Professional Documents
Culture Documents
High-Intensity Interval Training, Solutions To The Programming Puzzle: Part I: Cardiopulmonary Emphasis
High-Intensity Interval Training, Solutions To The Programming Puzzle: Part I: Cardiopulmonary Emphasis
net/publication/236090723
CITATIONS READS
363 8,914
2 authors:
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
All content following this page was uploaded by Paul Laursen on 05 June 2014.
1 23
Author's personal copy
Sports Med
DOI 10.1007/s40279-013-0029-x
REVIEW ARTICLE
Abstract High-intensity interval training (HIT), in a characterize the training stimulus when programming HIT,
variety of forms, is today one of the most effective means including cardiovascular work, anaerobic glycolytic energy
of improving cardiorespiratory and metabolic function and, contribution and acute neuromuscular load and musculo-
in turn, the physical performance of athletes. HIT involves skeletal strain. Prescription for HIT consists of the
repeated short-to-long bouts of rather high-intensity exer- manipulation of up to nine variables, which include the
cise interspersed with recovery periods. For team and work interval intensity and duration, relief interval inten-
racquet sport players, the inclusion of sprints and all-out sity and duration, exercise modality, number of repetitions,
efforts into HIT programmes has also been shown to be an number of series, as well as the between-series recovery
effective practice. It is believed that an optimal stimulus to duration and intensity. The manipulation of any of these
elicit both maximal cardiovascular and peripheral adapta- variables can affect the acute physiological responses to
tions is one where athletes spend at least several minutes HIT. This article is Part I of a subsequent II-part review
per session in their ‘red zone,’ which generally means and will discuss the different aspects of HIT programming,
reaching at least 90 % of their maximal oxygen uptake from work/relief interval manipulation to the selection
_ 2max). While use of HIT is not the only approach to
(VO of exercise mode, using different examples of training
improve physiological parameters and performance, there cycles from different sports, with continued reference to
has been a growth in interest by the sport science com- T@VO _ 2max and cardiovascular responses. Additional pro-
munity for characterizing training protocols that allow gramming and periodization considerations will also be
athletes to maintain long periods of time above 90 % of discussed with respect to other variables such as anaerobic
_ 2max (T@VO
VO _ 2max). In addition to T@VO _ 2max, other glycolytic system contribution (as inferred from blood
physiological variables should also be considered to fully lactate accumulation), neuromuscular load and musculo-
skeletal strain (Part II).
M. Buchheit
ASPIRE, Football Performance & Science Department, 1 Introduction
Academy for Sports Excellence, Doha, Qatar
this review will focus solely on the topic of HIT. Indeed, a session in their ‘red zone,’ which generally means attaining
number of studies in this area have emerged over the last an intensity greater than 90 % of VO _ 2max [3, 5, 15, 18].
decade, and it is perhaps not surprising that running- or Consequently, despite our limited understanding of the
cycling-based HIT is today considered one of the most dose-response relationship between the training load and
effective forms of exercise for improving physical perfor- training-induced changes in physical capacities and per-
mance in athletes [3–6]. ‘‘HIT involves repeated short-to- formance (which generally shows large inter-individual
long bouts of rather high-intensity exercise interspersed responses [19, 20]), there has been a growing interest by
with recovery periods’’ [3], and has been used by athletes the sport science community for characterizing training
for almost a century now. For example, in 1920, Paavo protocols that allow athletes to maintain the longest time
Nurmi, one of the best middle- and long-distance runners in [90 % VO _ 2max (T@VO _ 2max; see Midgley and McNaugh-
the world at that time, was already using some form of HIT ton [14] for review). In addition to T@VO _ 2max, however,
in his training routines. Emil Zatopek contributed later in other physiological variables should also be considered to
the 1950s to the popularization of this specific training fully characterize the training stimulus when programming
format (see Billat [3] for a detailed history of HIT). The HIT [21–23]. Any exercise training session will challenge,
progressive emergence of this training method amongst at different respective levels relative to the training content,
elite athletes is the first evidence of its effectiveness (i.e. both the metabolic and the neuromuscular/musculoskeletal
‘best practice’ theory [2]). More recently, the use of sprints systems [21, 22]. The metabolic system refer to three dis-
and all-out efforts has also emerged, both from the applied tinct yet closely related integrated processes, including (1)
(team sport) field and the laboratory [7–9]. These particu- the splitting of the stored phosphagens (adenosine tri-
larly intense forms of HIT include repeated-sprint training phosphate [ATP] and phosphocreatine [PCr]); (2) the
(RST; sprints lasting from 3 to 7 s, interspersed with nonaerobic breakdown of carbohydrate (anaerobic glyco-
recovery periods lasting generally less than 60 s) or sprint lytic energy production); and (3) the combustion of car-
interval training (SIT; 30 s all-out efforts interspersed with bohydrates and fats in the presence of oxygen (oxidative
2–4 min passive recovery periods). metabolism, or aerobic system) [184]. It is therefore pos-
Following pioneering experiments by Hill in the 1920s sible to precisely characterize the acute physiological
(Hill included intermittent exercises in his first studies [2]), responses of any HIT session, based on (a) the respective
Astrand and co-workers published several classical papers contribution of these three metabolic processes; (b) the
in the 1960s on the acute physiological responses to HIT, neuromuscular load; and (c) the musculoskeletal strain
which created the first scientific basis for long [10] and (Fig. 1, Part I). Under these assumptions, we consider the
short [11, 12] duration intervals. Studies by Balsom et al. _ 2) data, but also
cardiorespiratory (i.e. oxygen uptake; VO
followed in the 1990s, emphasizing all-out efforts [13]. As
cardiovascular work [24–27]), stored energy [28, 29] and
will be detailed in the review, most of the scientific work
cardiac autonomic stress [30–33] responses as the primary
that followed these studies over the past 20–50 years has
variables of interest when programming HIT sessions
been an extension of these findings using new technology
(review Part I). By logic, anaerobic glycolytic energy
in the field (i.e. more accurate and portable devices).
contribution and neuromuscular load/musculoskeletal
However, the important responses and mechanisms of HIT
strain are therefore likely the more important secondary
had already been demonstrated [10–12].
variables to consider when designing a given HIT session
It has been suggested that HIT protocols that elicit
(Part II).
maximal oxygen uptake (VO _ 2max), or at least a very high
Several factors determine the desired acute physiological
percentage of VO _ 2max, maximally stress the oxygen trans- response to an HIT session (and the likely forthcoming
port and utilization systems and may therefore provide the adaptations) [Fig. 1]. The sport that the athlete is involved
most effective stimulus for enhancing VO _ 2max [5, 14, 15]. in (i.e. training specificity) and the athlete’s profile or sport
While evidence to justify the need to exercise at such an specialty (e.g. an 800 m runner will likely favour a greater
intensity remains unclear, it can be argued that only exer- proportion of ‘anaerobic-based’ HIT compared with a
_ 2max allow for both large motor unit
cise intensities near VO marathon runner [6]) should first be considered in relation to
recruitment (i.e. type II muscle fibres) [16, 17] and the desired long-term training adaptations. Second, and
attainment of near-to-maximal cardiac output (see Sect. more importantly on a short-term basis, training periodi-
3.2), which, in turn, jointly signals for oxidative muscle zation has probably the greatest impact on the HIT pre-
fibre adaptation and myocardium enlargement (and hence, scription. Many of the desired training adaptations are
_ 2max). For an optimal stimulus (and forthcoming car-
VO likely training cycle dependent (e.g. generic aerobic power
diovascular and peripheral adaptations), it is believed that development in the initial phase of the preseason vs. sport-
athletes should spend at least several minutes per HIT specific and more anaerobic-like HIT sessions towards the
Author's personal copy
HIT Programming: Cardiopulmonary Emphasis
Fig. 1 Decision process for selecting an HIT format based on the load; and (6) eliciting a high predominant neuromuscular strain.
expected acute physiological response/strain. The six different types While some HIT formats can be used to match different response
of acute responses are categorized as (1) metabolic, but eliciting categories (e.g. short intervals when properly manipulated can match
essentially large requirements from the O2 transport and utilization into categories 1–4), SIT for example can only match category 5.
systems, i.e. cardiopulmonary system and oxidative muscle fibres; (2) Category 6 is not detailed in the present review since it does not fit
metabolic as for (1) but with a certain degree of neuromuscular strain; into any particular type of HIT. HIT high-intensity interval training,
(3) metabolic as for (1) but with a large anaerobic glycolytic energy [La] blood lactate accumulation; surrogate of anaerobic glycolytic
contribution; (4) metabolic as for (3) plus a certain degree of energy release RST repeated-sprint training, SIT spring interval
neuromuscular load; (5) metabolic with essentially an important training
anaerobic glycolytic energy contribution and a large neuromuscular
start of the competitive season in team sports). Additionally, At least nine variables can be manipulated to prescribe
for athletes training twice a day, and/or in team sport different HIT sessions (Fig. 2 [35]). The intensity and
players training a myriad of metabolic and neuromuscular duration of work and relief intervals are the key influencing
systems simultaneously [34], the physiological strain factors [10, 12]. Then, the number of intervals, the number
associated with a given HIT session needs to be considered of series and between-series recovery durations and
in relation to the demands of other physical and technical/ intensities determine the total work performed. Exercise
tactical sessions to avoid overload and enable appropriate modality (i.e. running vs. cycling or rowing, or straight line
adaptation (i.e. maximize a given training stimulus and vs. uphill or change of direction running) has to date
minimize musculoskeletal injury risk). There are likely received limited scientific interest, but it is clear that it
several approaches (i.e. HIT format) that, considered in represents a key variable to consider when programming
isolation, will achieve a similar metabolic and/or neuro- HIT, especially for team and racquet sport athletes. The
muscular training adaptation outcome. However, the ability manipulation of each variable in isolation likely has a
of the coach to understand the isolated acute responses to direct impact on metabolic, cardiopulmonary and/or neu-
various HIT formats may assist with selection of the most romuscular responses. When more than one variable is
appropriate HIT session to apply, at the right place and time. manipulated simultaneously, responses are more difficult to
Author's personal copy
M. Buchheit, P. B. Laursen
Intensity
Intensity
Work Duration
Series
Time between series
# of series
Between-series
recovery intensity
Series duration
predict, since the factors are inter-related. While our comparable effects in other sports (or exercise modes, e.g.
understanding of how to manipulate these variables is cycling, rowing, etc.), with the exception of under-water
progressing with respect to T@VO _ 2max [14], it remains activities that may require a specific programming
unclear which combination of work-interval duration and approach [36]. Finally, we believe that the present rec-
intensity, if any, is most effective at allowing an individual ommendations are essentially appropriate for moderately
to spend prolonged T@VO _ 2max while ‘controlling’ for the trained to elite athletes. For special populations (e.g. sed-
level of anaerobic engagement [3] and/or neuromuscular entary or cardiac patients), the reader is referred to recent
load (review Part II). reviews [37] and original investigations [38–40]. Stan-
Considering that long-term physiological and perfor- dardized differences (or effect sizes; ES [41]) have been
mance adaptations to HIT are highly variable and likely calculated where possible to examine the respective effects
population-dependent (age, gender, training status and of the manipulation of each HIT variable, and interpreted
background) [19, 20], providing general recommendations using Hopkins’ categorization criteria, where 0.2, 0.6, 1.2
for the more efficient HIT format is difficult. We provide, and [2 are considered ‘small’, ‘medium’, ‘large’ and ‘very
however, in Part I of this review, the different aspects of large’ effects, respectively [42].
HIT programming, from work/relief interval manipulation
to the selection of exercise modality, with continued ref-
erence to T@VO _ 2max (i.e. time spent C90 % VO _ 2max, 2 Prescribing Interval Training for Athletes
otherwise stated), which may assist to individualize HIT in the Field
prescription for different types of athletes. Additional
programming considerations will also be discussed with To prescribe HIT and ensure that athletes reach the
respect to other variables, such as cardiovascular responses. required intensity, several approaches exist to control and
Different examples of training cycles from different sports individualize exercise speed/power accordingly. We will
will be provided in Part II of the present review. As this discuss these points and illustrate why, in our opinion,
was a narrative, and not a systematic review, our methods using incremental test parameters is far more objective,
included a selection of the papers we believed to be most practical, and likely more accurate and effective at
relevant in the area. Since the main goal of HIT sessions is achieving desired performance outcomes.
to improve the determinants of VO _ 2max, only HIT sessions
performed in the severe intensity domain (i.e. greater than 2.1 The Track-and-Field Approach
the second ventilatory threshold or maximal lactate steady
state) were considered. Acute responses to running-based To programme HIT for endurance runners, coaches have
HIT were given priority focus, since the largest quantity of traditionally used specific running speeds based on set
literature has used this exercise mode. It is likely, however, times for distances ranging from 800 m to 5000 m, but
that the manipulation of these same HIT variables has without using physiological markers such as the speeds
Author's personal copy
HIT Programming: Cardiopulmonary Emphasis
associated with VO _ 2max, lactate or ventilatory thresholds 2.2 The Team Sport Approach
[3]. It is worth mentioning, however, that coaches and
athletes have been, and still are, highly successful using Due to the technical/tactical requirements of team sports,
this approach; an observation that should humble the and following the important principle of training specific-
exercise physiologist. The attraction of this method is that ity, game- (i.e. so-called small sided games, SSG) [43–46]
the entire locomotor profile (i.e. both maximal sprinting or skill-based [47, 48] conditioning has received an expo-
and aerobic speeds, Fig. 3) of the athlete can be used to nential growth in interest [49]. While understanding of the
‘shape’ the HIT session, so that each run can be performed _ 2 responses to SSG is limited [44, 50, 51], T@VO
VO _ 2max
in accordance with the athlete’s (maximal) potential. While during an SSG in national-level handball players was
for short intervals (i.e. 10–60 s) the reference running time achieved for 70 % of the session (i.e. 5 min 30 s of the 8-
will be a percentage of the time measured over a maximal min game) [50]. Although the effectiveness of such an
100–400 m sprint, the speed maintained over 800–1,500 m approach has been shown [43, 46, 52, 53], SSGs have
to 2,000–3,000 m can be used to calibrate longer intervals limitations that support the use of less specific (i.e. run
(e.g. 2–4 to 6–8 min). The disadvantage of this approach, based) but more controlled HIT formats at certain times of
however, is that it does not allow the coach to consciously the season or for specific player needs. The acute physio-
manipulate the acute physiological load of the HIT session, logical load of an SSG session can be manipulated by
and precisely target a specific adaptation (i.e. Fig. 1, when changing the technical rules [54], the number of players
there is a need to improve a physiological quality and not and pitch size [55], but the overall load cannot, by default,
just to prepare for a race). Additionally, this approach tends be precisely standardized. Within-player responses to SSG
to be reserved for highly experienced coaches and well are highly variable (poor reproducibility for blood lactate
trained athletes, for whom best running times on several set [coefficient of variation (CV): 15–30 %] and high-intensity
distances are known. The translation and application of the running responses [CV: 30–50 %] [56, 57]), and the
track-and-field method to other sports is, however, difficult. between-player variability in the (cardiovascular) respon-
For example, how might a coach determine the expected ses is higher than more specific run-based HIT [49]. During
800-m run time for a 2.10-m tall basketball player that has an SSG in handball, average VO _ 2 was shown to be inver-
never run more that 40 s continuously on a court before? _
sely related to VO2max [50], suggesting a possible ceiling
Thus, using the track-and-field approach for non-track-and- _ 2max development in fitter players. Addition-
effect for VO
field athletes is unlikely to be appropriate, practical or ally, reaching and maintaining an elevated cardiac filling is
effective. believed to be necessary to improve maximal cardiac
function [58, 59]. The repeated changes in movement different exercise sessions (as assessed by accumulated
patterns and the alternating work and rest periods during an blood lactate levels during run-based HIT [71] and by
SSG might therefore induce variations in muscular venous running speed during an SSG [63]) can have a relatively
pump action, which can, in turn, limit the maintenance of a similar mean HR response. Thus, the temporal dissociation
high stroke volume (SV) throughout the exercise and between HR, VO _ 2, blood lactate levels and work output
compromise long term adaptations [60] (see Sect. 3.2). during HIT limits our ability to accurately estimate inten-
Compared with generic run-based exercises, the VO _ 2/heart sity during HIT sessions using HR alone. Further, it is
rate (HR) ratio (which can be used with caution as a sur- difficult to imagine how an athlete would practically con-
rogate of changes in SV during constant exercise when the trol or adjust exercise intensity during an interval, espe-
arteriovenous O2 difference is deemed constant [61]) is cially for athletes running at high speed, where viewing HR
also likely lower during an SSG [44, 50, 51]. While this from a watch is difficult.
