EPRI Combined Cycle
EPRI Combined Cycle
EPRI Combined Cycle
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Damage Mechanisms for Combined Cycle Power Plants Associated with Cycling Operation
Bearings
The thrust bearing experiences the greatest load changes in stop-start operation. The entire load
is on the compressor end during start-up and rundown, with less duty on the bearing at full load.
The bearings can suffer from increased wear when the turbine is barring or when off load, due to
improper lubrication caused by the slow speed of the shaft or the oil being too viscous as the
temperature is so low.
Middle and exhaust end bearings can experience severe temperatures if not properly cooled by a
cooling medium such as water or air. These bearings have been known to give trouble due to
insufficient cooling and exhaust end-bearing pedestals have suffered from creep.
Exhaust plenum
This section suffers from stop-start operation as the thermal stresses can cause severe cracking of
the exhaust flow guides, which tend to have many changes of section and thickness, thus
increasing the stresses.
Exhaust duct
This area is prone to many problems from cracking and leaking seals, which increase with cyclic
operation. The duct cracks, and bolts holding the plates can also break off, allowing some
paneling to come loose. The bolts and the seals can come loose and allow hot exhaust gases to
escape to the outside, impinging on nearby sensitive plant components causing consequential
problems. Insulation panels can break off and be carried into the HRSG. Vibration effects have
also been known to affect the insulation (breakdown with subsequent compacting resulting in
overheating).
Exhaust diffuser
As well as being subject to temperature changes, the turning vanes in the exhaust diffuser may be
subject to untoward stresses, due to excessive swirl during start-up and shut-down, leading to
cracking. Poor detail design on this component and difficulties in fabrication contribute to these
problems.
Expansion joints
These joints suffer from fairly frequent failure as they provide flexibility for the differential
movement between the boiler and the gas turbine exhaust duct. They are generally made from a
mixture of insulating material and a metallic braid. They suffer more from a stop-start situation
when the boiler movement has to be taken up by the joint. They also suffer from exhaust gas
turbulence in the duct, making the joint flutter.
Baffles
These baffles act as flow-straightener and sound suppression barrier. The outside skin is
generally made from a perforated metal sheet, which cracks along the holes, due to thermal
stresses from start-stop operation.
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GE Frame 7
Combustion can cracking has definitely accelerated with much of the cracking occurring around
the cross-over tubes. Blade seal wear tends to increase in cycling mode and thermal barrier
coating (TBC) loss from the cans has also increased. Cracking has been found in the compressor
disc of one machine. Cracking was noted by one user in the combustion liner transition pieces.
GE Frame 9B
Some plant operators have experienced increased damage to hot gas path components. One
utility with a plant that has been two-shifting since 2004 (after operating in base load mode for
many years) reported greater wear and tear of hot gas path components, including liners and
burners, due to the two-shifting regime. Failure of the vibration sensor on a bearing was also
reported; the issue here was not the sensor but the down-time for replacement.
GE Frame 9E
Some utilities have experienced cracking of the first stage blades and nozzles, TBC spalling, and
damage to the exhaust diffuser and ducts, as a result of cyclic operating regimes. A number of
plants have suffered from blade cracking in base load as well as cycling duty.
One plant that has been two-shifting occasionally since 2000 (after many years base load
operation) reported a number of problems that had increased due to cyclic operation: torque
converter failures; cracking of exhaust diffuser; load tunnel compartment hot gas leaks. The
condition of hydraulic oil was reported to be possibly worse due to cycling.
One utility with a plant that has operated since 1994 and has been two-shifting since 2001
reported the following problems:
Premature failure of first stage nozzles due to thermal fatigue caused by the cycling regime;
Damage to the insulation boxes of the exhaust plenum;
Damage to the exhaust ducts - loss of insulation, damage to the silencers resulting in pressure
casing distortion and extensive cracking.
