07 - Chapter 2 PDF
07 - Chapter 2 PDF
07 - Chapter 2 PDF
Introduction
Juvenile de/inquency:the Concept
The Juvenile Justice System
Delinquency Causation: Theories and Approaches
Juvenile delinquency: A New Area for Educators
Needs and Problems in Education
Juvenile Delinquents and the World of Work
Treatment, Prevention and Rehabilitation of Delinquents
Conclusions to the Chapter
CHAPTER II
2.1 INTRODUCTION
departures of research in that area and also suggests methods of research appropriate
development of a research design and determination of the size and scope of the
proble� all depend to a great extent on the care and intensity with which a researcher
has examined the literature related to the extended research". An investigation worth
the name in any field of knowledge cannot be done without careful consideration of
previous attempts related to it. The Review of Related Literature also helps in
providing placement and direction for the study to be filled into its existing body of
knowledge.
agree upon its causes, and even less is known about 'how' and 'why' it ends. The
Review of /?elated literal/tre
problem of delinquency still remains as a serious concern for all persons who believe
in healthy and harmonious development of human personality all over the world
delinquency. The minor criminal (age 7 to 18) who violate the law of the land and
kidnapping, abduction and sexual offences are tenned "juvenile delinquent" (Mangal:
1984).
The legal defmition of the delinquent child differs from place to place,
in the opinion of Walsh and Furfey (1958). However, the legal enactment of all
places agrees on two points - (i), the delinquent child should be of a young age, that is
below a specific age and (ii) his behaviour and his social conditions should be such as
may require legal steps that may not be possible through adult comts.
against its best interest by a pa1ticular period of time whether or not the delinquent is
becomes unacceptable in society and when it crosses the tolerance level it may be
criminality, drug addiction, alcoholism, suicide, marital and family disharmony and
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In the 20th centmy and especially after World War II, juvenile crime
increased far more quickly than adult crime and became an ever greater social
The 8th United Nations Congress on the prevention of crime and the
treatment of offenders repmted that C1ime and victimisation continue to pose serious
11
problems, affecting both individuals and entire group and often transcending national
occurring even as the national rate of violent crime has levelled off; and the nation's
population of juvenile has fallen. These statistics suggest that the United States is
The Hindu daily (Dec. 2, 1996) unfolded the tragedy that shook the
1
conscience of the capital city of Trivandrnm, Kerala. 1
On August 19, when the
pond............. His 16 year-old brother was whisked away in a police van .......... on
charge of murder1 1• Figures made available by the District Crime Records Bureau
kids' repmted:
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killed 15 people and wounded 44. These American kids had decided to put an end to
their problems -with guns". The article continues ...... ... ''Kids all over are
increasingly getting aggressive. But unlike in the west, aggression in children in India
There are many ways of looking at the problem of crime. For those
who are inclined towards the social defence philosophy based on modern approaches
prosecutors. For one thing even today, we do not know clearly the cause of crime for
being able to develop a definite strategy for its control. Secondly, all known
Rollen ( 1997), studied the social ecology of crime using police crime
report and demographic data. Clear evidence was found to support the general social
ecological theory that c1ime is the product of social and economic conditions. It was
would be positively related to assaultive crimes and that the variables reflecting
adolescents aged 13 - 17, drawn from Senior and Junior High Schools of Taipei,
Yang ( 1993) anived at the finding that, communities that were characterised by high
level of pove1ty, heterogeneity and population density and families that are
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The te1m 'crime' and 'delinquency' are legal ones and their meaning
varies from country to country. In India, any person of 21 years and above convicted
by the comt for violating the provision of Indian Penal Code (IPC) and the Criminal
must be convicted by the comt for violating the provision of the Children's Acts, the
IPC and the CPC. Individuals below the age of 7 even although committing such
offences as covered legally in the tenn delinquency- are not labelled delinquents but
are termed problem children. Individuals between 18 and 21 who violate the
provisions of IPC and CPC are midway between criminals and delinquents are
National Crime Record Bureau, Ministry of Home Affairs are to be relied upon, then
they would be too general showing only the tip of the iceberg (Vadakkumcherry:
1996). One major reason is that the problem of delinquency, till now, has never been
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The share of juvenile crime in the total quantum of the offences under
Indian Penal Code, 1860, was 3. 7 percent during 1987 and it fell sharply to 1. 7
percent in 1988.
