electric lines from the main control panel
to the BOP stack functions, i.e., there is 100% redundancy. The driller’s panel and the remote
panel are designed to select and operate either system.
Operating Fluids
For subsea systems where the fluid from the main supply line is dumped when it is vented, the
fluid is chosen and mixed to prevent damage to the subsea environment. Pilot line fluid is in a
closed system and hence is not replaced. When the pods are pulled, the control lines are flushed
with the recommended fluid mixture.
In all cases, the fluid mix is maintained year round so it will not freeze at the minimum anticipated
temperature for the year. Pure ethylene glycol may be added to prevent freezing. Most reservoirs
are self-filling, with an automatic mixing system for additives. Operating fluids are non-pollutant
and bacteria resistant.
Most surface installations employ a simple closed system, with the operating fluid returned to the
reservoir when it is vented. Either light hydraulic oil or a subsea type fluid is typically used as the
control fluid. The accumulator fluid reservoir has a capacity of twice the working liquid volume of
the accumulators.
5.9.5 ROV Intervention Considerations
ROV Workscope
The ROV system may be used to perform numerous tasks. These include, but are not limited to:
Visual inspections of the sea floor, the BOP, the riser and the rig. Other functions are included in
Table 5.5. Also, it may monitor the running of the drill string and conductor casing. The ROV can
be positioned to observe and monitor gas bubbles breaking out of the seabed. The camera can
be panned upwards periodically to check for a gas bubble plume above.
In addition, it may perform the following functions:
It may be necessary for the BOP to shear and seal drillpipe or tubulars. If the drillpipe is to be
sheared it is preferable to be able to hang-off. This will complicate ram arrangement further, in
that, if two tapered size strings are planned to be run through the BOP stack during the course of
the well, the stack is capable of hanging-off, shearing and sealing the wellbore with either drillpipe
size across the stack.
Due to the exposure on DP rigs while running casing, special rams that will shear casing have
been developed.
When planning BOP configuration, consideration is given to whether the casing shear rams will
shear drillpipe (some will not) and whether they will seal after shearing (most will not).
BOP Height
BOP height may create the potential for substructure interference. The number of rams can be a
crucial matter, particularly when working with a system lacking guidelines and the corresponding
need to have some type of funnel or re-entry system for the LMRP. To be able to reconnect with
some heave, a guide funnel or other system that will allow the LMRP to realign is provided.
Clearance is necessary under the substructure for the system to be able to be separated.
Designed stack height and the number of rams in deepwater drilling are also affected by the
potential bending moments placed on the stack and wellhead. This is another factor to be
considered when designing the overall height of a subsea BOP stack.
Placement of Rams and Outlets
Ram location is chosen in order to accommodate the specific situation. It is generally accepted
practice that blind shear rams are at the top of the stack to allow for well control and flexibility in
drillpipe hang-off and drillpipe shearing.
Consideration is given to having an outlet below each sealing ram, and also an outlet below the
upper annular. The placement and limitations of an outlet below the lower ram are evaluated and,
if installed, is primarily used as a pressure monitoring line.
Blind Shear Rams
This level of testing includes shearing high strength pipe in a hang-off scenario. This scenario will
prevent the pipe from falling away from below the blind shear ram.
Consideration is also given to having the sealing blind shear ram manifolded separately from the
rest of the stack functions so that greater pressure (3 000 psi up to 5 000 psi) may be applied
directly to the operator and not the 1 500 psi generally carried in the control manifold. This will
enhance shearing capabilities.
Casing Shear Rams
Casing shear rams generally require very large operators which use large amounts of fluid, and
take a longer time to function and shear than the typical ram type component. This timing is
considered when designing an emergency disconnect sequence. In most cases this component is
intended only to shear the pipe and does not seal the wellbore.
The casing shear may be manifolded separately from the rest of the stack functions so that
greater pressure (3 000 psi up to 5 000 psi) may be applied directly to the operator and not the
1 500 psi generally carried in the control manifold.
Choke and Kill Connectors
Knowing the strength of choke and kill line connectors is a factor in DP operations. These
connectors may have strength greater than that of the riser. This would be of concern in the event
of a failure of the connectors to release in an emergency disconnect.
For example, while drilling in 8 000 ft of water with 15 ppg mud, the BOP body is subjected to a
differential pressure of 2 700 psi. For a BOP rated to 15 000 psi, the maximum test pressure for
these conditions would be 12 300 psi.
5.9.7 Deepwater Control System Considerations
BOP control systems have become complex for deepwater. As rigs move into deeper waters,
response time becomes crucial, and reduces traditional hydraulic control systems to
obsolescence. The following are points to be considered when designing a deepwater BOP
control system.
Closing Times: Hydraulic versus Multiplex
Using a Low Volumetric Expansion (LVE) type umbilical hose and pressure bias system, hose
lengths up to 6 000 ft may stay within the specified closing times.
Reaction time (solenoid firing time) for Multiplex (MUX) systems vary from less than 1 s up to 7 s
with umbilical lengths up to 10 000 ft. Fluid flow times remain as above.
Consideration of Third Pod
Due to timeliness of pod maintenance, a complete spare pod may be kept available. Having a
spare pod allows for rotation of pods on the stack for more complete preventative maintenance of
these complex systems.
ROV Intervention
Major functions to allow operation with loss of MUX control are:
Unlocking of LMRP connector and other functions for retrieval of LMRP.
Unlocking of wellhead connector for stack retrieval.
Close rams in conformance with GP 10-11
Automatic Closure in Event of Failure of Lines (Deadman and Autoshear Systems)
In the event of parting of the riser or unplanned LMRP disconnect, automatic functions are used
to close the shearing rams. The intention is to shut-in the well in to avoid a potential blowout. The
command to operate this function results from loss of both hydraulic and electrical power to both
MUX pods or unplanned disconnect of the LMRP.
Working Pressure for Control Systems
The working pressure for control systems is generally 5 000 psi for water depths greater than
5 000 ft due to the inefficiency of accumulators at this water depth and the nitrogen precharge
pressures used.
Accumulators charged to 5 000 psi differential on the sea floor are vented before retrieving the
BOP stack to the surface.
Pressure on Connectors
Some wellhead and LMRP connectors specify a reduced pressure (500 to 800 psi) after locking
at 1 500 to 3 000 psi. This involves a second regulator circuit in the pod to reduce to holding
pressure after the connector is locked.
Single Point Failures
Single point sources of failure are avoided by providing redundancy such as two pods, dual
uninterruptible surface power supplies, dual subsea electronics in each pod, multiple
communications paths, multiple surface control panels, dual cable reels, and subsea
accumulators to back up riser hydraulic conduit lines.
With a two pod hydraulic system, the first single point of failure would be the shuttle valve on the
BOP stack function.
Pressure and Temperature Gauges
Transducers are available for installation on the BOP stack that may furnish input to the MUX
system for transmittal to the surface.
If sensors are mounted in the LMRP choke and kill lines, temperatures are largely isolated from
the BOP and become unrepresentative unless fluid is moving through the choke and kill line.
Pressure measurements are useful if choke and kill valves are open, especially during well
control situations.
How Bottles are Manifolded
Surface
For surface operations, accumulator bottles are manifolded so that no more than 25% are
isolated for maintenance at the same time.
Backup Systems
The following sections describe the features and operation of several backup systems.
Electro-hydraulic
Direct electric pilot, no logic involved.
Uses dedicated wires in MUX umbilical wired through to the pod solenoid valves.
Shear rams and emergency disconnect sequence.
Requires integrity of MUX umbilical cable, surface wiring and control panel.
Requires integrity of surface and/or stack accumulator supply and hydraulic flow through the
pod.
Combined upper and Combined upper and Each individual barrier in the
lower wellbore tests lower wellbore tests using lower section of the wellbore is
using the BOP and choke a work string and BOP. tested independently using a
and/or kill lines. work string and a service packer.
Lower section of the Upper wellbore test Upper wellbore test grouped and
wellbore grouped into a grouped and tested tested using a work string run to
single test using a work without using a work the USP
string, service packer and string. Therefore, the test
a stinger to the is completed using the
lowermost barrier. BOP and choke and/or
kill lines.
Flow Checks
The way to positively identify a kick is to turn off the pump, wait for the well to stabilize, and if
possible observe the annulus. If the well flows when no liquid is being pumped it is a strong
indication that a kick is in progress. The driller will typically perform a flow check if any of the
warning signs previously discussed occur.
Determination of whether the well is actually flowing because of a kick can be masked by other
factors:
Charging pumps that did not shut down when the rig pumps were turned off.
U-tubing of heavier fluid in the drillpipe versus the annulus. An indication of U-tubing would
be that the rate of flow decreases measurably in a short time.
Certain formations take fluid due to the increased ECD while drilling, as the pumps are
brought up to speed after a connection. When the pumps are shut-off for a connection or a
flow check, the formation gives back “extra” mud which could be interpreted as a kick. This
“ballooning” effect is most pronounced in deep water operations where the formations are not
as structurally competent as they are on land. The interpretation of the overall situation is
complicated and may be challenging. Because of this, ballooning is treated with added
caution.
(3) Pick up Topdrive (or Kelly) to a predetermined height and space out to place the string with
the uppermost tool joint above the rig floor.
(4) Shut-off pumps.
(5) Observe the well for flow.
Increase in Pit Volume
An increase in the volume of mud in the pits is the first absolute indication of an influx and is
sometimes masked by any of several operations. One operation is the mixing of drilling mud and
addition of base fluid to the mud system, resulting in increased volume. Another operation is the
movement of drilling mud throughout the system. The following guidelines are considered:
Keep the active mud system surface volume small in order to ease kick detection. Any
reserve mud stocks in the tanks are to be positively isolated from the active system.
Confirm that the gates on the trough are sealing properly.
Prior to drilling, confirm that pit volume monitoring systems and isolation valves are in proper
working order.
Keep all mud treatments and pit transfers to the minimum at critical sections of the well.
Notify personnel in advance of any changes to the system by following the communications
plan established at the site.
Discuss the challenge of gas kicks, especially if oil-based mud is in use, and emphasize the
importance of early detection during crew safety meetings. Attendance at these meetings is
important for supervisors (e.g. Derrick Man, Driller, WSL, Contractor’s Representative) for
proper communication.
Reduction in Bottomhole Pressure indicated by PWD
When an influx occurs, the reduction in hydrostatic pressure will typically be detected by the
personnel monitoring the PWD data.
6.2.2 Additional Warning Signs of a Kick
(1) Change in pump pressure.
(2) Gas, oil, or water cut mud.
(3) Change in drill string weight.
Change in Pump Pressure
Pump pressure will decrease and pump speed will increase if a large kick is taken during drilling.
This change is the result of lighter fluids being introduced into the annulus. With the lighter fluid in
the annulus and the mud in the drillpipe, the system is out of balance. The greater hydrostatic
pressure in the drillpipe will assist the pump in circulating the system and the surface pressure
will decrease. As the surface pressure decreases, there is less back pressure on the system, and
the pump will speed up.
A washout in the drill string will also cause decrease in pump pressure and increase in pump
speed. When these signs are detected a kick is assumed to have occurred and the well is flow-
checked.
Gas, Oil, and Water Cut Mud
Gas can also enter the mud when drilling through a porous formation containing gas due to
release of the pore volume content, and not from any formation flow due to imbalance. The
amount of drilled gas will be a function of the penetration rate, hole diameter, formation porosity,
and gas saturation in the formation. Drilled gas will reach a maximum value as bottoms up are
circulated. As circulation continues, the drilled gas will decrease.
When the wellbore hydrostatic pressure is equal to, or slightly higher, than the formation
pressure, gas can also enter the mud during connections. Connection gas (CG) is detected at
surface as a distinct increase above background gas (BGG), as bottoms return to the surface.
CG is caused by the reduction in effective total pressure of the mud column during a connection.
This is due to loss of ECD by pump shutdown and/or the swabbing action of the pipe.
Increasing CG trends is an indicator of a condition of near balance. When increased CG trends
are identified and after other pore pressure indicators have been reviewed , consideration is given
to weighting up the mud before drilling ahead and particularly prior to a trip.
Change in Drill String Weight
Extremely high flow rate might actually lower the drillstring weight as indicated by the weight
indicator due to upward friction. Such an event is unlikely and may be a precursor to the pipe
being ejected out of the well.
With lower flow rates, an increase in drill string weight may be noticed at the surface. Kick fluids
will generally be lighter than the drilling fluid, especially if the kick is gas. Displacement of the
drilling fluid by the kick will reduce the buoyancy of the BHA. This will increase the effective
weight of the drill string. A change is likely to be registered as an increase in hook load. An
increase in drill string weight may be noticed after a considerable kick volume has occurred. It is
not a reliable method of detecting a kick.
6.2.3 Slow Circulating Rate (SCR) Pressures
There are many reasons why a kick is displaced from the hole at a rate that is considerably
slower than that used during normal drilling. These include:
To minimise the friction pressure exerted on the open hole due to circulating through small ID
choke lines
To allow weighting of the mud as the kick is displaced.
To provide safe removal of gas from the returned mud utilising the mud gas separator.
To limit the speed of required choke adjustments.
To reduce the pressure exerted on well control equipment.
To allow for more reaction time for personnel.
Consider these factors when deciding at what rate to displace the kick. The absolute upper limit
for the displacement rate may be restricted by the pressure rating of the surface equipment, in
particular the setting of the pump relief valve. Note that it is potentially hazardous to displace a
kick from the hole when the surface pressure is close to the relief valve setting.
In order to estimate the circulating pressures during the displacement of a kick, the friction
pressure in the circulating system at slow rates is needed. SCRs are typically conducted at the
following times:
Once per tour (or at 1 000 ft intervals during the tour).
When the bit is changed.
When the BHA is changed.
When the mud weight or properties are changed.
After pump service or repair.
The range of circulation rates used will be dependent upon many factors, but falling within the
limits of 1/4 and 4 barrels per minute. If a Non-aqueous Fluid (NAF) is in the hole, when back on
bottom after a trip, circulate and condition before measuring SCRs.
Forms similar to the one shown in Figure 6.2 may be used to help assure that each member of
the crew understands their role in the shut-in procedures to be used. These forms are intended
primarily for the Driller, however copies are distributed to other personnel including, the
Toolpusher and the Subsea Engineer and others.
When a standard shut-in procedure is finalized, this procedure is posted on a large notice board
that is positioned prominently on the rig floor and/or doghouse.
6.3.2 Hard Shut-in
Line Up
During regular operations, the typical line-up of BOP stack valves and choke manifold valves are
as follows:
(1) Outer hydraulically-operated valves on the choke line and kill line next to the BOP stack are
to be in the CLOSED position.
(2) The valves on the choke manifold not in line with regular flow routing are CLOSED.
(3) The valves on the choke manifold in line with flow or pressure sensors are to be OPEN.
(4) Remote choke is CLOSED.
(5) Valve immediately upstream of the chokes on the choke manifold is to be kept in the OPEN
position.
(6) MGS valve is OPEN.
(7) MGS overboard valve is CLOSED (if applicable).
Special gauges at the choke control panel (and related transducers) which are used to accurately
measure the drillpipe and annulus pressure over the entire range are connected and properly
functioning.
On a floating rig, the annular BOP is used to initially shut-in the well. On a fixed rig, the pipe rams
may be used to initially shut-in the well, in order to speed up the procedure, if the position of the
tool joint in relation to the pipe ram is known.
6.3.3 Shut-in Procedure
An example of a shut-in procedure is as follows:
Pick-up off bottom, space out and shut off the pump. (Space out means to confirm there is no
tool joint across from the pipe rams. On most land rigs, place a tool joint in the usual
connection position).
Perform flow check if necessary.
If flow is observed or a kick is obvious, shut-in the well by closing the annular or upper pipe
rams.
Open the HCR valve to the choke manifold.
While notifying the supervisors as previously determined in the site communication plan,
record pit volume increase, drillpipe pressure, and annulus pressure.
6.4 During Shut-in Period
6.4.1 General
When a flowing well is shut-in by closing the BOPs, the flow will continue until shut-in pressures
have increased to balance the static reservoir pressure. Surface pressures can take several
hours to stabilize. The reasons for this can be one, or all, of the following:
Figure 6.3 Shut-in Pressure Buildup Curve - Showing the Effect of Influx Migration
Figure 6.4 shows a form that can be used to record the buildup of drillpipe and casing pressures.
This form may also be used to keep a complete record of events during the well control operation.
Surface Pressure
250 psi 3 262 psi 6 304 psi
0 ft
11.7 ppg
mud
5 000 ft Top of
gas at
6 301 psi
9 950 ft
Top of
gas at
10 000 ft 6 301 psi
6 310 psi 9 322 psi 12 364 psi
12,1 ppg 17,9 ppg 23,8 ppg
Bottomhole Pressure
Bottomhole EMW (ppg)
to an erroneous conclusion that the kick is not gas. Treat any kick as if it were gas until
indicated otherwise.
Gas Migration in High-Angle or Horizontal Wells
The conventional method, which determines the influx density and type (gas, water, or oil) based
on pit gain, SIDPP and Shut-in Casing Pressure (SICP), is not applicable in a high-angle or
horizontal well. There is no simple alternative method for field applications. A gas influx can be
recognized by the continuous increase in the casing pressure due to gas migration above the
horizontal hole section.
Gas does not usually migrate if:
The hole angle is 90 degrees or larger.
The gas is dissolved in the non-aqueous fluid.
The gas is trapped as small bubbles in mud by its gel strength.
6.4.4 Control of Influx Migration
There are many reasons a well that has kicked may be left shut-in for extended periods.
Procedures for relieving bottomhole pressure, if migration occurs during this period, will depend
both on the position of the drill string in the hole and whether or not the drillpipe pressure can be
used to monitor bottomhole pressure.
Control of the well using the Volumetric Method is needed. This technique validates that the
bottomhole pressure is maintained slightly above the kick zone pressure at all times. This is
accomplished by bleeding calculated volumes of mud from the annulus to allow for expansion of
the influx as it migrates up the hole.
This control procedure is simplified if the drill string is on bottom and in communication with the
annulus. The bottomhole pressure can be monitored with the drillpipe pressure gauge. Confirm
that the drillpipe pressure stays at a value above the final shut-in pressure (the value recorded
before migration started) by bleeding mud from the annulus.
If the drill string is off bottom, the bit is plugged, or there is a washout in the drill string, the
bottomhole pressure cannot be monitored with the drillpipe pressure gauge. In this event, the
annulus pressure is the only reliable guide to subsurface pressures.
The principle behind the control of the annulus is based upon the following:
An increase in annulus pressure caused by influx migration is relieved by an equivalent reduction
in the hydrostatic pressure of the mud in the annulus.
If the annulus pressure rises by 100 psi, then a volume of mud corresponding to a hydrostatic
pressure in the annulus (at the top of the influx) of 100 psi is bled from the well at constant choke
pressure.
The procedure for implementing the Volumetric Method is covered in detail in Section 8 and has a
module in the GWETK.
6.5 Conventional Pressure Control Procedures
6.5.1 General
This section covers the basic steps for implementing the Driller’s Method and the Wait and
Weight Method, which are standard methods of well control, with surface BOPs. Conventional
well control procedures for subsea installations are covered in Section 9.
Both the Driller’s Method and Wait and Weight Method are standard methods of well control. All
techniques are designed to maintain constant bottomhole pressure equal to or slightly above
formation pressure. Controlling the drillpipe pressure to maintain constant bottomhole pressure is
the method used in the Driller’s Method and the Wait and Weight Method.
In the event of any well control incident, a log of events is kept. The well control operations log
can initially be used for this (refer to Figure 6.4). A full report is eventually issued and submitted to
line management as per established guidelines.
The choice of kick circulation method will be based upon the specific well conditions. Well control
modeling software can be implemented to determine the advantages and limitations of both
common methods. Advantages and limitations for conventional circulation methods are shown
below.
6.5.2 Kick Circulation Methods
The Wait and Weight Method
The advantages of the Wait and Weight Method are:
The annular surface pressure will be less than when using other methods if the kill weight
mud enters the annulus before the influx is circulated out. This difference is most important
for a kick containing gas and for underbalanced kicks.
The pressure exerted on the casing shoe (or the weak point in the open-hole) will be lower
than using other methods if the kill mud starts up the annulus before the top of the influx is
displaced to the shoe (or open-hole weak point).
The well will have higher pressure for a shorter period of time.
The Driller’s Method
Usually the Driller’s Method is considered the first option in place of the Wait and Weight Method.
These circumstances include:
Not enough stock of weighting material and mud chemicals at the rig site.
Present properties or type of mud system will not allow needed density increase.
The rig mud weighting system is not capable of increasing the active mud weight to kill weight
as the kick is displaced.
There is doubt as to the mud weight needed to kill the well.
Impending bad weather dictates that the kick be displaced from the hole quickly.
Increasing surface pressures indicate the influx is rising rapidly in the annulus.
Uncertainty of influx source; e.g., swabbed kick, ballooning, supercharging.
The kick results from swabbing.
There are two complete hole circulations carried out before the well can be killed when using the
Driller’s Method. After a kick is taken and the well shut-in, the kick is displaced from the hole by
the first circulation with the original mud. The mud is weighted up to kill weight, and the second
circulation carried out to kill the well. There are times when more than two circulations are needed
to get all the gas out of the hole and to stabilize and level out the new mud system.
The advantages of the Driller’s Method over the Wait and Weight Method are:
The kick can be displaced from the hole soon after the well is shut-in.
Influx fluids can be displaced from the well, even if mud weighting material is not available.
Avoidance of the need to initiate a volumetric control during the waiting period for gas
migration.
6.5.3 Kill Sheet
The kill sheet is used to assist in recording well and kick data relevant to the remediation. For
reference purposes, the calculations shown in the manual are in psi, ppg, ft, and bbl.
The general well data, drill string-hole annulus contents, circulating times, and the mud pump
data are recorded and available at all times in the kill sheet.
If the decision is made to displace the kick from the hole by using one of the conventional well
control methods, the parameters required for the well control operation are calculated and
recorded in the kill sheet.
6.5.4 Determine the Density of the Kill Weight Mud
Circulation may be initiated with the original weight mud, or with the kill weight mud, depending
on the kill method to be used.
The weight of the mud that would exactly balance the kick zone pressure is calculated from the
SIDPP as follows:
Kill Mud Weight, MW2:
Pdp
MW2 MW1 (Equation 6-1)
TVD x 0,052
Where:
Pdp = stabilized shut-in drillpipe pressure (psi)
MW 1 = original mud weight (ppg)
TVD = true vertical depth of kick zone (ft)
Example:
Calculate Kill Mud Weight, MW 2 (ppg):
Where:
Pdp = 400 psi
MW 1 = 9,8 ppg
TVD = 9 670 ft
Pdp
MW2 MW1
TVD x 0,052
400
MW2 9,8 10,595 ppg (Roundedup to 10,6 ppg)
9 670 x 0,052
The mud is not weighted up beyond the kill weight during the well killing operation.
The mud weight is always rounded up and not rounded down. In the above example, the mud
weight is rounded up to 10,6 ppg since the mud balance can only read to the nearest 0,1 ppg.
After the well has been killed, the mud weight is raised to provide an overbalance (with trip
margin).
6.5.5 Calculate Quantity of Barite Required to Weight Up the Mud
This calculation is needed to determine if enough stocks of barite are available on site. The
amount of barite required to weight up the mud can be calculated from the following formula:
Barite required:
MW2 MW1
W b 1 470 x (Equation 6-2)
35 MW2
Total quantity of barite required (lb) = Wb x Total Active Mud Volume (lb)
Total active mud volume = Drill string Vol + Annulus Vol + Surface Active Vol (bbl)
Example:
Calculate Barite Required, W b (lb/bbl):
Where:
MW 1 = 9,8 ppg
MW 2 = 10,6 ppg
Barite = 1 470 lb/bbl (14,7 sacks/bbl)
100 lbs of barite = 1 sack
MW2 MW1 10,6 9,8
W b 1 470 x (lb / bbl) 1 470 x 48,2 lb / bbl
35 MW2 35 10,6
A limiting factor, particularly in the case of oil mud or NAFs, may be the rate at which viscosity
can be built in the mud. This, and associated challenges of building mud weight, are discussed in
Section 8.
Having established the maximum circulation rate, the actual circulation rate will be determined on
the basis of several factors. These factors are detailed in Slow Circulating Rates (refer to Section
6.2.3). The chosen SCR and the corresponding pumping data are recorded in the kick sheet
(refer to Figure 6.6).
6.6.2 Calculate the Initial Circulating Pressure (ICP)
The ICP of the drillpipe is calculated in order to estimate the circulating pressure that is needed to
maintain constant bottomhole pressure at the start of the circulation.
The ICP recorded after the pump has been brought up to speed is the sum of the Pdp and the
SCR pressure at the chosen rate:
ICP = Pdp + Pscr (Equation 6-4)
Where:
ICP = initial circulating pressure (psi)
Pdp = stabilized shut-in drillpipe pressure (psi)
Volume to be displaced(bbl)
Pumpingtime to reach point of interest (min) (Equation 6-6)
Pump rate (bbl/min)
Volumeto be displaced(bbl)
Total strokes to reach point of interest (stk) (Equation 6-7)
Pump output per stroke (bbl/stk)
6.6.5 Plot Drillpipe Pressure Schedule
To confirm that the drillpipe pressure is adjusted correctly as the kill weight mud is circulated
down the drillpipe, a schedule is made of the needed drillpipe pressure (refer to Figure 6.7).