ratio is generally close to 1 during run-based long intervals
_ 2 at 95 % VO
(i.e. VO _ 2max for HR at 95 % of maximal HR 2.4 Rating of Perceived Exertion-Based Prescription
(HRmax) [21, 62]), authors have reported values at 79 %
_ 2max and 92 % HRmax during basketball drills [44] and
VO Prescribing the intensity of HIT bouts using the rating of
_ 2max and 72 % HRmax during a five-a-side perceived exertion (RPE) method [72] is highly attractive
at 52 % VO
because of its simplicity (no need to monitor HR) and
indoor soccer game [51]. This confirms the aforementioned
versatility. Using this approach, coaches generally pre-
possible limitations with respect to SV enlargement, and
scribe independent variables such as the duration or dis-
suggests that assessment of cardiopulmonary responses
tance of work and relief intervals [71]. In return, the
during an SSG (and competitive games) using HR may be
_ 2/speed [50] (and HR/ athlete can self-regulate their exercise intensity. The
misleading [63]. Finally, the VO
intensity selected is typically the maximal intensity of
speed [63]) relationship also tends to be higher during an
exercise perceived as sustainable (‘hard’ to ‘very hard’,
SSG compared with generic running, possibly due to
i.e. C6 on a CR-10 Borg scale and C15 on a 6–20 scale)
higher muscle mass involvement. While this method of
and is based on the athlete’s experience, the session goal
training is often considered to be highly specific, this is not
and external considerations related to training periodiza-
always the case, since during competitive games players
tion. While the specific roles (or contributions) played by
have often more space to run and reach higher running
varying biological afferents and other neurocognitive
speeds (up to 85–90 % of maximal sprinting speed [64–
processes involved with the selection of exercise pace
66]) for likely similar metabolic demands.
based on effort are still debated (see viewpoint/counter-
point [73]), RPE responses may reflect ‘‘a conscious sen-
2.3 Heart Rate-Based Prescription
sation of how hard, heavy, and strenuous exercise is’’ [74],
relative to the combined physiological [75], biomechanical
Heart rate has become the most commonly measured
and psychological [76] stress/fatigue imposed on the body
physiological marker for controlling exercise intensity in
during exercise [77]. RPE responses are gender-indepen-
the field [67]. Setting exercise intensity using HR zones is
dent [78] and comparable during free versus constant pace
well suited to prolonged and submaximal exercise bouts;
exercise [79]. In practice, the first benefit of RPE-guided
however, its effectiveness for controlling or adjusting the
HIT sessions [69, 71] is that they do not require any
intensity of an HIT session may be limited. HR cannot
knowledge of the athletes’ fitness level (no test results
inform the intensity of physical work performed above the
needed). Finally, RPE is a universal ‘exercise regulator’,
speed/power associated with VO _ 2max, which represents a
irrespective of locomotor mode and variations in terrain
large proportion of HIT prescriptions [3–5]. Additionally, and environmental conditions. While more research in
while HR is expected to reach maximal values ([90–95 % trained athletes is needed to confirm the efficacy of RPE-
HRmax) for exercise at or below the speed/power associated guided training sessions, it has been shown to promote the
with VO_ 2max, this is not always the case, especially for very
same physiological adaptations as an HR-based pro-
short (\30 s) [68] and medium-long (i.e. 1–2 min) [69] gramme over 6 weeks in young women [80]. The RPE
intervals. This is related to the well-known HR lag at method does have limitations, however, since it does not
exercise onset, which is much slower to respond compared allow for the precise manipulation of the physiological
with the VO_ 2 response [70]. Further, HR inertia at exercise response to a given HIT session. This could limit the
cessation (i.e. HR recovery) can also be problematic in this ability to target a specific adaptation (i.e. Fig. 1), and
context, since this can create an overestimation of the might also be problematic in a team sport setting (as
actual work/physiological load that occurs during recovery discussed in the three preceding sections). There is also
periods [69]. It has also been shown that substantially some evidence to suggest that the ability to adjust/evaluate
Author's personal copy
HIT Programming: Cardiopulmonary Emphasis
exercise intensity based on RPE may be age- [81], fitness- the field since it is largely correlated with distance
[82, 83], exercise-intensity- and pleasure-[84] dependent. running performance [99] and match running capacity
in team sports (but for some positions only) [98, 100].
2.5 Velocity/Power Associated with Maximal Oxygen 4) A 5-min exhaustive run [101], since the average time
_ 2max)
Uptake (VO to exhaustion at vVO_ 2max has been reported to range
from 4 to 8 min [89, 102]. The vVO _ 2max calculated
Following early works in the 1970s and 1980s [85–88], the from this test has been shown to be largely correlated
physiologists V.L. Billat and D.W. Hill popularized the with the VInc.Test reached in the UM-TT (r = 0.94)
speed (or power) associated with VO _ 2max (so-called and on a ramp treadmill test (r = 0.97) [101], while
_ 2max or maximal aerobic speed/power [MAS/MAP]
v/pVO being slightly (i.e. 1 km/h range) slower and faster
[89, 90]) as a useful reference intensity to programme HIT than these velocities, respectively. The vVO _ 2max
_ 2max method is that it
[3–5]. The attractiveness of the v/pVO estimated via the 5-min test is, however, likely
represents an integrated measure of both VO _ 2max and the influenced by pacing strategies, and may only be valid
energetic cost of running/cycling into a single factor; _ 2max for &5 min.
for trained runners able to run at vVO
hence, being directly representative of an athletes’ loco- _ 2max is also method-[90] and protocol-dependent
vVO
motor ability [89]. Since v/pVO _ 2max is theoretically the
[103]. A mathematically estimated vVO _ 2max [88, 91] is
lowest speed/power needed to elicit VO _ 2max, it makes
_
likely to be lower than a measured vVO2max [93] that is
intuitive sense for this marker to represent an ideal refer-
also lower than VInc.Test [89, 104]. Additionally, irrespec-
ence for training [5, 15, 89].
tive of the method used to determine vVO _ 2max, protocols
v/pVO_ 2max can be determined, or estimated, a number of
with longer-stage durations tend to elicit lower speed/
different ways. Methods include using the following:
power values [103], while larger speed/power increments
1) The linear relationship between VO _ 2 and running result in higher-speed/power values. Similarly, vVO _ 2max
speed established at submaximal speeds [88]. also appears to be inversely related to the terrain or
2) The individual cost of running to calculate a theoret- treadmill slope [105]. Endurance-trained athletes are likely
ical running speed for a given VO _ 2max, either with [91] able to tolerate longer stages and therefore, less likely to
_
or without [92] resting VO2 values. present impairments in vVO _ 2max with variations in proto-
3) Direct measurement (i.e. pulmonary gas exchange col. These differences must be acknowledged since small
[93]) during ramp-like incremental running/cycling differences in the prescribed work intensity have sub-
tests to exhaustion, either on the track, on a treadmill stantial effects on acute HIT responses.
or using an ergometer. On the track, the University of The reliability of vVO_ 2max and VInc.Test (as examined
Montreal Track Test (UM-TT [87]) is the protocol using CVs) has been shown to be good: 3 % for vVO _ 2max
most commonly used with athletes [94, 95], although in moderately trained middle- and long-distance runners
the Vam-Eval [96], which only differs from the UM- [68], 3.5 % for UM-TT VInc.Test in moderately trained
TT due to its smoother speed increments and shorter athletes [87], 3.5 % (90 % confidence limits: 3.0, 4.1
intercones distances, has also received growing inter- [Buchheit M, unpublished results]) for Vam-Eval VInc.Test
est since it is easier to administer in young populations in 65 highly trained young football players, 2.5 % and 3 %
and/or non-distance running specialists [97, 98]. Since for treadmill VInc.Test in well trained male distance runners
the ‘true’ v/pVO _ 2max during incremental tests requires [106] and recreational runners [104], respectively, and
_ 2 measures to determine the lowest speed/power
VO finally, 1–2 % for the 5-min test in a heterogeneous
that elicits VO_ 2max (generally defined as a plateau in sporting population [107].
_
VO2 or an increase less than 2.1 mL/min/kg despite an For training prescription, VInc.Test, as determined in the
increase in running speed of 1 km/h [93]), the final field with the UM-TT [87] or the Vam-Eval [96], is
(peak) incremental test speed/power reached at the end probably the preferred method, since, in addition to not
of these tests (V/pInc.Test) is only an approximation of requiring sophisticated apparatus, the tests account for the
_ 2max. These two distinct speeds/powers are anaerobic contribution necessary to elicit VO _ 2max [108]. It
v/pVO
strongly correlated (r [ 0.90 [87]), but V/pInc.Test can is, however, worth noting that using vVO _ 2max or VInc.Test as
be 5–10 % greater than v/pVO _ 2max, with individuals the reference running speed is essentially suitable for long
possessing greater anaerobic reserves presenting gen- (2–6 min) intervals ran around vVO _ 2max (90–105 %). For
erally a greater v/pVO _ 2max - V/pInc.Test difference. sub- and supramaximal training intensities, however, the
Measurement of VInc.Test is, however, very practical in importance of other physiological attributes should be
Author's personal copy
M. Buchheit, P. B. Laursen
a 24 All pooled
these sessions can be divided into either short (3–10 s, RST)
n = 141
y=x
or long (30–45 s sprints, SIT) duration sprints. Since such
22 r = 0.84 (0.79, 0.88)
y = 0.8x + 6 exercise is consistently performed ‘all-out’, they can be
20 prescribed without the need to pre-test the individual (i.e.
_ 2max is not specifically needed to calibrate the intensity).
v/pVO
VIFT (km/h)
18
16
3 Acute Responses to Variations of Interval Training
14
_ 2max
3.1 Maximizing the Time Spent at or Near VO
12 Male
Female
17
through short intervals and repeated-sprint sequences
(RSS, Fig. 3). Figure 6 illustrates the VO _ 2 responses of
16
four distinct HIT sessions, including long intervals, and
15 highlights how changes in HIT variables can impact the
T@VO _ 2max [21, 50, 127, 128]. There are, however,
14
numerous methodological limitations that need to be con-
13
sidered to interpret the findings shown from the different
12 studies [68, 103, 129]. In addition to methodological con-
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 siderations between studies (treadmill vs. overground run-
VInc.Test (km/h) _ 2max and vVO
ning, determination criteria for both VO _ 2max,
data analysis [averaging, smoothing technique], threshold
Fig. 5 Relationships (90 % confidence limits) between the VIFT,
upper panel (Buchheit M, personal data [35]), vYo-YoIR1, lower for minimal VO _ 2 values considered as maximal [90 %,
panel [121] and VInc.Test. VIFT speed reached at the end of the 30–15 _
95 %, VO2max minus 2.1 ml/min/kg, 100 %]), differences
Intermittent Fitness Test, VInc.Test peak incremental test speed, vYo-
in the reliability level of analysers and intra-day subject
YoIR1 peak running speed reached at the end of the Yo-Yo
intermittent recovery level 1 test _ 2max, VO
variation in VO _ 2 kinetics and times to exhaustion,
make comparison between studies difficult. The within-
study effects of HIT variable manipulation on the observed
error of measurement (expressed as CV) shown to be 1.6 %
T@VO _ 2max can, however, provide insight towards under-
(95 % CL 1.4, 1.8) [122]. Also of note, since VIFT is
_ 2max and/or VInc.Test standing how best to manipulate HIT variables.
2–5 km/h (15–25 %) faster than vVO
[35, 116, 119], it is necessary to ‘adjust’ the percentage of
_ 2) Responses to Long Intervals
3.1.1 Oxygen Uptake (VO
VIFT used when programming. While HIT is generally
performed around vVO _ 2max (i.e. 100–120 % [3, 4], Fig. 3),
3.1.1.1 Exercise Intensity during Long Intervals During
VIFT constitutes the upper limit for these exercises (except
a single constant-speed or power exercise, work intensity
for very short intervals and all-out repeated-sprint training).
close to v/pVO _ 2max is required to elicit maximal VO_ 2
Thus, the 30–15IFT permits improved precision of pro-
gramming by individualizing the intensity of the prescribed responses. In an attempt to determine the velocity associ-
ated with the longest T@VO _ 2max during a run to exhaus-
interval bouts around intensities ranging from 85 % to
105 % of VIFT [43, 50, 123–125]. tion, six physical-education students performed four
separate runs at 90 %, 100 %, 120 % and 140 % of their
2.8 All-Out Sprint Training vVO_ 2max (17 km/h) [130]. Not surprisingly, time to
exhaustion was inversely related to running intensity.