GE Frame 9F
Damage to various components was reported: deformation and cracking of outlet casing;
cracking of silencers and loss of enclosed noise damping material; cracking in corners and
deformation of duct between GT and HRSG; cracking of burners and creep damage due to
higher burning temperatures at start-up and very low load; and cracking of blades. In general, the
damage was reported to be made worse by cycling.
GE Frame 9FA and 9FA+e
Some utilities reported blade cracking, damage to blade coatings, and damage to combustion
cans, etc, due to operational cycling. One utility with a plant that has been cycling since 2005
reported loss of TBC on the first stage blades, and damage to combustion cans, combustion can
liner and transition pieces. Another utility reported that there had been cracking through the
coatings on the leading edges of blades after 25,000 hours operation.
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Damage Mechanisms for Combined Cycle Power Plants Associated with Cycling Operation
One plant operator reported various forms of damage: wear and hot spots on combustion
components; cracks on ignitor/flame scanner holes; bulging/buckling, wear and burning of
combustion liner components; damage to transition piece components (buckling, cracking, wear
and loss of TBC); damage to compressor stage 15 stator hook fit, causing it to rock; and cracks at
two locations in turbine stage 1 wheel cooling slot. However, the operator could not attribute any
of the damage to cycling because the plant has been operating in a mixed base load and load-
following (60%-100%) mode, with occasional start-stop cycles, since it started operating in
2003; there has been no period of sustained base load operation for comparison.
One utility with a fleet of Frame 9FA machines, which have been operating in load-following
mode since commissioning in 2002-2005, reported no problems.
GE Frame 9FB
One utility has been operating Frame 9FB machines at three plants that were commissioned in
2006, 2007 and 2008. No cycling-related damage has been experienced to date.
Siemens V64.3
Some plant operators reported that stator and rotor blade cracking were exacerbated by cycling,
and oxidation of blades/coatings was also accelerated. Cracking also occurred on the inner
section of the combustion chamber at some plants. Such cracks have been repaired by welding.
One operator reported the onset of stator and rotor blade cracking after the plant had been
running for about 12 years in load-following mode. One possible cause was the use of a coating
with better oxidation resistance, which was adopted as coating-degradation had been a problem
in earlier years. Unfortunately this new coating was somewhat less ductile than the older
formulation.
Siemens V94.2
Hot section damage was reported by some utilities. One plant operator reported that cracking of
the first stage stator blades occurred after the plant had started doing some cyclic operations,
following 2-3 years base load operation.
Siemens V94.3, V94.3A
Some utilities reported cracking of stator blades and loss of TBCs due to cycling. One unit ran
with stators in a cracked condition for six months. Disc cracking was also experienced by one
user of the V94.3. Some plant operators stated that the rate of oxidation of coatings and damage
to combustion can liners were also accelerated when their units started cyclic operations. One
user reported IGV actuators were wearing out under the impact of repeated cycling and were not
lasting the planned 25,000 hours.
Alstom GT 13e1
A plant that has been operating for over 12 years predominantly in base load mode, with
overnight load reduction and limited cycling, experienced start reliability issues that were made
worse by the operational cycles. These issues have been resolved. There had also been a start
limitation due to the original blades, and this issue was also exacerbated by cyclic operation. A
new design of blades was fitted to rectify matters.
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MHI 701 F3
One plant operator reported that no problems have been experienced during two years of cyclic
operation.