Prasad ( 1981) in his study, found that the frustration found among the
rural masses and the inappropriate socialisation process were identified as reasons for
the increased crime involvement of lower caste females among female murders.
reports that murderers mostly come from lower income groups and rural homes and
Airomaih (1993) who asserts that Saudi Arabia has one of the lowest
crime rates in the world, sheds light on the problem of juvenile delinquency in Saudi
1. Both social class and family structure are unrelated to delinquency in Saudi
Arabia.
negatively related.
that broken - home and lack of sympathetic handling were the most outstanding
factors promoting delinquency. The other important factors identified were feeling of
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1. 88% of them hailed from urban areas (which constituted leading industrial
centres).
4. 80% of them had not come up even to the upper primary school level.
5. 95% were persistent trnants who had rnn off from home several times and
were inconigible.
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youth, wrote for the William Gladen Foundation thus: " Nearly every child will
commit at least one delinquent act before reaching adulthood. Surveys of high school
students found that as many as 95% of those questioned admitted to at least one
delinquent act. Yet most children are only occasional delinquents whose misdeeds
are usually minor and scattered throughout childhood. Their misbehaviour often goes
divergence from accepted pattern is very great, we have the delinquent group
(Kumari: 1977).
Willemse ( 1932) asserts the fact that delinquency is not inherited nor is
small percentage, the delinquent behaviour is due to intrinsic criminal mind rather
between sexually assualtive behaviour of juvenile sex offenders and adult sex
offenders.
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in society.
law enforcement, prosecution defence, trial, comt, probation, prison and parole.
Juvenile justice, on the other hand, says Coffey ( 197 5 ), can be thought
25
Fig 2.1 Diagrammatic representation of the Process of the Criminal System
ADULTS '
·\..
1. Booking
2. Preliminary Court/ Prosecution
LAW VIOLATION POLICE 3. Information /Pleas/Prosecution
4. Arraignmentffrial DISPOSIDON
1. Observed
2. Reported ........................................... .................................................................... 1. Dismissal
°'
N
3. Detected 3. Dismiss JUVENILES 2. Probation REHABILITATED
3. Institution Parole/After-care OFFENDER
'
4. Suspected 4. Arrest .
1. Intake/Petition
2. Detention Hearing .
3 urisdic on Hea g
...... ·....... J ti . rin ···························· /
"'�
.,::
�
�
�
�
�
"'
�
-
�
-
"'
�
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juvenile justice as one vehicle which simply describe the existing agencies and
suppo1t services in dealing with juvenile justice, whereas the 'system approach'
provides the means whereby the processes of the system as well as each of its
system, believe that getting the young ones on the right track is the most important
step in the juvenile justice system and hence to those who are intent upon a life of
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Fig. 2.2 Diagrammatic Representation of the Process of the Juvenile Justice System
I ... .... .. . . .. . .
POLICE INVESTIGATION
>
NO ARREST
PREL!MINARy
JUVENILE ARREST
COURT
FUNCTIONS
�
�
,..
DETENTIONan orRELEASE I PROBATION
FUNCTIONS
JUR! !CTION
r
DISPOSIDON
PROBATION
RECIDIVATE
PAROLE
involved in making decisions about offenders. Gibbons ( 1976) reports that policemen
are most frequently involved in the initial decisions about reported juvenile law
breakers, for they either observe these youths in acts of deviance or they learn about
them from citizens. The police occupy a cmcial position in the decision system; they
control the initial s01ting out of youths thus determining which are to be viewed as
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"bad" or "delinquent" and taken to court and which do not need court intervention.
machinery depends basically on the quality of the initial work done by the police
(Barnes and Teeters: 1966). Prevention and controlling of crime is the basic duty of
the police, the large established disciplined force of the society. They are designed
and established for this purpose. TI1e te1m 'police' refer primarily to agents of the
state whose function is the maintenance of law and order and especially the
From another point of view, it may be pointed out that the ability of the
police to perform their duties is dependent upon public approval of police existence,
actions, behaviour and ability of the police to secure and maintain public respect
(Louis: 1977). However, the general complaint against the police forces is the
shudder when one talks of the use of third-degree methods in police work
(Sharma: 1981).
who report that the police have a great number of contacts with juvenile which do not
result in court refenal and that thes(;: episodes far outnumber the instances in which
like this: "it seems clear that most adolescents at sometime commit delinquent acts but
are not officially defined as delinquent is the result of social judgement, in most cases
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much broader than the philosophy of criminal comts. With the inclusion of the
clinical approach, the philosophical boundaries have broadened even more. The
category of the 'predelinquent', the abandoned, neglected and cruelly treated - all
that most juvenile can best be dealt with and coITected through psychotherapy rather
unable.
variety of activities that, in effect, treat young offenders for the purpose of
rehabilitation. The concept of using treatment and the relationship between juvenile
coITections and the justice system is clear from the words of Slavson (1965). "Our
juvenile laws are founded on the ideal that children should receive from the state care,
training and treatment - all designed to rehabilitate them and prepare them for
adulthood".