The ICP is plotted corresponding to zero strokes, and the FCP is plotted corresponding to total
strokes to complete displacement of the drillpipe and BHA. The two points on the graph are
joined up with a straight line to produce the drillpipe pressure schedule.
Once the well has been completely killed, a flow check on the choke line return needs to be
carried out before the BOP is opened.
An overbalance (trip margin) may be added to the mud during a second circulation.
6.7 Implementation of the Driller’s Method
Prior to implementing the Driller’s Method, the relevant sections of the kick sheet are completed
(see the GWETK).
The Driller’s Method is a two complete circulation method. The kick is circulated out of the hole by
the first circulation with the original mud. The second circulation is carried out with the weighted
mud to kill the well.
Prior to the first circulation, the following calculations are needed:
6.7.1 Determine the Circulation Rate
The circulation rate for the first circulation of the Driller’s Method is not limited by the barite mixing
capacity of the rig. Limiting factors will include the additional wellbore pressures due to
circulation, as outlined in Slow Circulating Rates (refer to Section 6.2.3). Record the chosen
circulating rate SCR and the corresponding pumping data in the kick sheet.
6.7.2 Calculate the Initial Circulating Pressure
The ICP at the start of the first circulation is calculated in the same manner as the Wait and
Weight Method, although the drill string displacement volume and time is not important in this
case.
The ICP recorded after the pump has been brought up to speed is the sum of the Pdp and the
SCR pressure at the chosen rate:
ICP = Pdp + Pscr (psi)
Where:
ICP = initial circulating pressure (psi)
Pdp = stabilized shut-in drillpipe pressure (psi)
Pscr = circulating pressure at SCR with MW 1 (psi)
The ICP will be maintained constant throughout the first circulation since the mud weight is not
changed.
6.7.3 Determine the Displacement Times and Corresponding Pump Strokes
These figures are calculated in exactly the same manner as the Wait and Weight Method.
Before circulation is started, the estimated circulating time and the corresponding total pump
strokes to each point are calculated.
Volume to be displaced(bbl)
Pumpingtime to reach point of interest (min) (Equation 6-9)
Pump rate (bbl/min)
Volumeto be displaced(bbl)
Total strokes to reach point of interest (stk) (Equation 6-10)
Pump output per stroke (bbl/stk)
The drillpipe pressure is held constant throughout the first complete circulation at the ICP.
Once the drillpipe has been displaced to kill weight mud, the final drillpipe circulating
pressure is held constant by manipulating the choke.
As kill weight mud is circulated up the annulus, the drillpipe pressure will decrease when
the kill weight mud reaches the surface without choke adjustments. The choke is adjusted
to maintain FCP which will keep bottomhole pressure constant.
When the returned mud is at kill weight, the pump is stopped, the well shut-in then checked
for pressure.
Once the well has been killed, a flow check on the choke line return is carried out before
the BOPs are opened.
An overbalance (trip margin) can be added to the mud during a third circulation, if needed.
6.8 Procedures for High-Angle or Horizontal Wells
6.8.1 Kick Prevention and Detection
All techniques used in vertical wells for avoiding and detecting kicks can be applied to high-angle
or horizontal wells.
The swab and surge pressure is relatively larger in a high-angle or horizontal well. To prevent
swabbed kicks, confirm:
The mud rheology is conditioned prior to tripping out.
The tripping speed is controlled below the maximum allowable speed.
The correct tripping procedures are followed.
The ECD is typically larger when drilling a high-angle well.
This means a greater bottomhole pressure reduction when circulation stops. Flow check the well
prior to making a connection or tripping, to confirm the well is stable without the ECD effect.
6.8.2 Well Shut-in
When a kick occurs in a high-angle or horizontal hole section, the drillpipe pressure (Pdp) will be
close or equal to the casing pressure (Pa) when the well is shut-in. This is because the influx only
causes a negligible hydrostatic pressure reduction in the annulus.
Zero shut-in pressures (Pdp and Pa) do not mean there is no influx. Together with a positive pit
gain, this may indicate the influx is still in the horizontal hole section. This may be caused by
swabbing or incorrect hole fillup on trips.
6.8.3 Implementation of Kick Circulation Methods
The procedures for implementing one of the conventional kick circulation methods are essentially
the same for both the vertical and high-angle or horizontal wells (as covered in the previous
sections). The Wait and Weight method has fewer advantages over the Driller’s Method in a high-
angle or horizontal well. This is because the weighted mud will not reduce the surface and casing
shoe pressures until it has passed the horizontal or high-angle section. By then, the kick may
have entered into the casing.
6.8.4 Drillpipe Pressure Schedule
When pumping the kill mud through the drillpipe in a vertical well, the surface pump pressure is
reduced linearly from the ICP to the FCP, in order to maintain the bottomhole pressure constant.
After the FCP is reached, the pump pressure is kept constant at the FCP until the kill mud returns
to surface. The pressure schedule while pumping the kill mud through the drillpipe can be
obtained by simply joining a straight line between ICP and FCP. This is covered in Plot Drillpipe
Pressure Schedule (refer to Section 6.6.5).
This is not the case in a high-angle or horizontal well because the change in the hydrostatic
pressure due to the kill mud is not linear. When the front of the kill mud is going through a
horizontal section of the drillpipe, the hydrostatic pressure at the hole bottom does not change at
all. In this case, the pump pressure is kept constant (or increased slightly due to friction pressure
increase with kill mud).
The drillpipe pressure schedule may be modified to take into account the effect of hole angle. To
achieve this, the drillpipe pressures are calculated for when the kill mud reaches several critical
depths in the drillpipe. These include, for example., the depths at the kick-off, end-build, and end-
tangent. The calculations can be performed as follows:
(1) Calculate the drillpipe size factor ( ) and the friction constant ().
L1
1 2
(Equation 6-11)
ID1
Where:
1
2
= size factor for Drillpipe Section 1 (ft/in )
L1 = length of drillpipe Section 1 (ft)
ID1 = ID of drillpipe Section 1 (inch)
If there is more than one drillpipe section (tapered string), then the size factor is calculated for
each of the sections. BHA can be treated as part of the drillpipe section.
FCP Pscr
(Equation 6-12)
1 2
Where:
2
= drillpipe friction constant (psi in /ft)
1, 2 =
2
drillpipe size factors for Sections 1 and 2 (ft/in )
FCP = final circulating pressure (psi)
Pscr = slow circulating pressure with original mud MW1 (psi)
(2) Calculate the friction pressure increase when the kill mud reaches each of the critical
depths in the drillpipe (e.g., kick-off, end-build, end-tangent).
If the critical depth is above and/or at the drillpipe section crossover point, then:
MD
friction (Equation 6-13)
ID1 2
Where:
MD = measured depth at the critical depth (ft)
If the critical depth is below the drillpipe section crossover point, then:
( MD L1 )
Pfriction x 1 (Equation 6-14)
ID 2 2
Where:
Pfriction = friction pressure increase due to kill weight mud (psi)
TVD
Pstatic Pdp x 1.0 (Equation 6-15)
TVDh
Where:
Pstatic = static drillpipe pressure (psi)
Pdp = drillpipe pressure before the kill weight mud is circulated (psi)
TVD = vertical depth at the critical depth (ft)
TVDh = vertical depth at the open-hole kick zone (ft)
(4) Calculate the drillpipe pressure when the kill weight mud reaches each of the critical
depths.
Pstand = Pscr + Pfriction + Pstatic (psi) (Equation 6-16)
Where:
Pstand = drillpipe pressure (psi)
Example:
(1) Calculate drillpipe size factors (1 and 2) and the friction constant ().
Where:
L1 = 9 100 ft
ID1 = 4,276 in
FCP = 335 psi
PSCR = 310 psi
L2 = 380 ft
ID2 = 2,875 in
L1 9 100
1 2
498 ft / in2
ID1 4,2762
L2 370
2 2
2
45 ft / in2
ID 2 2,875
(2) Calculate the friction pressure increase when the kill mud reaches each of the critical
depths in the drillpipe (e.g., kick-off, end-build, end-tangent).
Where:
L1 = 9 100 ft
ID1 = 4,276 in
ID2 = 2,875 in
If the critical depth is above/at the drillpipe section crossover point, then:
MD = 9 100 ft
MD 9 100
Pfriction x 2
0,04604 x 23 psi
ID1 4,2762
If the critical depth is below the drillpipe section crossover point, then:
MD = 9 500 ft
( MD L1 )
Pfriction x 1
ID 2 2
( 9 500 9 100 )
Pfriction 0 ,04604 x 498 25 psi
2 ,8752
Where:
Pfriction = friction pressure increase due to kill weight mud (psi)
MD = measured depth at the critical depth (ft)
(3) Calculate the static drillpipe pressure when the kill weight mud reaches each of the critical
depths:
Where:
Pdp = 400 psi
TVD = 9 100 ft
TVDh = 9 670 ft
TVD 9 100
Pstatic Pdp x 1.0 400 x 1.0 23,6 psi
TVDh 9 670
(4) Calculate the drillpipe pressure when the kill weight mud reaches each of the critical
depths.
Pstand = Pscr + ΔPfriction + Pstatic
Pstand = 310 + 25 + 23,6 = 358,6 psi
The results of the above calculations are recorded on the kill sheet (refer to Figure 6.6). These
calculations are carried out if the hole has a maximum angle greater than 30 degrees. Figure 6.6
shows an example of a completed kill sheet for a vertical well.
Figure 6.7 shows the drillpipe pressure schedule for pumping down the kill weight mud. It shows
the drillpipe pressures needed to maintain a constant bottomhole pressure are lower for a high-
angle well (with build-hold profile) than if the well was vertical. If the drillpipe pressure schedule
for a vertical well was used (dotted straight line in Figure 6.7), excessive well pressures would
result, which would increase the risk of fracturing the formation at the casing shoe or open-hole
weak point.
6.8.5 Trapped Gas in Inverted or Horizontal Hole Section
If a kick containing free gas occurs in an inverted hole section (i.e., the hole angle is greater than
90 degrees), then the free gas will be trapped there unless the mud is circulated fast enough to
flush the gas out of the inverted section. Similar scenarios also occur in washouts or undulations
of a horizontal hole section.
A combination of the following is an indication that a kick has occurred in the inverted or
horizontal hole section:
There is an increased mud return flow rate.
There is a positive pit gain.
When the well is shut-in, the drillpipe and casing pressures are the same (under-balanced
kick) or both are zero (swabbed kick).
The casing pressure is stable (no gas migration).
The influx density and type (gas, water, or oil) cannot be determined based on the above data. A
gas kick will be recognized when it reaches a low-angle or vertical hole section, since gas
expansion will cause a continuous increase in the casing pressure. The first attempt to kill the
well needs to be using one of the conventional techniques.
6.8.6 Free Gas Kicks in Inverted (greater than 90 degrees) Hole Section
Planning operations for highly deviated hole sections will typically involve advanced flow
analysis. Such analysis is assisted by advanced computer programming and BP has software
which aids this effort.
Free gas may remain trapped in the horizontal hole unless the annular mud velocity exceeds
roughly 100 ft/min, which is greater than common SCRs used during well killing operations.
Special well killing techniques may have to be considered.
The trapped gas may be flushed out by gradually increasing the SCR to a corresponding
annular velocity of around 100 to 150 ft/min for a short period of time (a typical volume would
be 1/4 of bottom-up). Rate is then reduced to a regular SCR and mud is circulated using a
standard well killing technique (Driller’s or Wait and Weight). Depending on the kick volume
and the length of the hole section, the procedures may need to be repeated in order to
remove the trapped gas completely. Prior to drilling the hole section, the pump pressure at a
SCR corresponding to 100 to 150 ft/min are recorded.
If the above technique fails to remove the trapped gas, consider bullheading the gas back
into the formation. As the trapped gas nears the kicking formation, bullheading is more likely
to succeed in an inverted hole section.
6.9 Blind Drilling Operations
Well control while blind drilling (drilling without returns to the surface, sometimes with a floating
mud cap) is a non-routine operation which requires extensive pre-planning and approval. Some of
the primary indications of a well kick are not available. An increase in flow rate from the well
cannot be observed if no fluid is returning to the surface. Since there is no flow, an increase in pit
volume will not be noticed. An increase in penetration rate and change in pump pressure are the
only two warning signs immediately observable.
6.9.1 Potential Well Control Situations While Blind Drilling
The assumption is that blind drilling will not be employed unless the well is under control before
starting the blind drilling operations. One of the causes of a kick or blowout is lost circulation. With
lost circulation, the fluid level can fall in the wellbore. The reduced hydrostatic pressure could
allow another zone to kick. If lost circulation occurs, the well is observed long enough to confirm
that a kick has not entered the wellbore before starting blind drilling operations.
Even if the well has not kicked after the initial lost circulation, continued drilling without returns to
the surface could lead to a kick. There are two possibilities for a kick. The first is a kick from a
formation deeper than the lost circulation zone. As drilling continues, the formation pressure can
increase. The increased formation pressure combined with the loss of hydrostatic pressure to the
lost circulation zone could lead to a kick from a deeper formation. The second possibility is a kick
from a formation above the lost circulation zone. If the formation pressure continues to decrease
as the well gets deeper, the fluid level can fall even farther in the well. The increased loss of
hydrostatic pressure could lead to a formation above the lost zone kicking.
If a well kicks while blind drilling, conventional well control techniques (such as the Driller’s
Method, the Wait and Weight Method and the volumetric method) will not work. In blind drilling,
lost circulation is already a challenge and conventional well control procedures do not work with
lost circulation. Well control will be much more challenging.
6.9.2 Precautions While Blind Drilling
There are a number of precautions that can be taken while drilling blind in order to mitigate any
potential well control challenges. They are:
When drilling blind, the rig will go through large quantities of drilling fluid. A large enough
supply of drilling fluid to allow circulating for several hours if needed. Typically the drilling fluid
is water since it is challenging to mix mud fast enough to drill with mud.
Redundant pumping capabilities.
The drilling fluid will need to be moved to the rig via a pump. If a well control challenge arises,
pumping fluid into the wellbore may be required. The reliability of the transfer pumps is
therefore crucial.
Hard Shut-in.
Review and prepare for a hard shut-in. If the well begins to flow, shut it in quickly.
Minimise Downtime.
Time required for connections and any other downtime are minimised. While circulating, fluid
will be entering the lost circulation zone. Usually a pressure differential is needed to pump
fluid into the permeability of the formation. In blind drilling, pressure differential may be small,
but any additional pressure in the wellbore may help keep the well under control.
Monitor Returns.
Continue monitoring for return of circulation. The assumption in blind drilling is the lost
circulation zone will not plug easily; otherwise, alternative methods of controlling the lost
circulation would have been used. Lost circulation challenges can change from well to well in
the same field. Even though the assumption is made that the lost circulation zone may be
challenging to control, the cuttings from drilling may plug the lost circulation zone and the well
will start circulating to the surface again. It also may be that another zone has kicked and the
reduction in hydrostatic pressure has caused the well to start flowing to the surface. If
circulation returns, the well is observed closely to determine if a kick has entered the
wellbore.
6.9.3 Indications of a Well Kick While Blind Drilling
All the indications of a well kick are not necessarily observed in a well that is being drilled blind
(no returns to the surface). The indications of a kick are:
Change, usually an increase, in penetration rate. An increase in drilling rate due to drilling
a formation with porosity and permeability may still be an indication of a kick. In some cases,
there may actually be a reduction in penetration rate when the formation changes.
Increase in flow rate. An increase in flow rate will not be observed since there are no returns
to the surface.
Increase in pit volume. Since there are no returns to the surface, an increase in pit volume
will not be observed.
Change in pump pressure. If a formation kicks and the density of the fluid in the annulus
changes, a reduction in drillpipe pressure can still be observed.
Gas, oil, or water cut mud. There will be no gas, oil, or water cut mud to the surface without
returns.
Change in drill string weight. A change in the string weight may be observed. The well may
be flowing to the surface before a decrease in string weight is noticed. If the pressure in the
well is reduced due to the introduction of a lighter fluid, then the weight of the string may
increase. The reduced pressure in the well may cause the well to start flowing first.
Regain circulation. Resumption of circulation is the primary indication of a kick. Flow can
resume for two reasons. First, if the lost circulation zone has been plugged, then flow can
return to the surface. Second, an influx of oil or gas has caused a reduction in hydrostatic
pressure and the fluid flows to the surface rather than to the lost circulation zone. A
resumption of flow to the surface is a matter to be taken very seriously.
Monitoring the well continuously for flow to the surface using both a flow sensor and PVT
equipment is essential. If flow is observed, stop drilling, space out, and shut off the pump If the
well is still flowing, immediately shut the well in using the hard shut-in method. Record the shut-in
pressures. The situation will have to be evaluated to determine the best option for well control.
If the kick zone is above the lost circulation zone, the classic response is to fix the lost circulation
zone or bridge the annulus first and then try to kill the kick zone. It is likely not achievable to get
enough hydrostatic pressure to kill the well without losing the fluid to the lost circulation zone.
If the lost circulation zone is above the kick zone, the kick zone is killed first with heavy mud
between the kick zone and the lost circulation zone. The pressure in the loss zone plus the
hydrostatic pressure from the loss zone to the kick zone must be equal to or greater than the
pressure in the kick zone. Determining the pressure in the kick zone will be challenging and will
probably need to be estimated.
6.9.4 Well Kick While Tripping During Blind Drilling Operations
During blind drilling operations there are no returns at surface for well monitoring purposes. This
is true for tripping operations as the standard trip monitoring practices will not be possible. To
compensate for this, the well is filled with a greater volume of fluid than the steel displacement
removed. The purpose of this is to maintain the annulus fluid height and reduce the risk of losing
the hydrostatic column. Unlike in a conventional trip situation, the hole needs to be filled
continuously rather than having the option of filling the hole each 5 stands of drillpipe or 75 psi of
hydrostatic reduction (whichever occurs first).
If returns are noticed at surface this is an indicator of a kick. The well is shut-in using the hard
shut-in procedures while tripping. If the surface pressures allow, the drillpipe is stripped back to
bottom. In cases where surface pressures exceed values considered safe for stripping, kill mud is
pumped down the kill line to reduce the casing pressure and allow stripping.
MW x L x Cp
Vsl (Equation 7-1)
(MWsl MW)
Where:
Vsl = volume of slug (bbl)
L = length of dry pipe (ft)
Cp = internal capacity of the pipe (bbl/ft)
MW sl = slug weight (ppg)
MW = mud weight in the hole (ppg)
Example:
Calculate the volume of slug with the following data:
Where:
L = 500 (ft)
Cp = 0,05156 (bbl/ft)
MW sl = 12,0 (ppg)
MW = 9,8 (ppg)
MW x L x Cp 9,8 x 500 x 0,05156
Vsl 115 bbl
(MWsl MW) 12,0 9,8
calculated with actual hole fill volumes. The cumulative discrepancy between the two values is
also recorded. The Trip Sheet for the last trip out of the hole is referenced for comparison.
7.2.2 Trip Preparations
Prior to beginning the trip, checks are made to determine that the tripping equipment is available
and configured for the trip. From a well control perspective, this includes an full open safety valve
(FOSV) and a safety valve (e.g., Install an Inside BOP (IBOP). These two valves are equipped
with crossovers of the correct I.D. and strength to enable installation to any tubular connection in
the string (e.g. drill collars). The safety valve is typically used in the event that the full opening
drillpipe valve does not hold pressure or if stripping in the hole is likely and a dart sub was not run
in the string.
Well control drills are conducted to increase rig crew competency when responding to a kick.
Tripping-specific, well control drills can be performed to simulate a kick while tripping and provide
the rig crew with training and experience concerning shutting-in a kick that is taken during a trip.
Refer to Section 8.3.1 of this manual for guidelines for conducting a Well Control Tripping Drill.
7.3 Kick Detection while Tripping
Note: Refer to Section 10, ‘Fingerprinting and Well Monitoring’
7.3.1 Causes of a Kick while Tripping
The trip is monitored on a Trip Sheet to determine that the well condition remains stable. If the
calculated quantity of mud is not being used to fill the hole as the pipe is being pulled, the trip is
stopped in order to determine the reason and appropriate action going forward.
As outlined in Section 6, kick detection is the most critical aspect in well control. A small kick is
easier to control than a large kick. A kick while tripping is caused by one of the following:
Failure to keep the hole full.
Swabbing and/or surging.
The focus for kick detection centers on these two causes.
7.3.2 Indications of a Kick while Tripping
If the trip procedures are followed, an influx will be readily detected. As the drill string is pulled
from the hole, the Trip Sheet is completed and the actual volumes are compared to the
theoretical volumes. It is not unusual for the actual volume of mud (to fill the hole) to vary from the
theoretical volume. Generally, the actual volume to fill the well will be greater than the theoretical
volume. In addition to comparing these volumes, it is helpful to compare trends noted from
previous trips into or out of the same hole section. (See Figure 7.2 BP Trip Sheet - Example of a
Completed Sheet)
With these considerations, the first indication of a kick will be an anomaly in the Trip Sheet such
as:
A discrepancy in the volume of mud used to fill the hole as the drill string is removed.
A discrepancy in the volume of mud displaced as the drillstring is run into the hole.
Well flowing without moving pipe or pumping.
Effective stripping involves accurate volume control and pressure management. The choke
manifold is hard-lined to a calibrated stripping tank or to the trip tank for accurate measurement of
the mud bled from the annulus.
Prior to beginning the trip, with the bit on bottom, the mud density provided a hydrostatic
overbalance adequate to control the well. Therefore, if a kick is present, it was swabbed in. An
increase in mud density may not be needed to kill the well. For the case of a swabbed kick, the
Driller’s Method is the preferred kill method.
Volumetric Stripping Procedure
After the well is shut-in, the following procedure can be used as a guideline for the
implementation of the annular volumetric stripping.
Shut-in pressures and volumes are recorded to establish the location of the influx and estimate
the type of influx. A stripping sheet can then be completed.
(1) IBOP on top of the full opening safety valve and then open the FOSV.
(2) Rig up and monitor surface pressures.
The annulus surface pressure is monitored after the well has been shut-in to check for
influx migration. If the influx is migrating, volumetric control is implemented while preparing
to strip, or while stripping. If a drillpipe float valve is installed, it can be bumped open in
order to obtain the drillpipe pressure.
(3) Determine the capacity + displacement of the drillpipe.
Bleed mud from the well to compensate for the volume of pipe introduced into the hole.
This volume is equal to the sum of the capacity and the displacement of the pipe. There are
tables which outline these quantities, but a close estimate can be made from the following
equation for triple stands:
Displacement per stand:
do 2 x L
Disp std (Equation 7-2)
1 029,4
Where:
do = outside diameter of the pipe (in)
L = Length of stand (ft)
Dispstd = Displacement per stand (bbl/std)
(4) Perform calculations, as below, and complete the stripping worksheet.
Calculate hydrostatic pressure per bbl of mud:
53,5 x MW
Phe 2 2
(Equation 7-3)
dhc do
Where:
Phe = hydrostatic pressure equivalent (psi/bbl)
MW = mud weight in the hole (ppg)
dhc = hole/casing ID (in)
do = drill string Outside Diameter (OD) (in)
1 1
PSurf (Max Inc ) 53,5 x (MW Gi ) x V x 2
(Equation 7-6)
(dhc do ) dhc
2 2
Where:
PSurf (Max-Inc) = maximum surface pressure increase (psi)
MW = mud weight in the hole (ppg)
Gi = influx gradient, converted to (ppg)
V = volume of influx (bbl)
dhc = hole/casing ID (in)
do = BHA OD (in)
Note: Many BHAs have minimum drill collars in use and rely on heavy weight drillpipe. If this is
the case, the relevant geometry is used in the analysis.
Example:
Calculate hydrostatic pressure per barrel of mud, hydrostatic pressure equivalent:
Where:
Phe = hydrostatic pressure equivalent (psi/bbl)
MW = 9,8 (ppg)
dhc = 8,5 (in)
do = 5,0 (in)
53,5 x MW 53,5 x (9,8)
Phe 11,10 psi / bbl
2
dhc d o
2
(8,5) 2 (5) 2
1 1
PSurf (Max Inc ) 53,5 x (MW Gi ) x V x 2
(dhc do ) dhc
2 2
1 1
PSurf (Max Inc ) 53,5 x (9,8 1,60) x 20 x
(8,5 6,250 ) 8,5 2
2 2
The running speed is reduced when a tool joint passes through the annular.
(9) Monitor surface pressures and volumes, noting the significance of changes:
The surface pressure will remain constant, until the bit reaches the influx, as the pipe is
stripped into the hole and an equivalent mud volume is bled to account for the steel added,
if no migration is occurring. As the drill string enters the influx, the length of the influx will
increase, effectively replacing mud hydrostatic pressure with influx hydrostatic pressure.
The surface pressure will increase to the amount determined in Step 4.
Any other increase in surface pressure during the stripping operation could be due to influx
migration. Influx migration is not a concern provided the pressure on the annulus does not
equal or exceed the maximum allowable annulus pressure. If the increase in annulus
pressure does become a concern, it can be reduced by bleeding mud from the annulus in
accordance with the calculations in Step 4. The minimum allowable annulus pressure to
keep the bottom-hole pressure constant is increased by the amount calculated in Step 4 for
each barrel bled.
For example, assume the initial shut-in pressure was 200 psi and the hydrostatic pressure
equivalent was calculated to be 20 psi/barrel. Then, for each barrel of mud bled from the
annulus, the minimum shut-in annulus pressure would have to be increased by 20 psi in
order to keep the bottom-hole pressure at or above the original shut-in value. If one barrel
is bled, the minimum annulus pressure would be e.g., 220 psi; two barrels, 240 psi; three
barrels, 260 psi.