New base load plant - Increased inspection of P91 welds and P91 to P22 dissimilar
with limited cycling metal welds (following issues with as-delivered components)
Two-shifting & load- - Modification of internal insulation in the duct between GT and
following since 2001 boiler, following problems with cracking and deformation of duct
- Increased inspection of tubes, steam traps and valves
- Inspection of tubes – visual, MT, creep assessment and
Mixed base load, load- metallurgical replication
following and occasional - Inspection of steam traps – by operator rounds, and
starts/stops since 2003 thermography
- Inspection of valves – stroke and function test during every
shutdown
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Corrosion fatigue
Low cycle fatigue
Gas-side erosion
Thermal shock
Flow assisted
Exfoliation
expansion
Oxidation/
corrosion
corrosion
corrosion
Deposits/
Gas-side
Thermal
Creep
Component
Superheater headers X X X
Superheater tubes X X X X
Reheater headers X X X
Reheater tubes X X X X
Evaporator tubes X X X X X
Economizer headers X X X X X
Economizer tubes X X X X X X
Drum X X X X X
Steam Piping X X X
Feed / connecting X X X
pipes
Flow assisted corrosion (FAC) and cycle chemistry issues related damages occur mainly at
‘Start-up Failure Period’ of the life cycle. Damages like short term overheat, long term overheat,
thermal quenching, corrosion-fatigue, stress corrosion cracking, internal pitting, caustic gousing,
acid phosphate corrosion, hydrogen damage, gas side corrosion, acid dew point corrosion etc.
occurs during the ‘useful life cycle’ period. Most of the fatigue related damages such as thermal
fatigue, creep fatigue, flow induced vibration fatigue etc. occurs at ‘wear our period’ of the life
cycle. These damage mechanisms are discussed below.
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Figure C-1
Surface appearance of flow assisted corrosion
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For HRSGs in which the economizers and evaporators are constructed of carbon steel, protection
from corrosion is achieved by controlling the purity and pH of the feedwater and boiler water
and also by controlling the dissolved oxygen concentration in the feedwater. The aim is always
to maintain conditions in which the solubility of metal oxides is reduced to a minimum so that
corrosion and oxide transport processes are effectively suppressed.
While oxygenated treatment is not presently in common usage with HRSG units, it has found
widespread acceptance in conventional units where it is used in both once through and drum
units.
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Damage Mechanisms for Combined Cycle Power Plants Associated with Cycling Operation
elsewhere in the tube bank calculated from this information. It is possible to scan the tubes using
internal rotary inspection probe (IRIS) techniques in a similar manner to that in heat exchangers,
however this will involve cutting tube stubs to allow access and chemical cleaning may also be
required to ensure that the tubes are clean enough for inspection. These activities will be time
consuming and therefore will require extended outages.
Figure C-2
Overheat failure of finned tube
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sites for concentration of corrosive species. Cracking then initiates at these pits and oxide filled
multiple cracking is typical. Corrosion fatigue develops on the inside as pitting which then
develops into parallel cracks running either circumferentially or longitudinally, perpendicular to
the driving stress. Typical cracking is shown in Figures C-3 and C-4. Again usually a ‘family’ of
cracks initiates, one of which then propagates through wall.
Corrosion fatigue is most common on water tubes, but can also be found in steam tubes as a
result of condensate-induced corrosion during outages. If not previously discovered, this will
present as pinhole leaks on the outside of the tube. This indicates that damage has progressed
through wall and extensive cracking may be present on the inner bore. Emergency repairs, by
local overlay welding, will have limited life. Extensive bore cracking is present along
appreciable lengths of tubing and replacement of the damaged section with a tube insert is
required. It is usually associated with high stress regions such as tube connections, especially to
headers and drums, tube bends and welded attachments. It is often a result of thermally induced
stresses and moments.
If access to the internal surface is possible, at drums and headers, detection is relatively simple
using videoprobes, endoscopes and borescopes. Ultrasonic inspection, using angled beams, can
detect the cracking from the outer surface of the tube but the quantification of the extent of
damage may require tube sampling in addition to ultrasonic NDE.
Figure C-3
Typical Corrosion fatigue
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Figure C-4
Corrosion fatigue cracking
Figure C-5
Typical SCC cracking in Austenitic Stainless, Brass/Ammonia, Alloy Steel/Caustic
Chloride environment
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Figure C-6
Intergranular SCC in LP superheater tube bend caused by sodium hydroxide in water
carried over from the drum
If not detected earlier, damage will present itself as a fine pinhole leak. However, with
exploratory grinding the crack like nature of the defect will become apparent. SCC can be found
by visual and surface inspection techniques only when it has penetrated through wall. Eddy
current has also been employed successfully for detection. Cracked material must be replaced
either with a different alloy, the chemistry altered or the source of the driving stress removed.