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Fox ( 1972). In a sense, the concept of juvenile correction is simple, it is merely the
the use of the community volunteer as the key person in the treatment".
"To condemn is the business of the judge applying the penal law, but
to determine the conect diagnosis in cases as complex as those that come up in courts
conception of their role from that of a law enforcement agency dedicated to catching
offenders to that of a public service agency devoted to close relationship with the
questioned the efficacy of the juvenile justice system to make the greatest possible use
of Rich ( 1982).
The idea that children are vulnerable, dependent and distinct from adults, they
therefore need pa1ticular protection by society, emerged only in the eighteenth and
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nineteenth centuries. The United Nations, " Po]jcy Review" ( 1986) reports:
still often harsh, severe and even cmel. Of prime imp01tance are phenomena relating
Weisberg (1978) on 'the concept of the rights of the child' alleged that
"it is not necessarily true that parents enjoy an absolute right to control and dominate
their children and any prope1ty they might hold. Many children are neglected,
abandoned, abused (sexually or othe1wise), beaten, sold into slavery, mutilated, and
of U.N. proclaimed the Declaration of the Rights of the Child " to the end that he may
have a happy childhood and enjoy for his own good and for the good of the society
The Declaration presents a code for the well being of every child
account of race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or
social origin, prope1ty, bitth or other status, whether of himself or of his family"..
"Again, " ......... the child, by reason of his physical and mental
immaturity, needs special treatment, education and care required by hls particular
condition. The child shall be protected against all· forms of neglect, cruelty and
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the police operation with delinquents and neglected were concerned. Over and above,
there was no uniformity in the provisions of law among the Children's Acts which
In a major reform, India introduced and enacted its Juvenile Justice Act
in 1986 and its Model Rules in 1987, developed by the National Institute for Social
males not having attained the age of 16 and females not having attained the age of 18.
It established a juvenile justice system completely separate and distinct from the
J. J. Act 1986, Section 2 (1) : defines ' neglected juvenile' as a juvenile who is
1. found begging or
2. is found without having any home or settled place of abode and without any
the juvenile; or
4. lives in a brothel or with a prostitute or frequently goes to any place used for
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designates as the competent authority the Board for Neglected Juveniles, the members
and child welfare, and the Juvenile Court, whose magistrates are appointed by the
Government and which is assisted by a panel of social workers, appointed by the state
government.
delay. Accordingly the Juvenile Justice Act states that neglected juveniles, as
detention. When a juvenile is anested the parents or guardians and the probation
Disposition Measures
disposition measures is provided for: the Juvenile Court may allow the juvenile to go
probation of good conduct and placed wider the care of parents, guardian or other fit
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in cases where the Juvenile Court is convinced that no other measure is suitable or
sufficient may it order the juvenile to be kept in any form of custody in a facility.
empowered to modify the order for the rest of the pe1iod of sentence.
Justice Act makes it clear that neither police lock-ups nor jails are considered suitable
alternative to pre-trial detention, when it is not possible for the juvenile to remain with
the parents or guardians. The juvenile home is a more permanent solution for
juveniles whose well-being and interests cannot be ensured if they remain in their
ordinary environment and for whom no other suitable custodial arrangement can be
Prevention
Juvenile Justice Act is dedicated to the definition of special offences against juveniles,
liquor, narcotic drugs or other substances, and the exploitation of their labour.
Community Involvement
feature of the Juvenile Justice Act and the Model Rules. Both take great care to
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involve the community m many ways at all levels. Thus, organisations and
individuals are called upon to assist juveniles in need of care and protection.