(10) Strip to bottom.
The procedure is continued until the bit is as near to bottom as possible, while spacing out
the drillpipe to keep the uppermost tool joint as close to the rotary as permissible and
allowing the ram preventers to close on pipe tube.
(11) Kill the well.
With the bit near bottom, kill the well using the Driller’s Method. Prior to beginning to
circulate, check for trapped pressure on the drillpipe. Since the pre-trip mud weight
provided the correct overbalance, and the pipe is being stripped in, the drillpipe pressure is
zero once the drillpipe is returned to bottom. If drillpipe pressure exists once on bottom,
residual drillpipe pressure has been trapped.
The trapped pressure is slowly bled through the choke to the trip tank. Since there is a back
pressure valve in the drill string, this valve is typically bumped open to check the drillpipe
pressure. When the float valve is bumped open with the pump, the increase in pressure on
the drillpipe and annulus is the same. Allow time for the drillpipe pressure to react. Once
trapped pressure is bled from the well, the Driller’s Method of well control can be performed
to circulate the influx from the well. This method is performed as follows:
(a) Bring the pump up to speed, keeping the casing pressure constant.
(b) Read and record the drillpipe pressure.
(c) Circulate the influx out of the well, keeping the drillpipe pressure constant.
The maximum allowable shut-in pressure is determined based on the fracture gradient at the casing
shoe or open hole weak point, and the casing burst or BOPE rated working pressure when the influx is
inside the casing.
Consider the following example:
HOLE DEPTH 12 323 ft HOLE DIA 8,50 in = 0,0702 bbl/ft = 9,3 psi/bbl
BIT DEPTH 12 323 ft DC OD 6,50 in = 0,0292 bbl/ft = 22,3 psi/bbl
CSG SHOE 8 081 ft DP OD 5,00 in = 0,0459 bbl/ft = 14,1 psi/bbl
DC Length 984 ft DC annulus Vol 28.68 bbl Ave Std Length = 93 ft
SIDPP 100 psi Influx size 28 bbl Mud Grad 12,5 ppg
SICP 100 psi Influx Grad 2,3 ppg C/E DP Disp 0,0243 bbl/ft
C/E DP Disp 2,25 bbl/std
Kill Well
1. Bring pumps to speed keeping choke pressure constant at 398 psi.
2. Read and record drillpipe pressure.
3. Circulate gas out of well, keeping drillpipe pressure constant.
GAS GAS
INFLUX GAS INFLUX
MUD
MUD MUD
Figure 7.4 The Effect of the Pipe or BHA Entering the Influx
FROM
CHOKE
MANIFOLD MUD GAS
Abbreviated Choke SEPARATOR
Manifold Shown –
Manual Choke
Operation May be
Preferred
MANUAL
CHOKE
TRIP
TANK
ACCURATE
P PRESSURE
GAUGE
PREFERRED STRIP
OPTION TANK
KILL
LINE
Surge pressures while running casing breakdown formation, leading to losses and inducing a
kick.
Additional challenges may be encountered when casing is used as a response to a well
control issue, such as after drilling with a floating mudcap or after controlling an underground
blowout.
Items to consider when deciding whether to install casing rams include the following:
(1) Absence of porous and permeable hydrocarbon intervals on the log and minimum levels of
drill gas as in the case of an intermediate casing interval.
(2) Large mud overbalance compared to the estimated formation pore pressure (e.g., 12,9 ppg
mud weight in an interval estimated to have a pore pressure of 11,3 ppg). This would lead
to a reduced MAWHP (perhaps less than 1 000 psi) which would be more favourable for an
annular preventer in terms of reducing wear on the element and improving the element’s
sealing capability.
(3) Greater pore pressures than expected, and elevated gas levels while drilling.
(4) Wildcat wells or development wells with a field history of well control while running casing,
or with pressure depletion, which may increase the chance of lost returns.
8 Special Considerations
8.1 Volumetric Technique
The Volumetric Technique may be used to control the expansion of an influx that is migrating
during shut-in periods. It may be used if measureable migration is occurring. This occurs in the
case of gas kicks.
This technique may be used during shut-in periods as a means of allowing an influx to migrate in
a well prior to displacement, or in circumstances which prevent the implementation of
conventional well control techniques.
Situations in which the Volumetric Technique may be applicable include:
(3) During any shut-in period after the well has kicked.
(4) If the pumps are inoperable.
(5) If there is a washout in the drillstring that prevents displacement of the kick.
(6) If the pipe is a considerable distance off bottom, out of the hole, stuck or parted.
(7) If the bit is plugged.
(8) If the pipe has been dropped.
(9) There are four techniques used to deal with an influx that is migrating up the hole. These are
as follows:
(10) Static Volumetric Control (with drillstring on bottom): This is used when the drillpipe is on or
near the bottom, and may be used to measure bottomhole pressure.
(11) Static Volumetric Control (with drillstring off bottom or out of hole): This is used when the
drillpipe may not be used to measure bottomhole pressure.
(12) Lubrication: This is used when the influx has migrated to the stack. It is used to replace the
influx with mud as the influx is bled at the choke.
(13) Dynamic Volumetric Control: This technique may be used as an alternative to the above, but
is most applicable as an alternative to lubrication on a floating rig.
8.1.1 Static Volumetric Control Technique (Drillpipe Pressure used to Monitor Bottomhole Pressure)
This procedure is easier to implement if the drillpipe pressure is available to monitor bottomhole
pressure.
This procedure may be implemented any time the well is shut-in after a kick has occurred. This
situation may arise while preparations are being made to kill a well, or when operations are
suspended due to bad weather or equipment failure. The following guidelines may be used:
(1) Record the Shut-in Drillpipe and Annulus Pressures.
After the well has been shut-in, the surface pressures may be used to identify the influx
type. These calculations are covered elsewhere in this section. A large gas influx may
migrate faster than a small one in WBM. Heavy mud may increase migration rate but may
become easily flocculated, which can slow migration. OBM tends to slow or even prevent
migration at high temperature and pressure, as gas may go into solution. Slow migration in
OBM due to diffusion may occur. Migration creates increased surface pressure. Use the
calculations in this section or GWETK, to calculate the volume of mud to bleed in order to
let the gas bubble expand. This will reduce the internal pressure of the gas bubble while
maintaining bottomhole pressure and preventing a secondary influx from occurring.
D x 60 326 x 60
MR 435 ft / hr
T 45
(4) Allow Drillpipe Pressure to Build by Operating Margin.
The drillpipe pressure is allowed to build by the overbalance margin.
This margin will be registered on the drillpipe as an increase in pressure over and above
the final shut-in pressure. The overbalance margin may typically be in the range of 100 to
200 psi. Record this as the shut-in drillpipe pressure. The objective is to keep this pressure
constant as the influx migrates.
(5) Bleed Increment of Mud from the Annulus to Reduce Drillpipe Pressure.
After the drillpipe pressure has increased by the sum of the overbalance margin and the
operating margin, the kick zone will be overbalanced by the sum of these two values. The
drillpipe pressure will increase when the influx migrates. As the drillpipe pressure
increases, bleed the annulus until the drillpipe pressure is at same level as the recorded
shut-in drillpipe pressure (determined in the previous step). A manual choke may provide
improved bleeding control for the operation. Small volumes of mud are bled off to allow
time for the drillpipe pressure to respond. There will be a considerable time-delay between
changes in choke and drillpipe pressures in a deep well, especially if the influx contains
gas.
It is crucial that only mud is bled from the well, but no gas at this phase of the operation.
Once gas reaches the surface, and no further increase is observed from a secondary
influx, stop bleeding and leave the well shut in. If possible, conventional circulation
methods are used to remove the influx, or implement the lubrication and bleed method.
Note: Gas needs to be replaced with mud to maintain hydrostatic pressure and prevent any
further influx.
(6) Continue the Process until Influx Migrates to the Stack.
This process is repeated until the influx migrates to the stack. Arrival of the influx at the
stack may be preceded by bleeding gas-cut mud from the well. If gas is observed at the
choke, the well is shut-in and mud is lubricated into the well. When the influx has migrated
to the stack, surface pressures will no longer rise since the migration has ended. This may
not be the case on a floating rig when some migration may occur up the chokeline.
The Volumetric Control Worksheet may be used to record all the data (refer to Figure 8.1).
(7) Lubricate mud into the hole, or implement the Dynamic Volumetric Control Method.
8.1.2 Static Volumetric Control Technique (Choke Pressure used to Monitor Bottomhole Pressure)
The second of the four methods (Static Volumetric Control using choke pressure) mentioned
above, is used if the drill string is stuck off bottom, out of the hole, unable to be stripped back to
the bottom, or if the bit is plugged. In these cases, the bottomhole pressure cannot be monitored
with the drillpipe during the process. The choke pressure is used in conjunction with the volume
of mud, bled from the well, to calculate the bottomhole pressure. The principle of this procedure is
that bottomhole pressure is maintained slightly over kick zone pressure by bleeding mud from the
annulus to allow the influx to expand as it migrates up the hole. Mud is bled in increments from
the well as the choke pressure rises due to migration.
The amount of mud bled off for each increment is determined from the increase in choke
pressure. The pressure behaviour, of the influx, will be influenced by the geometry. A pressure
increase will be noted as the influx is elongated when it reaches the BHA. The increase is not due
to migration as much as the change in geometry. The pressure increase is not bled off since this
would result in an underbalanced condition, allowing a secondary influx.
Similarly, as the influx migrates into a larger annulus, the pressure would decline or not increase
as rapidly. Bleeding off, as shown by the pressure schedule, may result in additional
underbalance in this case. Knowing the location of the bubble in the well helps to prevent the
creation of an underbalanced condition, or breakdown in the open hole. If the location of the
bubble is unknown, a worst case scenario is assumed, and the correct action is taken. If it is
known that the bubble is initially beneath the bit, and will migrate around the BHA, the pressure
will be permitted to increase due to the change in geometry. That value will be held as the
minimum.
If the choke pressure increases by 100 psi, a volume of mud equivalent to a hydrostatic pressure
in the annulus of 100 psi is bled at the choke. In this manner, control over the bottomhole
pressure is achieved. The surface pressure increases when the influx is migrating. If the influx is
not migrating, the surface pressure will not increase and there is no reason to bleed mud from the
annulus. The annulus pressure is not reduced to a value less than the original shut-in
annulus pressure, plus a safety factor and the additional increase needed to offset the lost
hydrostatic pressure. The rate of influx migration determines the time required to bleed each
increment of mud from the well.
Example: Calculate the hydrostatic pressure gradient with the following properties:
Assumed initial shut-in pressure = 100 psi
Operating margin = 150 psi
Annulus = 8-1/2 in x 5 in
Mud weight = 15,4 ppg
Hydrostatic pressure equivalent of mud:
53,5(MW)
Hyd.Grad
(D2 2 D12 )
(Equation 8-3)
53,5(MW) 53,5(15,4)
Hyd.Grad 17,4 psi / bbl
(D2 2
D12 ) (8,52 52)
When the surface pressure increases to 250 psi, the influx has risen past a corresponding
amount of mud.
Calculate the mud volume:
P2 P1
Vmud
Hyd Grad (Equation 8-4)
P2 P1 250 100
Vmud 8,6 bbl
Hyd Grad 17,4
Calculate the distance migrated:
P2 P1 250 100
D 187 ft
MW x 0,052 15,4 x 0,052
Beginning from this calculated point, the pressure equivalent of one barrel is added to the
pressure for every barrel of mud bled from the annulus.
In this case, assume the surface pressure will be permitted to increase to 500 psi. The bubble
has risen another 250 psi in equivalent hydrostatic pressure, or 312 ft., for a total of 499 ft. Now
for every barrel of mud bled, the minimum permissible shut-in pressure is increased 17,4 psi.
Bleed one barrel, but do not go below 267,5 psi (whichever occurs first). Then, bleed a second
barrel, but do not go below 285 psi = ([2 x 17,44] + 250). Then, bleed a third barrel, but do not go
below 302,5 psi = ([3 x 17,44] + 250). Once the desired pressure is attained, the well will be shut-
in, and the influx permitted to continue migration until the surface pressure reaches a new
accepted surface pressure – perhaps 600 psi. At that point, mud would again be bled from the
well, the influx permitted to expand, and a new minimum permissible surface pressure is
established.
This procedure would be continued until gas reaches the surface. The volumetric technique is
stopped, and the well remains shut-in once gas reaches the surface. The well could remain in this
configuration until the well can be circulated, or the influx lubricated from the hole.
8.1.3 Lubrication Technique (Lube and Bleed)
This technique is also referred to as Lube and Bleed. It is only applicable when the influx is
predominantly gas and is at the surface. It is generally used to vent the influx from below the
stack, while maintaining constant bottomhole pressure. Lubrication is most suited for fixed
offshore and land rigs. It may be used to vent gas from the stack after implementing the Static
Volumetric Method and to reduce surface pressures prior to an operation such as stripping,
snubbing or bullheading.
Ideally, this procedure involves an influx of dry gas into a water based mud system. If the influx
contains liquids, the ability to reduce the surface pressure to zero is diminished. If the influx is
virtually all liquid, the procedure is not applicable. If the mud system being used is oil based, a
gas influx will likely remain in solution and the ability of the influx to separate and migrate is
greatly diminished. Any combination of these will adversely impact the chances for success.
The fact that this procedure is one of the most used, yet least understood, accounts for its
numerous failures. The most often used procedure involves liquid being pumped into the well,
while an equivalent gas pressure is bled from the well, e.g.500 psi in mud hydrostatic pressure is
pumped into the well, and the gas pressure is reduced by 500 psi. In most cases, the remaining
gas column is less dense than the previous gas column, primarily because the pressure in the
gas column has been reduced. The well becomes under-balanced and an additional volume of
gas enters the wellbore, resulting in an endless cycle.
Another reason for frequent failure is not dedicating ample time to assure that gas has fully
migrated. Often, the mud is pumped into the well and then bled off with the gas. This procedure is
successful only when dry gas is bled from the well.
A final reason for the procedure not working is a lack of basic data. If this procedure is to be
applied successfully the reservoir pressure and the fracture gradient at the casing shoe need to
be known. The following guidelines may be used to lubricate mud into a well:
(1) Calculate the Hydrostatic pressure per Barrel of the Lubricating Mud.
This is done in the same manner as for the Volumetric Method. The best chance of
success occurs when the mud used to lubricate the gas out of the hole is substantially
heavier than the mud needed to balance the bottomhole pressure.
(2) Slowly Pump a Measured Quantity of Mud into the Hole.
After determining the safe upper limit for the surface pressure, the pump is started slowly
on the hole. Mud is lubricated into the well until pump pressure reaches a predetermined
limit. At this point, the pump is stopped and the well is shut-in. These calculations are
detailed in Section 4 of this document, Fundamental Well Equations.
(3) Leave Well Static.
The well is left static for a period while the gas migrates through the mud that has been
lubricated into the well. The surface pressure will rise as the gas migrates through the mud.
The surface pressure will stabilize when the gas accumulates at the surface.
(4) Bleed Gas from the Well.
Gas is bled from the well to reduce the surface pressure by an amount determined by the
calculations (presented previously). The surface pressure cannot be reduced by the
equivalent of the hydrostatic pressure of the mud lubricated into the well, since the
remaining gas will be at a lower pressure and density. If the surface pressure is reduced by
the equivalent of the hydrostatic pressure of the mud lubricated, the well will become
underbalanced and more gas will enter the wellbore.
Bleed surface gas from the well. If mud appears at the choke, before the surface pressure
has been reduced to the calculated value, shut the well in and allow the gas to migrate
through the mud.
(5) Repeat until all Influx has been vented.
This procedure is repeated until all the gas has been vented from the well. Reduce the
volume of mud lubricated into the well at each stage during this procedure. This is due to
the reduction in volume of gas in the well. If the influx was swabbed into the well, and the
mud weight is enough to balance formation pressures, the choke pressure will eventually
reduce to zero.
8.1.4 Dynamic Volumetric Method
This technique may be used as an alternative to the Static Volumetric Method. It is used as a
method of safely venting an influx, from below a subsea stack, due to both the complexity of the
operation, and the level of stress imposed on well control equipment during circulation.
For more detailed information, please see Section 9.11, Dynamic Volume Control.
8.2 Annulus Pressure Profiles
This section covers the variations in surface and subsurface pressures during these methods,
and explains the factors that affect the magnitude of these pressures.
When a kick is taken with the pipe on bottom, the well can be killed using either the Wait and
Weight Method or the Driller’s Method. The choice of kick circulation method will be based upon
the specific well conditions. Advantages and limitations of both common methods may be
evaluated, and the use of well control modelling software may be implemented to aid in this
choice. Both methods, when correctly employed, will maintain the bottomhole pressure equal to,
or slightly greater than, the kick zone pressure.
In order to fully understand the implementation of these methods, it is crucial to understand the
surface and down-hole pressures caused by displacing a kick from the hole using the Driller’s
Method, and/or the Wait and Weight Method.
All the pressure plots shown in this section are developed by computer program. The pressures
are determined by simulating the displacement of a gas kick from a well with the model of a
discrete bubble of gas. The actual pressures seen when a kick is taken may be different from
those predicted by the program. The plots demonstrate the influence of the major factors that
affect the wellbore pressures during circulation.
The pressure plots contained in this section are generated on the basis of maintaining a constant
bottomhole pressure equal to the kick zone pressure.
8.2.1 Displacing a Kick from the Hole
Driller’s Method
The Driller’s Method is designed to kill the well in two circulations. The original mud weight is
used to displace the kick from the hole, and then the kill weight mud is pumped during the second
circulation.
During the first circulation, the drillpipe circulating pressure is held constant at a value equal to
the shut-in drillpipe pressure, plus the circulating pressure loss in the system at the slow
circulating rate.
During the second circulation, the drillpipe circulating pressure is adjusted for the increased
circulating pressure due to the heavy mud, as well as, for the reduction in underbalance as the
drillpipe is displaced. This is accomplished by holding the casing pressure constant, while
displacing the kill weight mud to the bit, provided that nothing other than the drillpipe pressure is
changing (i.e., choke size, casing pressure, and pit level remain constant). Once the drillpipe has
been displaced by kill weight mud, the drillpipe pressure is held constant as the kill mud is
circulated to the surface. Indications of a pressure anomaly between the casing pressure and drill
pipe pressure may suggest a secondary influx has entered the annulus If it is suspected that a
secondary influx has been let in the annulus during the first circulation, continue to circulate until
the influx has been removed from the annulus. It is not uncommon to shut the well in after the first
circulation to build or to continue to build kill weight mud. Once the first circulation has been
completed and there is no indication of a secondary influx, hold the casing pressure constant and
slowly bring the pump off line while maintaining a constant casing pressure plus a safety factor
until the choke can be closed. It is essential to control the casing pressure which will maintain
bottom hole pressure while shutting down after the first circulation. If a secondary influx has
occurred and the casing pressure is held constant during the second circulation until KWM has
entered the annulus the well will be underbalanced. If it is suspected that a secondary influx
occurred or the casing pressure starts to rise after shut in, then calculate and use a Wait and
Weight drillpipe decline schedule for the second circulation. When coming on line for the second
circulation hold the casing pressure constant until the pump is up and stable at SCR then
maintain the drillpipe decline schedule until KWM is circulated up the annulus and back to
surface.
The pressure at each point in the annulus will vary as the kick is displaced from the hole. Once
the well has been shut-in, the major factors that determine the pressure at any point in the
annulus, during displacement of the kick, are the height of the influx in the annulus, and the
relative position of the influx in the annulus.
Figure 8.2 shows the choke and drillpipe pressures during the displacement of a kick (using the
Driller’s Method) for a surface BOP. Point A represents the shut-in casing pressure. From Point A
to Point B, the casing pressure drops as the influx is displaced past the BHA. This drop is caused
by a reduction in the height of the influx, as the influx is displaced past the BHA to the smaller OD
drillpipe. The choke operator will open the choke to maintain the needed drillpipe pressure.
From Point B to Point D, the influx is expanding as it is circulated up the hole, and the choke
pressure, used to balance the kick zone pressure, is increasing. The choke operator will close the
choke to maintain the correct drillpipe pressure.
At Point C, the gas is opposite the casing shoe.
At Point D, the gas arrives at the choke. The choke operator will have to close the choke to make
sure the choke pressure does not drop rapidly as the low-density gas passes across the choke.
From Point D to Point E, the gas is passing the choke. The choke operator will open the choke to
reduce the choke pressure to maintain the correct drillpipe pressure. The choke pressure,
necessary to balance the kick zone pressure, reduces as the gas passes the choke because the
column of gas in the annulus is continually decreasing in height.
At Point E, the gas has been displaced from the well, and the choke pressure will stabilize at a
value equal to the underbalance of the mud.
Figure 8.3 shows the pit gain, or the volume of the kick, as it is displaced to the choke.
Figure 8.4 shows the pressure at the casing shoe as the kick is displaced from the hole. From
Point P to Point Q, the pressure drops as the influx is displaced past the BHA. From Point Q to
Point R, the pressure increases as the influx expands as it is circulated up to the casing shoe. At
Point R, the top of the influx has arrived at the casing shoe, and from Point R to Point S, the influx
is circulated past the casing shoe. Once the influx has been circulated past the shoe, the
pressure at the shoe will remain constant while the influx is circulated to the choke, and as long
as the choke is correctly manipulated. It can be seen from Figure 8.4 that the shoe pressure was
at maximum when the well was shut-in. The influx did not expand to its original height in the
annulus before it arrived at the choke. If the shoe was shallower, the maximum shoe pressure
might have been when the top of the influx first reached the shoe.
Figure 8.5 shows the drillpipe and choke pressure during the second circulation during which the
well is circulated with kill weight mud. Having established the initial circulating pressure, the
drillpipe pressure is reduced as the drillpipe is displaced to kill weight mud. In theory, no choke
manipulation is necessary during this stage because the drillpipe pressure will drop automatically
as the kill weight mud is pumped down the drillpipe. Once the kill weight mud starts up the
annulus, the drillpipe pressure is held constant and the choke opening will have to be increased.
Once the hole has been displaced with kill weight mud, the choke pressure to maintain the final
circulating pressure will be zero. The choke will be wide open at this point and it may not be
possible to keep the drillpipe pressure from exceeding the final circulating pressure.
Figure 8.2 Choke and Drillpipe Pressure - First Circulation of the Driller's Method
Figure 8.5 Choke and Drillpipe Pressure - Second Circulation of the Driller's Method
Wait and Weight Method
During the Wait and Weight Method, the kick is displaced from the hole with kill weight mud. An
advantage of this method over the driller’s method is that wellbore pressures during displacement
of the kick are generally lower, and the well is under pressure for a shorter duration.
Figure 8.6 shows the choke and drillpipe pressure during displacement of the influx with kill
weight mud. The choke pressure during the Driller’s Method is included for comparison. Note that
the choke pressure during both techniques is the same until the kill weight mud starts up the
annulus at Point B. (This is because the bottomhole pressure is kept equal and constant for both
methods.) After this point, the pressure at every location in the annulus will be lower using the
wait and weight method.
Between Points D and E, the drillpipe volume of original mud behind the influx is displaced from
the well until, at Point E, the kill weight mud arrives at the choke.
Figure 8.6 Choke and Drillpipe Pressure Profile - Wait and Weight Method
Figure 8.7 compares the pressure, at the casing shoe for the Wait and Weight Method, versus the
Driller’s Method. Between Point P and Point Q, the shoe pressure decreases as the influx is
displaced past the BHA. The influx expands as it is circulated to the shoe at Point R, after which,
the pressure at the shoe decreases. At Point S, the kill weight mud starts up the annulus and
reduces the choke pressure below that for the Driller’s Method. Between Point T and Point U, the
original weight mud is displaced past the shoe until Point U, when the kill weight mud arrives at
the shoe. The pressure at Point U represents the pressure at the shoe once the well has been
killed.
As shown in Figure 8.7, the maximum shoe pressure is the same for both techniques; however,
the shoe will be under pressure longer if the Driller’s Method is used.
Figure 8.8 Choke Pressure - Driller's Method with Differing Influx Volumes
Figure 8.9 Choke Pressure - Wait and Weight Method with Differing Influx Volumes
Figure 8.10 shows the shoe pressures as the influx volumes are displaced from the well using the
Driller’s Method. Figure 8.11 compares shoe pressure with the Wait and Weight and Driller’s
Methods for influx volumes of 20 bbl and 50 bbl.
Influx volume is a variable that influences wellbore pressure during the displacement of a kick. A
rig crew can provide a positive impact by training for and implementing shut-in procedures
immediately and minimising kick size.
Figure 8.10 Shoe Pressure - Driller's Method with Differing Influx Volumes
Kick Intensity
The intensity of a kick is the measure of the degree of underbalance as determined by the shut-in
drillpipe pressure, usually expressed as a mud weight difference. The intensity of the kick is a
major factor in determining the wellbore pressures during displacement of the kick. Monitoring for
the indicators of increasing pore pressure, as discussed in Section 2, will help avoid high-intensity
kicks.
Figure 8.12 displays the choke pressure during the displacement of various kick intensities using
the Driller’s Method. Figure 8.13 displays the same kick scenarios using the Wait and Weight
Method. Comparing the figures demonstrates how, for a given kick intensity, the Wait and Weight
Method results in lower choke pressures.