Figure C-7
Oxygen pitting of tube surface
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The severity of damage has been quantified by the internal rotary inspection (IRIS) ultrasonic
system. If the remaining tube thickness, after pitting, is greater than the specified tube thickness,
the tubing may be left in service but conditions creating further pitting must be avoided. For
greater pit depths, a fitness for purpose analysis may allow further service. The water chemistry
should be reviewed and improved. If pitting cannot be arrested, the only repair option is
replacement and the use of higher alloyed material should be considered.
Figure C-8
Example of caustic gouging
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gouges often containing layered deposits with a distinct transition between areas of mild and
severe corrosion. If not discovered earlier, it will eventually perforate the tube resulting in
pinhole leakage. Damage occurs in the same high deposition, high heat flux areas as with caustic
corrosion. Inspection and repair options are also the same as for caustic corrosion.
Figure C-9
Grain boundary hydrogen damage
Hydrogen damage can be detected with specialist ultrasonic equipment, typically by measuring a
change in the ultrasonic attenuation caused by the micro-fissuring. In most cases, the associated
corrosion and/or gouging can be detected by conventional ultrasonic thickness or IRIS
inspection. Hydrogen damaged tubing must be assessed for its ability to remain in service and
replacement of damaged tubing is recommended.
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Figure C-10
Grain boundary hydrogen damage
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Figure C-11
Thermal fatigue cracking at tube to header weld
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Smooth bore cracking of steam pipe welds is caused by thermal fatigue arising primarily from
steam chilling events. It was first recognized in conventional power plant in the UK in 2001.
Following the discovery of the first crack, further inspections showed the problem to be both
widespread and potentially severe, with oxide dating showing that the defects typically initiated
soon after the plant went into operation. The thermal gradient between the cooler inside surface
and the hotter outside surface creates a transitory tensile stress on the inner surface at each
chilling event. Cracking is fully circumferential. The cracks appear to grow independently of
local microstructure, initiating either at weld roots or at internal changes of section at
counterbores, and grow directly through-wall with little deviation of the crack path. They are not
associated with creep cavitation. While it is believed that very severe thermal cycles are required
to initiate the defects, they will grow as a result of the lower stress cycles that are common in
power plant. Detection is difficult and the most reliable inspection is currently an initial
conventional ultrasonic inspection, with particular attention to the bore area to detect the cracks,
supplemented by Time of Flight Diffraction optimized to provide accurate sizing capability.
Final failure will be by some other mechanism, such as fast fracture, creep or creep crack
growth. Current effort is aimed at estimating growth rates and critical sizes to maintain cracked
welds safely in service and minimize the need for repair.
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Figure C-12
Creep-fatigue cracking at tube stub
Figure C-13
Section through creep-fatigue crack
Ligament cracking of headers has become a recognized problem with relatively thick 2.25Cr1Mo
(P22) headers in conventional power plant (Figure C-14). This is generally accepted to be due to
creep-fatigue damage with the fatigue element accumulating as a result of thermal stresses
generated by differences between tube bore and header ligament temperatures. The solution has
been to fabricate new headers from the more creep-resistant modified 9Cr1Mo steel (P91). This
material has higher creep strength and so the header walls can be made thinner, thus reducing the
thermal stresses.
Figure C-14
Ligament cracking in header
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Although the boiler steam outlet temperature may match the temperature of the first row blades,
the losses due to throttling through the steam control valves on the turbine can result in a lower
steam admission temperature to the turbine cylinder than at the boiler outlet. The throttling losses
can be reduced by operating at reduced boiler pressure but this can cause additional problems.
The start-up procedure must balance the requirements of the inlet stage and subsequent stages of
turbine rotor. Excessive temperature imbalance and rapid fluctuations on start-up will cause high
stress levels in the turbine rotor, blading and shrouding. This can result in various forms of
damage to the components.