Honorary social workers play and impmtant pa1t in procedures before the Board for
Neglected Juveniles and before the Juvenile Comt. Community access to institutions
is ensured, that is, the young detainees may have visitors, and inspectors check on
society. Also voluntary organisations are actively involved in follow-up and after
implementing the Act, the Act empowers them to create special funds for juvenile
welfare.
inter alia, the qualification, training, organisation and supervision of staff, the overall
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Institutional Treatment
"26.2 Juveniles in institutions shall receive care, protection and all necessary
that they may require because of their age, sex and personality in the interest of
treatment as merely for custody and control there is general agreement that these
institutions are having prison like-facilities, where the inmates are crowded together,
and are not conducive to successful rehabilitation. The youthful inmates in such
institutions, they add, are influenced by the negative innate sub culture and the
research literature has been developed over the past several years, saying that nothing
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Practically, in every state, the juvenile justice system, to say the least,
works in some way or other and that is all about it. Everybody speaks a lot about the
system, but nobody seems to be convinced about the need and urgency of juvenile
about the co-ordination and co-operation among various services and agencies in the
directions during the past hundred years, so that it is no simple matter to sum up the
varied hunches and hypotheses that have been pursued at one time or another.
arguments about aetiology. Similarities between the perspectives of one theorist and
that of another have guided Gibbons ( 1976) to s01t out three major viewpoints.
Biogenic Approach
the law breaker is a person whose misconduct is the result of faulty biology. The
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pathology; his bodily structure and temperament pattern have pushed him toward
body type) were more frequent among the offenders they studied than among the non
hair, enormous jaws, square and protruding chin, smaller number of lines in the palm,
greater mobility of face and hands, swift movement of eyes and broad cheek bones
and so forth. Lombarso held the view that criminals are born.
graduates. He found that anatomical differences did not distinguish the two groups
and that intelligence was more significant factor in criminality. Smith· {1978)
suggested that the thief and murderers suffered from disturbances of gland cells and
nervous system. ·
to body structure is of Krestschmer ( 1994) a German, who advanced the themy that
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Psychogenic Approach
something in the child himself which the environment brings out in the form of
averred that most offenders show inefficient or underdeveloped ego mechanisms and
tend to act out mental conflicts instead of handling them by rational means or
symptom formation.
problems was the research of Healy and Bronner ( 1936), which compared 105
delinquents with 105 of their non delinquent siblings in New Haven, Boston and
Detroit. The investigators concluded that "it finally appears that no less than 91
percent of the delinquents gave clear evidence of being or having been unhappy and
Hakeem (1958) criticised the findings of Healy and Bronner with the
following arguments:
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were psychiatric and social workers predisposed to the opinion that major
2) The differences between the offenders and non delinquents were probably
exaggerated.
If they had spent an equal amount of time with non offenders they would have
children and delinquents in their personality patterns. All the more vagabonds and
delinquents were found to have normal emotional stability and stronger super ego
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and denial.
Secondary school students, Brar & Dhillan ( 1971) found that quite a large number of
young boys and girls who have been carried away by the stress and strain of the
Wurzburg (1972) obse1ves only moderate correlation between personality traits and
extraversion
Authorities like Moodie and Rogers (1940), from their long clinical
experience, believe that behaviour difficulties in children such as truancy, stealing and
dishonesty are mainly due to the thwarting of the psychological needs of security and
affection.
the findings of Schuessler and Cressey ( 1950), who reviewed many studies of
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associated."
referrals was taken up by Seay ( 1993) to study its relationship with I. Q scores. The
analysis of data indicated that 72% of the discipline referrals were from the low I.Q
and juvenile staff offenders were analysed by Hays et al. ( 1980). The overall
intelligence scores of murders were significantly lower than that of status offenders.
For both murderers and status offenders the verbal scores were lower than
performance scores.
normal learning processes which go in gangs and other circumstances that stigmatise
contacts with social control agencies, and to other variables of that kind.
There has been no dea11h of broad arguments about social structure and
crim in alistic conduct. These views, markedly divergent from psychogenic ones, all
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advance a picture with roughly the same details: a characterisation of criminals and
which contends that delinquency and other form of deviance is a response to the
pluralistic society, to the impersonality, individualism, disrespect for law and order,
exploiting nature and other ingredients central to the American way of life.