Repeated all-out sprinting efforts have received a marked T@VO _ 2max during the 90 % and 140 % conditions was
growth in research interest lately [9, 126]. In practical terms, trivial (i.e. \20 s on average), but reached substantially
Author's personal copy
M. Buchheit, P. B. Laursen
[La]: 6.5(2.2)
45 9000
RPE:16.5(2.2)
40 Session time Total distance 8000
T@VO2max (90%) Distance >90% vVO2max
35 T@VO2max (95%) 7000
Distance (m)
[La]: 5.7(1.8)
Time (min) 25 5000
20 100%
4000
67(30)%
RPE:15.8(2.4)
15 [La]: 8.9(2.2) 3000
34(12)%
10 2000
26(15)%
38(21)%
43(13)%
24(9)%
5 70(9)% N/A 1000
20(14)% 70(19)%
0 0
5x(3min[90% vVO2max]/90s[0%]) 1 3x(2x(2min[100% vVO2max]/2min[50% vVO2max])) 3
Fig. 6 Mean ± SD of total session time, T@VO _ 2max, total distance [21]; 2 [127]; 3 [128] and 4 [50]. HIT high-intensity interval training,
_
and distance ran above 90 % of vVOmax during four different HIT [La] blood lactate concentration, N/A not available, RPE rating of
sessions including long intervals. Percentages (mean ± SD) refer to perceived exertion, SSG small-sided games (handball), VO _ 2max
T@VO _ 2max relative to the total session time, and distance ran above maximal oxygen uptake, T@VO _ 2max time spent above 90 % or
90 % of vVO _ 2max relative to the total distance ran. RPE and [La], 95 % of VO _ 2max minimal running speed associated with
_ 2max, vVO
mmol/L) are provided as mean ± SD when available. References: 1 _ 2max
VO
‘larger’ values at 100 % and 120 %: mean ± standard least be equal to the time needed to reach VO _ 2max. Thus,
deviation 190 ± 87 (57 % of time to exhaustion, with short intervals, as during typical HIT sessions (work
ES [ ?2.8) and 73 ± 29 s (59 %, ES [ ?1.7). In another interval duration \ time needed to reach VO _ 2max), VO
_ 2max
study, middle-distance runners did not manage to reach is usually not reached on the first interval. VO _ 2max values
_ 2max while running at 92 % of vVO
VO _ 2max [131]. The can, however, be reached during consecutive intervals,
_ 2max during a single run at the velocity
ability to reach VO through the priming effect of an adequate warm-up and/or
between the maximal lactate steady state and vVO _ 2max (i.e. the first intervals (that accelerates VO_ 2 kinetics [133, 134])
_
vD50, &92–93 % of vVO2max [130]) via the development and the development of a VO _ 2 slow component [10]. The
of a VO_ 2 slow component [10] is likely fitness-dependent _
time needed to reach VO2max during constant-speed exer-
[132] (with highly trained runners unlikely to reach cise to exhaustion has received considerable debate in the
_ 2max). In addition, as the determination of vD50 is
VO past [104, 131, 135–138]. The variable has been shown to
impractical in the field, work intensities of C95 % range from 97 s [138] to 299 s [131] and has a high in-
v/pVO_ 2max are therefore recommended for maximizing tersubject variability (20–30 % [131, 135, 137] to 40 %
T@VO _ 2max during single isolated runs. However, in prac- [104]). While methodological differences could explain
tice, athletes do not exercise to exhaustion, but use inter- some of these dissimilarities (whether 95 % or 100 % of
vals or sets. Slightly lower intensities (C90 % v/pVO_ 2max) _ 2max is considered, the presence and type of pretrial
VO
can also be used when considering repeated exercise bouts warm-up), the variability is consistent with those shown in
(as during HIT sessions), since interval VO _ 2 is likely to _ 2 kinetics at exercise onset. VO
VO _ 2 kinetics are generally
increase with repetitions with the development of a VO _ 2 affected by exercise intensity [139], accelerated during
slow component [10]. As suggested by Astrand in the running compared with cycling exercise [140] and faster in
1960s [10], exercise intensity does not need to be maximal trained individuals [141]. The relationship between VO _ 2
during an HIT session to elicit VO_ 2max. _
kinetics at exercise onset and VO2max, however, is less
clear, with some studies reporting relationships [141–143],
3.1.1.2 Time-to-Reach VO _ 2max and Maximizing Long- and others showing no correlation [144–146], suggesting
_
Interval Duration If VO2max is to be reached during the that the VO_ 2 kinetics at exercise onset is more related to
first interval of a sequence, its interval duration must at training status [141, 147] than VO _ 2max per se.
Author's personal copy
HIT Programming: Cardiopulmonary Emphasis
As an alternative to using fixed long-interval durations, duration did not modify these peak values (93 ± 5 and
using 50–70 % of time to exhaustion at vVO _ 2max has been 92 ± 3 % for 4- and 6-min intervals, respectively).
suggested by the scientific community as an alternative to Although performed on an inclined treadmill (5 %), these
individualizing interval training [3, 5, 137, 148–150]. latter sessions were performed at submaximal self-selected
However, to our knowledge, prescribing training based on velocities (i.e. 91 %, 83 %, 76 % and 70 % vVO_ 2max for 1-
time to exhaustion is very rare compared with how , 2-, 4- and 6-min intervals, respectively [71]), which
endurance athletes actually train. Additionally, while the probably explains why VO _ 2max was not reached [130] (see
rationale of this approach is sound (50–70 % is the average Sect. 3.1.1.4 below with respect to uphill running).
proportion of time to exhaustion needed to reach VO _ 2max),
this is not a practical method to apply in the field. First, in 3.1.1.3 Relief Interval Characteristics during Long-Inter-
addition to vVO_ 2max, time to exhaustion at vVO _ 2max must val High-Intensity Interval Training (HIT) When pro-
be determined, which is only a moderately reliable measure gramming HIT, both the duration and intensity of the relief
(CV = 12 % [68] to 25 % [93]), is exhaustive by nature interval are important [152]. These two variables must be
and highly dependent on the accuracy of the vVO _ 2max considered in light of (1) maximizing work capacity during
determination [103]. Second, the time required to reach subsequent intervals (by increasing blood flow to acceler-
_ 2max has frequently been reported to be longer than
VO ate muscle metabolic recovery, e.g. PCr resynthesis, H?
75 % of time to exhaustion in some participants [131, 135, ion buffering, regulation of inorganic phosphate (Pi) con-
136]. Intervals lasting 70 % of time to exhaustion have also centration and K? transport, muscle lactate oxidation) and;
been reported as very difficult to perform, likely due to the (2) maintaining a minimal level of VO _ 2 to reduce the time
high anaerobic energy contribution this requires [150]. For _
needed to reach VO2max during subsequent intervals (i.e.
athletes presenting with exceptionally long time to starting from an elevated ‘baseline’) [3, 14]. While per-
exhaustion, repeating sets of 60 % of time to exhaustion is forming active recovery between interval bouts is appeal-
typically not attainable [137]. Finally, there is no link ing to accelerate the time needed to reach VO _ 2max and in
between the time needed to reach VO _ 2max and time to turn, induce a higher fractional contribution of aerobic
exhaustion [135, 137]. Therefore, since a given percentage metabolism to total energy turnover [134], its effects on
of time to exhaustion results in very different amounts of performance capacity (time to exhaustion), and hence,
T@VO _ 2max, it appears more logical to use the time needed T@VO _ 2max are not straightforward. The benefit of active
_ 2max to individualize interval length [135] (e.g.
to reach VO recovery has often been assessed via changes in blood
time needed to reach VO _ 2max ? 1 or 2 min). If the time lactate concentration [153, 154], which has little to do with
_ muscle lactate concentration [155]. Additionally, neither
needed to reach VO2max cannot be determined (as is often
blood [156, 157] nor muscle [155] lactate has a direct (nor
the case in the field), we would therefore recommend using
linear) relationship with performance capacity. The current
fixed intervals durations C2–3 min that could be further
understanding is that active recovery can lower muscle
adjusted in accordance with the athlete’s training status
oxygenation [158, 159], impair PCr resynthesis (O2 com-
(with the less trained performing lower training loads, but
petition) and trigger anaerobic system engagement during
longer intervals) and the exercise mode. Indeed, if we
the following effort [160]. Additionally, while a beneficial
consider that the time constant of the primary phase of the
_ 2 kinetics at exercise onset (s) in the severe intensity performance effect on subsequent intervals can be expected
VO
with long recovery periods (C3 min [134, 161, 162], when
domain is generally in the range of 20 s to 35 s [131, 140,
the possible ‘wash out’ effects overcome that of the likely
146], and that a steady-state (C95 % VO _ 2max) is reached
reduced PCr resynthesis), active recovery performed dur-
_
after exercise onset within &4 s, VO2max should then be ing this period may negate subsequent interval perfor-
reached from within 1 min 20 s to 2 min 20 s (at least mance using both long periods at high intensities ([45 %
when intervals are repeated), irrespective of training status v/pVO_ 2max) [153] and short periods of varying intensity
and exercise mode. This is consistent with the data shown [159, 163]. In the context of long interval HIT, passive
by Vuorimaa et al. in national level runners recovery is therefore recommended when the relief interval
_ 2max = mean ± SD 19.1 ± 1 km/h), where VO
(vVO _ 2max
is less than 2–3 min in duration. If an active recovery is
values were reached during 2-min work/2-min rest inter- chosen for the above-mentioned reasons (i.e. [3, 14, 134].),
vals, but not during 1 min/1 min [22]. Similarly, in relief intervals should last at least 3–4 min at a submaximal
the study by Seiler and Sjursen [71] in well trained run- intensity [153] to allow the maintenance of high-exercise
ners (vVO_ 2max = 19.7 ± 1 km/h), peak VO _ 2 was only intensity during the following interval.
_
82 ± 5 % of VO2max during 1-min intervals, while it In practice, active recovery is psychologically difficult
reached 92 ± 4 during 2-min intervals; extending the work to apply for the majority of athletes, especially for non-
Author's personal copy
M. Buchheit, P. B. Laursen
endurance athletes. When moderately trained runners et al. [174] found in elite French middle-distance runners
_ 2max = 17.6 km/h) were asked to self-select the nat-
(vVO _ 2max = mean ± SD 21.2 ± 0.6 km/h, VO
(vVO _ 2max =
ure of their relief intervals during an HIT session _
78 ± 4 ml/min/kg) that T@VO2max observed during a hill
(6 9 4 min running at 85 % vVO _ 2max on a treadmill with HIT session (6 9 500 m [1 min 40 s] 4–5 % slope [85 %
5 % incline), they chose a walking recovery mode of about _ 2max]/1 min 40 s [0 %]) was lower compared with a
vVO
2 min [69]. Compared with 1-min recovery intervals, the 2- ‘reference’ track session (6–600 m [1 min 40 s] {102 %
min recovery duration enabled runners to maintain higher _ 2max}/1 min 40 s [0 %]). While VO
vVO _ 2 reached 99 %
running speeds; extending passive recovery to 4 min did and 105 % VO _ 2max during the hill and track sessions,
not provide further benefits with respect to running speeds. _ 2max/exercise time ratio was
respectively, the T@VO
The low T@VO _ 2max/total exercise time ratio shown
‘moderately’ lower during the hill HIT (27 % vs. 44 %,
by Millet et al. [128] (34 % when considering time [90 % _ 2max during
ES & - 1.0). The reason for the lower T@VO
_ 2max; Fig. 6) in well trained triathletes (vVO
VO _ 2max =
the hill HIT is unclear. Despite the expected higher muscle
19.9 ± 0.9 km/h) was likely related to the introduction of force requirement during hill running [173], this is unlikely
5-min passive pauses every second interval. With intervals enough to compensate for the reduction in absolute running
performed successively (no passive pauses, no blocks _ 2max
speed. If we consider that running uphill at 85 % vVO
but active recoveries \ 50 % vVO _ 2max between runs),
with a grade of 5 % has likely the same (theoretical) energy
Demarie et al. [127] reported a longer T@VO _ 2max in senior requirement as level running (or treadmill running with a
long-distance runners (vVO_ 2max = 16.6 ± 1.1 km/h). More 1 % grade to compensate for wind resistance [105])
recently, Buchheit et al. showed, in highly trained young at & 105 %; [175] the differences observed by Gajer et al.
runners (vVO_ 2max = 18.6 ± 0.3 km/h), that even shorter could have been even greater if the flat condition was ran at
recovery periods (i.e. 90 s), despite a passive recovery a faster (and possibly better matched) speed (105 % vs.
intensity (walk), enabled athletes to spend a relatively high 102 % [174]). As well, intervals in these sessions might not
proportion of the session at [90 % of VO _ 2max (43 %) [21]. have been long enough to observe the additional slow
This particular high ‘efficiency’ was also likely related to component generally witnessed with uphill running
both the young age [222] and the training status [141] of (& 2 min [172]). More research is required, however, to
the runners (since both are generally associated with clarify the cardiorespiratory responses to uphill running at
_ 2 kinetics).
accelerated VO higher gradients ([ 10 %) or to staircase running that may
Finally, in an attempt to individualize between-run require very high VO_ 2 values due to participation of upper
recovery duration, the return of HR to a fixed value or body limbs (back muscles and arms when pushing down or
percentage of HRmax is sometime used in the field and in grabbing handrails).
the scientific literature [165, 166]. The present under-
standing of the determinants of HR recovery suggest, 3.1.1.5 Volume of HIT with Long Intervals Another
nevertheless, that this practice is not very relevant [69]. variable that can be used to maximize T@VO _ 2max is the
During recovery, HR is neither related to systemic O2 number of long-interval repetitions. It is worth noting,
demand nor muscular energy turnover [142, 167], but however, that very few authors have examined HIT ses-
rather to the magnitude of the central command and sions/programmes that are consistent with the sessions that
metaboreflex stimulations [168]. athletes actually perform, and that research on the optimal
T@VO _ 2max per session is limited. Cumulated high-
3.1.1.4 Uphill Running during HIT with Long Inter- intensity ([90 % v/pVO _ 2max) exercise time during typical
vals Despite its common practice [169], the cardiorespi- sessions in well trained athletes has been reported to
ratory responses to field-based HIT sessions involving be 12 min (6 9 2 min or 6 9 &600 m [128]), 15 min
uphill or staircase running has received little attention. (5 9 3 min or 5 9 &800–1,000 m [21]), 16 min (4 9
Laboratory studies in trained runners (VInc.Test C 20 km/h) 4 min or 4 9 &1,000–1,250 m [46]), 24 min (6 9 4 min
[170, 171] have shown that, for a given running speed, VO _ 2 or 6 9 &1,000–1,250 m [69]; 4 9 6 min or 4 9
is higher during uphill compared with level running after a & 1,500 m [71]) and 30 min (6 9 5 min or 5 9 &1,300–
couple of minutes, probably due to the increased forces 1,700 m [127]), which enabled athletes to accumulate,
needed to move against gravity, the subsequently larger depending on the HIT format, from 10 min[90 % [21, 128]
motor units recruited and the greater reliance on concentric to 4–10 min [95 % [127, 128] at VO _ 2max. Anecdotal evi-
_ 2
contractions; all of which are believed initiators of the VO dences suggest that elite athletes tend to accumulate greater
slow component [172]. However, in practice, athletes T@VO _ 2max per session at some point of the season. In
generally run slower on hills versus the track [173]. Gajer recreationally trained cyclists (VO_ 2max: *52 ml/min/kg),
Author's personal copy
HIT Programming: Cardiopulmonary Emphasis
Seiler et al. showed that larger volumes of HIT performed (ES = ?1.2) [177]. The twofold magnitude difference in
at a lower intensity (i.e. 4 9 8 min = 32 min at 90 % Millet et al. [177] compared with Thevenet et al’s. study
HRmax) may be more effective than more traditional HIT [179] (ES: ?1.2 vs. ?0.6) is likely due to the fact that
sessions (e.g. 4 9 4 min) [176]. Further research examin- Millet et al’s. runs were not performed to exhaustion, but
ing the influence of these particular sessions in more highly implemented with pre-determined sets. It is therefore
trained athletes are, however, required to confirm these possible that if the runs at 100 % had been performed to
findings. exhaustion [177], this would have compensated for the
lower efficiency of the protocol and decreased the differ-
_ 2 Responses to HIT with Short Intervals
3.1.2 VO _ 2max observed. Similarly, increasing the
ence in T@VO
work intensity from 110 % to 120 % of vVO _ 2max during a
For short interval HIT runs to exhaustion, T@VO _ 2max is
15 s/15 s format in physical education students
largely correlated with total exercise time (i.e. time to (vVO_ 2max = 16.7 ± 1.3 km/h) lead to a ‘large’ improve-
exhaustion) [14]. Hence, the first approach to maximizing _ 2max/exercise time ratio (ES = ?1.8)
ment in the T@VO
T@VO _ 2max during such sessions should be to focus on the
[117]. Interestingly, in the study by Millet et al. [177],
most effective adjustments to work/relief intervals (intensity _ 2 with the increase in
individual improvements in T@VO
and duration) that increase time to exhaustion. In practice,
work intensity were inversely correlated with the athletes’
however, coaches do not prescribe HIT sessions to exhaus- _ 2 kinetics at exercise onset
primary time constant for VO
tion; they prescribe a series or set of HIT [50, 128, 177, 178].