Thermal fatigue and creep-fatigue can lead to damage to thick-walled components, including
governor and stop valves and HP and IP turbine inlet belts. Modern analysis techniques, utilizing
finite element methods, are now widely available at reasonably low cost to permit modeling of
components perceived to be at risk. Application of this type of modeling, whilst it may not be
able to accurately predict the life of components, does provide a valuable understanding of the
stress profiles within the component and identifies potential weaknesses and vulnerable areas.
Armed with this knowledge, operational procedures can be optimized to minimize the effects of
thermal fatigue and inspection procedures can be focused on selected locations at appropriate
operating intervals. The addition of temperature and temperature differential instrumentation will
enable the operator to minimize the intensity and duration of the adverse conditions. The scope
for modifications to existing turbine plant is limited unless new rotors or casings are being fitted.
Possible modifications to reduce thermal stresses include improvements to thermal insulation,
pre-warming (especially of half joint flanges) and slotting of flanges to increase flexibility. Some
operators are known to favour “skin peeling” of high temperature rotors where fatigue damage is
of concern. This is basically skimming off a millimeter or so of material from the surface of
potentially critical regions of the rotor, e.g. radii, etc. This effectively removes fatigue-related
damage and presents what is essentially an “as-new” surface. This process is typically carried out
at mid-life.
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of blade to reduce or eliminate the problem. In some instances, reblading may be combined with
improvements in efficiency. Where cracking of the LP blades is present, the cracking may be
exacerbated by the onset of corrosion-fatigue.
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Figure C-15
Axial entry blade attachment showing crack initiation locations
C.3.6 Valves
Clearly, operating in a cycling mode will require increased operation of turbine governor valves
and stop valves. Inevitably there will be additional wear and tear on the valve seats and valve
stems, especially under throttling conditions when flow-induced vibration can lead to mechanical
fatigue and wear. This can, in the main, be contained by redesign of the valve head, modification
to the steam flow path and the use of Stellite or similar hard-facing materials on wear surfaces.
During the start-up phase when the throttle valves really are working hard to control the
admission of steam to the turbine the valve sealing surfaces are subject to erosion and the steam
flow can put significant forces on the valve heads along with the linkages and valve actuators.
Wear internal to the valves or in the linkages / actuators can result in lack of precision in
positioning of the valve and hence fluctuations in steam flow. These fluctuations can occur either
with low or moderate steam flow. Some turbines have two pairs of throttle valves which operate
in sequence with one pair opening almost fully before the second pair starts to move. If both
pairs suffer from instability then the effect can manifest itself at two points during the start-up
phase – one occasion for each pair of throttle valves.
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The technique of using two pairs of throttle valves allows better control of the steam flow to the
turbine but the second pair of valves to open can suffer rapid changes in steam flow and
temperature. Having said this, they may also avoid some of the chilling due to the throttling
losses on the first pair of valves during the early stages of start-up. It is not clear which of the
sets of valves will accrue the greater damage over the operating cycles. It will be necessary to
inspect the valves periodically to determine what damage is occurring.
The sealing glands on the throttle valves will suffer from increased wear with the increased
movement of the valve spindles, which can lead to increased leakage or maintenance
requirements.
C.3.7 Bearings
Whilst there may be issues with turbine bearings under steady load conditions, cycling puts a lot
more stress on them and can raise a number of issues. Whilst the turbine is on barring (slow
rotation on turning gear 30 to 100 rpm) during the shutdown period, the oil flow to the bearings
will be reduced. There will still be, however, a considerable heat flow along the shaft from the
HP turbine, in particular. On barring there is usually only the jacking oil flow. This should be
adequate to keep the bearings cool as well as keeping the shaft lifted in the bearings but the
bearing temperatures should be monitored to ensure that there is in reality enough oil flow. If the
load on the bearings changes as the machine contracts during the shutdown, this can reduce the
oil flow to a particular bearing and cause overheating.