Figure 8.14 displays this comparison of choke pressures, for each method, for both a low-
intensity and a high-intensity kick.
Figure 8.15 shows a comparison of the shoe pressures during displacement of the same two
kicks. The Wait and Weight Method reduces the pressure that the shoe experiences during
displacement. In the case of the high-intensity kick, the surface pressure is significantly reduced
once the kill weight mud starts up the annulus.
Figure 8.12 Choke Pressure - During Displacement of a Gas Kick Using the
Driller's Method with Various Kick Intensities
Figure 8.13 Choke Pressure - Wait and Weight Method with Different Influx Volumes
Figure 8.14 A Comparison of the Choke Pressure - During Displacement Using the
Driller's and Wait and Weight Methods with Gas Kicks of Different Intensities
Hole Geometry
Figure 8.15 A Comparison of the Shoe Pressure during Displacement Using the Driller’s Method
and the Wait and Weight Method with Gas Kicks of Different Intensities
Once the kill weight mud starts up the annulus, shoe pressures will be lower than if the Driller’s
Method is used. As discussed, the greater the kick intensity, the greater the difference between
wellbore pressure profiles for the Wait and Weight and Driller’s Methods. For a given kick
intensity, the difference between the two techniques is also influenced by the depth of the shoe.
The shallower the shoe, the greater the effect of having the kill weight mud in the annulus using
the Wait and Weight Method on pressure reduction at the shoe.
Figure 8.16 illustrates a comparison of the shoe pressures for the same kick displaced with the
Driller’s Method and varying lengths of casing and open-hole. In this example, a 20 bbl kick is
taken at 11 483 ft and then displaced. This figure shows the pressure at the casing shoe if the
shoe is at depths of 3 281 ft, 6 562 ft and 9 843 ft. For a given total depth, the pressure at the
shoe is greater when the casing shoe is shallower and the open-hole interval is greater.
Figure 8.17 to Figure 8.21 compare the shoe pressures during displacement of a gas kick for
different shoe depths, using both the Driller’s and the Wait and Weight Methods.
Figure 8.17 shows the shoe pressure for a 20 bbl kick taken at 11 483 ft with the shoe at 9 643 ft.
From initial shut-in to Point P, the pressure decreases as the influx is displaced past the BHA.
From Point P to Point Q, the pressure increases because the influx expands as it is displaced up
towards the shoe. At Point Q, the top of the influx arrives at the shoe, and from Point Q to Point
R, the pressure at the shoe drops because the influx is displaced past it. From Point R to Point S,
the pressure at the shoe remains constant because the original mud occupies the annulus from
the bottom of the hole to the shoe. The pressure at the shoe is further reduced at Point S using
the Wait and Weight Method because the kill weight mud enters the annulus.
Figure 8.18 shows the shoe pressure for the shoe at 8 202 ft. A similar pressure profile is shown
to that in Figure 8.17. In this case, the influx expands more before it arrives at the shoe due to the
greater length of open-hole. Figure 8.19 shows the shoe pressure profile for the shoe at 6 562 ft.
In this case, the kill weight mud starts up the annulus at Point R, when the tail of the influx is
passing the shoe.
Figure 8.20 shows the shoe pressure profile for the shoe at 4 912 ft. In the case of the Driller’s
Method, the shoe pressure almost reaches its original shut-in value. In the case of the Wait and
Weight Method, the kill weight mud enters the annulus at Point P, before the influx arrives at the
shoe, and the shoe pressure is reduced by the kill weight mud from this point on.
Figure 8.21 shows the shoe pressure profile for the shoe at 3 281 ft. In the case of the Driller’s
Method, the shoe pressure is greater than the shut-in value when the influx is circulated to the
shoe. With the Wait and Weight Method, the kill weight mud enters the annulus at Point P and
reduces the maximum pressure at the shoe when compared with that attained using the Driller’s
Method.
The time that the shoe is subject to elevated pressure is substantially reduced when the Wait and
Weight Method is used. The reduction in shoe pressure, due to the kill weight mud, is most
important when there is a long section of open-hole.
annular geometry. From Point Q to Point R, the choke pressure drops as the kill weight mud
starts up the annulus. This is in contrast to the gas kick where the expansion of the kick, at this
stage, increases the choke pressure. From Point R to Point S, the influx passes the choke with a
corresponding drop in choke pressures. From Point S to Point T, the choke pressure drops as the
original mud behind the influx passes the choke. At Point T, the kill weight mud arrives at the
surface.
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21)
28 March 2012
SG 4.1-0035
Drilling Well Control Manual
A Completed Example
Estimate the maximum choke pressure during displacement of a gas kick for the following
conditions:
Volume of influx, Vo = 20 bbl gas
Kill mud weight, MW 2 = 15,2 ppg
Original mud weight, MW 1 = 14,1 ppg
Annular capacity below the influx, C = 0,0489 bbl/ft
Well total depth, TD = 11 500 ft
Hole/casing ID = 8 68 in
Drill string: 5 in drillpipe
BHA = 600 ft – 6-1/4 in OD – 2-3/4 in ID
Drillpipe ID = 4,276 in
Drillpipe capacity = 0,0178 bbl/ft
BHA capacity = 0,0074 bbl/ft
BHA annular capacity = 0,0353 bbl/ft
Drillpipe annulus capacity = 0,0489 bbl/ft
Capacity of the drill string = (11 500 – 600) (0,0178) + (600) (0,0074) = 198 bbl
Height of original mud in annulus, H1 = 198/0,0489 = 4 049 ft
Formation pressure, Pf = 0,052(15,2) (11 500) = 9 090 psi
K = VoPo = (20) (9 090) = 181 800
If the Weight and Wait Method is used:
S = (TD – D) MW 2 x 0,052 – H1 x 0,052 (MW 2 – MW 1) + Pi – Pf
= (11 500 – 0) (15,2) (0,052) – (4 049) (0,052) (15,2 – 14,1) + 0,1(20/0,0353) – 9 090
= –175.3
Substituting:
1/ 2
S 2 K x MW2 x 0.052 S
PD
4 C 2
1/ 2
175,3 2 181 800 x 15,2 x 0,052 175,3
PD
4 0,0489 2
= 1 804 psi
The maximum anticipated pressure during displacement is 1 804 psi.
Figure 8.27 Choke Pressure for Various Mud Weights using the
Wait and Weight Method
Figure 8.28 Shoe Pressure During Displacement of a Gas Kick with Overbalanced Mud
855 500
1. Determine the 2. Determine the hydrostatic
bottomhole pressure pressure of the influx
DRILLPIPE ANNULUS
SURFACE SURFACE
PRESSURE PRESSURE
MUD
14,2 ppg MUD
+ +
MUD
HYDROSTATIC HYDROSTATIC
PRESSURE OF PRESSURE OF
8-1/2 in HOLE MUD IN THE MUD IN THE
DRILLPIPE ANNULUS
+
6-1/4 in COLLARS =
INFLUX
INFLUX
BOTTOMHOLE HYDROSTATIC
PRESSURE PRESSURE
20 bbl INFLUX
HEIGHT OF BHA =
=621 ft
BOTTOMHOLE
PRESSURE
13,123 ft
Figure 8.29 shows an example for determining the influx type. This calculation is an
approximation. First, it is assumed that the influx is a discrete bubble. This is rarely the case. It is
more likely to be contaminated with mud. Second, the effective mud weight in the annulus is not
likely to be the same as in the drillpipe. This is due to cuttings loading the annulus and the
reduced density of the formation fluid. Also, the hole may be out of gauge. This calculation is
performed to provide a check on the validity of the kick data.
It is useful to know the type of influx before circulation is initiated. Although most formation fluids,
including formation water, contain some gas, the calculated influx gradient provides a guide to the
proportion of gas in the fluid. The proportion of gas in the influx determines two factors. First, it
will allow for the anticipated wellbore pressures during displacement. Second, it enables
calculation of the expected pit gain during displacement. If the gas contains heavy hydrocarbon
molecules at reservoir conditions, condensate fluids may form as the gas is displaced from the
hole. This will not occur for a dry gas. Gas will break out of solution from an oil influx when the
influx pressure is reduced below the bubble point pressure during displacement. For light oils, a
large quantity of gas will be produced. All kicks are assumed to contain a certain proportion of
gas. This data could influence the type of kill method employed. If wellbore pressures will be
excessive, using either the Driller’s or the Wait and Weight methods, then a bullhead kill may be
considered.
8.6 Bullheading
Bullheading is defined as pumping mud into the wellbore as a closed system in order to displace
an influx back into the formation. During drilling operations, bullheading is a last resort. This
technique may result in fracturing any exposed formation and not the zone which kicked. During
drilling operations, bullheading is limited to instances where casing is set immediately above the
productive horizon. With casing set immediately above the productive horizon, the influx can be
forced back into the zone of origin, given satisfactory casing strength.
(1) Bullheading may be considered when a very large influx has been taken and where
conventional well control procedures are likely to result in breakdown of the shoe, or open-
hole weak point. Elevated surface pressures can be expected, and bullheading heavy mud
may reduce the surface pressures to satisfactory levels.
(2) Bullheading can be considered as a method of reducing surface pressures. For example,
during underground blowouts, the surface pressure may become unacceptably high. Heavy
mud is bullheaded to reduce surface pressures.
(3) In cases where the influx is suspected to contain an unacceptable concentration of hydrogen
sulfide (H2S), it may be preferable to bullhead, rather than circulate, in order to keep the H 2S
from reaching the surface.
(4) Generally, bullheading is done at rates high enough to produce a solid column of liquid. At
slow rates, the mud can merely bypass the gas within the wellbore, which will not drive the
influx back down the hole.
8.7 Barite Plugs
8.7.1 Characteristics of Barite Plugs
Hydrostatic Pressure Kill
Since barite settling is inherently slow, and the results of settling are unpredictable, the use of a
settling recipe is not a dominant factor in designing a well control operation. The goal in using a
barite kill slurry is the same as with any other kill weight mud – to achieve a hydrostatic pressure
kill.
Three factors contribute to achieving a hydrostatic pressure kill:
(1) The density of the fluid.
(2) The volume of the fluid.
1 Slurry Weight
The design of a settling barite plug is that the barite settles rapidly, but not so quickly that it cannot be
pumped and displaced, without plugging off the drill string. The settling rate is inversely proportional to the
slurry weight. The range of slurry weight is generally 15,8 to 21,7 ppg. Lighter weight slurries, in the range
of 14,2 to 15,8 ppg, are suggested for setting plugs, inside casing or drill strings, where filtration does not
occur and rapid settling is the object. Denser slurries are suggested for the open-hole where both settling
and filtration aid in making an immovable seal. Barite pills (settling) built with water as the base fluid, are
largely ineffective over 19 ppg as the solids content of the barite is large, and the system becomes “self
suspending” without the addition of gel. For Oil based or synthetic fluids this occurs ~ 17,5 ppg.
2 Slurry Volume
The effective settled and/or compacted height of the barite is less than that of the slurry as pumped, which
needs to be taken into account when determining the volume. As a guideline, tests on a 20 ppg slurry
indicated that the settled height is approximately 70% of the original height. In general, a settled plug
height of 150 to 500 ft is used.
3 Slurry Viscosity
The greater the viscosity of the slurry, the lower the settling rate will be. A rapid settling rate is desirable
from the stand point of blocking flow from the well. In addition, the greater the settling rate, the harder the
settled pack of barite is.
Settling rates for dense slurries are slow, and a dispersant can increase the rate. Because of variations in
conditions, including barite quality, it is essential to pilot test the slurry.
The mix is made in drill water in which the pH has been adjusted to 9,5 to 10,5 with caustic. Barite and drill
water mix volumes are listed below for differing slurry weights.
Slurry Weight Drill Water Barite
ppg gal/bbl lbs/bbl
14,2 33,0 313,5
15,8 29,8 424,0
17,5 26,7 534,6
20,0 26,6 645,2
22,1 20,4 755,8
4 Mixing Procedure
The slurry can be mixed in either a well agitated slug pit, blender, or using the cementing unit. If the slug
pit is used, particular attention will be given to prevent the barite from settling while mixing. The mixing
system may include two centrifugal pumps as the slurry weight increases towards 20 ppg. If the cementing
unit is used, the liquid phase is mixed in the mud pits, and then transferred to the cementing unit for
weighting up.
5 Displacement Procedure
A non-settling slurry is spotted either as a balanced plug, or slightly under displaced. When calculating the
volume for the displacement, it is adjusted so that the height of the slurry, inside the drillpipe, is 2 bbl
greater than outside the drillpipe. This allows the drillpipe to be withdrawn with a natural slug. It will also
minimise movement of the slurry in the hole which causes contamination.
After spotting the plug, the drill string is withdrawn immediately from the plug to prevent sticking due to
barite settling. Circulate clean mud on top of the plug. A displacement rate of 5 to 8 bbl/min is generally
adequate. The plug is displaced either open ended, or through a bit containing no nozzles. The plug is not
displaced through a bit containing nozzles unless, the string contains a circulating sub, or the WTL is first
consulted.
8.7.4 Dispersants
For settling plugs, it has been standard practice to add a thinner to barite slurries used in well
control. Both lignosulfonates and phosphates have been used, with the phosphate SAPP having
the widest acceptance. Chemicals of either type can disperse a barite slurry, improve pumpability,
and allow settling into a firm cake.
The choice of dispersant will influence the barite slurry properties as follows:
(1) Use of SAPP results in a slurry with an elevated fluid loss (50 cc). SAPP will not disperse in
saltwater or in the presence of some contaminants which occur in natural barite.
(2) Use of lignosulfonate results in a slurry with a fluid loss of 5 cc. Lignosulfonate is effective in
saltwater and tolerates both contamination and elevated temperatures.
Use of an elevated fluid loss barite slurry is advantageous, because it might dehydrate and plug
the wellbore, or promote hole instability, which may create sufficient bridging to stop the flow. On
the other hand, a reduced fluid loss slurry would reduce the chances of differential sticking. Faced
with these choices, experience indicates using the more reliable lignosulfonate rather than SAPP.
8.7.5 Pilot Tests
Because of variation and contamination of ingredients throughout the world, it is advisable to pilot
test a barite slurry. Prepare a sample of the slurry using the recipe chosen and the ingredients at
the wellsite. After being stirred thoroughly, the sample will have the expected density and be
easily pumpable. Settling of 2 in, in a mud cup after 15 min, is typical. The settled cake will be
hard and somewhat sticky, rather than soft and slippery..
8.7.6 Slurry Volume
Slurry volumes depend upon the amount of open-hole and the severity of the kick. These
volumes usually range from 40 bbl to 400 bbl. The slurry volume needs to be 125 to 150% of the
annular capacity to give the height of plug desired.
8.7.7 Pumping and Displacement Rate
Barite plugs are pumped with the drillpipe close to the bottom of the hole. If there is a large
volume of mud under the barite slurry, the barite slurry will mix with the mud because of the large
differences in density. If the influx zone is somewhat above the bottom of the hole, then the barite
slurry is pumped to bottom and then above the influx zone far enough to provide the desired
hydrostatic pressure kill height.
A barite plug is pumped and displaced at a rate greater than the kick rate. If the kick rate is
unknown, a rate of 5 to 10 bbl/min is used for the first attempt.
8.7.8 Preparation of a Barite Plug
For field preparation of either a settling or non-settling barite slurry, prepare the mix water first,
and then add barite to increase the slurry density. Equipment needed on location to prepare and
pump a barite plug are a cementing unit, equipped with a high-pressure jet in the mixing hopper,
a means of delivering the dry barite to the cementing unit, and clean tankage for the mix water so
the lignosulfonate and caustic soda can be mixed in advance. Weighting up to 20,8 ppg in one
pass may not be possible. The non-settling slurry may be re-circulated through the mixing hopper
several times, if necessary, to obtain a particular weight. This will limit the pill to the size of a
single mixing vessel.
Settling-type barite slurries may be stored in ribbon blenders, or similar equipment, which provide
a continuous, thorough agitation. Non-settling slurries may be stored in standard mud tanks,
although even these slurries may drop out a few inches of barite per day if not continuously
agitated.
The barite slurry may be pumped into the drillpipe either through a cementing head or through the
drillpipe and Kelly. The pump tie-in to the drillpipe contains provisions for hooking up both the
cementing unit pump and the rig pump so either can be used to displace the slurry. If this is not
done, and the cementing unit breaks down, the barite may settle in the drillpipe before the mud
pump tie-in can be made or the cementing unit repaired. Blockage of the drill string by barite
settling will complicate the well control operation.
8.7.9 After Pumping a Barite Plug
Barite plugs may be used in a variety of situations. After placing a barite plug, decide whether to
pull pipe. The goal of pumping a densified slurry is to achieve a hydrostatic pressure kill. The
decision to pull pipe depends on an assessment of the success of this kill. If a hydrostatic
pressure kill was achieved, then it is usually advisable to pull up above the slurry and attempt to
circulate mud. If there is doubt, regarding the hydrostatic pressure kill, it may be better to stay on
bottom to be ready to pump a larger barite plug. The risk in pulling out is that the pipe may
become stuck off bottom or may have to be stripped back to the bottom if the barite plug fails.
The risk of staying on bottom is that the pipe may become stuck or plugged.
8.7.10 Barite Plug Procedure-Settling Slurry
The following is an example barite plug procedure when using a settling slurry.
(1) Mix and pump the slurry at the appropriate rate. Monitor the slurry density with a densometer
in the discharge line or a pressurized mud balance. Displace the slurry immediately at the
same rate.
(2) Over displace the slurry by 2-5 bbl (based on the confidence in the accuracy of the pumping
equipment) to clear the drill string. Continue to pump 1/4 bbl at 15 min intervals to keep the
drill string clear while POH.
(3) Determine if underground flow has stopped. A noise log may be used in conjunction with
temperature surveys. If temperature surveys are used, wait 24-36 h for the temperatures to
stabilize. (Temperature surveys are the first log run and are logged from top down). The
survey will show a hotter than normal temperature in the zone of lost returns. Wait another
12 h, then run a second survey. If the underground flow has stopped, the temperature in the
loss zone will have decreased. Logs run after the pumping of the barite plug are ‘overlaid’ on
the previous log runs, when the well was in a flowing condition, allowing for comparison.
(4) After it has been determined the flow is stopped, pump cement through the bit to provide a
permanent seal. Observe the annulus during the pumping for signs of a plug failure.
Note: If the casing pressure begins to vary appreciably, or if a sudden change in the pumping
pressure occurs, the barite plug may have been disturbed. Over displace the cement to
clear the drill string.
Additional cementing to obtain a squeeze pressure might be desirable. For cases where
adequate squeeze pressure was not achieved during the cement job, a contingency plan is
available for over displacing the drill string.
Note: For cases where the drill string is over displaced, the WOC time is based on the lab test
results before pumping the next cement job.
Plug the inside of the drill string. The cement in Step (4) can be under displaced if personnel
are confident in the accuracy of the pumping equipment to within a 1 bbl tolerance, but a wire
line bridge plug set near the top of the collars is preferred. In this case, cement is dump
bailed on the wireline bridge plug for additional safety.
Pressure test the inside plug.
Perforate the drill string near the top of the barite plug. Attempt to circulate.
8.8 Well Control Considerations in Slim Hole Well
A slim hole well is commonly defined as one in which 90% or more of the length of the well is
drilled with drill bits less than a 7 in diameter. A well with hole sizes smaller than those in a
conventional well is also broadly considered a slim hole.
The immediate difference between a conventional well and a slim hole well is their respective
hole sizes. Other major characteristics of slim hole wells include, the practice of long sections of
continuous coring and the requirements of elevated drillpipe rotary speeds, reduced- weights on
bit, lower mud flow rates and special mud systems. A slim hole requires changes in the well
design, well operation and the well control procedures.
8.8.1 Slim Hole Characteristics
In terms of well control, a slim hole has distinctly different characteristics when compared with a
conventional well.
Greater Influx Length
Due to the reduced annular size in a slim hole, the same volume of formation influx will occupy a
much longer section of the annulus in a slim hole than in a conventional well. As shown in Figure
8.31, a 10 bbl influx occupies 216 ft in a conventional 8,5 in x 5 in well and is 1 716 ft long in a
3,5 in x 2,5 in slim hole well.
Greater Bottomhole Pressure Reduction
As the result of the greater influx length, the same volume of formation influx will result in a
greater reduction in the bottomhole pressure in a slim hole well. As shown in Figure 8.32, a 10 bbl
gas influx will reduce the bottomhole pressure by approximately 743 psi in a 3,5 in x 2,5 in slim
hole well, and 94 psi in a conventional 8,5 in x 5 in well.
Greater Annular Friction Pressure
Due to the reduced annular size, the annular friction pressure drop may be many times greater in
a slim hole than in a conventional well, as shown in Figure 8.33. The friction pressure drop may
become large during well control operations in a slim hole. This pressure drop is generally
ignored in the case of a conventional well.
Weighted muds, rather than seawater, may be used for drilling these sections. However, this may
contribute to the increased possibility of lost returns. Shallow gas flows are often extremely
prolific, producing very large gas flow rates and considerable quantities of rock from the
formation. This is especially the case when a long section of sand has been exposed. In the
event of a shallow gas flow, the Well Control Response protocol will be initiated to make
preparations to evacuate non-essential personnel from the rig. The possibility of completely
evacuating the rig will also be addressed.
A shallow seismic anomaly (bright spot) may indicate the presence of shallow gas. If a bright spot
is present at the proposed drilling location, the rig can be moved to avoid the hazard. A better
drilling location would be on a shallow seismic shot point. This process will directly involve BP’s
geohazards team.
The absence of bright spots does not rule out the possibility of shallow gas. Such a situation will
be reflected in the well control response guide contingency plan. Additionally, the absence of
shallow gas in one well of a series, drilled from a surface location, does not guarantee the
absence of shallow gas in subsequent directional wells drilled from the same surface location.
Severe shallow flows have been encountered in the past as a result of a shallow zone becoming
charged by a deeper zone. The shallow zone may have been charged by a faulty cement job in a
previously drilled well. This is particularly important in development drilling scenarios.
Shallow gas flows may vary in size and severity. Shallow gas flows will deplete or bridge off. A
contingency plan is prepared for recovering from a shallow gas flow once the rig is safe.
8.9.2 Gas Encountered with a Riser - Bottom Supported Rigs
Shallow gas reservoirs are potentially much more hazardous when penetrated from a jack-up or
platform. The conductor is a conduit to the rig floor, and the products of a kick are discharged
directly into a hazardous work area.
In the event of a shallow gas flow, the diverter will immediately be closed in order to direct the
flow overboard. The reliability of the diverter system while subject to the stress of a shallow gas
flow is uncertain and the possibility of equipment failure is considered.
On a bottom supported rig, a potentially hazardous situation is created if a restriction forms in the
diverter line. The subsequent pressure build-up may cause gas to broach around the casing to
the seabed. In this event, there is a risk that the seabed will become fluidized, inducing a sudden
reduction in spudcan resistance.
The following precautions are taken while the surface hole is open:
(1) Care is taken to be sure the annulus does not become overloaded with cuttings, causing
losses or gas to be liberated from the cuttings to such an extent that the annulus unloads.
This is achieved by drilling a pilot hole, limiting the ROP, and circulating at a rate to distribute
the cuttings and drilled gas.
(2) Facilities are available to rapidly fill the annulus from the surface in the event of total losses.
(3) The well is monitored and kept full while tripping.
(4) A non-ported float valve is run in the drill string.
(5) Consideration is given to pumping out of the hole and displacing the hole to weighted mud
prior to tripping out.
(6) Equipment is installed to divert flow away from the rig, without restricting flow or imposing
backpressure on the well, and is available for immediate activation.
(7) Enough mud is kept onsite to fill the hole volume twice.
If the well starts to flow, the following procedure may be used as a guideline:
(1) Maintain maximum pump rate.
(2) Space out so the lower Kelly valve is just above the rotary table.
(3) Confirm overboard diverter lines are open, close shaker valve and diverter element.
(4) Shut down all non-essential equipment and machinery to minimise potential sources of
ignition. Deploy fire hoses beneath the rig floor.
(5) Evacuate all non-essential personnel.
(6) Monitor the sea for evidence of broaching. (Evacuate all personnel if any evidence is
detected).
8.9.3 Gas Encountered Drilling Riserless- Bottom Supported Rigs
The potential hazards of drilling in a riserless environment need to be addressed. The risk of
drilling riserless from a bottom supported rig is considerably greater than drilling riserless from a
floater. If shallow gas is encountered when drilling riserless from a bottom supported rig, the rig,
crew, and rig equipment are put into a hazardous situation with few options since no equipment is
in place to manage the flow from the sea floor.
If the flow is small and voids itself to the sea floor, the situation is not crucial, but this is unlikely.
Most of the shallow kicks are low-pressure and high volume. The gas may quickly dissipate away
from the rig environment (i.e., sea current diversion). The rapid decline of the pressure within the
shallow gas zone may result in sea water killing, or substantially reducing, the gas flow rate.
Another potential hazard which needs to be considered is broaching of a surface formation near
the conductor shoe. This presents a real potential of seabed cratering and loss of rig stability.
The riserless environment does not entirely solve the potential broaching hazard which can be
caused by additional backpressure created by a restriction in the flow path of diverter lines when
using a riser. A similar result may be seen from an open-hole bridge forming when drilling
riserless. In this situation, the broaching mechanism will follow the path of least resistance and
may impact key areas of the surface location. The flow of gas may fluidize the seabed reducing
the stability of the spudcans or jacket piles.