(r = 0.91; 90 % CI 0.61, 0.98), suggesting that the time
In this context, it is important to consider the strategies
_ 2max within a given time period, constant could be an important variable to consider when
needed to maximize T@VO
selecting HIT variables [116, 177]. Practically speaking,
or to define ‘time-efficient’ HIT formats with respect to the
this data implies that coaches should programme HIT at
T@VO _ 2max/exercise time ratio (i.e. T@VO _ 2max in relation to
slightly greater exercise intensities for athletes presenting
the total duration of the HIT session, warm-up excluded). _ 2 kinetics (i.e. older/less trained [141]), or for
with slow VO
athletes exercising on a bike [140]. However, since
3.1.2.1 Effect of Work Interval Intensity on
increasing exercise intensity has other implications (e.g.
T@VO _ 2max Billat et al. [23] were the first to show the
greater anaerobic energy contribution, higher neuromus-
effect of exercise intensity on T@VO _ 2max during HIT with cular load, see Part II), such programming manipulations
short intervals (15 s/15 s) in a group of senior (average age: need to use a cost/benefit approach.
52 years) distance runners (vVO _ 2max = 15.9 ± 1.8 km/h). With respect to the use of very-high-exercise intensities
While the concurrent manipulation of the relief interval ([102/120 % VIFT/vVO _ 2max) for HIT, while the
intensity (60–80 % of vVO _ 2max, to maintain an average T@VO _ 2max/exercise time ratio is high (81 % and 77 % at
HIT intensity of 85 %) might partially have influenced the 130 % and 140 % of vVO _ 2max, respectively), exercise
_ 2 responses, the authors did show that increasing work
VO _ 2max
capacity is typically impaired and, hence, total T@VO
interval intensity from 90 % to 100 % of vVO _ 2max was for a given HIT series is usually low [117] (i.e. 5 min 47 s
associated with a ‘small’ improvement in the T@VO _ 2max/ at 120 % vVO _ 2max [117]). Nevertheless, the use of repeated
exercise time ratio (81 % vs. 68 %, ES = ? 0.5). How- sets of such training can allow the accumulation of a suf-
ever, the T@VO _ 2max/exercise time ratio (85 %) was not ficient T@VO _ 2max. Additionally, well trained athletes are
substantially greater using a work interval fixed at 110 generally able to perform HIT at this intensity for longer
compared with 100 % of vVO _ 2max (ES = ?0.2). Using a periods (i.e. [8 min [43, 50, 95, 180], especially when
fixed relief interval intensity (Fig. 7a, [117, 177, 179]), VIFT, instead of vVO _ 2max, is used [94]). To conclude, it
increasing work intensity from 100 % to 110 % of appears that during HIT that involves short work intervals,
vVO_ 2max during a 30 s/30 s format in trained young run- selection of a work bout intensity that ranges between
ners (vVO_ 2max = 17.7 ± 0.9 km/h) induced a ‘moderate’ 100 % and 120 % of vVO _ 2max ([89 % and 105 % of VIFT)
increase in the T@VO _ 2max/exercise time ratio may be optimal.
(ES = ? 0.6), despite ‘very large’ and ‘moderate’ reduc-
tions in time to exhaustion (ES = -4.4) and T@VO _ 2max 3.1.2.2 Effect of Work Interval Duration on T@VO _ 2max
(ES = -0.7), respectively [179]. A slight increase in work The effect of work interval duration on systemic VO _ 2
intensity from 100 % to 105 % of vVO _ 2max during a responses during HIT involving repeated short intervals
30 s/30 s HIT format in well trained triathletes was one of the first parameters examined in the HIT lit-
(vVO_ 2max = 19.8 ± 0.93 km/h) was associated with a erature [11, 12]. Surprisingly, there is little data available
‘large’ improvement in the T@VO _ 2max/exercise time ratio on repeated efforts lasting less than 15 s, despite the
Author's personal copy
M. Buchheit, P. B. Laursen
a 30
T@VO 2max (90%)
100% vVO2max /85% VIFT common approach used by coaches (e.g. 10 s/10 s, 10 s/
105% vVO2 max /89% V IFT
[La]: 8.2(1)
110% vVO2 max /94% VIFT
20 s) [181, 182]. During very short runs (\10 s), ATP
23(10)%
25 120% vVO2 max /102% VIFT requirements in working muscle are met predominantly by
130% vVO2 max /111% VIFT
20 [La]: 11.1(3) 140% vVO2 max /120% VIFT oxidative phosphorylation, with more than 50 % of the O2
Time (min)
55(20)%
[La]: 11.0(3) used derived from oxymyoglobin stores [11]. During the
15 32(22)% * recovery periods, oxymyoglobin stores are rapidly restored
[La]: 13.1(4) [La]: 13.5(3)
93(23)% 77(53)% and then available for the following interval [11]. As a
23(18)%
10 46(20)%
result, the cardiopulmonary responses of such efforts are
5 [La]: 14.7(5)
relatively low [183], unless exercise intensity is set at a
81(48)%
very high level (as detailed in Sect. 3.1.4) and/or relief
0 intervals are short/intense enough so that they limit com-
15s[--%]/15s[0] 1 30s[--%]/30s[50% vVO2max] 3
30s[--%]/30s[50% vVO2max] 2
plete myoglobin resaturation. Therefore, in the context of
HIT involving short intervals (100–120 % vVO _ 2max or 89/
b 65 15s
2(1)%
T@%VO2max (90%) 105 % VIFT), work intervals C10 s appears to be required
60 20s
1(1)% T@%VO2 max (95%)
_ 2 responses. Surprisingly, the specific
55
25s
30s
6(4)% to elicit high VO
1(1)%
50 60s effect of work interval duration, using a fixed work/rest
45 7(7)% ratio in the same group of subjects, has not been investi-
40
Time (s)
50(18)%
35
32(11)% [La]: 12.5(2)
2(2)%
gated thus far; whether, for example, a 15 s/15 s HIT
30 7(5)% session enables a greater T@VO _ 2max/exercise time ratio
25 [La]: 7.3(2)
0% than a 30 s/30 s session is unknown.
20 [La]: 11.5(2)
15
31(22)% What is known of course is that prolonging exercise
10 duration increases the relative aerobic energy requirements
5 [184]. Increasing the work interval duration, while keeping
0
work relief intervals constant, also increases T@VO _ 2max
--s[100% vVO2max]/30s[50]% 4 --s[105% vVO2max]/20s[0] 6
(Fig. 7b, [128, 185, 186]). For example, extending work
--s[100% vVO2max]/15s[50%] 5 --s[115% vVO2max]/20s[0] 6
interval duration from 30 s to 60 s using a fixed-relief
duration of 30 s in well trained triathletes (vVO _ 2max =
c 50 0% vVO2max T@ VO2max (90%)
50% vVO 2max /41% VIFT [La]: 6(2) 19.9 ± 0.9 km/h) induced ‘very large’ increases in
67% vVO2max /56% VIFT 24(19)%
40 84% vVO2max /71% VIFT T@VO _ 2max (9 vs. 1.5 min, ES = ? 2.4), despite a shorter
total session time (28 vs. 34 min, ES = -0.9; change in
Time (min)
[La]: 9.6(2)
30 the T@VO _ 2max/exercise ratio, ES = ?2.8) [128]. Simi-
68(19)%
[La]: 8.1(2)
_ 2max = 16.3 ± 1.1 km/h), increas-
larly, in wrestlers (vVO
20 [La]: 10.7(2) 84(10)%
ing running work interval duration from 15 s to 30 s lead to
42(17)%
[La]: 12.8(2)
[La]: 11.7(2)
77(12)% ‘very large’ increase in T@VO _ 2max (4 vs. 0 min,
63(26)%
10
ES = 2.9); [185] a further increase in the interval duration
to 60 s extended T@VO _ 2max to 5.5 min (ES = 0.5 vs. the
0
15s[120% vVO2max]/15s[--]% 7 30s[105% vVO2max]/30s[--]% 8–9 30-s condition). Considering the importance of VO _ 2
kinetics for extending T@VO _ 2max [177], these data suggest
Fig. 7 Mean ± SD total time and T@VO _ 2max during different forms that longer work intervals (e.g. 30 s/30 s vs. 15 s/15 s) are
of HIT, including short intervals, as a function of changes in work _ 2 kinetics (i.e. older/
preferred for individuals with slow VO
interval intensity (a: references 1 [117]; 2 [179] and 3 [177]), work
interval duration (b: references 4 [128], 5 [185] and 6 [186]) and relief less trained [141]), or for exercising on a bike [140].
interval intensity (c: references: 7 [190]; 8 [188] and 9 [164]).
-- indicates the variable that was manipulated. Percentages refer to the
_ 2max relative to total session time. Mean ± SD 3.1.2.3 Characteristics of the Relief Interval and
mean ± SD T@VO
[La] mmol/L is provided when available (values for study 6 [186] T@VO _ 2max The intensity of the relief interval also plays a
were all \ 6 mmol/L and are therefore not provided). HIT high- _ 2 response during HIT involving short
major role in the VO
intensity interval training, VO _ 2max maximal oxygen uptake, _ 2 during the
_ 2max time spent at 90 % or 95 % of VO _ 2max, VIFT running
intervals, since it affects both the actual VO
T@VO
speed reached at the end of the 30–15 Intermittent Fitness Test, sets and exercise capacity (and, hence, indirectly time to
_ 2max minimal running speed associated with VO
vVO _ 2max, * indicates exhaustion and T@VO _ 2max; Fig. 7c, [164, 187, 188]).
HIT not performed to exhaustion Compared with passive recovery, runs to exhaustion
Author's personal copy
HIT Programming: Cardiopulmonary Emphasis
involving active recovery are consistently reported to be advised to consistently recommend HIT runs to exhaustion
40–80 % shorter [164, 187–190]. Therefore, when con- to optimize T@VO _ 2max, this would likely be challenging,
sidering runs to exhaustion during 15 s/15 s exercises, the psychologically speaking, for both coaches and athletes
absolute T@VO _ 2max might not differ between active and alike; this is likely why HIT sessions to exhaustion are not
passive recovery conditions [190] (ES = -0.3), but the often practiced by athletes.
T@VO _ 2max/exercise time ratio is substantially greater In practice, the number of intervals programmed should
when active recovery is implemented (ES = ?0.9); a be related to the goals of the session (total ‘load’ or total
factor of obvious importance when implementing pre- T@VO _ 2max expected), as well as to the time needed to
determined sets of HIT [50, 128, 178]. During a 30 s/30 s reach VO _ 2max and the estimated T@VO _ 2max/exercise time
exercise model, compared with passive recovery, recovery ratio of the session. The time needed to reach VO _ 2max
intensities of 50 % and 67 % of vVO _ 2max were associated during different work- and relief-interval intensities
with ‘small’ and ‘very large’ improvements in T@VO _ 2max involving short HIT (30 s/30 s) was recently examined in
(ES = ?0.4 and ?0.1, respectively) and the T@VO _ 2max/ young endurance-trained athletes [164, 179, 188]. Not
exercise time ratio (ES = ?2.3 and ?4.1, respectively) surprisingly, these studies showed shorter time needed to
[164, 188]. Increasing the recovery intensity to 84 % reach VO_ 2max values for work intensities C105 % vVO _ 2max
reduced ‘moderately’ T@VO _ 2max (ES = -0.6), but _
and relief intensities C60 % vVO2max. Conversely, using
increased ‘very largely’ the T@VO _ 2max/exercise time ratio slightly lower work- and/or relief-interval intensities (i.e.
(ES = ?3.4). Taken together, these studies suggest that, work: 100 % and relief: 50 % vVO _ 2max) the runners nee-
for the short HIT formats examined thus far, relief interval _
ded more than 7 min to reach VO2max. Despite a lack of
intensities around &70 % vVO _ 2max should be recom- statistical differences [164, 179, 188], all ES between the
mended to increase both T@VO _ 2max and the T@VO _ 2max/ different work/relief ratios examined were ‘small’ to ‘very
exercise time ratio [23]. The fact that active recovery had a large’. In the field then, time needed to reach VO _ 2max might
likely greater impact on T@VO _ 2max during the 30 s/30 s be accelerated by manipulating HIT variables during the
[164, 188] compared with the 15 s/15 s [190] exercise first repetitions of the session, i.e. using more intense work-
model is related to the fact that VO _ 2 reaches lower values and/or relief-interval intensities during the first two to three
during 30 s of passive rest, which directly affects VO _ 2 intervals, or using longer work intervals and/or shorter
levels during the following effort. For this reason, we relief intervals.
recommend programming passive recovery B15–20 s for If we consider that a goal T@VO _ 2max of &10 min per
non-endurance sport athletes not familiar with performing session is appropriate to elicit important cardiopulmonary
active recovery, and/or performing active recovery during adaptations (Sect. 3.1.1.5), athletes should expect to exer-
longer-relief interval durations (C20 s). In general, the cise for a total of 30 min using a 30 s [110 % vVO _ 2max]/
characteristic of the relief interval intensity can be adjusted 30 s [50 % vVO _ 2max] format, since the T@VO _ 2max/total
in alignment with the work intensity, with higher-relief exercise time ratio is approximately 30 % (Fig. 7a). Since
interval intensities used for lower-work interval intensities it is unrealistic to perform a single 30-min session, it is
[23], and lower-relief exercise intensities used for higher- possible for it to be broken into three sets of 10–12 min
work interval intensities and durations [117, 177, 179]. (adding 1–2 min per set to compensate for the time needed
to regain VO _ 2max during the second and third set). Such a
session is typical to that used regularly by elite distance
3.1.2.4 Series Duration, Sets and T@VO _ 2max Dividing
runners in the field. A lower volume (shorter series or less
HIT sessions into sets has consistently been shown to sets) may be used for other sports (i.e. in team sports, a
reduce the total T@VO _ 2max [50, 128, 178]. For example, _ 2max of 5–7 min is likely sufficient [116]) and/or for
T@VO
in endurance-trained young runners (vVO _ 2max = 17.7 ±
maintenance during unloading or recovery periods in an
0.3 km/h), performing 4-min recoveries (30 s rest, 3 min at endurance athlete’s programme. In elite handball, for
50 % vVO _ 2max, 30 s rest) every 6 repetitions (30 s/30 s) example, 2 9 (20 9 10 s [110 % VIFT]/20 s [0]) is com-
was associated with a ‘moderately’ lower T@VO _ 2max mon practice, and might enable players to spend &7 min
(ES = -0.8) despite ‘very large’ increases in time to at VO_ 2max (considering a T@VO _ 2max/exercise time ratio of
exhaustion (ES = ?4.3); the T@VO _ 2max/exercise time 35 %; Buchheit M, unpublished data). In football (soccer),
ratio was therefore ‘very largely’ reduced (ES = -2.3) HIT sessions such as 2 9 (12–15 9 15 s [120 % VInc.Test]/
[178]. This is likely related to the time athletes needed to 15 s [0]) are often implemented [95], which corresponds to
_ 2 levels after each recovery period, irre-
return to high VO &6 min at VO _ 2max (14 min with a T@VO _ 2max/exercise
spective of the active recovery used. While it could be time ratio of &45 % [190]).
Author's personal copy
M. Buchheit, P. B. Laursen
_ 2max
3.1.3 Short versus Long Intervals and T@VO should be active and less than 20 s (Fig. 8, lower panel [13,
30, 158, 192–195]). The introduction of jumps following
A direct comparison between long and short HIT sessions, the sprints [193], and/or changes in direction [194], are also
with respect to T@VO _ 2max, has only been reported twice in of interest, since these may increase systemic O2 demand
highly-trained athletes. Gajer et al. [174] compared without the need for increasing sprint distance, which could
T@VO _ 2max between 6 9 600 m (track session, 102 % increase muscular load and/or injury risk (see review Part
_ II). Nevertheless, with very short passive recovery periods
vVO2max, ran in &1 min 40 s) and 10 repetitions of a
_ 2max by repeating 3 s
(i.e. 17 s), some athletes can reach VO
30 s/30 s HIT session (work/relief intensity: 105/50 %
_ 2max) in elite middle-distance runners (vVO _ 2max = sprints only (15 m). It is worth noting, however, that during
vVO
_ _ 2max all RSS examined here (Fig. 8, except for Dupont et al’s.