C.4.2 Rotor
There is potential for thermal fatigue of rotor forgings, especially at section changes, e.g.
winding slots. With periods of prolonged steady load the rotor windings and the retaining bars
which hold them in the slots can become stuck in one position. When reducing load they can take
some time to free off and move as the thermal differential expansion between them and the rotor
body would determine. Equally after a period of shutdown when returning to full load they can
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stick as they move to the fully warmed-up position. This phenomenon is often referred to as
“stick/slip” because the component initially sticks but will ultimately slip. When the bars /
windings are stuck and under tension trying to expand or contract, if this does not occur equally
in both halves of the winding (assuming a two-pole rotor), then the rotor behaves somewhat like
a bi-metallic strip and tends to bend. This will produce an imbalance in the rotor leading to
vibration.
Even if there is no excessive “stick” during the expansion and contraction, the cycling will
inevitably result in some wear on the components in the alternator rotor. There is a risk if
components such as packers gradually migrate due to the repeated expansion and contraction that
eventually a cooling slot make suffer some blocking. If the blocking becomes significant enough
it may result in uneven cooling of the rotor body. This can then cause a thermal bend of the
alternator rotor, resulting in higher than normal vibration. The magnitude of the vibration will
vary with the excitation current being carried through the rotor windings. The effect can be a
little confusing because as the current increases the bending may, initially, reduce the overall
vibration level experienced. This can then be followed by an increase in vibration as the current
rises further. The exact behavior depends on the phase (angular position) of the natural
imbalance of the rotor compared with the phase of the thermal bending.
To fully diagnose this type of problem, a computerized vibration analysis system should be used
as this will be able to determine the magnitude and phase of the alternator vibrations and hence
calculate the vector change.
During the run-up and run-down, the alternator rotor will pass through its critical speeds at which
vibration levels will increase significantly. Most alternator rotors have asymmetrical
characteristics due to the slots for the windings, and have two critical speeds. It is important that
these are known to the operators and that these speeds are passed through quickly on run-up and
run-down. Dwelling in the critical speed ranges will subject both the rotor and stator to
unnecessary vibration-driven damage.
The material properties and machining quality of modern generator rotor shaft and end rings
should ensure that they are not adversely affected by cyclic operation. Some rotor designs have
suffered from copper dusting whilst the machine is barring. This phenomenon is caused by the
individual turns moving radially in the slot under the influence of gravity. The copper rubs
against the slot insulation leaving deposits and possibly leading to an inter-turn fault.
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The stress variations which result from cycling are important, although variations in the electrical
output can also induce fatigue, even though there is no change in the rotor speed. This is due to
eddy current induced heating in the end ring. Older designs of end ring were more susceptible to
damage, since they were prone to high cycle fatigue. One of the older variants used retaining
rings that were shrunk onto the end disc, which itself was shrunk onto the shaft. Here relative
movement between the end ring and the end windings occurs with each revolution. The other
design can induce cracking in the shaft, in the rotor tooth region and in the end ring itself. Here
the ring is shrunk on to the end windings and the shaft. The more modern design, which is less
susceptible to high cycle fatigue, is of the so-called “cantilever type”. Here the end ring simply
grips the alternator rotor, and does not rely on support from the shaft. Another shortcoming of
older designs was that the fixing of the end ring to the rotor was of a relatively simple form.
Modified designs are available to reduce stress concentrations in this area.
C.4.4 Stator
Leaks may occur in stator water cooling connections inside the alternator due to thermal cycling
and high vibration levels on run-down / run-up. The repeated thermal expansion and contraction
caused by cycling can cause damage over a long period of time in an alternator stator. Damage to
the windings (particularly the end windings which overhang the end of the stator core), looseness
of wedges, and fretting of the laminations in the alternator core are often caused by long-term
operation at high vibration levels. It is generally the number of cycles accumulated over time
which results in damage. However, it is possible for the thermal expansion and contraction of
cycling to initiate or exacerbate problems.