8.9.4 Onshore Shallow Gas
The shallow geology of onshore locations varies widely, but shallow gas is a rare occurrence
onshore. Geological control is usually precise enough to predict formations accurately and
specific contingency plans are made to counter potential events. Shallow onshore reservoirs are
generally older, more consolidated, and less permeable than those offshore, which will tend to
reduce the flow potential of a shallow kick onshore.
Onshore, most wells are spudded through a thin layer of weathered formation into a bed rock.
The conductor and surface casing strings are usually set in competent formation which may
permit pressure control by standard means. Since the existence of either a shallow gas
accumulation or a weak casing shoe is not excluded, a means of diverting the flow away from the
rig is provided. Provisions are made so that an ample supply of water is available to pump in the
hole at a predetermined rate without returns in the event of encountering losses.
Diverter procedures for an onshore well will be similar to those for a bottom supported offshore
rig. If the water supply is known to be limited, a barite plug may be the chosen method of halting a
shallow gas flow.
Most flows from shallow onshore reservoirs are associated with aquifers that outcrop at greater
elevations (or lower elevations if air or foam drilling fluid is in use). A water flow of this type is
usually predictable and of limited consequence. However, severe shallow flows have been
encountered as a result of a shallow zone becoming charged by a deeper zone. The shallow
zone may have been charged by a faulty cement job in a previously drilled well.
8.10 Aspects of Underbalanced Drilling
8.10.1 General
Underbalanced Drilling (UBD) refers to the practice of intentionally drilling a well with the
hydrostatic pressure less than the formation pore pressure. Specialized well control equipment,
drilling fluids, practices and procedures have been developed to allow these wells to be drilled
while the formations are flowing. Well control practices during UBD differ from conventional
drilling, for example:
(1) Flow from the formation is intentionally induced by reducing the effective drilling fluid
density.
(2) Drilling ahead is maintained when formation fluids flow into the well.
(3) Drilling is maintained when there is a loss of drilling fluid to the well.
(4) The drillpipe may be pulled off bottom with the well flowing.
(5) The pit level may be maintained constant when circulating the well under pressure.
In the past, the practice of UBD has been limited to a few areas where the formations were
known to have great strength and diminished permeability. The availability of surface equipment
with greater working pressures is allowing this technique to be applied to a much wider range of
formation depths and pore pressures.
Managed Pressure Drilling (MPD), or near-balanced drilling, is a condition where the hydrostatic
pressure of the wellbore fluid column is reduced to be in balance, or slightly less than, the
formation pressure. To prevent hydrocarbons or formation fluids from entering into the wellbore,
surface pressure is applied. Since much of the technology used in MPD is the same as for UBD,
it is useful to consider UBD methods in these circumstances.
8.10.2 UBD Well Control Barrier Theory
Unlike conventional drilling practices, the primary annulus barrier to well flow while drilling
underbalanced is the rotary seal or rotating head around the drillpipe. The surface equipment is
designed to control the well (even when flowing) without the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling
fluid column. All UBD effectively allows formation fluids to blend with the drilling fluid over the
entire length of the annulus. This does not mean that drilling fluid is inconsequential. The correct
use of drilling fluid may be effective in controlling the degree of underbalance. The underbalanced
margin allows surface pressures and flow rates to stay safely within their rated working
capacities. These UBD fluids are designed to minimise formation damage if they invade the
formation during a well kill or brief periods of overbalance.
The primary internal barriers are the floats. The BOP stack, choke manifold and FOSV are the
secondary well control barriers. The criteria and procedure for shut-in depends on the type of
drilling system being used.
To safely conduct drilling operations means managing surface pressure. The surface equipment
and operating procedures are designed to handle the pressures and flow rates experienced while
drilling. UBD operations are a continuous pressure control situation. Purpose-built equipment is
specified, inspected, tested and maintained.
Well control concerns are not the only limitation for UBD. Because the formation fluids are not
prevented from flowing into the wellbore by the drilling fluid, as they are in conventional drilling;
different well control practices and procedures are used. Under most circumstances, correctly
sized and rated surface equipment contains and controls produced fluids while drilling
underbalanced. Large hydrocarbon production rates and elevated pressures are beneficial in
regards to the long term profitability of the well, but they may complicate some UBD operations.
The surface equipment will be able to safely handle the maximum rate of production, and be able
to contain the maximum anticipated surface pressure, which could be substantial. If excessive
production rates are encountered, there may be little alternative but to kill the well. Take care to
understand the pressures induced from the well and from the drilling fluid.
Many people assume that production of hydrocarbons during drilling confirms the entire well is
being drilled in an underbalanced state. This is not the case, and is an over simplified
assumption. Large pressure drops, compounded by localized reservoir inflow, may exist over the
horizontal section, resulting in underbalanced conditions near the casing, and overbalanced
conditions at the bit.
This means hydrocarbons seen at surface may be produced near the casing while formation
damage and/or fluid loss occurs at the bit, which defeats the purpose of UBD. Hydrocarbon
production confirms the well is underbalanced at some point along the wellbore. Through direct
measurement, or modelling, of annular pressure can UBD drilling conditions be confirmed.
Modelling alone, may not confirm what is happening in the reservoir. The models can be made to
show a wide variety of results. This is due to the complex nature of three-phase multi-component
systems.
8.10.3 UBD Well Control Equipment
UBD can take many forms. The equipment and cost depend on the magnitude of the surface
pressures expected, the method of pipe rotation (e.g., topdrive, rotary table), the nature of the
reservoir fluids to be encountered, and the type of drilling system to be used. Listed below are
different types of UBD systems applicable for use with jointed pipe:
(1) Air, gas (exhaust or natural gas), nitrogen (cryogenic or membrane separation).
(2) Mist systems.
(3) Foam drilling.
(4) Aerated fluid drilling.
(5) Flow or ‘live’ drilling underbalanced with mud, brine, or aerated fluids.
Each method of underbalanced drilling uses fit for purpose, surface, bottomhole, and return
systems.
RBOP versus Rotary Control Head
A key element of this piece of surface equipment is a device to seal on the Kelly or drillpipe, to
divert well flow, while allowing rotation and reciprocation of the drill string. The two types of rotary
seals are the Rotating Control Head (RCH) and the Rotating Blowout Preventer (RBOP). The
industry has many names in common usage for the RBOP (due to trademark restrictions), e.g.,
rotating diverter preventer. The main criterion of the RBOP is it has hydraulically activated
rotating seals, as opposed to the sealing element being energized by well pressure, as in the
case of the RCH, as shown in Figure 8.35.
Float Valves
Float valves are placed in the drill string, one near the surface and one, just above the bit. These
may be flapper or dart (piston) type valves. Both are illustrated in Figure 8.40.
The drill string is not run without, at least, the lower float valve. The floats are pressure tested in
their sub prior to running in the hole. This is often a dart-type valve. In the absence of a string
float, the lower float prevents any flow, from the annulus, back up the string during drilling and
tripping.
The upper floats are commonly termed the string float. This is usually a flapper-type valve for
fishing considerations. It prevents most of the compressed air, or nitrogen, in the drill string from
being lost at the rig floor when a connection is made. It prevents bleeding the pressure from the
entire string when making a connection, and this reduces the time taken to make a connection. It
is not usually installed when drillpipe pressures are low. A string float will not be added to the
string until the well depth reaches 3000 to 4000 ft. If a down-hole motor or percussion hammer is
in use, the drillpipe pressure will be greater than for conventional rotary drilling operations. In
these instances, a string float will often be added to the drill string at shallower depths. Typically
floats are designed to prevent the flapper from opening past vertical which could prevent closing
due to upward flow (the flow will actually hold them open under these circumstances). When the
drillpipe manifold is opened, to bleed off air pressure before making a connection, the air flow up
the string will close the valve.
After the air pressure below the valve has bled down through the annulus, the valve will fall open
if the flapper valve spring has been removed. This will allow running wireline tools and inclination
survey tools through the string float. However, great care has to be exercised when pulling the
survey tool back up through the float valve. Alternatively, the string can be tripped, the float valve
removed, and the string run back to the bottom before taking a survey. The string float will then
be re-installed at the surface before resuming drilling operations.
valve. It opens in response to air pressure in the string above the valve and closes when
circulation is shut down. If there is a fire down-hole, the zinc ring melts, allowing a sleeve to close
the flow ports in the valve body, preventing flow in either direction through the valve.
Figure 8.41 Drill String Floats for Air Drilling: Fire Stop and Fire Float Valves
Additional Instrumentation
Air Drilling
Some supplementary instrumentation, in addition to that found on a conventional drilling rig, is
advisable for air drilling. A low-pressure gauge, with a range somewhat greater than the
compressor or booster pressure rating, is installed in the air delivery line, close to the
compressors. An equivalent pressure gauge, with a range exceeding the delivery pressure rating
of the booster, is installed between the booster and the drillpipe.
An orifice meter is installed in the air line, between the booster and the mist pump, to measure
the air injection rate. An air pressure gauge and a thermometer are located upstream of the
orifice meter. This flowing air pressure may be converted from gauge to absolute pressure by
adding the normal atmospheric pressure for the rig site altitude.
An additional drillpipe pressure gauge with a low-pressure range, 0 to 1 000 psi for example, is
installed. The rig-up enables this gauge to be isolated from the drillpipe if operations result in
higher pressures. During gas drilling operation, small fluctuations in drillpipe pressure may be an
indication of larger pressure changes down-hole. The drillpipe pressure gauge needs to be
capable of reliably indicating any pressure change as small as 10 psi.
Flow Drilling
Flow drilling is the practice of drilling slightly underbalance and producing reservoir fluids while
drilling. The flow is typically water or oil, and rarely gas, as migration may make this method
difficult to control. Flow drilling may either be an open system or a closed system. Because of the
variable setup of this system, instrumentation could be as simple as improved drillpipe pressure
gauges and Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) monitors. Conversely, they could be as sophisticated as
full instrumentation on a four-phase separator.
8.10.4 Hybrid SCRs
Managed Pressure Drilling well control includes the concept of Hybrid SCRs. These are defined
as the pressure losses with the kill pump rate – the Slow Circulating Rate – under dynamic
conditions using back pressure from the choke in the measurement.
To obtain a Hybrid SCR, start from a static condition, i.e., pump shut off and choke closed. Then
bring the pump up to the chosen kill rate SPM while maintaining the same constant annular back
pressure that will be used while drilling. Often the choke function is automated, but the WSL will
understand the concept and how to acquire this data with a manually operated hydraulic choke.
8.10.5 Practices and Procedures for UBD
General
(1) Have at least two non-ported floats, installed near the bottom of the drill string, to prevent flow
up the drill string while drilling underbalanced.
(2) When the top float sub is pulled to the floor, procedures are in place and followed, to safely
remove trapped gas from below the float before removing the float sub.
(3) A pressure indicator with a read-out visible at the driller’s station, is installed below the blind
rams to monitor wellbore pressure while drillpipe is out of hole. If the well is killed on trips, a
bubble hose, to indicate minor pressure increases, is considered.
Example UBD Well Control Tripping Procedure – Deep Hard Rock
Described below is an example of simple tripping procedures when drilling deep hard rock.
General Requirements
(1) Use a suitable float near to the bit.
(2) Place an ‘N’ nipple with properly sized BPV or a similar device in the drillstring at the top of
the BHA or at the base of S-135 drillpipe (dart will drift upper drill string and still fit the dart
sub profile). This nipple will be a ‘backup’ to the drill string float.
(3) Replace the bottom float each bit trip.
(4) Limit differential pressure on the float to 2 000 psi on trips by filling drillpipe with fluid.
Drillpipe Connections: Well Flowing
(1) Pick up off the bottom. Pump enough volume to clear cuttings above the BHA. Set slips.
Shut down pump while closing choke keeping annulus pressure constant. Break topdrive
connection. Observe drillpipe and annulus for pressure change. Confirm that there is no
flow up the drilling string, and the integrity of the BHA float valve. If flow is observed, notify
the BP WSL to determine the next course of action. Consider killing the well, and pulling
the BHA and replacing the check valve.
(2) If the drillpipe is static, pick up a new joint and make the connection. Observe the annulus
pressure. When ready to resume drilling, open choke while bringing the pump up to speed
while keeping the annulus pressure constant. Resume regular drilling operations.
(3) If the annular pressure approaches the RBOP dynamic pressure rating, stop rotating the
drillpipe. Do not reciprocate the pipe until pressure is reduced to a safe level below the
maximum RBOP dynamic pressure rating.
Bit Trip: Well Flowing
Note: A properly designed venturi system, working in conjunction with all compressors turned
through the blooie line, will keep gas off the rig floor while the RCH is not engaged. Tests
are conducted to determine the efficiency of the system before disengaging the RCH.
(1) Pick up off the bottom and pump enough volume to clear cuttings above BHA. Shut down
the pump. Close choke. Set slips. Measure and record both drillpipe and annulus pressure.
At a minimum, confirm that the drillpipe pressure is zero and is static. Prepare a drill string
displacement volume versus depth schedule to follow during the trip. If flow rate is >1 to
3 MMscfpd, pump an 18,5 ppg trip slug.
(2) Strip the drill string out of the hole through RBOP with top drive. Circulate mud as the hole
condition dictates being careful to lubricate the pack-off element with mud or water.
While stripping out, monitor the well pressure and maintain pit level constant – less drill
string displacement volume.
(3) When pipe weight approaches nearly balanced conditions, reduce the surface pressure.
Bullhead a weighted pill down the annulus or circulate a weighted pill down the drillpipe and
around to the surface in order to remove gas. Alternatively, if the kick flow rate is low, allow
the well to flow until the bit clears the blind ram and then shut-in the well.
(4) Strip to the BOP stack. Close the blind rams when the bit clears the ram. Inspect the BHA
and install a new float valve.
(5) Open the well up and allow it to flow until the bit and lower BHA clears the BOP. Strip to the
bottom.
(6) While stripping in, follow the drill string displacement volume schedule. Monitor the well
pressure and maintain a constant pit level– plus the drill string displacement volume.
(7) If the flow rate is low, it may be possible to trip out of the hole and back into the hole
without a slug or stripping. This has been done on deep wells using non-aqueous or oil-
based mud at rates >1 MMscfpd.
8.11 Well Control for Air or Gas Drilling
8.11.1 General
In most air or gas drilling operations, the potential production zones are usually low-pressure
zones, or are production zones that do not provide commercial production (such as coal bed
methane wells) without stimulation. In such situations, air drilling is continued into the production
zone, and the produced fluids are simply carried to the surface by the circulating volumetric flow
rate.
There is no rule for the amount of oil or gas that can be safely circulated from a production zone
while continuing drilling operations. If production zones are drilled with air as a circulating fluid,
misting operations are used to minimise down-hole fire and explosion hazards. Natural gas or
membrane nitrogen may be used as a circulating fluid for production zone drilling. Down-hole fire
and explosion hazards are discussed in more detail in Section 8.14.3.
Air drilling operations may be continued when the producing formations have pore pressures up
to 500 psi, but greater pressures make air drilling too risky, unless the productivity is low. In air
drilling, all returns are vented to an earthen pit. If the well produces large quantities of oil, the oil
will accumulate in the earthen pit, which is environmentally unacceptable. Small amounts of oil or
condensate can be burned with the gas, if local regulations permit.
When high-volume formations are encountered during air drilling, the blowout of production fluids
is evident at the blooie line as a large flare. Prior to surface evidence, the drillpipe injection
pressure will sometimes increase or decrease measurably (for open bit orifice drilling) as the
production zone is penetrated. This change is due to the increased velocity of flow in the annulus,
which is the result of the producing formation injecting fluid to the low-pressure annular space. If
the production rate is large enough, annular friction losses may increase bottomhole pressure,
resulting in increased drillpipe pressure. If the well produces large quantities of oil or water, the
drillpipe pressure can increase substantially. At lower gas production rates, the increased annular
velocity will serve to reduce the total cuttings in the annulus and decrease the bottomhole
pressure slightly.
There is no such thing as a kick in air drilling. There is no hydrostatic pressure head, or heavy
drilling fluid, in the annulus to contain the influx in the formation. The formation fluids rise to the
surface with the air flow. Therefore, in an air drilling operation, which drills through production
zone, the well is in a controlled blowout configuration.
If the production zone pressure and/or the rate of flow to the annulus from the formation are
deemed too hazardous for conventional air drilling operations, mud or foam is used as the drilling
fluid.
To switch over to mud drilling operations, the well is first killed using a dynamic kill technique.
Typically the well is not shut in unless the bottomhole pressure will not exceed the fracture
gradient in the open-hole. Once the well is shut-in, and the pressure has stabilized, it is more
challenging to kill. Wells that have not been shut in are usually easily killed by the momentum of
mud free-falling out the drillstring as pumping is initiated.
Conventional pressure control techniques cannot be used to kill the well. First, classic pressure
control (Driller’s Method and Wait and Weight Method) begins with a shut-in well, and the
reservoir pressure be calculated from the shut-in drillpipe pressure. If the well has been flowing
for an extended period, it will take hours, or days, for the wellbore pressure to build to reservoir
pressure. Additionally, shut-in pressures on the drillpipe and casing will be elevated, which can
add risk. In the case of a weak fracture gradient at the casing shoe, an underground blowout can
occur.
As an example, assume a well has been drilled to 8 000 ft with casing set at 2 000 ft.
The bottomhole pressure is equivalent to 6,7 ppg or 2 787 psi. If the well was shut-in, the average
pressure in the well would be around 2 500 psi. The average temperature in the well would be in
the range of 100°F or 560°R and the calculated, average gas gradient would be ±0,064 psi/ft with
a 0,6 specific gravity gas (mostly natural gas). The pressure at the casing shoe could be
calculated with the following formula.
Pshoe = PBH – [GGrad x (DTD – DShoe)] psi (Equation 8-11)
Where:
PBH = bottomhole pressure (psi)
Ggrad = gas gradient (psi/ft)
DTD = total depth (ft)
DShoe = shoe depth (ft)
Calculate: Pressure at the Casing Shoe at 2 000 ft.
Pshoe = PBH – [GGrad x (DTD – DShoe)] = 2 787 – [0,064 x (8 000 – 2 000)] = 2 403 psi
In this example, the pressure at the casing shoe would exceed 1.0 psi/ft and would probably
result in an underground blowout. If the casing is set deep enough, and the bottomhole pressure
is not excessive, an option is to shut the well in.
The best way to kill an air drilled hole is to use a dynamic kill procedure. The procedure is
designed for pumping into a flowing well. The idea is to get mud into the annulus faster than
bottom-hole pressure can recover. In order to kill the well, it is necessary for the hydrostatic
pressure of the mud, along with the friction losses, to exceed the bottom-hole pressure. The
ability to kill the well is a function of the flow rate, pump rate, mud density, and hole geometry.
A dynamic kill is performed by pumping a few barrels of water, followed by mud, through the drill
string and up the annulus. No backpressure is maintained on the well during the dynamic kill
procedure. The water is pumped ahead of the drilling mud, as a spacer, to keep from
contaminating the mud with mist products. (If contamination is not an issue, the water spacer can
be eliminated.) If done properly, all the gas will be out of the well by the time the mud reaches the
surface. The water can be displaced through the blooie line into the sump.
Once good drilling mud reaches the surface, the well is shut-in, and the shut-in pressures are
recorded. The shut-in drillpipe pressure will be zero. If not, some pressure may be trapped in the
wellbore. If there is annulus pressure, the well is then circulated, through the choke manifold and
separator, at a reduced rate, until all the gas is out of the system. Start pumping down the drill
string at a reduced rate, keeping the annulus pressure constant at the shut-in annulus pressure,
until kill pump rate is achieved. Read and record the drillpipe pressure. For the remainder of the
kill, the choke is adjusted to maintain constant drillpipe pressure until all the gas has been
circulated out of the well.
Most wells can be killed with the rig pumps. If the flow rates are excessive, additional pump
horsepower will be needed to kill the well. A dynamic kill program can be used to calculate the kill
rate. Most wells will kill at a lower pump rate than calculated due to drawdown.
In air and mist drilling operations, the well is not shut-in unless the surface equipment is leaking,
and the well cannot be vented through the choke manifold. It is unlikely that there would be a
simultaneous leak between the rotating head and the end of the blooie line, and in the choke line.
8.11.2 Shut-in Procedures for Air and Gas Drilling
Most air drilling operations have a BOP stack consisting of a rotating head, a pipe ram, and a
blind ram, as shown in Figure 8.42. Nearly all air drilling operations have at least one float valve
installed in the drill string at the bottom of the string.
If the drill string is not at the bottom of the hole when the uncontrolled flow occurs, the drill string
will not be run to the bottom before the shut-in procedures are carried out.
If equipped as shown in Figure 8.43, and drilling is underway when the uncontrolled flow occurs,
the well may be shut-in. The procedures that follow can be used as a guideline:
(1) Pick up the drill string.
(2) Shut down the compressors and booster, and close the Kelly safety valve and/or drillpipe
valve. Close the manifold valve from the compressors and booster to the drillpipe.
(3) Close the pipe rams.
(4) Read and record the pressure at the drillpipe gauge.
(5) Read and record the shut-in casing pressure.
Because the drill string is equipped with a top-vented float valve, the pressure in the line at the
drillpipe gauge (when the Kelly safety valve is opened slightly) may initially read slightly less than
the last air injection pressure. If the drillpipe pressure rises steadily, the float valve system is
leaking, or there is a small leak in the drillpipe joints in the drill string.
If equipped as shown in Figure 8.44, and tripping operations are underway when the uncontrolled
flow occurs, then the well may be shut-in. The procedures that follow may be used as a guideline:
(1) Assemble and install a fully opened safety valve in the drillpipe.
(2) Close the safety valve and the pipe rams.
(3) Pick up and assemble the Kelly.
(4) Read and record the shut-in casing pressure.
When the safety valve is opened, the pressure at the drillpipe will read zero gauge pressure
(considering an intact drill string) since float valves are installed in the drill string. If the pressure
at the drillpipe gauge begins to rise, the float valve system is leaking, or there is a small leak in
the drillpipe joints in the drill string.
Be aware of the shut-in pressure and string weight. The drill string will be raised until the tool joint
contacts the bottom of the pipe rams if the pipe is light.
Whether the pipe is on bottom or off bottom, the well is shut-in because the pressure rise
indicates that equipment is not functioning properly. Repair the surface equipment so the well can
be flowed and prepare to kill the well with a dynamic kill. If the pipe is off bottom, the well may be
flowed and the pipe stripped back to bottom, if it can be done safely, in order to kill the well.
GAS
OIL
FLOAT
VALVE
OIL AND/OR
GAS SAND
SECOND
FLOAT VALVE
GAS
OIL
FIRST FLOAT
VALVE
OIL AND/OR
GAS SAND
Down-hole fires may be very difficult to detect since the combustion rarely reaches the surface. A
temperature survey may be run through the drill string to confirm a fire has occurred. Down-hole
fires usually melt the drill string at the combustion site. Slag from a down-hole fire may be blown
several hundred feet up hole. The damaged string may be very difficult to retrieve and down-hole
fires usually result in sidetracking. The heat from combustion could alter the rock, in the area of
the fire, to a large degree.
Two obvious ways to avoid a down-hole fire are to prevent formation of a combustible mixture
and to remove the source of ignition. The formation of a combustible mixture can be avoided by
changing the circulation medium from air to natural gas or an inert gas. This may not be
economically or logistically feasible. Preventing the formation of mud rings will help to effectively
avoid down-hole fires. The most common method used to avoid a fire, when natural gas is
encountered, is to use mist rather than dry air. However, down-hole fires have occurred with mist
and foam when the annulus packs off due to poor hole cleaning and sloughing, especially in
horizontal wells.
The following steps may be used to minimise the probability of a down-hole fire. First, provide
attentive monitoring of the drillpipe pressure. An increase of 5 to 10 psi, without any
accompanying decrease in compressor output, may indicate the onset of mud ring formation or a
gas inflow. Once a mud ring has developed fully, the flow of air and cuttings from the blooie line
will stop. By then, the string may be stuck, or a fire may already have started. If the drillpipe
pressure increases when approaching a gas bearing zone, or when there is a gas show at the
flare pit, the following steps are taken:
(1) Stop drilling.
(2) Shut off the air and monitor the gas flare at the pit. If the flare continues to burn, any of the
following indicates the gas is wet:
Wet cuttings, black smoke, yellow flame, sparking at the blooie line exit (the last three
conditions indicate condensate).
If the flare does not continue to burn with the air shut off, resume air circulation and
determine if the gas is wet, using the indicators above. Do not drill. New cuttings will
promote the formation of a mud ring. Reciprocate the string to avoid formation of a mud
ring.
If the gas is wet, switch to mist, nitrogen, or natural gas drilling.
If the gas is dry, drill ahead in 5 to 10 ft intervals, reciprocating the string between
intervals. Continue to do this until it is certain there is no further possibility for wet gas to
be encountered.
8.11.4 Contingent Barriers for Air Drilling
Typically, there are two barriers for all well operations. As there is no hydrostatic pressure barrier
in air drilling, the primary well barrier while air drilling is composed of the following well barrier
elements: rotating head packoff, open BOP, high pressure riser, wellhead and valves, last casing
string, annulus cement, drill pipe, and float.
The secondary well barrier while air drilling is composed of the following well barrier elements: the
closed BOPs, high pressure riser, wellhead and valves, previous casing string, and annulus
cement. If the ram BOPs (not BSR) were closed, the FOSV would be connected onto the drillpipe
and become part of the secondary barrier.