21.2 ± 0.6 km/h). While VO2 reached 105 % VO
study [192]), a number of players did not reach VO _ 2max,
_ 2max was not actually attained
during the track session, VO
and T@VO _ 2max showed high interindividual variations
during the 30 s/30 s session. If the track session is con-
_ 2max/exercise (CV = 30–100 %). More precisely, when considering the
sidered as the ‘reference’ session (T@VO
four different forms of RSS performed by the same group
time ratio: 44 %), T@VO _ 2max was ‘very largely’ lower
of 13 athletes [193, 194], it was observed that six (45 %) of
during the 30 s/30 s intervals (10 %, ES & -2.6). Simi- _ 2max on four occasions, one (8 %) on
them reached VO
larly, Millet et al. [128] showed that performing 2 min/
three, four (31 %) on two, with two (15 %) never reaching
2 min intervals enabled triathletes to attain a ‘very largely’
_ 2max during any of the RSS. When the data from the
VO
longer T@VO _ 2max compared with a 30 s/30 s session
four RSS were pooled, the number of times that VO _ 2max
(ES = ?2.2, T@VO _ 2max/exercise time ratio = ?2.2).
_
was reached was inversely related to VO2max (r = -0.61,
Long intervals were however ‘moderately’ less ‘efficient’
90 % CL -0.84, -0.19). Similarly, the total T@VO _ 2max
than a 60 s/30 s effort model (T@VO _ 2max/exercise time
over the four different RSS was inversely correlated with
ratio, ES = -0.8) [128]. Taken together, these data sug-
_ 2max (r = -0.55; 90 % CL -0.85, 0.00). There was,
VO
gest that long intervals and/or short intervals with a work/
relief ratio [1 should be preferred due to the greater however, no relationship between the number of times that
_ 2max/exercise time ratio. _ 2max was reached or the T@VO
VO _ 2max and VO_ 2 kinetics at
T@VO
exercise onset, as measured during submaximal exercise
_ 2 Responses to Repeated-Sprint Sequences [144]. These data show that, with respect to T@VO _ 2max,
3.1.4 VO
using RSS may be questionable to apply in some athletes,
Compared with the extensive data available on cardiore- especially those of high fitness.
spiratory responses to long and short HIT, relatively little
has been presented on the acute responses to RSS. An RSS _ 2 Responses to Sprint Interval Sessions
3.1.5 VO
is generally defined as the repetition of [two short (B10 s)
all-out sprints interspersed with a short recovery period The important research showing the benefits of SIT [126],
(\60 s) [191]. Early in the 1990s, Balsom et al. [13] notwithstanding, there is, to date, few data available
demonstrated that RSS were aerobically demanding (i.e. showing the acute physiological responses to typical SIT
[65 % VO _ 2max). In addition, Dupont et al. have shown sessions that might be implemented in practice. Tabata
_ 2max during repeated sprinting _ 2max was not reached (peak of
et al. [198] showed that VO
that footballers can reach VO
_ 2max during RSS _
87 % VO2max) during repeated 30 s cycling efforts (200 %
[192]. To our knowledge, however, T@VO
has not been reported. For the purpose of the present of pVO _ 2max and therefore not actually ‘all-out’) inter-
review, we have reanalysed data from previous studies [30, spersed by 2-min passive recovery. In contrast, we recently
158, 193, 194] to provide T@VO _ 2max values for several showed [142] that during a ‘true’ all-out SIT session, most
forms of RSS (Fig. 8, upper panel [13, 30, 158, 192–195]). subjects reached values close to (or above) 90 % of their
When manipulating key variables already described (Fig. 2 _ 2max and HR. Nevertheless, T@VO
VO _ 2max was only 22 s
_ 2max is often reached and sustained for 10–40 %
[35]), VO on average (range 0–60 s, with two subjects showing no
of the entire RSS duration (i.e. 10–60 s; Fig. 8 a). If RSS values [90 % VO _ 2max) [142], and VO
_ 2max was reached by
are repeated two to three times per session, as is often done five (50 %) subjects only. These important individual VO_ 2
in practice [180, 196, 197], the majority of athletes may responses to SIT sessions were partly explained by
spend up to 2–3 min at VO _ 2max during the repeated sprints. variations in cardiorespiratory fitness (i.e. there was a
To increase T@VO _ 2max during an RSS, it appears that negative correlation between T@VO _ 2max and both VO_ 2max
sprints/efforts should last at least 4 s, and that the recovery (r = -0.68; 90 % CL -0.90, -0.20) and VO _ 2 kinetics at
Author's personal copy
HIT Programming: Cardiopulmonary Emphasis
35%*
15(13)% of sprint repetitions increase. It has been shown that there
90
is a progressive shift in energy metabolism during a SIT
50%
session, with a greater reliance on oxidative metabolism
VO2 (% VO 2max)
80
8(6)%
when sprints are repeated [199, 200]. Along these same
70 lines, muscle deoxygenation levels and post-sprint reoxy-
69%
53%
genation rates have been shown to become lower and
29(25)%
60 46% slower, respectively, with increasing sprint repetition
19(27)%
9(10)% number. This response implies a greater O2 demand in the
50
muscle with increasing sprint repetition (since O2 delivery
is likely improved with exercise-induced hyperaemia)
40
[142].
6x (25m+Jump/21s[45%]) 7
6x (25m COD90+Jump/21s[45%]) 7
15x (40m/120s[0%]) 1
15x (40m/25s[50%]) 5
15x (40m/60s[0%]) 1
15x (40m/30s[0%]) 1
6x (25m/21s[45%]) 4
20x (15m/17s[0%]) 6
6x (25m COD90/21s[45%]) 4
40x (15m/27.4s[0%]) 2
20x (30m/25.5s[0%]) 2
15x (40m/24.4s[0%]) 2
6x (4s Wdw/21s[0%]) 3
6x (4s Wdw/21s[45%]) 3
3.1.6 Summary
_ 2
In this section of the review, we have highlighted the VO
responses to various forms of HIT. It appears that most HIT
formats, when properly manipulated, can enable athletes to
120
VO2 >50%VO2max
reach VO _ 2max. However, important between-athlete and
VO2 >55%VO2max
VO2 >65%VO2max between-HIT format differences exist with respect to
Recovery time (Log [s])
VO2 >75%VO2max
VO2 >80%VO2max T@VO _ 2max. RSS and SIT sessions allow for a limited
VO2 >85%VO2max
60 _
T@VO2max compared with HIT that involve long and short
40
intervals. Combined, data from high-level athletes [128,
174] suggest that long intervals and/or short intervals with
30 Wdw
a work/relief ratio [1 should enable a greater T@VO _ 2max/
20 exercise time ratio during HIT sessions. The methods of
+Jump 90COD +Jump
maximizing long-term VO _ 2max development and perfor-
mance adaptations using different forms of HIT sessions
10 _ 2max, as well as
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 that involve varying quantities of T@VO
Sprint duration (s) the most efficient way of accumulating a given T@VO _ 2max
in an HIT session (i.e. intermittently vs. continuously), is
Fig. 8 a Mean ± SD VO _ 2 responses during selected repeated-sprint still to be determined.
sequences. The intensity of the relief interval (i.e. [percentage]) is
expressed as a fraction of the vVO _ 2max. When available, both the
percentage of participants that reached VO _ 2max (runner) and the 3.2 Cardiac Response with HIT and Repeated-Sprint
mean ± SD time spent above 90 % of VO _ 2max (clock) are provided. Efforts
b The mean VO _ 2 responses during the repeated-sprint sequences
presented in section a are categorized into six colour-coded families Due to the varying temporal aspects [70] and possible
(based in the % of VO _ 2max elicited) and then plotted as a function of
dissociation between VO_ 2 and cardiac output (Qc) during
sprint and recovery duration. The dashed lines represent the shorter
sprint and recovery durations likely needed to achieve at least 80 % of intense exercise [201, 202], T@VO _ 2max might not be the
_ 2max. Circles indicate active recovery. Note (see arrow) that 75 %
VO sole criteria of importance for examining when assessing
of VO_ 2max can be achieved with very short sprints (i.e. 15 m) with the cardiopulmonary response of a given HIT session.
passive recovery when sprints are interspersed with very short pauses Since reaching and maintaining an elevated cardiac filling
(i.e. 17 s). References: 1 [13]; 2 [195];3 [158]; 4 [194]; 5 [192]; 6 [30]
and 7 [193]. COD changes of direction, VO _ 2 oxygen uptake, VO _ 2max is believed to be necessary for improving maximal cardiac
_ _
maximal VO2, vVO2max minimal running speed required to elicit function [58, 59, 203], training at the intensity associated
maximal VO _ 2, Wdw refers to sprints performed on a non-motorized with maximal SV may be important [201]. Defining this
treadmill key intensity, however, remains difficult, since this requires
the continuous monitoring of SV during exercise (e.g
(submaximal) exercise cessation (r = 0.68; 90 % CL 0.20, [25–27, 201, 204]). Interestingly, whether SV is maximal at
0.90). As with RSS, there was no link between T@VO_ 2max _ 2max, or prior to their occurrences, is still debated
v/pVO
_
and VO2 kinetics at exercise onset. Finally, it is worth [205–207]. SV behaviour during an incremental test is
Author's personal copy
M. Buchheit, P. B. Laursen
likely protocol-dependent [202] and affected by training and while further analysis on a greater number of subjects
status (e.g. ventricular filling partly depends on blood is needed, these preliminary data lend support to the belief
volume, which tends to be higher in trained athletes) [206], that despite its supramaximal nature, HIT sessions might
although this is not always the case [207]. In addition, the trigger cardiocirculatory adaptation via cardiovascular
nature of exercise, i.e. constant power vs. incremental vs. adjustments occurring specifically during the recovery
intermittent, as well as body position (more supine during periods. Take for example an HIT session involving three
rowing or swimming vs. more upright during running and sets of eight repetitions of a 15 s sprint (30 % APR)
cycling), might also affect the SV reached and maintained interspersed with 45 s of passive recovery (long enough for
throughout the exercise bout. In fact, there is limited data peak SV to be reached). Such a format would allow such
on cardiac function during exercises resembling those athletes to maintain their peak SV for 24 9 20 s = 480 s,
prescribed during field-based HIT sessions, i.e. constant- which is similar to what can be sustained during a constant-
power bouts at high intensity. In these studies, SV reached power exercise performed to exhaustion [25]. Interestingly,
maximal values within &1 min [26],] &2 min [24, 25, Fontana et al. [215] also observed, using a rebreathing
204] and &4 min [27], and then decreased [24, 26, 204] or method in untrained men, ‘largely’ greater SV values at the
remained stable [25, 27] prior to fatigue. Inconsistencies in end of a 30 s all-out sprint compared with an incremental
exercise intensities, individual training background and test to exhaustion (127 ± 37 vs. 94 ± 15 ml, ES =
particular haemodynamic behaviours (e.g. presence of a ? 1.3). HRmax was nevertheless ‘very largely’ lower
HR deflection at high intensities [208]), as well as meth- (149 ± 26 vs. 190 ± 12 beats/min, ES = -2.2), so there
odological considerations in the measurement of SV may was no substantial difference in maximal cardiac output
explain these differences [205–207]. As discussed in (Qcmax) [18.2 ± 3.3 vs. 17.9 ± 2.6 L/min, ES = -0.1].
Sect. 2.2, alternating work and rest periods during HIT with To conclude, the optimal nature and intensity of exercise
short intervals might also induce variations in the action of needed to produce the greatest SV adaptations is not
the venous muscle pump, which can, in turn, limit the known. In acquiring the answer to this question, one needs
maintenance of a high SV [60]. to take into account individual characteristics, such as fit-
Following the beliefs of German coach, Woldemar ness level, training status and various individual haemo-
Gerschler, in the 1930s, Cumming reported, in 1972, that dynamic behaviours to different exercise modes. In a
maximal SV values were reached during the exercise practical way, on the basis of the limited data available, it
recovery period, and not during exercise, irrespective of the might be recommended to prescribe a variety of different
exercise intensity [209]. Although these results were training methods to gain the adaptation advantages of each
obtained during supine exercise in untrained patients, and exercise format. HIT sessions, including near-to-maximal
despite contradictory claims [210], they contributed to the long intervals with long recovery durations (e.g. [3–4 min/
widespread belief that the repeated recovery periods and [2 min) might allow athletes to reach a high SV during the
their associated high SV accounted for the effectiveness of work (and possibly the relief intervals). Along these same
HIT on cardiocirculatory function [211]. In partial support lines, 4-min intervals &90–95 % v/pVO _ 2max appear to be
of this, Takahashi et al. [212] also reported in untrained receiving the greatest interest to improve cardiopulmonary
males that during the first 80 s of an active recovery (20 % function (e.g [46, 59, 216]). Alternatively, repeated short
_ 2max), SV values were 10 % greater than during a pre-
VO supramaximal work intervals (e.g. 15–30 s) with long
ceding submaximal cycling exercise (60 % VO _ 2max). Sur- recovery periods ([45 s) might also be effective at reach-
prisingly, these particular and still hypothetical changes in ing high values both during exercise [215] and possibly, in
SV during recovery had never before been examined dur- recovery (Fig. 9). However, whether Qcmax adaptations are
ing typical HIT sessions in athletes. We recently collected comparable following long- and short-interval sessions (i.e.