Thermal cycling of the generator stator can lead to the development of partial discharge
phenomena in the slot region. This is caused by expansion/ contraction of the conductor bars
relative to the core, degrading the semi-conducting coating of the bar. This is a long-term issue
and it is possible to detect this type of degradation by the use of on-line discharge monitoring
equipment.
Another potential effect of thermal cycling is that stator slot wedges may become loose. Again,
this is a long-term issue. It would not be expected to become a problem before the first scheduled
removal of a machine’s rotor and so the wedge tightness can normally be checked then and a
suitable strategy formulated. Systems are available to perform wedge tightness checks with the
rotor installed.
Fretting within the stator core can result in breakdown of the insulation between the laminations
which can produce hot spots within the core. High vibration or stator windings not sliding
correctly within the slots can result in damage to the insulation of the winding or weakening of
the mechanical strength of brazing or other joints within the windings which can result in leaks.
The stator windings are water-cooled in a lot of machines. This usually involves circular
manifolds within the alternator with PTFE (Poly TetraFluoro Ethylene) hoses feeding the water
from the manifolds into the individual winding. There are, therefore, seals at each end of every
hose sealing the PTFE to the metal. The different thermal expansion characteristics of the PTFE
and metal mean that repeated load cycling will stress the seals. Usually the seals contain ‘Viton’
o-rings which help to absorb the movement. If the rate of operation of this system, or venting as
it is often called, increases significantly, then it is an indication of a stator water leak which can
often come from a cooling hose seal.
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C.4.5 Transformers
Increased wear and tear would be expected due to stop/start operation. During steady state
operation, transformers stay warm and at a relatively constant temperature. The move to flexible
operation will completely change this. Depending on the location of the transformers (many are
located outside to improve cooling in hot weather and due to their sheer size) and the ambient
temperatures, transformers can cool significantly when off load. This cooling will cause the
transformer internal oil and air volume to decrease thus sucking in air from outside. It is
important that the breather systems are functioning correctly. If blocked, then the transformer
tank can be put under suction and air may leak in other than via the breather. If the breather is
not blocked but its desiccant crystals are exhausted, then damp air can be drawn into the
transformer thus degrading the performance of the transformer oil. Regular monitoring of the
breather and oil condition will ensure that this is not happening.
Transformers can suffer similar winding problems to alternator rotors and stators due to thermal
expansion and contraction.
Transformers are often equipped with tap changers. These are switches to change the turns-ratio
between the two windings of the transformer. During base load operation these may operate over
a limited range, for example to adjust the reactive generation from the alternator to the grid
system. On shut-down and start-up the tap changer may be operated over a much bigger range. It
may be that the mechanism is in poor condition at the extremes of its range. The mechanism may
be stiff or the electrical contacts in a poor condition. As a result, it may be necessary to carry out
more inspections. Monitoring the condition of the oil in the tap changer compartment, which is
often separate to the main transformer oil, can help to identify arcing from the electrical contacts.
C.4.7 Coolers
The coolers (hydrogen or air) also suffer from increased long-term failure. Cracking of the
cooling tubes, near the tube plates of the usual shell and tube type of heat exchanger, results from
the heating and cooling of the generator. The temperature control valves also tend to stick in one
position, generally overcooling the generator in the off-load condition, causing condensation to
take place in the windings (air-cooled).
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C.4.8 Switchgear
Increased switching operations give rise to increased wear and tear. Switchgear can suffer from
mechanical breakage of the operating mechanism. This has serious consequences for the
generator circuit-breaker in particular, and for essential auxiliaries such as emergency lube oil
pumps, etc. The mechanical linkages and switchgear might not be designed for frequent
operations as the plant may have been designed for base load operation. These breakages are
usually due to fatigue of the metal part. Moisture and dust ingress can occur during shutdown
periods.