While permeability of SWF zones may be high on the order of darcys, the origins of
overpressured shallow formations are of a geologic nature and include:
Trapped salt water that is pressured by the overburden loading, which is known as
undercompaction.
Massive turbidite depositions during the last ice age along the continental slope. The pore
water may be fresh.
SWF may not be noticed at first, as the zone may be cased and cemented. The flow may be a
delayed reaction after the cement sets and may broach to the surface at a distance away from
the wellbore. An ROV is regularly used to monitor both the well and the vicinity of the well for
evidence of flow.
9.2.2 Approaches to Drilling SWF Zones
The primary control method has been avoidance.
Table 9.1 includes examples of approaches to mitigating the risk of SWF challenges:
Table 9.1 Approaches to Drilling SWF Zones
Approach Comments
Use high resolution 3-D seismic Geohazard surveys used to avoid shallow gas (or gas hydrates)
surveys, and available offset data, to may also help in selecting casing setting depths to limit
select a location that minimises exposure to potential SWF reservoirs in the conductor and
shallow sand content. surface hole sections.
Drill the hole sections with water- When riserless, large volumes of mud; e.g., 25 000 bbls, pass
based mud. Have kill weight fluid through the bit once and then flow out on the sea floor.
available for maximum predicted SWF This technique has provided success in getting 20 or 22 in
pore pressure conductor casing to 4 000 ft BML.
Factor Comments
Kill weight drilling Dynamic and/or weighted fluid kill procedures, including mixed mud, are prepared
fluid and ready to implement immediately.
At least two hole volumes of kill mud are typically needed. If the well is not dead
after pumping two hole volumes, further pumping is rarely effective. Change mud
density or pump rate.
Adjust mud weight, up to maximum, if large flowrate is expected.
Add tracers (dye, mica) to kill weight mud sweeps to help identification in ROV
video.
Pump rates Kill using maximum pump rate with multiple mud pumps.
It is very difficult to pump too fast because the annular pressure drop is very low.
The pump rate may be limited by available mud pumps and drillstring internal
pressure drop (i.e., drillstring ID).
Consider how bit nozzle selection may affect the kill circulation procedure.
Consider PWD/LWD equipment maximum circulation rate capability when pre-
planning dynamic kill procedures.
Exposure time: A small pilot hole (9-7/8 in or less) increases the capability of dynamic kill
pilot hole procedures, including decreasing the needed pump rate, mud volumes and density.
Exposure time: Minimise exposure time to SWF in order to limit hole erosion.
drill/ underream It is common to simultaneously drill and underream a large hole quickly to minimise
exposure time and hole enlargement.
In this case, the kill procedure relies on kill fluid density and elevated pump rate to
minimise mud dilution by the influx flow.
Annular flowrate Pump tagged sweeps at regular intervals, to fingerprint annular flow rate, by timing
returns at the sea floor at a constant circulation rate.
There is not anticipated to be any annular flow after a successful kill even with
seawater in the drillstring.
Tripping mud Fill hole with weighted mud to confirm pore pressure overbalance and improved
weight wellbore stability.
Maximum weight of mud is determined by pressure integrity (overburden pressure)
of any previous casing shoe, i.e., structural casing.
U-tubing U-tubing will occur after shutting down pumps and may look like continued well flow
on ROV video.
For moored vessels, the rig is moored with lengths of moorings remaining in the locker to
allow the rig to be winched away from the plume some distance as based on water depth and
plume modeling. In this case, the windlasses are held on their brakes, and the chain stoppers
only applied after surface casing is set. Dynamically positioned rigs are maintained in a state
of readiness for moving off location if shallow gas is encountered.
All hatches are secured to prevent invasion of voids by flammable gas, or down flooding, if
the freeboard is reduced by loss of buoyancy or heel. This is important for a drillship.
The availability of facilities and personnel at short notice to slack off the moorings closest to
the plume and heave in those up current (but not downwind). Before spudding, a contingency
plan is prepared detailing individual responsibilities and duties.
Consider drilling a pilot hole, limiting the ROP, and circulate at an elevated rate to distribute
the cuttings and drilled gas.
A ROV with sonar may be used to monitor for gas flow.
A non-ported float valve is run in the drillstring.
The shallow gas contingency plan typically includes having enough mud on site to fill the hole
volume twice.
Weather conditions and currents may be continuously monitored, and the sea surface
checked for evidence of gas.
If a shallow gas flow is detected and there is no immediate danger to the personnel or the rig,
attempt to control the well by pumping mud or seawater at a maximum rate.
If the gas flow is endangering personnel or the rig, the shallow gas contingency plan may include:
(1) Dropping the drillstring
(2) Moving the rig to a safe position outside the gas plume.
9.2.6 Drilling with a Riser from a Floating Rig
In offshore environments, the conductor is usually set in a formation too weak to contain the
pressure of a gas kick. If a kick is detected in such circumstances, the well is diverted in order to
avoid an underground blowout and the possibility of the gas broaching around the conductor
shoe.
Diverter systems are not typically used to control shallow gas blowouts. Shallow gas flows are
controlled at the seabed using riserless mud returns or subsea dump valves at the mudline and
the annular preventer. Immediate preparations are then made to unlatch the LMRP and move off
location.
A contingency plan to address a shallow gas flow is prepared prior to spud, and may include: .
The procedures to be adopted in the event of a shallow gas flow.
The procedure for moving the rig off location.
A preparation to drill checklist (e.g., water tight doors secure, anchors ready to release)in
place.
A shallow gas duty roster outlining personnel responsibilities during drilling on this hole
section.
The procedure to be implemented in the event of failure of any of the major components of
the BOP/riser/diverter system.
The contingency plan is typically communicated in detail at the pre-spud meeting.
The surface diverter system provides a back-up system in the event of a failure of the subsea
system. It can also be used to divert gas which may be in the riser above the stack.
If the well starts to flow, the following procedure may be used as a guideline:
(1) Close the annular preventer and allow the gas to vent at the seabed.
(2) If there is no immediate danger to personnel or the rig, attempt to control the well by
pumping sea water or mud at a maximum rate.
(3) If the gas flow is endangering personnel or the rig:
(a) The drillpipe would be sheared with the casing shears or BSR.
(b) Unlatch the pin connector or LMRP, and winch the rig to a safe position outside the
gas plume.
9.3 Subsea Wellheads
A typical subsea wellhead consists of one or two wellhead housings, casing hangers and/or pack-
offs and a guide base. It is positioned just above the seabed. Figure 9.1shows a typical subsea
wellhead.
They perform four functions:
Support of casing strings by means of an internal upset on which the first casing hanger
lands. Subsequent casing strings can land on support shoulders and seal in the appropriate
surfaces provided by the wellheads.
Pressure isolation of the casing annulus from the wellbore by providing a polished bore on
which the seal assembly packs off.
Pressure containment between the wellhead housing and the BOP by provision of a polished,
stainless steel, inlaid profile for a gasket in the hub bore.
Support of the stack that lands on the hub and latches onto a profile on the outside of the
hub.
Commonly 21-1/4 in housings are rated to 2 000 or 5 000 psi, and 18-3/4 in or 13-5/8 in housings
rated to 10 000 psi or 15 000 psi.
The following subsections discuss the major items of equipment associated with the subsea
wellhead:
9.3.1 Casing Hangers
Casing hangers are screwed onto the top of the casing string and are landed in the wellhead on a
retrievable landing string.
9.3.2 Seal Assembly
The seal assembly provides a means of isolating the casing annulus by sealing between the
hanger and the wellhead housing. In most systems the packer is energized with weight or by
right-hand torque. Some deep water designs are set hydraulically. Generally, the energized
packer is locked into a recess in the housing.
9.3.3 Stack Connector
The BOP stack is connected to the wellhead by means of a hydraulically actuated connector
which clamps onto a profile on the outside of the hub. The connector has the same pressure
rating as the stack. The connector retains a metal gasket that is weight and pressure energized to
seal between the wellhead and the connector.
Casing shoe Measure pressure integrity of casing shoes, e.g., by leak-off or integrity
tests.
Both ppg equivalent and associated surface pressure for the mud weight
in use are typically posted in the doghouse and site office.
Update this pressure periodically and when drillstring mud property
or other changes occur that may affect pressure loss.
Slow circulation Post slow circulation data (for at least two pumps) on both drillpipe
data friction loss and Choke and Kill Line Friction Pressures (CLFP).
Take pressures on two gauges reading from separate sources to guard
against gauge failure.
Note the pressure necessary to break circulation the first time, and
record this value for use in kick detection and circulation procedures.
CBU so that mud is consistent and not affected by cuttings content.
Additional methods may be employed at the time of the kick to update
this data, e.g., using static choke and kill line, or subsea BOP pressure
sensor.
Choke and kill line Use CLFP to help establish initial circulating casing pressure.
friction pressures In deepwater, the CLFP is likely to change, so test data is only an
estimation.
Measure and record pressure losses with slow circulation rate through
the lines in parallel.*
*One option, to reduce friction losses during well control in deepwater
wells is to circulate the kick using both choke and kill lines in parallel.
Kill sheet Maintain an up-to-date kill sheet designed for subsea BOP.
A float valve is used to prevent backflow when removing the top drive (or
Kelly) from the drillstring during an emergency disconnect.
Note: Flow from the drillpipe can impede the ability to stab a safety
valve.
Choke and kill line Show choke and kill line valve positions on a chart and/or white board
valve positions indicating which valves are open and/or closed and choke and kill line
fluid contents (mud versus water).
Show the relationship between the surface tool joint location and
corresponding tool joint location opposite the BOP stack rams and
annulars.
Calculate and post the distance and correct spacing for each stand to
help with space out if variation in stand length warrants such.
Note: As water depth increases, the variation in drillpipe joint length
may create too much uncertainty in tool joint position. This
potential challenge may be reduced by arranging joints so that
10-stand average lengths do not vary by more than a set
amount, e.g.., 0,1 ft, if feasible.
Mud-gas separator Post liquid and gas handling capacity of mud-gas separator in the
capacity doghouse and/or site office.
Compare these to the maximum anticipated gas rates that would result
from planned well control procedures, and well and choke and kill line
geometry, e.g., pumping rate, design kick. Software tools are available
to assist with this calculation in the GWETK.
Diverter Keep the diverter insert packer installed and locked except when
handling BHA larger than the vendor’s stated diameter capacity. (The
diverter insert packer is older equipment and is not available on most
rigs).
Post diverter element status (in or out) in the doghouse and/or site
office.
Designated Identify designated hang-off ram.
hang-off ram If it is a VBR type, post the hang-off capabilities for all the drill pipe sizes
in the hole.
Specify if rams are to be locked after closure (if independent locks).
Personnel drills Perform BOP drills (pit and trip) regularly, including tool joint space out
to enhance crew competency.
Consider having crews perform ‘stripping drills’ prior to drill out of the
casing shoes to measure and increase crew competency in handling
stripping.
Annular shut-in Eliminates the need to space out tool joint near the BOP ram
(increasingly difficult as the water depth increases due to such
considerations as vessel offset effect on length and more joints of pipe
to consider).
Provides a means to effectively shut-in while still allowing for
movement of the drillpipe to reduce the possibility of sticking of the
drillstring.
Shut-in and Allows well to be closed in more quickly than with an annular.
hanging-off operation Minimises the amount of gas that may be trapped in the BOP.
with a ram
May provide a greater pressure rating than annulars.
The well is ready for challenging events, e.g., severe weather, drive-
off, mooring failure, loss of riser.
Eliminates potential wear on BOP due to vessel heave.
Shut-in with an Does not necessitate space out prior to shutting in the well.
annular, then Simplifies space out procedure.
promptly switch to
Minimises amount of gas that may be trapped below the annular.
hang-off on a ram
BOP Minimises chance that sticking of the drillpipe will preclude hanging off
the drillpipe.
May provide greater pressure rating than annulars.
After being hung off, the well is ready for challenging events
If drilling near a productive zone (or if the well is flowing), priority is given to shutting in the well
rather than performing the flow check, and observe the pressures.
9.4.2 Shut-in While Drilling
Table 9.5 contains an example procedure for shut-in while drilling:
Step Action
1 When a warning sign of a kick has been observed, promptly raise the drillstring until
the bit is off bottom and string is at the correct space out.
2 Stop the mudpumps and check for flow.
Confirm that the riser boost valve is closed.
Note: A gas influx may have risen above the BOP given deepwater conditions.
3 Close the upper annular BOP.
4 Open the selected subsea choke, and kill line valves.
5 Monitor for flow from the riser.
Notify the WSL and/or toolpusher as specified in the pre-determined communication
plan.
6 Check for surface leaks.
7 Read and record SIDPP, SICP (on both choke and kill lines) and pit gain.
Monitor and record this data (at specified intervals).
Step Action
1 When a warning sign of a kick has been observed, promptly set the pipe on the slips
with the upper tooljoint at a working height above the rig floor.
2 Install and close the FOSV.
Note: The FOSV and IBOP (with crossovers as needed) are checked at the
beginning of each tour to determine they function. These valves are kept in
the open position and ready for installation.
3 Pick up the drillstring and remove slips.
Position drillpipe for correct space out to allow ram type preventers to be closed on
pipe tube.
Check for flow.
Table 9.7 contains an example procedure for shut-in with the bit above the BOPs.
Table 9.7 Shut-in with Bit above the BOPs
Step Action
1 At the first indication of flow from the well, close the blind/shear rams after confirming
the bit is above the ram.
2 Open the selected subsea choke and kill line valves.
3 Monitor for flow from the riser.
Typically, the diverter is closed as a precaution against gas in riser.
4 Check for surface leaks.
Notify the WSL and/or toolpusher as specified in the pre-determined communication
plan.
5 Record SICP (on both choke and kill lines) and pit gain.
Monitor and record this data.
6 Evaluate the feasibility of stripping or bullheading operations.
Implement volumetric pressure control as needed.
Table 9.8 provides guidance in support of breaking gel strengths in choke and kill lines.
Table 9.8 Procedure to Break Gel Strength
Step Action
1 Close another BOP so the well is isolated, and there is a choke and kill circulation
path between the two closed preventers.
2 Align the subsea BOP and choke and kill valves to isolate the well and set up a flow
path between the choke and kill lines.
3 Circulate the choke and kill lines to break the gel strength.
4 Stop circulating and reopen a choke and kill valve below the BOP to determine casing
pressure.
The frictional pressure generated by circulating through the chokeline may cause excessive
pressures in the wellbore or in the circulating system.
The entry of the influx into the chokeline may cause an uncontrollable drop in bottomhole
pressure.
As the mud displaces the influx from the chokeline, the rapid increase in hydrostatic pressure
in the annulus may cause increased pressures in the open-hole.
These challenges are particularly present in deep water. Mitigation of these challenges involves
modifying well control procedures. The drillpipe pressure may still be used to control and maintain
bottomhole pressure.
SCRs are taken to include chokeline friction pressures, even in shallow waters, to determine if the
friction pressures are negligible for a kill operation. The calculations which cover the standard
implementation of the Wait and Weight Method and the Driller’s Method are still applicable.
Chokeline friction pressure may be important when added to the wellbore pressures resulting
from the displacement of a kick. In certain circumstances, it may be enough to cause formation
breakdown. The effect of chokeline losses is especially important in deepwater.
Table 9.10 Estimated Chokeline Losses (psi) for Differing Chokeline Lengths (3 in ID)
There are special techniques to monitor the effect of chokeline friction pressure during
displacement of a kick. One such technique, which uses the kill line, is described below.
When slow displacement rates are used (such as 1 bbl/m), chokeline losses are generally
inconsequential even in deepwater.
The redundant choke and kill lines on floating rigs provide the following:
Backup for first line (e.g., plugs and/or leaks in a line are overcome by using the backup).
A static line to monitor BOP pressure to compensate for choke and kill line friction in
deepwater (a BOP pressure sensor may be used for this, if available).
Ability to circulate a well that has drillpipe hung-off and disconnected below the closed blind
rams.
Ability to circulate across closed BOP (trapped gas).
Ability to pump through both the choke and kill lines to reduce friction loss.
Circulation up both the choke and kill lines.
Reduction in friction by approximately 50 to 75% for same circulation rate.
Reduction in casing shoe loads at zero surface pressure, i.e., at end of kill.
Precludes use of second choke and kill line to monitor BOP pressure.
Reduction in the probability of breaking down the shoe.
9.5.1 Monitoring with the Kill Line
,As discussed above, the kill line can be used to monitor for constant bottom-hole pressure
The following procedure may be used to account for chokeline losses for the Wait and Weight
Method (the same principles are applicable to the Driller’s Method):
(1) Assess the effect of chokeline losses at pump startup.
In order to determine the best circulation rate, the additional pressure acting in the wellbore due
to chokeline friction is estimated at a range of circulating rates.
The following two cases may be applicable at this point:
Case A: When SICP is greater than the chokeline friction pressure at the desired
SCR (refer to Figure 9.4).
Case B: When the SICP is less than the chokeline friction pressure at the desired
slow circulation rate (refer to Table 9.10and Figure 9.5).
In Case A, compensation will be made for the chokeline friction pressure until such time during
the displacement that the necessary choke pressure is less than the sum of chokeline friction
pressure and the wide open choke pressure. In most cases, this will only occur when the original
mud behind the influx is passing the choke, at which time subsurface pressures are unlikely to be
of concern. If Case A is applicable, the chokeline losses will not impose a limitation on the
circulation rate.
Case B represents a situation in which part of the chokeline frictional pressure will be applied on
the open-hole. This additional open-hole pressure is the sum of the frictional pressures developed
by the chokeline and surface fittings less the shut-in annulus pressure.
DRILLPIPE
PRESSURE
GAUGE
MUD
PUMP
GAS
CHOKE
KILL LINE PRESSURE
MONITOR GAUGE
VALVE VALVE
CLOSED OPEN
RETURNS
SEA
KILL LINE
(KILL LINE VALVES OPEN) CHOKELINE
SEABED
Figure 9.3 Use of Kill Line to Monitor for Wellhead Pressure on Rig with Subsea Stack
BOTTOMHOLE PRESSURE
STAYS APPROXIMATELY
CONSTANT
SPM 20 30 40
GAS
PaCR 400 680 985
PCL 150 250 370
MINIMUM RATE FOR PUMP
CHOKE PRESSURE
INITIAL SHUT-IN CONDITIONS CIRCULATION STARTED AT 30SPM DROPS BY
DRILLPIPE PRESSURE CHOKELINE
INCREASES BY PRESSURE DROP
SCR PRESSURE
400 100 400 400 780 150
KILL LINE
PRESSURE HELD
CONSTANT
BOTTOMHOLE PRESSURE
INCREASES
chokeline, the bottomhole pressure may have dropped 280 psi before the drillpipe pressure
gauge registers this drop. This is an additional reason for displacing the influx through the
chokeline at a rate that is substantially slower than normal SCRs.
9.5.4 Choke Manipulation – Mud Following Gas into Chokeline
The needed rate of choke manipulation as the mud behind the influx enters the chokeline may be
unrealistic at typical SCRs.
In this case, the risk is that the well may be overpressured leading to the possibility of fracturing
the exposed formation.
The example depicted in Figure 9.7 shows the choke pressure would have to be reduced at
71 psi/bbl which corresponds to the following rates for displacement rates as noted:
At 4 bbl/min = 71 x 4 = 284 psi/min
At 3 bbl/min = 71 x 3 = 213 psi/min
At 1 bbl/min = 71 x 1 = 71 psi/min
At 0,1 bbl/min = 71 x 0,1 = 7,1 psi/min
This is an indication that usual displacement rates are challenging when displacing a gas influx
through a long chokeline.
9.6 Circulating Kill Methods
A number of factors are considered prior to implementing a method for circulating a kick to the
surface. Some of these factors are listed in Table 9.11
Table 9.11 Factors Related to Methods of Circulating a Kick to Surface
Factor Consideration
Gas Gas migration and location at the shut-in relative to casing shoe.
Circulation rate SCR pressure and rate data.
Consider reducing the circulating rate as influx and kill weight mud
approach BOP stack and choke and kill lines to offset increasing
pressure on casing shoe.
Adjust drill pipe pressure for new rate using static line pressure, if
available, or otherwise, active line pressure.
Decision to circulate up one or two chokelines.
Mud Mud viscosity data and effects.
If choke and kill gel strength is elevated and mud weight and/or
formation integrity margin is low, consider breaking choke and kill
circulation.
Frac gradient Typically lower in deepwater.
MGS loading May be greater in deepwater.
For example, in 1 500 ft of water with 12,0 ppg mud, the pressure would be 950 psia. For an
18-3/4 in BOP, with a 15 ft distance between the annular (assumed shut-in BOP) and the upper
choke outlet, the gas volume could be 5 bbls. If these 5 bbls of gas migrate as a single gas
bubble to the surface, it expands to over 300 bbls (for an ideal gas).
The characteristics of the bubble rise need to be understood. At first, the upward velocity will be
simple migration, perhaps tens of feet per minute (plus circulating annular velocity), with slow
expansion.
There is a critical bubble depth at which it becomes capable of pushing the mud above it out of
the riser, and the migration turns immediately into a rapid expansion and release of the gas out of
the riser. This critical depth is a function of gas bubble size and mud density, but it is often at a
depth of 100 to 300 ft.
The riser may lose the entire expansion volume, dropping its level several hundred feet. Such a
drop could underbalance a formation in the wellbore if the BOP is open.
9.8.1 Field Test Results
Since the volume of gas in the BOP is a function of pressure, its impact increases with water
depth. Field test data has confirmed this potential challenge. This effect can occur in water-based
or non-aqueous muds. The evolution of dissolved gas in the riser is a consideration for any mud
system and all water depths.
The test was run in ± 3 100 ft of water with a 13,2 ppg density mud. Gas (air) volumes of 10 to
50 bbls were placed below a closed BOP, and then the BOP was opened to allow the gas to
migrate. In each case, the air did not migrate as a slug, but rather dispersed itself and did not
displace a large volume of mud from the riser.
The 30 bbl air volume test (equivalent to 110 ft BOP to choke outlet distance in the 18-3/4 in
BOP) unloaded only 19 bbls of mud from the riser.
Surface observations of the returns were small boiling bubbles, air-cut mud, and minor slugging.
Tests were also conducted that circulated out gas of 10 and 30 bbls at 6 BPM. The 10 bbl test still
strung out the bubble and did not unload any mud. The 30 bbl test unloaded over 100 bbls of
mud, indicating that the circulation rate brought some of the large bubble up before it could
disperse.
9.8.2 Equipment Considerations for Gas in the BOP
Stack configuration.
Location of choke and kill outlets.
Condition of annular (will affect ability to hold differential across element).
Surface gas handling capacity.
A choke and kill line outlet between annulars.
9.8.3 Operational Considerations for Gas in the BOP
Water depth.
Type of fluid in the hole (treat any fluid in the BOP as gas).
Diverter system configuration.
Chokeline friction with kill fluid in the chokeline and with water-based or oil-based fluid in the
line.
The string is hung off.
Step Action
3 Line up going down lower inlet/outlet choke failsafes and up upper inlet/outlet kill
failsafes.
4 Pump two choke and kill line volumes of kill mud down the chokeline into the lower
inlet/outlet choke failsafes, out of the upper inlet/outlet kill failsafes, and up the kill line at
a rate sufficient to create turbulent flow and sweep any gas.
5 Displace base oil down the kill line to the upper inlet/outlet kill failsafes.
7 With trip tank circulating on the riser, open upper VBRs to allow U-tube of riser mud into
kill line.
8 Close upper VBRs and open the lower inlet/outlet choke failsafes.
9 Displace remaining base oil in chokeline by pumping kill mud down the chokeline and up
the kill line.
10 Close upper inlet/outlet kill failsafes and lower inlet/outlet choke failsafes.
Choke and
Kill Line
Kill Line
MUD
GAS Upper
Annular
VALVE
OPEN
VALVE
CLOSED
Lower
Annular
Blind/
Shear
Ram
Casing
Shear
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Figure 9.10 Subsea BOP Stack Prior to Removing Gas from Below the Preventers
Choke and
Kill Line
Kill Line
MUD
GAS Upper
Annular
VALVE
OPEN
VALVE
CLOSED
Lower
Annular
Blind/
Shear
Ram
Casing
Shear
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Choke and
Kill Line
Kill Line
MUD
GAS Upper
Annular
VALVE
OPEN
VALVE
CLOSED
Lower
Annular
Blind/
Shear
Ram
Casing
Shear
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Figure 9.12 Removing Gas from a Subsea BOP Stack - Kill and
Chokelines Displaced to Kill Weight Mud
Choke and
Kill Line
Kill Line
MUD
GAS
WATER Upper
(OR DIESEL) Annular
VALVE
OPEN
VALVE
CLOSED
Lower
Annular
Blind/
Shear
Ram
Casing
Shear
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Figure 9.13 Removing Gas from a Subsea BOP Stack - Choke and Kill Lines Displaced to Water
Choke and
Kill Line
Kill Line
MUD
GAS
WATER Upper
(OR DIESEL) Annular
VALVE
OPEN
VALVE
CLOSED
Lower
Annular
Blind/
Shear
Ram
Casing
Shear
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Figure 9.14 Removing Gas from a Subsea BOP Stack – Gas Pressure Bled Down, Gas Occupies
Chokeline
Choke and
Kill Line
Kill Line
MUD
GAS
WATER Upper
(OR DIESEL) Annular
VALVE
OPEN
VALVE
CLOSED
Lower
Annular
Blind/
Shear
Ram
Casing
Shear
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Pipe
Ram
Figure 9.15 Removing Gas from a Subsea Stack - Diverter is Closed, the
Annular is Opened and the Gas is Displaced from the Stack
Mud and/or gas separator capacity (riser discharge is likely to peak at a large rate).