haemodynamic data in well trained cyclists that partly continuous vs. intermittent), or whether achieving a certain
confirmed Cumming’s findings (Buchheit M, et al., quantity of time at Qcmax (T@Qcmax) is needed to maxi-
unpublished data, Fig. 9). Irrespective of the exercise, i.e. mize its adaptation, is still unknown. In the only longitu-
incremental test, 3 min at pVO_ 2max or repeated 15-s sprints dinal study to date comparing the effect of short versus
(30 % of the anaerobic power reserve, APR), the SV of a long HIT on maximal cardiovascular function in university
well trained cyclist (peak power output = 450 W, students (VO _ 2max: 55–60 ml/min/kg) [59], there was a
_ 2max = 69 ml/min/kg, training volume = 10 h/week)
VO ‘small’ trend for greater improvement in Qcmax for the long
showed its highest values consistently during the recovery interval protocol (ES = ?1 vs. ?0.7 for 4 9 4 min vs. 15/15,
periods (upright position on the bike). While we respectively). It is worth noting that Seiler et al. [176]
acknowledge the limitations inherent to the impedance _ 2max: *52 ml/min/kg),
showed, in recreational cyclists (VO
method used (PhysioFlow, Manaetec, France [213, 214]), that accumulating 32 min of work at 90 % HRmax may
Author's personal copy
HIT Programming: Cardiopulmonary Emphasis
VO2 (ml/min/kg)
VO2 60 at *95 % HRmax [176]. While SV was not measured, these
40 results contrast with the idea that exercise intensity directly
200 20 determines the training responses [59]. Rather, they show
180 0 that both exercise intensity and accumulated duration of
and muscle TSI (%)
HR (bpm), SV (ml)
160
interval training may act in an integrated way to stimulate
140
physiological adaptations in this population [176]. In this
120 HR
SV latter case [176], the decrease in exercise intensity may
100 TSI
have allowed for a greater T@Qcmax (or near Qcmax), and,
80
60
in turn, a greater adaptation. Whether similar results would
40
be observed in highly trained athletes who are more likely
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 to require greater levels of exercise stress for further
Time (s) adaptations, is still unknown. Finally, since T@Qcmax has
been shown to be largely correlated with time to exhaustion
b 80
VO2 (ml/min/kg)
during severe exercise (r ranging from 0.79; 90 % CL 0.45,
VO2 60
40
0.93 to r 0.98; 90 % CL 0.94, 0.99) [25], pacing strategies
200 20
that can increase time to exhaustion but that sustain a high
180 cardiorespiratory demand may also be of interest. For
and muscle TSI (%)
0
HR (bpm), SV (ml)
c 80 4 Conclusions
VO2 (ml/min/kg)
VO2 60
40
In Part I of this review, the different aspects of HIT pro-
200 20
gramming have been discussed with respect to T@VO _ 2max
180 0
and muscle TSI (%)
HR (bpm), SV (ml)
160
and cardiopulmonary function. Important between-athlete
140 and between-HIT format differences exist, so that precise
120 HR recommendations are difficult to offer. Most HIT formats,
SV
100 TSI if properly manipulated, can enable athletes to reach
80 _ 2max, but RSS and SIT sessions allow limited
VO
60 T@VO _ 2max compared with HIT sessions involving long
40 _ 2 responses during RSS and SIT
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 and short intervals. The VO
Time (s) appear to be fitness-dependent, with the fitter athletes less
able to reach VO_ 2max during such training. Based on the
Fig. 9 a VO _ 2, HR, SV and muscle oxygenation (TSI) during an
current review, the following general recommendations can
incremental test followed by two sets of three supramaximal 15-s
sprints (35 % APR); b 5-min bout at 50 % of pVO _ 2max immediately be made:
followed by 3 min at pVO _ 2max; and (c) the early phase of an HIT
1. To individualize exercise intensity and target specific
session (i.e. first four exercise bouts (15-s [35 % APR]/45 s [passive];
_ 2max and
acute physiological responses (Fig. 1), v/pVO
in a well trained cyclist. Note the reductions in SV for intensities
above [50 % of VO _ 2max during both the incremental and constant ASR/APR or VIFT are likely the more accurate
power tests, which is associated with a greater muscle deoxygenation references needed to design HIT with long
during the incremental test. In contrast, maximal SV values are (C1–2 min) and short (B45 s) intervals, respectively.
consistently observed during the post-exercise periods, either follow-
ing incremental, maximal or supramaximal exercises. APR anaerobic For run-based HIT sessions, compared with the ASR,
power reserve, HIT high-intensity interval training, HR heart rate, VIFT integrates between-effort recovery abilities and
_ 2max maximal oxygen uptake, p VO
VO _ 2max minimal power associated COD capacities that make VIFT especially relevant for
_ 2max, SV stroke volume, TSI tissue saturation index
with VO programming short, supramaximal intermittent runs
Author's personal copy
M. Buchheit, P. B. Laursen
performed with COD, as implemented in the majority programming puzzle’’, while adding what is ‘missed’
of team and racket sports. during the technical/tactical sessions [151], since physio-
2. Especially in well trained athletes that perform exer- logical and performance adaptations have been shown to
cises involving large muscle groups, and assuming the occur in relation to the accumulated training load com-
accumulation of T@VO _ 2max may maximize the train- pleted at high intensities [218]). Finally, since in team
ing stimulus to improving performance, we recom- sports improvements in physical fitness might not have a
mend long- and short-bout HIT with a work/relief ratio similar impact on match running performance for all
[1 (see Part II, Table 1 for practical programming players (influence of playing positions, systems of play,
suggestions). Additionally: individual playing styles) [63, 98, 219, 220], the imple-
mentation of HIT sessions should be individualized and
a. There should be little delay between the warm-up
considered using a cost-benefit approach. As will be dis-
and the start of the HIT session so that the time
cussed in Part II, consideration for other important aspects
needed to reach VO_ 2max is accelerated. Warm-up
of HIT programming, such as glycolytic anaerobic energy
intensity can be B60–70 % v/pVO _ 2max, or game contribution, neuromuscular load and musculoskeletal
based (moderate intensity) for team and racket strain, should also be considered. Further studies are also
sport athletes. needed to examine the long-term adaptations to all forms
b. Total session volume should enable athletes to of HIT/repeated all-out efforts presented in the present
spend between &5 (team and racket sports) and review with respect to gender, age and training status/
&10 (endurance sports) min at VO _ 2max. background.
3. Until new evidence is provided, the importance of Acknowledgments No sources of funding were used to assist in the
continuous versus repeated ventricular filling at high preparation of this review. The authors have no conflicts of interest
rates for developing cardiovascular adaptations is not that are directly relevant to the content of this review.
known. Near-to-maximal and prolonged work intervals
currently appear to be the preferred HIT option (i.e.
[4 min at 90–95 % v/pVO _ 2max, with likely decreasing References
external load with increasing fatigue to prolong
1. Laursen PB. Training for intense exercise performance: high-
T@Qcmax).
intensity or high-volume training? Scand J Med Sci Sports.
2010;20(Suppl 2):1–10.
2. Seiler S, Tønnessen E. Intervals, thresholds, and long slow
distance: the role of intensity and duration in endurance training.
5 Perspective Sportscience. 2009;13:32–53.
3. Billat LV. Interval training for performance: a scientific and
Further research is required to specify the acute cardio- empirical practice: special recommendations for middle- and
long-distance running. Part I: aerobic interval training. Sports
pulmonary responses to HIT/RST/SIT in particular popu- Med. 2001;1:13–31.
lations such as youth and female athletes, as well as the 4. Billat LV. Interval training for performance: a scientific and
influence that training status and cardiorespiratory fitness empirical practice: special recommendations for middle- and
have on these responses. Further research is also needed to long-distance running. Part II: anaerobic interval training. Sports
Med. 2001;31:75–90.
improve our understanding of how to optimally manipulate 5. Laursen PB, Jenkins DG. The scientific basis for high-intensity
HIT variables, in particular, environmental conditions (e.g. interval training: optimising training programmes and maxi-
altitude [21], heat [217]), where ‘typical’ HIT sessions, as mising performance in highly trained endurance athletes. Sports
suggested for programming in the present review, cannot Med. 2002;32:53–73.
6. Laursen PB. Interval training for endurance. In: Mujika I, editor.
be performed. The impact of time of day, timing within a Endurance training: science and practice (pp. 41–50). Vitoria-
session, and external training contents should also be Gasteiz: Iñigo Mujika; 2012. ISBN 978-84-939970-0-7.
examined, as typically most studies are conducted with 7. Bishop D, Girard O, Mendez-Villanueva A. Repeated-sprint
‘fresh’ participants in controlled environments, while in ability—Part II: recommendations for training. Sports Med.
2011;41:741–56.
practice, HIT sessions are often performed in a state of 8. Gibala MJ, Little JP, van Essen M, et al. Short-term sprint
accumulated fatigue (end of a team-sport session or in interval versus traditional endurance training: similar initial
the afternoon following an exhaustive morning training adaptations in human skeletal muscle and exercise performance.
session). Understanding the physiological responses to J Physiol. 2006;575:901–11.
9. Iaia FM, Bangsbo J. Speed endurance training is a powerful
technical/tactical training sessions is also likely an impor- stimulus for physiological adaptations and performance improve-
tant aspect of successful training in team sport athletes, so ments of athletes. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2010;20(Suppl. 2):
that the optimal HIT sessions can be programmed as sup- 11–23.
plemental sessions (i.e. how does one ‘‘best solve the
Author's personal copy
HIT Programming: Cardiopulmonary Emphasis
10. Astrand I, Astrand PO, Christensen EH, et al. Intermittent 28. Christmass MA, Dawson B, Arthur PG. Effect of work and
muscular work. Acta Physiol Scand. 1960;48:448–53. recovery duration on skeletal muscle oxygenation and fuel use
11. Astrand I, Astrand PO, Christensen EH, et al. Myohemoglobin during sustained intermittent exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup
as an oxygen-store in man. Acta Physiol Scand. 1960;48: Physiol. 1999;80:436–47.
454–60. 29. Christmass MA, Dawson B, Passeretto P, et al. A comparison of
12. Christensen EH, Hedman R, Saltin B. Intermittent and contin- skeletal muscle oxygenation and fuel use in sustained continu-
uous running. (A further contribution to the physiology of ous and intermittent exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol. 1999;80:
intermittent work.). Acta Physiol Scand. 1960;50:269–86. 423–35.
13. Balsom PD, Seger JY, Sjodin B, et al. Maximal-intensity 30. Buchheit M, Laursen PB, Ahmaidi S. Parasympathetic reacti-
intermittent exercise: effect of recovery duration. Int J Sports vation after repeated sprint exercise. Am J Physiol Heart Circ
Med. 1992;13:528–33. Physiol. 2007;293:H133–41.
14. Midgley AW, McNaughton LR. Time at or near VO2max during 31. James DV, Barnes AJ, Lopes P, et al. Heart rate variability:
continuous and intermittent running: a review with special ref- response following a single bout of interval training. Int J Sports
erence to considerations for the optimisation of training proto- Med. 2002;23:247–51.
cols to elicit the longest time at or near VO2max. J Sports Med 32. Mourot L, Bouhaddi M, Tordi N, et al. Short- and long-term
Phys Fitness. 2006;46:1–14. effects of a single bout of exercise on heart rate variability:
15. Midgley AW, McNaughton LR, Wilkinson M. Is there an comparison between constant and interval training exercises.
optimal training intensity for enhancing the maximal oxygen Eur J Appl Physiol 2004; 92:508–17.
uptake of distance runners? Empirical research findings, current 33. Al Haddad H, Laursen PB, Ahmaidi S, et al. Nocturnal heart rate
opinions, physiological rationale and practical recommenda- variability following supramaximal intermittent exercise. Int J
tions. Sports Med. 2006;36:117–32. Sports Physiol Perform. 2009;4:435–47.
16. Altenburg TM, Degens H, van Mechelen W, et al. Recruitment 34. Hoff J, Helgerud J. Endurance and strength training for soccer
of single muscle fibers during submaximal cycling exercise. players: physiological considerations. Sports Med. 2004;3:165–80.
J Appl Physiol. 2007;103:1752–6. 35. Buchheit M. The 30–15 Intermittent Fitness Test: a new inter-
17. Gollnick PD, Piehl K, Saltin B. Selective glycogen depletion mittent running field test for intermittent sport players—part 1.
pattern in human muscle fibres after exercise of varying inten- Approches du Handball. 2005;87:27–34.
sity and at varying pedalling rates. J Physiol. 1974;241:45–57. 36. Buchheit M, Al Haddad H, Chivot A, et al. Effect of in- versus
18. Midgley AW, McNaughton LR, Jones AM. Training to enhance out-of-water recovery on repeated swimming sprint perfor-
the physiological determinants of long-distance running per- mance. Eur J Appl Physiol 2010;108:321–7.
formance: can valid recommendations be given to runners and 37. Guiraud T, Nigam A, Gremeaux V, et al. High-intensity interval
coaches based on current scientific knowledge? Sports Med. training in cardiac rehabilitation. Sports Med. 2012;42:587–605.
2007;37:857–80. 38. Metcalfe RS, Babraj JA, Fawkner SG, et al. Towards the min-
19. Vollaard NB, Constantin-Teodosiu D, Fredriksson K, et al. imal amount of exercise for improving metabolic health: bene-
Systematic analysis of adaptations in aerobic capacity and ficial effects of reduced-exertion high-intensity interval training.
submaximal energy metabolism provides a unique insight into Eur J Appl Physiol. 2012;112:2767–75.
determinants of human aerobic performance. J Appl Physiol. 39. Hood MS, Little JP, Tarnopolsky MA, et al. Low-volume
2009;106:1479–86. interval training improves muscle oxidative capacity in seden-
20. Bouchard C, Rankinen T. Individual differences in response to tary adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2011;43:1849–56.
regular physical activity. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001;33: 40. Trilk JL, Singhal A, Bigelman KA, et al. Effect of sprint interval
S446–51. training on circulatory function during exercise in sedentary,
21. Buchheit M, Kuitunen S, Voss SC, et al. Physiological strain overweight/obese women. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2011;111:1591–7.
associated with high-intensity hypoxic intervals in highly trained 41. Cohen J. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences.
young runners. J Strength Cond Res. 2012;26:94–105. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc, Inc.; 1988. p. 599.
22. Vuorimaa T, Vasankari T, Rusko H. Comparison of physio- 42. Hopkins WG, Marshall SW, Batterham AM, et al. Progressive
logical strain and muscular performance of athletes during two statistics for studies in sports medicine and exercise science.
intermittent running exercises at the velocity associated with Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2009;41:3–13.
VO2max. Int J Sports Med. 2000;21:96–101. 43. Buchheit M, Laursen PB, Kuhnle J, et al. Game-based training
23. Billat LV, Slawinksi J, Bocquet V, et al. Very short (15 s–15 s) in young elite handball players. Int J Sports Med. 2009;30:
interval-training around the critical velocity allows middle-aged 251–8.
runners to maintain VO2 max for 14 minutes. Int J Sports Med. 44. Castagna C, Impellizzeri FM, Chaouachi A, et al. Physiological
2001;22:201–8. responses to ball-drills in regional level male basketball players.
24. Faisal A, Beavers KR, Robertson AD, et al. Prior moderate and J Sports Sci. 2011;29:1329–36.
heavy exercise accelerate oxygen uptake and cardiac output 45. Fernandez-Fernandez J, Sanz-Rivas D, Sanchez-Muñoz C, et al.
kinetics in endurance athletes. J Appl Physiol. 2009;106: Physiological responses to on-court vs running interval training
1553–63. in competitive tennis players. J Sports Sci Med. 2011;10:540–5.
25. Lepretre PM, Lopes P, Koralsztein JP, et al. Fatigue responses in 46. Impellizzeri FM, Marcora SM, Castagna C, et al. Physiological
exercise under control of VO2. Int J Sports Med. 2008;29: and performance effects of generic versus specific aerobic
199–205. training in soccer players. Int J Sports Med. 2006;27:483–92.
26. Mortensen SP, Damsgaard R, Dawson EA, et al. Restrictions in 47. Sheppard JM, Borgeaud R. Skill based conditioning: a per-
systemic and locomotor skeletal muscle perfusion, oxygen spective from elite volleyball. NSCA hot topic series. 2009;
supply and VO2 during high-intensity whole-body exercise in December [online]. Available from URL: http://www.nsca-
humans. J Physiol. 2008;586:2621–35. lift.org. [Accessed 12 Dec 2011].
27. Richard R, Lonsdorfer-Wolf E, Dufour S, et al. Cardiac output 48. Gabbett TJ. Skill-based conditioning games as an alternative to
and oxygen release during very high-intensity exercise per- traditional conditioning for rugby league players. J Strength
formed until exhaustion. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2004;93:9–18. Cond Res. 2006;20:309–15.
Author's personal copy
M. Buchheit, P. B. Laursen
49. Hill-Haas SV, Dawson B, Impellizzeri FM, et al. Physiology of 70. Cerretelli P, Di Prampero PE. Kinetics of respiratory gas
small-sided games training in football: a systematic review. exchange and cardiac output at the onset of exercise. Scand J
Sports Med. 2011;41:199–220. Respir Dis 1971;Suppl.:35a–g.