C.5 References
[C.1] Nicholl A R, Wahl G, Hilderbrandt U W, “Ductile Brittle Transition of High Temperature
Coatings for Turbine Blades”, pp 233-253, Materials and Coatings to Resist High
Temperature Corrosion, eds. Holmes and Rahmel, Applied Science, 1978.
[C.2] Codogno L, Baker M L, ‘Belgian Plant Brings Natural Circulation to Vertical HRSG
System’, Power Magazine, USA, Nov/Dec 2000.
[C.3] Review of Energy Sources for Power Generation; Annex 4; Summary of Report by Merz
and McLellan Review of energy Sources for Power Generation in Conclusions of the
Review of Energy Sources for Power Generation and Government response to Fourth and
Fifth Reports of the Trade and Industry Committee, Oct 1998, UK.
[C.4] Jarvis M, Raddings T, “Considerations for Alternative Configurations for Large Heavy
Duty Industrial Combined Cycle Plant” in CCGT Plant Components, Development and
Reliability pp101-114, IMechE, London, 1999.
[C.5] Yoshioka Y, training course notes for ‘GT Component Materials, Coatings, Failure,
Repairs and Integrity / Life Assessment’, Jul 2009, London, UK.
[C.6] Bendick W, Gabrel J, Hahn B, Vandenberghe B, “T/P23 and T/P 24 Low Alloy Ferritic
Steels for Application in High Efficiency Power Plant”, Proc. ‘New Materials Seminar’,
London, 20-21 Jun 2007.
[C.7] Nessler R, “Developments in HRSG Technology”, Annual Industrial and Power Gas
Turbine O&M Conference, Birmingham, UK, Nov 2000.
[C.8] Fontaine P, ‘Cycling Tolerant HRSGs’, Proc. Intl. Seminar ‘Cyclic Operation of Heat
Recovery Steam Generators’, 24 Jun 2005, London, UK.
[C.9] Lutfi bin Samsudin M, ‘Experience with HRSG T91 tube failures’, Proc. Intl. Seminar
‘Industry & Research Experience in the Use of P91/T91 in HRSG and Conventional
Boilers’, 7-8 Dec 2005, London, UK.
[C.10] Rizha M, Senger B, Merry S, Greig A, ‘Chemical Operation Experience with the CCPP
Cottam’, EPRI Boiler and HRSG Tube Failure Conference, Phoenix, USA, Oct 2001.
[C.11] Wignall C M, Jones A C, Blood D M, “A once through 400MW HRSG: Stress analysis of
operational transients and the effects on the calculated lifetimes of different headers”,
Proc. Conf. ‘Cyclic Operation of Heat Recovery Steam Generators’, 24 Jun 2005,
London, UK.
C-30
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Damage Mechanisms for Combined Cycle Power Plants Associated with Cycling Operation
[C.12] B rady M F, ‘Design aspects of once through systems for heat recovery steam generators
for base load and cyclic operation’, pp 223-230, Materials at High Temperatures, London,
Vol.18 (4) 2001.
[C.13] Hinde A, McArthur J, ‘The suitability of once through steam generators for cyclic
applications’, Proc. Intl. Seminar ‘Cyclic Operation of Heat Recovery Steam Generators’,
24 Jun 2005, London, UK.
[C.14] Henkel N, Schmid E, Gobrecht E, ‘Operational Flexibility Enhancements of Combined
Cycle Power Plants’, Proc. Conf. ‘Cyclic operation of power plants’, 27-28 Sep 2007,
London, UK.
[C.15] Tucker S, Milsom J, Griffith G, Stone G, “Problems with Modern Air-Cooled Generator
Windings”, pp 137-144, Power Station Maintenance 2000, IMechE, London, 2000.
[C.16] Storey I J, Klarstrom D L, Hoback G L, Ishwar V R, Qureshi J I, “The Metallurgical
Background to Rejuvenation Heat Treatments and Weld Reparability Procedures for Gas
Turbine Sheet Metal Components”, pp 241-247, Materials at High Temperature, Vol. 18
(4), 2001, London.
C-31
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