Predetermined estimated exit rates of gas and liquid that result from different pump
rates and riser gas volumes.
9.9 Hydrates
Natural gas hydrates have the appearance of hard snow and consist of chemical compounds of
light hydrocarbons and liquid water. They are formed at temperatures above the freezing point of
water at specified conditions of temperature and pressure (refer to Figure 9.16). The
temperatures at which hydrates can form may be above the temperature at which pure ice would
usually be formed, particularly at higher pressures. This formation process is accelerated when
there are substantial gas velocities, pressure pulsations, or other agitations, (which cause the
mixing of hydrocarbon components) such as downstream of a choke and at elbows.
During well control operations, gas hydrates may cause the following challenges:
Plugging of subsea choke and kill lines, preventing opening and closing of subsea BOPs,
sealing off wellbore annuli, and immobilizing the drillstring. There have been recorded
incidences of such occurrences with subsea stacks in water depths of 1 150 ft and deeper.
Plugging of surface lines at and downstream of the choke or restriction. This is particularly
hazardous when large gas flowrates are experienced through low-pressure equipment (such
as the MGS and gas vent line). The formation of hydrate plugs under these conditions can
rapidly overpressure low-pressure well control equipment.
The major factors which determine the potential for hydrate formation are gas composition, liquid
content, pressure and temperature. A typical set of graphs showing the temperatures and
pressures at which hydrates can form in hydrocarbon gas-flow situations is shown in figure 9.16.
If a pressure and temperature plot for a particular gas is above the line for that gas, then hydrates
may form.
The conditions for hydrate formation may be created at a subsea stack operating in a cold water
environment.
Graphs such as Figure 9.17 may be used to predict the temperature drop associated with a
pressure drop (across a choke, for example). As an example, if gas at 3 000 psi and 90°F was
choked to 1 800 psi, the temperature would be expected to drop to 55°F in an adiabatic
expansion, in which case hydrate formation could be expected.
Figure 9.16 Temperature and Pressure at which Gas Hydrates will Form (Katz)
The most accessible and effective place to inject methanol at the surface is at the choke
manifold. The point of injection is upstream of the choke. Chemical injection pumps are used
in this application.
Reducing line pressure in order to allow the hydrates to melt. This is a temporary measure
and is not always effective. Once hydrates have formed, the time it takes to clear the line is
difficult to predict.
If the potential for hydrate formation exists, a contingency plan to deal with them is developed.
Check subsea water temperatures and pressures, as well as, the potential for hydrate formation
at surface in the event of a gas kick.
9.9.1 Potential Hydrate Formation
The presence of a gas kick in a non-inhibited water-based drilling mud creates the potential for
hydrate formation, which may plug the choke and kill lines. Hydrates can also form behind BOP
rams, preventing them from opening. Hydrate formation may also prevent the BOP from
disconnecting from the wellhead.
The deeper the water, the more likely hydrates are to form because of both decreasing
temperature and increasing hydrostatic pressure.
For example, at a 10 ppg hydrostatic pressure of 2 000 ft of water (1 040 psi), the hydrate
equilibrium temperature for methane is 48°F, just above the range of 40° to 46°F which is the
typical ocean floor temperature in deepwater GoM. In northern seas, seabed temperature may be
near 28°F.
In 4 000 ft of water, the equilibrium temperature is 61°F, approximately 20° above the typical
ocean floor water temperature.
There is a time factor for the formation of hydrates, both chemically, and due to the cooling that
occurs with time after circulation is stopped. Formation of hydrates during circulation is unlikely
due to the heat brought up from the wellbore, as well as, the decreased time that gas is in the
BOP.
The time factor lends support to the use of the Driller's Method of well control. Prior to beginning
the Wait and Weight Method, the well is not circulated while increasing the pit mud density.
The time that the circulation must be stopped for the Wait and Weight Method can be reduced if
kill weight mud (of needed density) is already available in the reserve pits (riser volume not
needed at this time).
9.9.2 Inhibiting Drilling Mud with Salt
Salt (NaCI) may be used to achieve some hydrate suppression for much of the wellbore. For
maximum suppression with NaCI (near saturated), the resulting mud density will be greater than
10 ppg.
Saturated salt may suppress the hydrate-formation temperature to the region of 36°F at
2 000 psi, or 40°F at 4 000 psi.
Because salt increases the density of the fluid while drilling below shallow casings in deeper
water, the fracture gradient may prevent the use of this salt-based fluid.
Additive/Method Comments
Synthetic-based and Laboratory studies show that for effective hydrate inhibition, the
other non-water based salinity (typically CaCI2) of the water internal phase should be
systems maintained above hydrate conditions.
Maintain correct salinity to avoid the possibility of rapid hydrate
formation (especially in water-based fluid).
Gas dissolves more readily in synthetic fluids, bringing gas and
emulsified water into close contact.
Dissolved gas is less likely to migrate during shut-in, so there may
be no gas in the BOP. This facilitates the use of the Wait and
Weight Method, if desired.
Note: Salt content in the water phase may affect the shale
stability performance of the mud.
Glycol After a kick, a glycol pill may be spotted in the BOP stack via the
choke and kill lines.
To prevent hydrates, glycol may be pumped down a dedicated
glycol injection line from the surface to the BOP if the rig is
equipped with this line.
Influx gas will likely migrate up the annulus. An annular gas flow may develop, or the gas may
simply migrate up to the wellhead without any further fluid movement. Either way, a bubble of
overpressured gas may exist below the seal assembly.
9.11.1 Perforating Prior to Squeezing
The annuli between casing strings are often verified to assure that they are sealed as part of
abandonment. If adequate isolation was not achieved during the primary cement job, then the
subject casing string may be perforated and cement squeezed through the perforations to gain
isolation.
When perforating the casing for this squeeze, personnel monitor for pressure build up due to gas
behind the casing. If the well does flow upon perforating, the planned shut-in and well control
procedure is implemented (e.g., close annular or rams).
If there is a likelihood of such gas, another approach is to use drillpipe as a lubricator to a
distance below the stack shut-in, then run the perforating gun through and below the drillpipe.
9.11.2 Casing Cutting
Sometimes casing recovery is implemented to cut and pull certain production and intermediate
casings from a point somewhere above the respective previous casing shoes. Similar to the
circumstance described for perforating casing in the previous section, there may be overpressure
in the annulus. The considerations described in the previous section generally apply for this
operation.
9.11.3 Seal Assembly Removal
When removing the seal assembly, trapped gas may escape, either rapidly, if it is over pressured,
or slowly, by migration. While flow can be monitored to determine if the preventers need to be
closed, also consider the option to close a BOP and pump down either the drillpipe or a kill line
(and up a chokeline) to remove any influx and monitor flow. This may minimise the potential for
influx gas to get above the BOP and into the riser before detection.
Another precaution is to perforate the casing immediately below the seal assembly prior to
pulling. This approach may reduce the potential rate of gas influx because of the small area of
perforations.
(3) Any indication of increasing, or decreasing, stand pipe pressure (SPP) or pump pressure,
without a corresponding change in pump speed, is brought to the attention of the driller
immediately. This is followed by notification to the BP WSL.
(4) The pressure changes in PSI are annotated on the real time monitoring or recording
system
Typical Well Bore Displacement Procedure.
(1) A pump schedule is prepared prior to displacement of one type of fluid to
another.
(2) This schedule is provided to the mud logger for monitoring during the displacement.
(3) Any variation in pressure, rate, or volume from the schedule is immediately brought to the
attention of the driller and the BP WSL.
Typical Fluid Transfer Procedure
(1) Prior to a planned fluid transfer, the active system is defined and isolated
such that the well may be monitored without interference from transfers to or from the
inactive system, e.g., a workboat.
(2) Once defined, there is no movement of fluid between the active and non-active systems.
(3) During the planned transfer, there are no fluid transfers from the inactive system to the
defined active system.
(4) All transfers are taken to or from the defined portions of the system that are not active, to
be certain that all fluids are accounted for and communicated as per the communication
plan.
Typical Stimulation Procedure.
(1) Fluid monitoring during stimulating operations are incorporated into the
procedure.
(2) The plan is discussed prior to beginning the job, and during the safety meeting, so that all
pumped fluid is accounted for during the job.
10.2 Fingerprinting
Pit volume monitoring is a fundamental well control tool. Wellbore gains or losses are best
detected early, and they usually result in a fluid level change in the working pits. Proper and rapid
response to changes in pit level reduces the severity of an event.
Routine operations result in frequent surface signs that could indicate a flow anomaly. A partial
list of factors affecting pit volume includes:
An influx from a kicking zone.
Mud loss into a lost circulation zone.
Hole ballooning.
A temperature profile change that causes measurable fluid expansion or compression.
Drain-back from circulating equipment, e.g., Kelly hose, swivel and/or top-drive, charging
pumps or other active equipment that may drain from time to time.
A trip slug continuing to settle for a time after being pumped.
The process of monitoring pit volume, with respect to trapping anomalies, is referred to as
“fingerprinting.” This consists of a detailed collection of data and the ability to compare trends and
changes over a period of time. Properly executed, fingerprinting may discriminate between
expected changes caused by hole conditions or surface variables, and assist in providing early
warning of impending well control challenges. Fingerprinting is useful in the following situations:
Formula for fluid weight: EMW formation + (BHT - Surface Temp) x ppg loss/deg F
Examples:
9.0 EMW + (400 - 80) x 0.0017 = 9.5 ppg required fluid weight (or 0.50 ppg density loss)
14.0 EMW + (400 - 80) x 0.0033 = 15.1 ppg required fluid weight (or 1.1 ppg density loss)
The examples above are somewhat extreme as the entire temperature profile along the wellbore
is unlikely to change by 320°F. However, it does show what may happen. Drilling mud, especially
NAF systems, shows measurable thermal expansion. The service company providing the drilling
fluids can supply temperature and density information on the systems in use.
An additional complication is fluid compressibility which may influence flow signals. Figure 10.1
below is representative of a known brine system. Mud fluids show similar behaviour. Again, the
service company can supply complete details of their fluid behaviour, and this information is vital
to a fingerprinting program.
In deepwater drilling, thermal expansion and contraction may be a contributor to mud flowback,
although typically, when it is not circulating the drilling fluid will contract due to the large volume
(and the lower temperatures) contained in the riser. With the use of oil or synthetic based drilling
fluids, fluid compressibility may lead to further confusion. Surface drainage and fluid deceleration
are the largest contributing factors to flowback.
Ballooning is discussed below. The early stages of hole ballooning may cause anomalies during
regular drill-ahead operations.
Because flowback is directly related to circulating rate, the same pump rate that will be used for
drilling the open hole section is used when establishing the base curve. Also, because surface
equipment drainage can cause confusion, changes to surface equipment configuration are
avoided until the section has been drilled. If equipment is changed out, a new base curve is
measured. Figure 10.2 gives an example of the relationship between circulating rate and
flowback volume. As expected, flowback increases with depth at constant circulating rates.
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
....
Note: Regions typically develop ballooning detection techniques for their respective areas. The
example above is for reference. More detail on the subject is found in “Ballooning – Not
for Children v2.1” by Hartford Prewett.
10.3 Variations in Hole Fill-up on Trips
While working on wells with productive formations exposed, a trip tank is used which is capable of
monitoring fluid while pulling out of the hole and tripping into the hole. Fingerprinting is employed
and compared from trip to trip.
The pre-trip flowback is monitored to:
Determine that the well is stable.
Observe at least the first 10 stands pulled off bottom.
Determine that the well is taking the proper fill up.
If the trip tank pump is not kept on the hole constantly, the well is typically filled every 5 stands of
drillpipe, 3 stands of heavy weight drillpipe and each stand of drill collars or a 75 psi reduction in
hydrostatic head, whichever comes first.
A trip out of or into the hole will include the use of a trip tank for monitoring fill ups and pipe
displacement. A trip sheet is maintained to provide a documented comparison of the actual
versus calculated volumes. Typically a trip tank has the following characterisics:
Two pumps manifolded.
Ability to run continuously (during trips), keeping the hole filled at all times.
A return line and valve to the pits.
Is monitored electronically and with a visible gauge.
Is not too large… < 50 bbls for most land operations (larger for offshore use).
Is covered.
Includes two lines to the bell nipple. The lower line is used for filling the hole and the upper
line returns fluid to the trip tank. Each line is equipped with an isolation valve.
Note: High-pressure hoses, valves, and piping are used if installed below a rotating head or
similar pressure equipment.
Where a mud logger is used, the mud logger also maintains a trip sheet. The sheet will indicate
slug size, slug density, stands or joints, theoretical volume of each set, and cumulative volume to
actually fill the hole. The sheet records the date, time and driller on tour. Records of the individual
trip sheets are kept by the mud logger and driller.
During each trip, the trip sheets are compared to the previous trip to indicate trends. The same
slug volume and over-balance is used for each slug. Several stands may be pulled before the
slug fully falls, and the sheets will indicate this trend.
When pulling wet pipe, a mud bucket with good seals is used. The volume in the bucket drains
back to the trip tank to confirm an accurate count of trip volumes. Tripping wet pipe does not
eliminate using the trip tank and maintaining a trip sheet. A spare set of new mudbucket seals are
kept on location at all times.
Slug size and weight are affected by depth, hole size, BHA geometry, and history of success of
past slugs. (e.g., when motors or turbines are in the BHA, a 60 bbls slug at 2-1/2 ppg over mud
weight is typical).
The trip tank is constantly monitored when the well is open and the pipe is out of the hole. If the
blinds are closed, the well pressure is monitored.
When tripping back to bottom, a non-ported float will increase the displacement by a large
percentage when compared to a trip out of the hole pulling dry pipe. Separate trip sheets, for trips
into the well are maintained and are compared with previous trip sheets, from trips into the well.
This comparison will aid in determining any anomalies.
Table 10.3 Example trip sheet
10
15
20
25
30
pressure. Once drilling is stopped, and the pumps shut down, the loss of ECD allows either the
ballooned formation to deflate or the fractures to close. In either case, this results in mud
flowback to the surface.
Often, the “bottoms-up” from a flowback event contains more gas than is observed during drilling
(BGG levels). This may lead to misinterpretation of observed data by incorrectly assuming gas
has entered the wellbore. In addition, flowback may be confused with surface equipment drainage
and the decay of flow seen at the flowline when pumps are stopped. Residual flow is due to a
combination of the time for the moving column of mud to decelerate, and the bleedoff of drillstring
internal pressure through the bit nozzles. The effects of thermal expansion on drill fluid may also
lead to misinterpretation at the surface.
These factors make it difficult to tell the difference between flowback and an actual kick. Since
ECDs are usually of greater magnitude (in 8-1/2 in. hole, ECD may exceed 300 psi), a real kick is
more easily detected when the pumps are off, and ECD is not exerted on the formation. An
incorrect interpretation means that rig time is spent circulating-out a false kick, or worse, a
flowback is assumed and an actual kick is not detected.
Any flowback from the well, when the pumps have been shut down, is treated as a kick unless
analysis of all data and trends indicates otherwise. Figure 10.3, Figure 10.4, and Figure 10.5 are
decision trees that may be used to help.
FLOWBACK DETERMINATION
READ
Use flowback chart to determine if flow is
likely to be:
Probable kick (Kill with W & W) Possible kick circulate out using constant
Possible
See on bottom kill (yellow chart) bottomhole pressure see on bottom kill
flowback
Figure 4.3 of BP WCM Vol. 3 (yellow chart)
Shut well in
Read and record SIDPP
SICP and pit gain
Yes No Yes No
No
Yes
Yes
Flow decays?
Yes
Yes
Circulate bottoms up
And stops?
prior to drill ahead
No
No
No
Pressures < previous?
Yes
No
No
Yes
Repeat
Kill kick bleed-off
test
Casing specifications.
Casing setting points.
Cement tops and cement quality behind casing.
Drillstring specifications and depth of bit (if applicable).
Production tubing specifications and depths of valves and packers (if applicable).
Location and specifications of perforations (if applicable).
Specifications, condition and access to wellhead and/or BOP or tree.
Ratings for collapse and burst discs.
Condition of tubulars with respect to known or suspected damage (e.g., holes, splits, breaks
and/or missing sections, fish and/or obstructions).
Stability of tubulars with respect to blowout conditions (e.g., erosion may occur due to flowing
sand, stress corrosion may cause cracking or hydrogen embrittlement, accelerated corrosion
may become an issue).
Any suspected reduction in original tubular specifications due to casing wear, poor material
and/or connections for applications, and/or corrosion.
11.6 Reservoir Characteristics
Certain conditions of the target reservoir could allow a kill to be achieved by intersecting the
reservoir near the blowing wellbore and other conditions might require a direct intersection with
the wellbore or casing to be successful. Points to consider when evaluating the reservoir can
include for example:
Permeability.
Reservoir thickness.
Pressures.
Fluid properties.
Blowout modelling for relief well planning can be conducted using the calculated worst case
discharge for the well. This relief well guidance is focused on potential blowouts from the
reservoir and does not address blowouts from shallow gas zones.
11.6.1 Blowout Fluid Properties
Estimates of the blowout fluid properties are needed to design the kill program (e.g., reservoir
temperature, oil density, bubble point, gas oil ratio, volume factor, viscosity). If the blowout is a
producing well, these factors are probably known and, if not, then estimates are made.
Offset wells, if available, might be used to refine the data. Uncertainties on each item may also be
estimated so that sensitivities can be analyzed with respect to changes in kill flowrate
methodology.
11.6.2 Potential Flowrate based on Reservoir Characteristics
The blowout well flowrate is generally determined by a combination of reservoir rock
characteristics, fluid properties, and the flow path. When designing a hydraulic kill, some of the
reservoir properties may be unknown or uncertain. Reservoir properties that can be used to
model the flowrate include:
Permeability.
Pressure.
Blowout fluid properties.
11.6.3 Flow Path
The blowout flow path controls the friction pressure drops and back pressure for the kill fluid. If
the flow path is not well known, several scenarios are evaluated. Examples include:
Health, Safety, Environmental (HSE) concern if there is an unintended early intercept, or early
well-to-well hydraulic communication.
Potential early communication issues, even during approach at the intercept depth, may warrant
special operational procedures.
Using active and passive ranging tools, safe separation distances are maintained between the
wells.
11.7.3 Selection of Surface Locations
Each well planning team will identify at least two relief well surface locations that have been
verified for use. Surface location considerations are well and/or field specific, and are not covered
in detail in this document. However, the selection will include the following:
Regulatory requirements.
Shallow hazard survey.
Seabed survey.
Surface facilities.
Nearby well collision issues.
Metocean conditions.
Prevailing weather.
Directional plan considerations.
Close proximity of rigs and/or camps and room for support for the given rig(s) and vessels.
Explosion considerations (if applicable).
Toxic gas considerations (if applicable).
Heat radiation (if applicable).
Note: While a 500 m radius around a rig needs to be attempted, it is not a necessity. The idea
is to be able to manage surface locations in a way that allows for Simultaneous
Operations (SIMOPS) to be conducted with multiple operations in close proximity.
Anchor handling, i.e., confirming the selected relief well surface locations will conform for rig
deployment.
Keep the Anchor Handling Vessels (AHVs) outside of hot zones to prevent them from getting
too close to the blowing-out well, and that the desired anchor spreads are achievable.
For multi-well development sites, consideration is given as to whether more than two relief
well locations are advisable in order to intersect all the planned wells at the site.
The final choice of relief well location is subject to the results of Shallow Hazards Assessment
(SHA), which may be based on new seismic data, if the blowing well has broached to
surface.
Offshore Wells
An overlay plot is used for offshore wells. The example plot below (Figure 11.1) illustrates:
The predicted spill path from “Spill Modelling” (translucent black cloud).
Planned pre-drill trajectories including casing shoes.
500 m radius around blowing out well (green and black striped line).
Formation faulting (pale gray bands).
Seabed topography (contour lines).
Seabed boulder location and size (yellow, green and red circles).
Prevailing wind direction (graphic in top left corner).
Potential shallow gas hazards below 500 m (dark blue, light blue and red shapes).
including casing tallies, with casing hardware locations such as centralizers, are included in this
evaluation.
Wellbore Positioning for the Relief Well
The heading to the target will be established accurately, and awareness maintained, of the
relative bearing, like that acquired using Long Base Line (LBL) acoustics, from the relief wellhead
to the target wellhead. This awareness includes knowing the X and Y coordinates of each.
All available survey trajectory information that may be collected is used.
Survey instrument accuracy and survey station frequency are both essential factors. For any
planned change in trajectory, the survey frequency is reduced to no more than 45-ft, and for
doglegs, more than 2.5/100 Stations are planned no more than 30 ft apart.
When available, use secondary survey instrument data, e.g., Rotary Steerable System (RSS)
inclinations via Dual Inc. Joint Operating and Reporting Procedures (JORPs). Integrate survey
tools that use a different heading methodology into the program, like magnetic north (MWD)
versus earth rotation (Rate Gyros). Aside from the desire to minimise unobserved gross error, this
information may provide corrective actions in the event that the locate phase is unproductive.
Short Reach or Vertical Relief Well to Intercept a High-Angle or Horizontal Target Well
Designs for relief wells in each of the examples will be different.
A short- or medium-reach relief well, to intercept a vertical or low-angle target well, may not need
aggressive angle building and dropping. The angled section is used to position the relief well such
that the target can be approached in the same vertical plane and at a low incidence angle.
An extended-reach relief well, to intercept a high-angle target well, may be challenging to design
because it may need aggressive angle building and dropping to line up on the target. The
maximum dogleg allowed will depend on the vertical depth of the designed interception point. The
relief well may approach the target from any direction, however, lining up in the same vertical
plane is best as it eliminates some complexities.
Intersections between a short-reach, or vertical relief, well and a high-angle, or horizontal well,
are normally not considered for the horizontal section. Designs which include drilling at great
inclination into a target well are avoided
11.7.5 Relief Well Trajectory
A simple 2D profile for the relief well is preferred.
With the kill point, casing search point, and surface location fixed, a detailed trajectory planning
process can commence. The following items are usually considered in this process.
Kick off Point (KOP), build, drop, and turn rates.
Formation consideration.
Well control and/or lost circulation.
Casing detection considerations.
o Ranging tools can detect the target well when approximately 100-ft away (perpendicular).
Survey accuracy considerations.
Torque, drag, and casing wear.
Hole sizes and casing points.
o When setting casing before intercept, plan to be less than one stand from the intercept
point.
Kill point approach angle.
o Align the relief well trajectory in same plane as target borehole before the intercept point.
o The relief well will ideally close on the target well at less than 10 deg closure angle.
Surveying recommendations and procedures.
Magnetic ranging recommendations and procedures.
Logging recommendations and procedures.
Drilling mud and loss of circulation procedures.
Kill procedures.
Design Variations
Relief well design depends primarily on the trajectory of the target well, the relief well starting
location, and the desired location and depth of intercept. Examples of possibilities include the
following:
Short or medium reach relief well to intercept a vertical or low-angle target well.
Extended reach relief well to intercept a high-angle target well.
The contingency relief well trajectory will be very simple and follows the principles of the four
phases:
Phase 1 – Drilling.
Phase 2 – Locate.
Phase 3 – Track.
Phase 4 - Intercept.
Detailed Trajectory Planning
During planning, anticipate the need to intersect the target well at the last shoe, before the
shallowest, exposed hydrocarbon capable of flow (or uppermost perforated interval) is
penetrated. The best intersection point is the shallowest point at which a pore pressure or fracture
gradient is capable of withstanding pressures exerted by kill operations. In addition:
Plan the relief well trajectory to be simple, ideally 2D.
Inclination is kept below 50 deg for wireline operations.
When planning a well intercept, the logical design approach is bottoms up rather than top
down, and involves working from the final objective, back to Phase 1, the beginning.
Phase 4 - Intercept
The general objective is to be in a defined proximity to the target well, and breach to it in some
fashion. This may be to simply knock a hole in it, mill into it, perform a re-entry, or establish some
minimum interval that is within the designed proximity to the target well in order to gain hydraulic
communication.
The intercept phase is initiated after setting the final casing string. It is often desired to set the
previous casing shoe at a depth less than 100 ft (30 m), or one stand, whatever is the lesser. The
concept is to permit pulling the BHA back into casing after a successful breach of the target well.
The angle of incidence is limited by the objective defined above. For a well-to-well intercept, this
angle is usually between 2 to 4 deg.
Phase 3 - Track
The objective of this phase is to position the final casing shoe on depth, and in the desired
trajectory, to permit a target intercept with the least amount of corrective steering.
This phase is initiated after the target well has been fixed in 3D space in Phase 2, the “locate”
phase.
Once the target well has been fixed in space, the tracking phase is adjusted for the ”as located”
target well position in order to pinpoint depth, and data from ranging technologies is not as
reliable as the directional survey data. The ranging accuracy for both distance and direction will
improve as the position between the new well and the target shrinks.
The target well may seem to drift or maintain a constant offset, regardless of steering activity and
expected results. This may be due to actual changes in the well-to-well proximity, due to errors in
the ranging system, or interpretation of that data.
It is beneficial to maximise the tracking phase in order to yield the greatest confidence level on
the target well’s position. This needs to be balanced with the sail angle in the “Drilling” phase, and
the incidence angle in the “Locate” phase, discussed below.