50. Buchheit M, Lepretre PM, Behaegel AL, et al. Cardiorespiratory 71. Seiler S, Sjursen JE. Effect of work duration on physiological
responses during running and sport-specific exercises in hand- and rating scale of perceived exertion responses during self-
ball players. J Sci Med Sport. 2009;12:399–405. paced interval training. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2004;14:
51. Castagna C, Belardinelli R, Impellizzeri FM, et al. Cardiovas- 318–25.
cular responses during recreational 5-a-side indoor-soccer. J Sci 72. Dishman RK, Patton RW, Smith J, et al. Using perceived
Med Sport 2007;10:89–95. exertion to prescribe and monitor exercise training heart rate. Int
52. Owen AL, Wong del P, Paul D, Dellal A. Effects of a periodized J Sports Med. 1987;8:208–13.
small-sided game training intervention on physical performance 73. Marcora S. Perception of effort during exercise is independent
in elite professional soccer. J Strength Cond Res. 2012;26:2748– of afferent feedback from skeletal muscles, heart, and lungs.
54. J Appl Physiol. 2009;106:2060–2.
53. Hill-Haas SV, Coutts AJ, Rowsell GJ, et al. Generic versus 74. Marcora SM. Role of feedback from Group III and IV muscle
small-sided game training in soccer. Int J Sports Med. 2009;30: afferents in perception of effort, muscle pain, and discomfort.
636–42. J Appl Physiol 2011;110:1499 (author reply 500).
54. Dellal A, Lago-Penas C, Wong del P, et al. Effect of the number 75. Coutts AJ, Rampinini E, Marcora SM, et al. Heart rate and blood
of ball contacts within bouts of 4 vs. 4 small-sided soccer games. lactate correlates of perceived exertion during small-sided soc-
Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2011;6:322–33. cer games. J Sci Med Sport. 2009;12:79–84.
55. Rampinini E, Impellizzeri F, Castagna C, et al. Factors influ- 76. Marcora SM, Staiano W, Manning V. Mental fatigue impairs
encing physiological responses to small-sided soccer games. physical performance in humans. J Appl Physiol. 2009;106:
J Sports Sci. 2007;6:659–66. 857–64.
56. Hill-Haas S, Coutts A, Rowsell G, et al. Variability of acute 77. Ulmer HV. Concept of an extracellular regulation of muscular
physiological responses and performance profiles of youth metabolic rate during heavy exercise in humans by psycho-
soccer players in small-sided games. J Sci Med Sport. 2008;11: physiological feedback. Experientia. 1996;52:416–20.
487–90. 78. Garcin M, Fleury A, Mille-Hamard L, et al. Sex-related differ-
57. Hill-Haas S, Rowsell G, Coutts A, et al. The reproducibility of ences in ratings of perceived exertion and estimated time limit.
physiological responses and performance profiles of youth soc- Int J Sports Med. 2005;26:675–81.
cer players in small-sided games. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 79. Garcin M, Danel M, Billat V. Perceptual responses in free vs.
2008;3:393–6. constant pace exercise. Int J Sports Med. 2008;29:453–9.
58. Daussin FN, Ponsot E, Dufour SP, et al. Improvement of Da-vO2 80. Celine CG, Monnier-Benoit P, Groslambert A, et al. The per-
by cardiac output and oxygen extraction adaptation during ceived exertion to regulate a training program in young women.
intermittent versus continuous endurance training. Eur J Appl J Strength Cond Res. 2011;25:220–4.
Physiol. 2007;101:377–83. 81. Groslambert A, Mahon AD. Perceived exertion: influence of age
59. Helgerud J, Hoydal K, Wang E, et al. Aerobic high-intensity and cognitive development. Sports Med. 2006;36:911–28.
intervals improve VO2max more than moderate training. Med Sci 82. Garcin M, Coquart JB, Robin S, et al. Prediction of time to
Sports Exerc. 2007;39:665–71. exhaustion in competitive cyclists from a perceptually based
60. Hoff J, Wisloff U, Engen LC, et al. Soccer specific aerobic scale. J Strength Cond Res. 2011;25:1393–9.
endurance training. Br J Sports Med. 2002;36:218–21. 83. Garcin M, Mille-Hamard L, Billat V. Influence of aerobic fitness
61. Whipp BJ, Higgenbotham MB, Cobb FC. Estimating exercise level on measured and estimated perceived exertion during
stroke volume from asymptotic oxygen pulse in humans. J Appl exhausting runs. Int J Sports Med. 2004;25:270–7.
Physiol. 1996;81:2674–9. 84. Cabanac ME. Exertion and pleasure from an evolutionary per-
62. Saltin B, Blomqvist G, Mitchell JH, et al. Response to exercise spective. In: Acevedo EO, Ekkekakis P, editors. Psychobiology of
after bed rest and after training. Circulation 1968;38:VII1–78. physical activity. Champaign: Human Kinetics; 2006. p. 79–89.
63. Mendez-Villanueva A, Buchheit M, Simpson BM, et al. Match 85. Volkov NI, Shirkovets EA, Borilkevich VE. Assessment of
play intensity distribution in youth soccer. Int J Sport Med aerobic and anaerobic capacity of athletes in treadmill running
2013;34:101–10. tests. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1975;34:121–30.
64. Mendez-Villanueva A, Buchheit M, Simpson B, et al. Does on- 86. Conley DL, Krahenbuhl GS. Running economy and distance
field sprinting performance in young soccer players depend on running performance of highly trained athletes. Med Sci Sports
how fast they can run or how fast they do run? J Strength Cond Exerc. 1980;12:357–60.
Res. 2011;25:2634–8. 87. Leger LA, Boucher R. An indirect continuous running multi-
65. Di Salvo V, Baron R, Gonzalez-Haro C, et al. Sprinting analysis stage field test: the Universite de Montreal track test. Can J Appl
of elite soccer players during European Champions League and Sport Sci. 1980;5:77–84.
UEFA Cup matches. J Sports Sci. 2010;28:1489–94. 88. Daniels J, Scardina N, Hayes J, et al. Elite and subelite female
66. Casamichana D, Castellano J, Castagna C. Comparing the middle- and long-distance runners. In: Landers DM, editor.
physical demands of friendly matches and small-sided games in Sport and elite performers: the 1984 Olympic scientific congress
semiprofessional soccer players. J Strength Cond Res. proceedings, vol. 3. Champaign: Human Kinetics; 1984.
2012;26:837–43. p. 57–72.
67. Achten J, Jeukendrup AE. Heart rate monitoring: applications 89. Billat LV, Koralsztein JP. Significance of the velocity at VO2max
and limitations. Sports Med. 2003;33:517–38. and time to exhaustion at this velocity. Sports Med.
68. Midgley AW, McNaughton LR, Carroll S. Reproducibility of 1996;22:90–108.
time at or near VO2max during intermittent treadmill running. Int 90. Hill DW, Rowell AL. Running velocity at VO2max. Med Sci
J Sports Med. 2007;28:40–7. Sports Exerc. 1996;28:114–9.
69. Seiler S, Hetlelid KJ. The impact of rest duration on work 91. di Prampero PE, Atchou G, Bruckner JC, et al. The energetics of
intensity and RPE during interval training. Med Sci Sports Ex- endurance running. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol.
erc. 2005;37:1601–7. 1986;55:259–66.
Author's personal copy
HIT Programming: Cardiopulmonary Emphasis
92. Lacour JR, Padilla-Magunacelaya S, Barthelemy JC, et al. The 113. Weyand PG, Lin JE, Bundle MW. Sprint performance-duration
energetics of middle-distance running. Eur J Appl Physiol relationships are set by the fractional duration of external force
Occup Physiol. 1990;60:38–43. application. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol.
93. Billat V, Renoux JC, Pinoteau J, et al. Reproducibility of run- 2006;290:R758–65.
ning time to exhaustion at VO2max in subelite runners. Med Sci 114. Buchheit M. Repeated-sprint performance in team sport players:
Sports Exerc. 1994;26:254–7. associations with measures of aerobic fitness, metabolic control
94. Buchheit M. The 30–15 Intermittent fitness test: accuracy for and locomotor function. Int J Sport Med. 2012;33:230–9.
individualizing interval training of young intermittent sport 115. Mendez-Villanueva A, Hamer P, Bishop D. Fatigue in repe-
players. J Strength Cond Res. 2008;22:365–74. ated-sprint exercise is related to muscle power factors and
95. Dupont G, Akakpo K, Berthoin S. The effect of in-season, high- reduced neuromuscular activity. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2008;103:
intensity interval training in soccer players. J Strength Cond 411–9.
Res. 2004;18:584–9. 116. Buchheit M. The 30–15 intermittent fitness test: 10 year review.
96. Cazorla G, Benezzedine-Boussaidi L. Carré, F. Aptitude aérobie Myorobie J 2010; 1 [online]. Available from URL: http://www.
sur le terrain. Pourquoi et comment l’évaluer? Médecins du martin-buchheit.net. [Accessed 17 Feb 2013].
Sport 2005;73:13–23. 117. Dupont G, Blondel N, Lensel G, et al. Critical velocity and time
97. Mendez-Villanueva A, Buchheit M, Kuitunen S, et al. Is the spent at a high level of VO2 for short intermittent runs at su-
relationship between sprinting and maximal aerobic speeds in pramaximal velocities. Can J Appl Physiol. 2002;27:103–15.
young soccer players affected by maturation? Ped Exerc Sci. 118. Buchheit M. 30–15 Intermittent fitness test and repeated sprint
2010;4:497–510. ability. Sci Sports. 2008;23:26–8.
98. Buchheit M, Mendez-Villanueva A, Simpson BM, et al. Match 119. Buchheit M, Al Haddad H, Leprêtre PM, et al. Cardiorespiratory
running performance and fitness in youth soccer. Int J Sports and cardiac autonomic responses to 30–15 intermittent fitness
Med. 2010;31:818–25. test. J Strength Cond Res. 2009;23:93–100.
99. Noakes TD. Implications of exercise testing for prediction of 120. Bangsbo J, Iaia FM, Krustrup P. The Yo-Yo intermittent
athletic performance: a contemporary perspective. Med Sci recovery test: a useful tool for evaluation of physical perfor-
Sports Exerc. 1988;20:319–30. mance in intermittent sports. Sports Med. 2008;38:37–51.
100. Rampinini E, Bishop D, Marcora SM, et al. Validity of simple 121. Dupont G, Defontaine M, Bosquet L, et al. Yo-Yo intermittent
field tests as indicators of match-related physical performance in recovery test versus the Universite de Montreal Track Test:
top-level professional soccer players. Int J Sports Med. relation with a high-intensity intermittent exercise. J Sci Med
2007;28:228–35. Sport. 2010;13:146–50.
101. Berthon P, Fellmann N, Bedu M, et al. A 5-min running field 122. Buchheit M. The 30–15 intermittent fitness test: reliability and
test as a measurement of maximal aerobic velocity. Eur J Appl implication for interval training of intermittent sport players
Physiol Occup Physiol. 1997;3:233–8. [abstract no. 1231]. 10th European Congress of Sport Science.
102. Hill DW, Rowell AL. Significance of time to exhaustion during 2005 Jul 13–16; Belgrade.
exercise at the velocity associated with VO2max. Eur J Appl 123. Buchheit M, Laursen PB, Millet GP, et al. Predicting intermit-
Physiol Occup Physiol. 1996;72:383–6. tent running performance: critical velocity versus endurance
103. Midgley AW, McNaughton LR, Carroll S. Time at VO2max index. Int J Sports Med. 2007;29:307–15.
during intermittent treadmill running: test protocol dependent or 124. Dellal A, Varliette C, Owen A, et al. Small-sided games vs.
methodological artefact? Int J Sports Med. 2007;28:934–9. interval training in amateur soccer players: effects on the aerobic
104. Harling SA, Tong RJ, Mickleborough TD. The oxygen uptake capacity and the ability to perform intermittent exercises with
response running to exhaustion at peak treadmill speed. Med Sci changes of direction. J Strength Cond Res. 2012;26:2712–20.
Sports Exerc. 2003;35:663–8. 125. Mosey T. High intensity interval training in youth soccer play-
105. Pugh LG. The influence of wind resistance in running and ers: using fitness testing results practically. J Aust Strength
walking and the mechanical efficiency of work against hori- Cond. 2009;17:49–51.
zontal or vertical forces. J Physiol. 1971;213:255–76. 126. Rakobowchuk M, Tanguay S, Burgomaster KA, et al. Sprint
106. Saunders PU, Cox AJ, Hopkins WG, et al. Physiological mea- interval and traditional endurance training induce similar
sures tracking seasonal changes in peak running speed. Int J improvements in peripheral arterial stiffness and flow-mediated
Sports Physiol Perform. 2010;5:230–8. dilation in healthy humans. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp
107. Dabonneville M, Berthon P, Vaslin P, et al. The 5 min running Physiol. 2008;295:R236–42.
field test: test and retest reliability on trained men and women. 127. Demarie S, Koralsztein JP, Billat V. Time limit and time at
Eur J Appl Physiol. 2003;88:353–60. VO2max’ during a continuous and an intermittent run. J Sports
108. Berthon P, Fellmann N. General review of maximal aerobic Med Phys Fitness. 2000;40:96–102.
velocity measurement at laboratory. Proposition of a new sim- 128. Millet GP, Candau R, Fattori P, et al. VO2 responses to different
plified protocol for maximal aerobic velocity assessment. intermittent runs at velocity associated with VO2max. Can J Appl
J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2002;42:257–66. Physiol. 2003;28:410–23.
109. Bosquet L, Leger L, Legros P. Methods to determine aerobic 129. Dupont G, Blondel N, Berthoin S. Time spent at VO2max: a
endurance. Sports Med. 2002;32:675–700. methodological issue. Int J Sports Med. 2003;24:291–7.
110. Blondel N, Berthoin S, Billat V, et al. Relationship between run 130. Billat VL, Blondel N, Berthoin S. Determination of the velocity
times to exhaustion at 90, 100, 120, and 140% of vVO2max and associated with the longest time to exhaustion at maximal
velocity expressed relatively to critical velocity and maximal oxygen uptake. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1999;80:
velocity. Int J Sports Med. 2001;22:27–33. 159–61.
111. Bundle MW, Hoyt RW, Weyand PG. High-speed running per- 131. Hill DW, Williams CS, Burt SE. Responses to exercise at 92%
formance: a new approach to assessment and prediction. J Appl and 100% of the velocity associated with VO2max. Int J Sports
Physiol. 2003;95:1955–62. Med. 1997;18:325–9.
112. Weyand PG, Bundle MW. Energetics of high-speed running: 132. Billat V, Binsse V, Petit B, et al. High level runners are able to
integrating classical theory and contemporary observations. Am maintain a VO2 steady-state below VO2max in an all-out run over
J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2005;288:R956–65. their critical velocity. Arch Physiol Biochem. 1998;106:38–45.
Author's personal copy
M. Buchheit, P. B. Laursen
133. Gerbino A, Ward SA, Whipp BJ. Effects of prior exercise on 153. Belcastro AN, Bonen A. Lactic acid removal rates during con-
pulmonary gas-exchange kinetics during high-intensity exercise trolled and uncontrolled recovery exercise. J Appl Physiol.
in humans. J Appl Physiol. 1996;80:99–107. 1975;39:932–6.
134. Dorado C, Sanchis-Moysi J, Calbet JA. Effects of recovery 154. Ahmaidi S, Granier P, Taoutaou Z, et al. Effects of active
mode on performance, O2 uptake, and O2 deficit during high- recovery on plasma lactate and anaerobic power following
intensity intermittent exercise. Can J Appl Physiol. repeated intensive exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc.
2004;29:227–44. 1996;28:450–6.
135. Hill DW, Rowell AL. Responses to exercise at the velocity 155. Krustrup P, Mohr M, Steensberg A, et al. Muscle and blood
associated with VO2max. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1997;29:113–6. metabolites during a soccer game: implications for sprint per-
136. Hill DW, Stevens EC. VO2 response profiles in severe intensity formance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006;38:1165–74.
exercise. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2005;45:239–47. 156. Gorostiaga EM, Asiain X, Izquierdo M, et al. Vertical jump
137. Laursen PB, Shing CM, Jenkins DG. Temporal aspects of the performance and blood ammonia and lactate levels during typ-
VO2 response at the power output associated with VO2peak in ical training sessions in elite 400-m runners. J Strength Cond
well trained cyclists: implications for interval training pre- Res. 2010;24:1138–49.
scription. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2004;75:423–8. 157. Weltman A, Stamford BA, Fulco C. Recovery from maximal
138. Billat LV, Renoux J, Pinoteau J, et al. Validation d’une épreuve effort exercise: lactate disappearance and subsequent perfor-
maximale de temps limiteà VMA (vitesse maximale aérobie) et mance. J Appl Physiol. 1979;47:677–82.
à VO2max. Sci Sports. 1994;9:3–12. 158. Buchheit M, Cormie P, Abbiss CR, et al. Muscle deoxygenation
139. Hughson RL, O’Leary DD, Betik AC, et al. Kinetics of oxygen during repeated sprint running: effect of active vs. passive
uptake at the onset of exercise near or above peak oxygen recovery. Int J Sports Med. 2009;30:418–25.
uptake. J Appl Physiol. 2000;88:1812–9. 159. Dupont G, Moalla W, Matran R, et al. Effect of short recovery
140. Hill DW, Halcomb JN, Stevens EC. Oxygen uptake kinetics intensities on the performance during two Wingate tests. Med
during severe intensity running and cycling. Eur J Appl Physiol. Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39:1170–6.
2003;89:612–8. 160. Spencer M, Bishop D, Dawson B, et al. Metabolism and per-
141. Norris SR, Petersen SR. Effects of endurance training on tran- formance in repeated cycle sprints: active versus passive
sient oxygen uptake responses in cyclists. J Sports Sci. recovery. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006;38:1492–9.
1998;16:733–8. 161. Bogdanis GC, Nevill ME, Lakomy HK, et al. Effects of active
142. Buchheit M, Abbiss C, Peiffer JJ, et al. Performance and recovery on power output during repeated maximal sprint
physiological responses during a sprint interval training session: cycling. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1996;74:461–9.
relationships with muscle oxygenation and pulmonary oxygen 162. Connolly DAJ, Brennan KM, Lauzon CD. Effects of active
uptake kinetics. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2012;112(2):767–79. versus passive recovery on power output during repeated bouts
143. Powers SK, Dodd S, Beadle RE. Oxygen uptake kinetics in of short term, high intensity exercise. J Sports Sci Med
trained athletes differing in VO2max. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup 2003:47–51.
Physiol. 1985;54:306–8. 163. Spencer M, Dawson B, Goodman C, et al. Performance and
144. Buchheit M, Laursen PB, Ahmaidi S. Effect of prior exercise on metabolism in repeated sprint exercise: effect of recovery
pulmonary O2 uptake and estimated muscle capillary blood flow intensity. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2008;103:545–52.
kinetics during moderate-intensity field running in men. J Appl 164. Thevenet D, Leclair E, Tardieu-Berger M, et al. Influence of
Physiol. 2009;107:460–70. recovery intensity on time spent at maximal oxygen uptake
145. Barstow TJ, Jones AM, Nguyen PH, et al. Influence of muscle during an intermittent session in young, endurance-trained ath-
fiber type and pedal frequency on oxygen uptake kinetics of letes. J Sports Sci. 2008;26:1313–21.
heavy exercise. J Appl Physiol. 1996;81:1642–50. 165. Acevedo EO, Goldfarb AH. Increased training intensity effects
146. Pringle JS, Doust JH, Carter H, et al. Oxygen uptake kinetics on plasma lactate, ventilatory threshold, and endurance. Med Sci
during moderate, heavy and severe intensity ‘‘submaximal’’ Sports Exerc. 1989;21:563–8.
exercise in humans: the influence of muscle fibre type and 166. Simoneau JA, Lortie G, Boulay MR, et al. Effects of two high-
capillarisation. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2003;89:289–300. intensity intermittent training programs interspaced by detrain-
147. Kilding AE, Winter EM, Fysh M. A comparison of pulmonary ing on human skeletal muscle and performance. Eur J Appl
oxygen uptake kinetics in middle- and long-distance runners. Int Physiol Occup Physiol. 1987;56:516–21.
J Sports Med. 2006;27:419–26. 167. Wu HC, Hsu WH, Chen T. Complete recovery time after
148. Billat V, Petit B, Koralsztein J. Calibration de la durée des exhaustion in high-intensity work. Ergonomics. 2005;48:668–79.
répétition d’une séance d’interval training à la vitesse associée à 168. Rowell LB, O’Leary DS. Reflex control of the circulation during
VO2max en référence au temps limite continu: effet sur les exercise: chemoreflexes and mechanoreflexes. J Appl Physiol.
réponses physiologiques et la distance parcourue. Sci Mot. 1990;69:407–18.
1996;28:13–20. 169. Billat V. L’entraı̂nement en pleine nature: conseils de prépara-
149. Smith TP, McNaughton LR, Marshall KJ. Effects of 4-wk tion aux sports outdoor. Paris: De Boeck; 2005.
training using Vmax/Tmax on VO2max and performance in ath- 170. Paavolainen L, Nummela A, Rusko H. Muscle power factors
letes. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1999;31:892–6. and VO2max as determinants of horizontal and uphill running
150. Smith TP, Coombes JS, Geraghty DP. Optimising high-intensity performance. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2000;10:286–91.
treadmill training using the running speed at maximal O(2) 171. Staab JS, Agnew JW, Siconolfi SF. Metabolic and performance
uptake and the time for which this can be maintained. Eur J Appl responses to uphill and downhill running in distance runners.
Physiol. 2003;89:337–43. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1992;24:124–7.
151. Buchheit M. High-intensity interval training: how to best shape 172. Pringle JS, Carter H, Doust JH, et al. Oxygen uptake kinetics
the puzzle piece. International congress of the Australian during horizontal and uphill treadmill running in humans. Eur J
Strength and conditioning Association, November 9–11th 2012, Appl Physiol. 2002;88:163–9.
Brisbane, QS, Australia. 173. Slawinski J, Dorel S, Hug F, et al. Elite long sprint running: a
152. Muller EA. The physiological basis of rest pauses in heavy comparison between incline and level training sessions. Med Sci
work. Q J Exp Physiol Cogn Med Sci. 1953;38:205–15. Sports Exerc. 2008;40:1155–62.
Author's personal copy
HIT Programming: Cardiopulmonary Emphasis
174. Gajer B, Hanon C, Lehenaff D, et al. Analyse comparée de 194. Buchheit M, Bishop D, Haydar B, et al. Physiological responses
différentes séances de développement de VO2max. In: Expertise to shuttle repeated-sprint running. Int J Sport Med. 2010;
et sport de haut niveau: actes des Entretiens de l’INSEP No- 31:402–9.
vembre 2002. Paris: Insep, 2003. 195. Balsom PD, Seger JY, Sjodin B, et al. Physiological responses to
175. Minetti AE, Moia C, Roi GS, et al. Energy cost of walking and maximal intensity intermittent exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol
running at extreme uphill and downhill slopes. J Appl Physiol. Occup Physiol. 1992;65:144–9.
2002;93:1039–46. 196. Bravo DF, Impellizzeri FM, Rampinini E, et al. Sprint vs.
176. Seiler S, Jøranson K, Olesen BV, et al. Adaptations to aerobic interval training in football. Int J Sports Med. 2008;29:668–74.
interval training: interactive effects of exercise intensity and 197. Buchheit M, Mendez-Villanueva A, Delhomel G, et al.
total work duration. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2013;23(1):74–83. Improving repeated sprint ability in young elite soccer players:
177. Millet GP, Libicz S, Borrani F, et al. Effects of increased repeated sprints vs. explosive strength training. J Strength Cond
intensity of intermittent training in runners with differing VO2 Res. 2010;24:2715–22.
kinetics. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2003;90:50–7. 198. Tabata I, Irisawa K, Kouzaki M, et al. Metabolic profile of high
178. Tardieu-Berger M, Thevenet D, Zouhal H, et al. Effects of intensity intermittent exercises. Med Sci Sports Exerc.
active recovery between series on performance during an 1997;29:390–5.
intermittent exercise model in young endurance athletes. Eur J 199. Bogdanis GC, Nevill ME, Boobis LH, et al. Contribution of
Appl Physiol. 2004;93:145–52. phosphocreatine and aerobic metabolism to energy supply dur-
179. Thevenet D, Tardieu M, Zouhal H, et al. Influence of exercise ing repeated sprint exercise. J Appl Physiol. 1996;80:876–84.
intensity on time spent at high percentage of maximal oxygen 200. Parolin ML, Chesley A, Matsos MP, et al. Regulation of skeletal
uptake during an intermittent session in young endurance- muscle glycogen phosphorylase and PDH during maximal
trained athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2007;102:19–26. intermittent exercise. Am J Physiol. 1999;277:E890–900.
180. Buchheit M, Millet GP, Parisy A, et al. Supramaximal training 201. Lepretre PM, Koralsztein JP, Billat VL. Effect of exercise
and post-exercise parasympathetic reactivation in adolescents. intensity on relationship between VO2max and cardiac output.
Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2008;40:362–71. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2004;36:1357–63.
181. Bisciotti GN. L’incidenza fisiologica dei parametri di durata, 202. McCole SD, Davis AM, Fueger PT. Is there a disassociation of
intensità e recupero nell’ambito dell’allenamento intermittente. maximal oxygen consumption and maximal cardiac output?
Sienza di Sport 2004: 90-6 [online]. Available from URL: Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001;33:1265–9.
http://www.scienzaesport.com/SdS/050322074/074.htm. 203. Gt Cooper. Basic determinants of myocardial hypertrophy: a
[Accessed 17 Feb 2013]. review of molecular mechanisms. Annu Rev Med. 1997;48:
182. Dellal A, Keller D, Carling C, et al. Physiologic effects of 13–23.
directional changes in intermittent exercise in soccer players. 204. Gonzalez-Alonso J, Calbet JA. Reductions in systemic and
J Strength Cond Res. 2010;24:3219–26. skeletal muscle blood flow and oxygen delivery limit maximal
183. Belfry GR, Paterson DH, Murias JM, et al. The effects of short aerobic capacity in humans. Circulation. 2003;107:824–30.
recovery duration on VO(2) and muscle deoxygenation during 205. Gonzalez-Alonso J. Point: stroke volume does/does not decline
intermittent exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2012;112(5):1907–15. during exercise at maximal effort in healthy individuals. J Appl
184. Gastin PB. Energy system interaction and relative contribution Physiol 2008;104:275–6; discussion 9–80.
during maximal exercise. Sports Med. 2001;31:725–41. 206. Warburton DE, Gledhill N. Counterpoint: Stroke volume does
185. Rozenek R, Funato K, Kubo J, et al. Physiological responses to not decline during exercise at maximal effort in healthy indi-
interval training sessions at velocities associated with VO2max. viduals. J Appl Physiol 2008;104:276–8; discussion 8–9.
J Strength Cond Res. 2007;21:188–92. 207. Coyle EF, Trinity JD. The stroke volume response during or
186. Wakefield BR, Glaister M. Influence of work-interval intensity throughout 4-8 min of constant-power exercise that elicits
and duration on time spent at a high percentage of VO2max VO2max. J Appl Physiol 2008;104:282–3; author reply 4–5.
during intermittent supramaximal exercise. J Strength Cond Res. 208. Lepretre PM, Foster C, Koralsztein JP, et al. Heart rate deflec-
2009;23:2548–54. tion point as a strategy to defend stroke volume during incre-
187. Dupont G, Moalla W, Guinhouya C, et al. Passive versus active mental exercise. J Appl Physiol. 2005;98:1660–5.
recovery during high-intensity intermittent exercises. Med Sci 209. Cumming GR. Stroke volume during recovery from supine
Sports Exerc. 2004;36:302–8. bicycle exercise. J Appl Physiol. 1972;32:575–8.
188. Thevenet D, Tardieu-Berger M, Berthoin S, et al. Influence of 210. Astrand PO, Rodhal K, editors. Textbook of work physiology:
recovery mode (passive vs. active) on time spent at maximal physiological bases of exercise. Series in Health Education,
oxygen uptake during an intermittent session in young and Physical Education, and Recreation. Lower Mitcham (SA).
endurance-trained athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2007;99:133–42. Human Kinetics. New York: MacGraw-Hill, 2003. p. 649.
189. Dupont G, Blondel N, Berthoin S. Performance for short inter- 211. Fox EL, Mathews DK. Interval training: conditioning for sports
mittent runs: active recovery vs. passive recovery. Eur J Appl and general fitness. Orlando (FL): Saunders College Publishing;
Physiol. 2003;89:548–54. 1974.
190. Dupont G, Berthoin S. Time spent at a high percentage of 212. Takahashi T, Okada A, Saitoh T, et al. Difference in human
VO2max for short intermittent runs: active versus passive cardiovascular response between upright and supine recovery
recovery. Can J Appl Physiol. 2004;29(Suppl):S3–16. from upright cycle exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2000;81:
191. Girard O, Mendez-Villanueva A, Bishop D. Repeated-sprint 233–9.
ability—part I: factors contributing to fatigue. Sports Med. 213. Charloux A, Lonsdorfer-Wolf E, Richard R, et al. A new
2011;41:673–94. impedance cardiograph device for the non-invasive evaluation
192. Dupont G, Millet GP, Guinhouya C, et al. Relationship between of cardiac output at rest and during exercise: comparison with
oxygen uptake kinetics and performance in repeated running the ‘‘direct’’ Fick method. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2000;82:313–20.
sprints. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2005;95:27–34. 214. Richard R, Lonsdorfer-Wolf E, Charloux A, et al. Non-invasive
193. Buchheit M. Performance and physiological responses to repe- cardiac output evaluation during a maximal progressive exercise
ated-sprint and jump sequences. Eur J Appl Physiol. test, using a new impedance cardiograph device. Eur J Appl
2010;101:1007–18. Physiol. 2001;85:202–7.
Author's personal copy
M. Buchheit, P. B. Laursen
215. Fontana P, Betschon K, Boutellier U, et al. Cardiac output but Australian football: a mediation approach. J Sci Med Sport.
not stroke volume is similar in a Wingate and VO2peak test in 2011;14:447–52.
young men. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2011;111:155–8. 220. Buchheit M, Simpson BM, Mendez-Villaneuva A. Repeated
216. Helgerud J, Engen LC, Wisloff U, et al. Aerobic endurance high-speed activities during youth soccer games in relation to
training improves soccer performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. changes in maximal sprinting and aerobic speeds. Int J Sport
2001;33:1925–31. Med. 2012;34:40–8.
217. Sunderland C, Morris JG, Nevill ME. A heat acclimation pro- 221. Buchheit M, Rabbani A. 30–15 Intermittent Fitness Test vs.
tocol for team sports. Br J Sports Med. 2008;42:327–33. Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1: relationship and
218. Castagna C, Impellizzeri FM, Chaouachi A, et al. Effect of sensitivity to training. Int J Sports Physiol Perform; In press.
training intensity distribution on aerobic fitness variables in elite 222. Armstrong N, Barker AR. Oxygen uptake kinetics in children
soccer players: a case study. J Strength Cond Res. 2011;25:66–71. and adolescents: a review. Pediatr Exerc Sci. 2009;21:130–47.
219. Mooney M, O’Brien B, Cormack S, et al. The relationship
between physical capacity and match performance in elite