Phase 2 - Locate
Undetected positional errors on the target, or planned well, may result in multiple side-tracks
before an intercept is completed.
The locate phase begins when the planned well is just outside the expected distance for
successful ranging. Depending on the ranging method used, this is often less than 150 ft (50 m),
and as little as 40 ft (13 m).
As an example, the locate phase ranging method referred to here, will be the Vector Magnetics
Wellspot™ tools using wireline in open-hole.
For best performance, the Wellspot™ tool will use 300 ft (100 m), or more, of open-hole below
the last casing shoe to minimise interference. Specific well details, like formation, wellbore fluid,
may impact some of these parameters.
The initial Wellspot™ results may provide an unreliable distance, or direction, when the target
response is of low amplitude, or depending on well profile and/or formation issues. While case
specific, it is typical to maintain the planned trajectory for a short interval, and range again before
making any steering corrections. It is common that these early measurements are not of the
quality necessary for steering decisions.
Provided that the target well is distant, and does not pose a risk of unintended collision, proceed
to drill ahead until a signal response will permit a triangulation from the planned well to the target
well.
The triangulation is often the result of a shallow pass-by of the target well. However, a pass-by,
i.e., from near side to far side, is not absolutely necessary. It is necessary that a minimum of
three measurements, from a non-parallel vector back to the target well, be obtained. These
measurements would occur over some interval, e.g., between 300 ft (100 m) and 600 ft (200 m).
Once the target well has been located and fixed in 3D space, the steering actions needed to track
the target and position the final casing shoe before well intercept, are initiated.
Phase 1 - Drilling
The drilling phase is representative of most typical of the drilling operations on the original well.
The differences, not described in detail here, are the challenges associated with spud location,
and include environmental issues such as plume and air quality due to volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) and toxic fumes.
11.7.6 Formation Drillability
Formation drillability is considered with respect to the time needed to reach the chosen kill point.
This could be associated with slow drilling rates, deep intersection point, hole stability problems,
lost circulation zones, or over-pressured zones. These problems may necessitate a change in the
blowout intervention plans, which could include evaluation of a shallower kill point.
Best Case
In summary, the ideal geometry for electromagnetic distance and direction accuracy is to make a
pass by of the target within ±20 ft, and at a relative angle between the wells of around 10 deg.
Furthermore, the target will have casing or drillpipe extending for at least 300 ft below the pass-by
point.
Error Sources and Limitations
The accuracy of measurement is dependent on several factors, including the instrument, relative
distance between the wells, formation conductivity and homogeneity, formation physical
properties (e.g., fractured zones, steeply dipping beds, faults, any anomaly that would severely
alter the flow of electricity), interfering magnetic fields from a source other than the target casing
e.g., a sidetracked fish, or adjacent wells under a platform. Length of casing and/or drillpipe
target, target resistance to electrical current flow, distance from the end of the target, breaks in
the casing, oil base muds (either in the relief well or in the blowout), upsets in the casing and/or
drillpipe connections, strength of magnetic poles, instrument misalignment, instrument error, or
modelling and interpretation techniques, are further items to be considered.
Formation Characteristics
Steep Dip Non-homogeneous - Steeply dipping non-homogeneous beds and erratic resistivity
can cause increased uncertainty in the electromagnetic ranging information because of bias
signals from the formation. These bias signals are usually small and, as the well approaches
the target, the casing signal will negate the formation bias (particularly if the well is bypassed
and triangulated).
Background Noise - The resistivity of the surrounding formations can generate a background
signal in certain cases which can affect the electromagnetic method of detection. If the
formations are uniform and have no dip then they will not generate spurious signals.
Typically, lateral resistivity changes and dipping beds will generate a small bias signal.
Global Magnetic Field Effects - The average magnitude of the earth resistivity also affects the
amount of electrical current which flows onto the target well. However, over the normal range
of earth resistivity, this is a small effect.
Long-range Accuracy - Faults are usually associated with resistivity changes and will
generate small bias signals of the type described above. Thus these faults will not typically
limit the range, as much as the accuracy.
Fractures and Resistivity - Fractures are generally linear features, and as such, do not affect
the general resistivity structure of the formations and have little effect on the signal.
Drilling Fluid Considerations - Normal salinity, water based muds provide the best
circumstances for transmitting current into the open hole, and on to the blowout casing.
Ideally, water based drilling fluids are used in the relief well, particularly at the initial ranging
points.
If hole stability problems dictate oil or salt saturated mud systems, a risk analysis is made on the
trade-offs between potential ranging problems versus hole problems. The potential problems of
these types of fluids can be qualified, and possibly quantified, by the electromagnetic ranging
company.
Oil based muds currently reduce the detection range of electromagnetic tools due to electrode
insulation, at the initial ranging point. This insulating effect can be overcome, to an extent, by
employing special proven techniques. The magnitude of the range reduction can be qualified by
the electromagnetic ranging company, and will depend on the resistivity of the formation and the
fluid.
Salt-saturated mud systems reduce the effective ranging distance of the instrument because the
transmitted electric current tends to flow up and down the borehole, due to its reduced resistivity,
instead of into the formation, and into the blowout casing.
Well Control Considerations - Magnetic ranging is conducted at depths where well control or
lost circulation problems are manageable. This is carefully analyzed in the kill plan, for the kill
point, and proximity to the blowout wellbore. It may be difficult to range in some of these
areas, thereby reducing the probability of accurate wellbore placement.
Wellpath and Dogleg Considerations - Careful consideration is made with respect to the
approach angle of the relief well during ranging to avoid excessive doglegs and/or a sidetrack
to reach the objective. Ranging has increased error sources in large dogleg approaches.
In many situations, a relief well is located at a point with a particular inclination and direction.
Most directional drillers are not experienced and comfortable with this additional aspect. If the
directional operations are not closely monitored, a point of no return may be reached before the
mistake is discovered. For this reason, new wellpath proposal and/or projections are constantly
computed and evaluated during all phases of drilling and ranging.
11.7.8 Kill Point
The kill point is a crucial step in the well design and influences the entire relief well planning
process. An iterative analysis is necessary to produce an effective and proficient decision.
Several options exist for creating communication at the intercept point. The option used is
dependent on the specific situation, but generally, wells are most easily killed at bottomhole of the
blowing out well, or at the deepest available point.
11.7.9 Establishing Hydraulic Communication
To evaluate the kill point location, a primary concern is the method to establish communication
with the blowout wellbore. These might include, but are not limited to:
Direct intersection of the blowout wellbore casing with a mill.
Direct open-hole intercept immediately below previous casing shoe with bit.
Perforating guns for penetrating drillpipe or casing.
Flooding the reservoir with water or brine.
Using cross linked polymers to aid frac propagation in very permeable reservoirs.
Acid squeeze or worm holing techniques (depending on the formation).
In most situations, every effort is made to achieve direct communication, even if a sidetrack is
needed. This will remove uncertainties with respect to pressure drop through the communication
channel. In situations where the pore pressure and frac gradient differentials are small, additional
diligence is needed. Contingencies are also investigated, as a backup, if the primary
communication technique is unsuccessful.
Detailed, step-by-step procedures are developed and evaluated in order to confirm that the
operation is achievable. Consideration is given to the risk involved in tripping in and out of the
relief well, running wireline tools, or perforating guns when the relief well is in close proximity to
the blowing wellbore.
11.7.10 Interception in Cased Hole
Interception in cased hole is achieved by two methods:
(1) Perforation
Perforation across parallel casing strings involves drilling alongside the target well trajectory to
place the casings strings close together such that perforating charges will penetrate both strings.
This method provides somewhat better control of fluids in the relief well because there is no
open-hole below the casing shoe. However, this approach may introduce a choking effect when
circulating kill fluid through perforations.
allows frictional pressure build-up to counteract bottomhole pressure without excessive pump
rate. Additionally, the relief well design uses relatively large pipe diameter, to prevent excessive
pressure loss, prior to reaching the intercept. These issues can cause a dynamic kill, with
seawater, to have large hydraulic horsepower demands, relief well tubular constraints, and
surface pressure of excessive levels. These levels might exceed pump equipment availability and
necessitate exotic casing designs, or multiple relief wells performing simultaneous pumping
operations.
11.8.2 Overbalance Kill
The "overbalance kill" is a method using heavy mud (equal to or greater than that needed to hold
static reservoir pressure) as the primary kill fluid. The increased density provides hydrostatic
pressure in conjunction with frictional pressure. This reduces the needed flow rate, to reach a
fitting pressure, to stop the inflow from the reservoir. It also reduces the surface pressure levels
and the resulting hydraulic horsepower. This method has been used on past relief wells with
mixed results.
It appears that few of these early kill attempts were made with quantifying calculations (because
of the analytical difficulty of modelling multi-phase flow until the hydrostatic head is great enough
to stop additional inflow into the wellbore) and, with poor well placement, the results were
fractured formations and incomplete kills. Even with direct intersections, pumping rates are
carefully controlled as the heavy fluid moves up the blowout wellbore. The bottomhole pressures
may increase rapidly past the fracture point as the flow changes from multi-phase to single
phase.
MWD tools can also be included in the intercept BHA, and used to monitor pressure, when the kill
is performed, by pumping down both the drillpipe and the annulus.
Kill fluid alternatives:
Water or seawater.
Brine.
Mud only (including several phases of increasing or decreasing density).
Water or seawater followed by mud.
Brine followed by mud.
Polymer.
Cement.
Reactive mixture.
11.8.3 Momentum Kills
The momentum kill is based on the concept that when two fluids traveling in opposite directions
collide, the one with greater momentum controls the direction of flow for both. Therefore, in the
blowout control operation, the formation fluid and the kill fluid collide at the injection string depth.
Conceptually, the momentum of the control fluid must be greater than the momentum of the
formation fluid to stop the blowout fluid, and force it back into the formation to bring the well under
control.
This procedure uses the kill fluid velocity and density to generate a greater momentum than that
of the formation fluid flow. Therefore, either substantial pump rates or kill densities, are expected
when this technique is used to design a blowout control.
Applying this concept, the kill density, employed to control the well, will generate enough
hydrostatic pressure to control the formation pressure in static conditions if done correctly. Once
the pump stops, the momentum of the kill fluid becomes zero, the well is dead, and enough
hydrostatic exists to keep it stable.
to be pumped at the needed rate, without excessive surface pressure. Each scenario will have
different needs, with dynamic water kills being the most severe.
Basic Procedure
The procedure is to pump the kill fluid down the relief well annulus while using the drill string or
tubing to monitor the Bottom Hole Pressure (BHP). The flow rate is adjusted to keep the BHP
above the reservoir pressure, but below formation fracture pressure. The control on this process
is the surface pressure required to achieve the kill flowrate. If the necessary pressure exceeds
the tubular burst specifications, or requires excessive surface pumping pressures, and manifolds
or hookups, then a larger hydraulic diameter may be needed in the relief well (to reduce the
pressure required for the needed flowrate), a heavier kill fluid used, or additional relief wells
drilled. This will be an iterative procedure to arrive at a solution. A safety margin will allow for
uncertainty in the kill rate.
11.10 Regional Planning
11.10.1 Well Specific Planning
The objective of this guidance is to minimise any well specific planning and limiting that planning
to peculiarities identified in the planning and execution of the original well, or in the post well
review process (if applicable).
11.10.2 Relief Well Statement of Requirements
A typical SOR will contain the following:
Relief well surface locations (two per well).
Shallow hazard assessments for the two relief well locations
Metocean considerations.
Initial relief well trajectory.
No Drilling Surprises (NDS) summary.
Seismic section through target and relief wells, highlighting overburden features, hazards and
differences between target wells and relief well trajectories.
Well design concept.
Confirmation that casing design conforms with GP 10-01 including the blowout screening case
and the relief well operational load cases.
Well specific risks and mitigations.
Timeline of operations (including rig move).
Seasonal considerations (e.g., hurricanes).
An example SOR Tab is shown below.
Relief Well Planning Methodology
The following iterative procedure describes the steps and work, typically performed for the relief
well requirements in the well SOR.
The drilling engineer and wells team produces a drillable trajectory, from the relief well surface
location, in Compass using a "bottom-up" approach. This is done with the knowledge of
shallow hazards close to the development well location.
Perform Shallow Hazard Assessment on the relief well location and/or trajectory. A standard
format for this has been agreed with EPT and Subsurface which shows overlaid amplitude
anomaly maps for different depth ranges.
Well Planning Geologist produces a seismic section through the relief well trajectory and main
well trajectory.
Subsurface team uses the seismic section to compare overburdens and identify additional
relief well hazards. This is the NDS assessment.
SOR tab is produced - This includes relief well location, trajectory, well design concept and
details of risks from NDS as shown in Figure 11.2 and Figure 11.3.
(3) Directional
Trajectory name: B1_Relief_300m_Ras-Hamia B1_Relief_300m_Akakus
Openworks name: PLAN_B1-64/1_Relief2 (Survey Openworks name: PLAN_B1-64/1_Relief2 (Survey
Name:2. RAS_HAMIA_DIR) Name:2. AKAKUS_DIR)
MD, ft Inc, deg Azi, deg TVD, ft DLS, MD, ft Inc, deg Azi, deg TVD, ft DLS,
deg/100ft deg/100ft
1800 0 0 1800 0 2000 0 0 2000 0
1900 3.69 214.67 1899.9 3.69 2600 2 21.96 2600 2
3087.2 47.7 214.67 2944.9 3.69 2954.4 9.09 21.96 2952.5 2
3100 47 214.67 2953.6 3.69 3000 9.09 21.96 2997.5 0
4103.2 10 214.67 3820 3.69 8721.8 9.09 21.96 8647.5 0
8800 7.52 21.96 8724.9 2
9176.2 0 0 9100 2
12452.2 0 0 12376 0
Anti-Collision: Pass Anti-Collision: Pass
PLAN_B1-64/1_Relief2
PLAN_B1-64/1
SW NB Note mismatch NE
between well picks gdm_CaracalSE_D_PSTM_K80_Int_SVM550_S
and depth horizons
gdm_CaracalSE_D_PSTM_K70_Int_SVM550_S
gdm_CaracalSE_D_PSTM_K50_Int_SVM550_S
gdm_CaracalSE_D_PSTM_K0_Int_SVM550_S
LIT_rc_C1-10_D_T90_Grd_SRAC-TDF_F_SVM_110430_MOC
Notes: Design to conform to relief well contingency plan BOD and exploration well programmed design
(5) No Drilling Surprises Summary (Limit to Differences from Target Well)
RW #1 RW #2 Full NDS assessment & NDS risks from
Seismic Available: Yes Yes exploration well (B1-64/1) are being used for
Seismic Used to Identify Faults: Yes Yes relief wells due to their close proximity - risks
Major Fault Crossings: 1 none are the same - refer to B1-64/1 WPDP for
details
Nearby Pad Data Sheets Reviewed: Yes Yes
Additional Hazards Identified: No No
NDS hazard Common to Exploration & Comments
Relief wells
Surface Conditions NO (relief wells are <500m from B1-64/1)
Shallow Hazards (shallow gas) NO Each location unique
Predicted Pore Pressures NO Need to check if well within closure
Aquifer Protection YES -
Wellbore stability/Formation YES -
integrity
Potential Gas Hazard deeper in well YES -
bore (beneath 13 3/8” casing shoe)
Lost Circulation NO Same reservoirs - need to check if well within
closure (NB not carried out for Plan_B1-
64/1_Relief 1 (Primary) ‘shallow’ Ras Hamia
H2S & CO2 YES -
Faults penetrated by wellbore YES -
Dipping Beds NO Each location unique
Temperature profile YES -
YES -
NDS hazards unique to Relief well
Summary of Surface conditions (re-assessed for relief well)::
Risk Plan_B1-64/1_Relief 2 (Primary) Plan_B1-64/1_Relief 1 (Secondary)
NE of B1-64/1 SE of B1-64/1
At well location At well location
Slopes Topography <1° Topography <1°
Wadis/Sabkh No wadis or sabkha No wadis or sabkha
a No karst features No karst features
Karst Within 300m radius of well location Within 300m radius of well location
Slopes Topography <1° Topography <1°
Karst 6 suspected Karst/gararahs 2 suspected Karst/gararahs
Surface faults No surface lineaments (faults or fractures) No surface lineaments (faults or fractures) intersect the
intersect the well location well location
Well bore specific NDS risks (e.g. faults, shallow structure) were re-assessed for relief well (Plan_B1-
64/1_Relief 2):
Shallow Plan_B1-64/1_Relief 2 well location was found to be within closure (but not at the structural crest) at
horizon the K50 (Kiklah) horizon. It also sits at the edge of a small closre at the K80 level. The well location
mapping was out of closure for all other horizons (K0 & K70). For the horizons capable of displaying shallow gas
on seismic (K50 and deeper (K0)) no indications can be seen at the B1-64/1 location (see WPDP for
original work) Based on seismic velocity model depth conversion
Faults Coherency maps were used on shallow horizons - K80, K70, K50, K0, to highlight linear features
penetrated by (possible faults). This work, in combination with the shallow structural interpretation can conclude no
Wellbore clear lineaments (i.e. no seismically resolvable faults) intersect the planned borehole. However at T90
one can see an irregular coherency response (but still no clear linear feature) this could mean either
poor data quality or potential fault zones near to the wellbore. Therefore there is a medium risk of
encountering a fault zone at T90.
(2) The Driller is expected to take the following steps to shut-in the well.
a. Stop all operations and notify other personnel (alarm).
b. Install an open FOSV and close it.
c. Close the annular preventer.
d. Open the chokeline valve.
e. Begin recording the casing and drillpipe pressure.
f. Notify the Operator’s Representative that the well is shut-in.
g. Record the elapsed time for the drill on the IADC drilling report, Contractor’s Drilling
Report and BP Daily Report.
(3) The Senior Drilling Contractor’s Representative confirms the crew is correctly deployed and each
individual completely understands his or her responsibilities.
(4) The time taken for the crew to shut-in the well is recorded.
(5) After the well is shut-in, preparations are made to strip the pipe. The preparations include lining
up the equipment, assigning individual responsibilities and preparing the Stripping Worksheet.
IS THE
YES NO
WELL
FLOWING?
Note: If using electronic sensors, consider updating the monitoring software with a pit and flow
simulation program that may be initiated remotely.
(7) The Driller is expected to detect the pit gain or increase in the return flow and take the
following steps.
a. Make up the Topdrive (or Kelly) until the tooljoint clears the BOPs and space the Kelly
valve or tooljoint at a working level at the rotary table
b. Shut down the pumps.
c. Check the well for flow.
d. Report to the WSL.
(8) Record the time for the crew to react and conduct the drill on the IADC Drilling Report.
When the bit has been tripped to the previous casing shoe, an additional drill may be conducted
that will result in the well being shut-in.
Therefore, after tripping the bit to the shoe, the following procedure may be used as a guideline
for this drill:
(9) Stop tripping operations and install the Topdrive (or Kelly) and start circulating.
(10) Once instructed to do so by the WSL, the Driller is expected to take the following steps to
shut-in the well.
a. Pick up the Topdrive (or Kelly) until the tooljoint clears the BOPs and space the Kelly
valve or tool joint out at a working level at the rotary table.
b. Shut down the pumps.
c. Close the annular preventer.
d. Open the chokeline valve (HCR) to the choke manifold
e. Record the casing and drillpipe pressure.
f. If required, notify the Well Team Leader that the well has been shut-in.
g. Record the time taken for the crew to shut-in the well on the IADC Drilling Report.
The procedures adopted during these drills are in line with the shut-in procedures as outlined in
the Standing Orders.
D3: Diverter
If shallow gas is encountered, and the well kicks, blowout conditions may develop very quickly. It
is crucial that crew initiate control procedures quickly in the event of a shallow gas kick.
Diverter drills are carried out to minimise the reaction time of the crews and check that all diverter
equipment is functioning correctly. The time taken for each diverter function to operate is
recorded. A drill is carried out prior to drilling out of the conductor casing.
Drills are designed in line with the specific procedure that will be adopted in the event of a shallow
gas kick.
The Senior Drilling Contractor’s Representative will confirm that the drill crew is correctly
deployed during the drill and that each individual understands his/her responsibilities.
The time recorded in the log is the time elapsed, from initiation of the drill, until the rig crew is
ready to initiate emergency procedures.
WELL NO RIG
1. DRILLING BREAK
*2. INCREASED RETURNS FLOWRATE
*3. PIT GAIN
4. CHANGE IN PUMP SPEED OR PRESSURE
5. SUDDEN CHANGE IN PROPERTIES OF RETURNED MUD
6. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
7. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
8. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
9. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
10. ……………………………………………………………………………………………
Or if there is any other possible indication of a kick.
DRILLER : DATE: / /
BP WSL : DATE: / /
TOOLPUSHER : DATE: / /
Figure B.2 Kick While Drilling, Land or Floating Rig, Hard Shut-in
DRILLER : DATE: / /
BP WSL : DATE: / /
TOOLPUSHER : DATE: / /
KILL SHEET
For Vertical/Deviated Wells with Surface BOPs
SIDPP (psi): Shut-in Casing Pres (psi): Shut-in Pit Gain (bbl):
Pressure Losses
Kill Pump SPM: Circ Pressure Losses (psi): Annular Pressure Loss (APL) (psi):
Bit Nozzles
bbl/stroke: Surf Input Pipe: APL-Based on SCR Test:
(ln^2)
Kill Rate (bbl/min): Inside Drill String: APL-Directly Calculated:
Standpipe Pressure (For Pumping Down Kill Mud Through Drill String)
Section Point: MD (ft) TVD (ft) Vol (bbl) Strokes Time (min) Standpipe Pressure (psi)
BP WSL : DATE: / /
TRIP SHEET
DRILLER : DATE: / /
BP WSL : DATE: / /
TOOLPUSHER : DATE: / /
Top of Influx =
MASP =
Formation Pressure =
BP WSL:_________________________________________________________________DATE:__/___/___
DRILLER:________________________________________________________________DATE:___/___/___
TOOLPUSHER:____________________________________________________________DATE:___/___/___
Kill Well
4. Bring pumps to speed keeping
5. Read and record drillpipe pressure.
6. Circulate gas out of well, keeping drillpipe pressure constant.
For worksheet calculation enter information into shaded cells Units (US/UK) Version 1/1 1Q 95 by ODL/C Weddle
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE PER BARREL OF ppg MUD in HOLE psi/bbl Migration Rate Time (min)
OVERBALANCE MARGIN: psi OPERATING MARGIN: psi Distance (ft) Rate (A/W 1000)
TIME Maximum Operating Choke or DP Change in Monitor Hydrostatic of Mud Overbalance Volume in Mud Total Volume of
Pressure Pressure Bled/Lubricated Bled/Lubricated Mud
+ Monitor Pressure
(hr min) Safety Factor (psi) (psi) (psi) (psi) (bbl) (bbl)
DRILLER : DATE: / /
BP WSL : DATE: / /
TOOLPUSHER : DATE: / /
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21)
BP WSL : DATE: / /
TOOLPUSHER : DATE: / /
28 March 2012
SG 4.1-0035
Drilling Well Control Manual
The worksheet provided can be used to estimate annulus pressures during the displacement of a kick.
The worksheet can be used as follows for the Wait and Weight method:
(If the Drillers method is used (5), (6), and (7) are left out of calculation)
(1) Barrels (bbl) of kill weight mud
Estimate the volume of kill mud pumped for the gas to arrive at the point of interest.
This volume is equal to the volume of kill weight mud pumped until the drillpipe is displaced.
At this point and subsequently this volume will remain consistent at the drillpipe internal volume.
Convert this volume to height and hydrostatic pressure equivalent, in the annulus.
The volume is zero until the internal volume if the drillstring has been displaced.
Once the kill mud starts into the annulus, its height and hydrostatic pressure should be calculated.
In a constant annulus size it is assumed that the gas hydrostatic pressure remains constant as the influx expands. The gas
hydrostatic mud however be corrected for substantial changes in annular dimensions using the following relationship:
This is equal to the kick zone pressure minus the total hydrostatic pressure of the mud below the influx
and half of the gas hydrostatic pressure.
This is estimated for the surface pressure and the temperature gradient in the well unless more detailed information is available.
The temperature in ‘F’ can be converted to ‘R’ by adding 460.
Use Figure x.x (BP Well Control Manual) to determine the pseudo critical temperature and pressure of the gas
(assume gravity is 0.7 unless logging unit has detected presence of CO2 or H2S or unusually heavy hydrocarbon components).
The pseudo reduced values are then calculated as follows:
P absolute (psia)
P pseudo reduced =
P pseudo critical
T (*R)
and T pseudo reduced =
T pseudo critical
(14) z factor
The compressibility factor, Z can be determined from Figure 8.26 and 8.27 using the calculated values of pseudo reduced pressure
and temperature.
The expanded volume of the influx can be calculated using Gas low relationships as follows:
T 2 x Z 2 x P1 x V1
V2 =
P 2 x T1
V = Influx volume (bbl)
T = Influx temperature (*R)
P = Influx pressure (psia)
Z = Compressibility factor
This is the difference between the kick zone pressure and the total hydrostatic pressure of the fluid in the annulus (19)
This procedure will be repeated until the influx is positioned at the appropriate point in the well. For example if the first calculation shows
that the top of the influx is above the shoe (assuming that the point of interest is when the top of the influx arrives at the shoe), the
calculation should be reworked for a smaller volume of mud pumped.
For the first approximation it is a good idea to neglect the effect of temperature and compressibility in order to speed the calculation.