deviant acts and attitudes through association with persons who have already strayed
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teachers as good 11 boys (unlikely to get into trouble with the law) and "bad" boys
11
(thought to be headed for trouble) following them over a four-year period in order to
see which ones became involved in juvenile delinquency. The study concluded that
"a good self concept, undoubtedly a product of favourable socialisation, veers slum
boys away from delinquency, while a poor self concept, a product of unfavourable
adult relationships; the woman's fear of losing a relationship, non compliance with
from several theoretical points of view. Bordua ( 1960) discussed the major
subculture as arising from "status deprivation" and "status punishment" of lower class
male adolescents; (b) lower class as a rnle culture possessing conduct norms and
values which contradict those of other subculture groups that dominate the subculture
(c) adolescent street groups and gangs as arising out of a need to create and maintain a
set of status c1iteria, which need develops because of the inability of adolescents to
share in the 1ights and privileges of adults and (d) the inability of law-abiding
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elements to constmct and maintain effective social control of youth in many urban
areas.
delinquent acts because his ties to the conventional order have somehow been broken.
expedient route to some desirable goal, hence many of us would engage in these acts
if we were not restrained from doing so by our social ties to others. No special
motivation to engage in law breaking is required when these social ties are breached.
conformity cannot satisfy, force a person into deviance. Merton's 'anomie theory' is a
case of strain theory, for it holds that persons tum to deviance when their legitimate
aspirations for success and upward mobility are fiustrated by social order.
1938 Chen: 1955; Cloward and Ohlin: 1960) is the proposition that some adolescents
anticipating failure.
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perceived expectations of his or her deviant associates. The sub culture theories of
Cohen (1955); Miller (1958); Cloward and Ohlin (1960), Akers (1973) Sutherland
and Cressy ( 1974) and the like vary a great deal in terminology and focus, but share
delinquency from a control theory perspective (Social and self-control theories). Two
adolescent samples were used for this purpose. A Swiss national sample (N=970) and
delinquent behaviour four years later (2) American youths were consistently more
delinquent than their Swiss age mates, especially on more serious act. Although
developmental process in delinquency was similar for both the groups, Swiss youth
reported closer family relations and a higher level of self-control. These closer.family
relations and the greater self-control accounted for over 70 percent of the mean level
the tenants of self-control the01y as well as its implication for national difference.
The control theory of Hirschi, in the view of Briar and Piliavin (1965);
Karacki and Toby (1962); Polk and Halferty (1966) and Hewitt (1970) is not
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'control theory' the central thesis of which is that individuals are restrained from law
significance in keeping persons from wandering into law breaking. Inner containment
according to Reckless consists mainly of self components, such as self control, good
self concept, ego strength, well developed superego, high frustration tolerance, high
Home
family problem solving skills and non-intact family structure were significant
predictors of later delinquency and also of the severity of the delinquency by the
adolescent.
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believe that lack of proper socialisation at home was found to lead a child to become
the top factor among the various sources of home environment leading to delinquent
acts.
when studied by Walters and Bandura (1958) found basic lack of affection in the
Peer Association
determine if the social processes like friends' influences, parental bond and school
behaviour. The findings asserted that peer pressure played an important role in the
robbery, assault and larceny, Clark (1991) repo1ted that peer association influence the
aetiology of delinquency.
theory and reputation enhancement theory was combined and studied by Smith ( 1997)
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bonds and reputation enhancement better account for variance m girls' delinquent
genesis of delinquent behaviour. He is of the opinion that positive and negative self
negative self-concept.
from the common sense observation that delinquency and crime are apparently not
place in Chicago in 1940 with the work of Thrasher, Shaw and Mekay. They found
population change, poor housing, poverty, tuberculosis, adult crime and Mattel
disorders.
social cohesion, which, as a result, freed youngsters from the bind of social control to
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1. Nearer a given locality is to the centre of the city, higher will be its rate of
delinquency.
the background of many criminals. But it is not equally true of millions of others who
did not become criminals? Delinquent rates, human ecologists assure us, are the
highest in slum areas. But what precisely is the relationship between features of
slum-living and delinquency? How uniquely this factor is concerned in the crime
situation is the question. A study of such factors marks only a beginning, although an
hypotheses and not provide definite answers. Crime is a phenomenon that is multi
cause in nature.
The basic argument about youth culture holds that a social pattern has
grown up... which draws middle class adolescents into deviant conduct, much of it in
delinquent form.
including value stress upon cars, clothing, records, teen-age magazines, special
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was analysed. A continuing study of the life style and values of youth were done to
among high school students for all dimensions of deviant behaviour including:
criminal behaviour, heavy alcohol use, marijuana use, hard drug use and dangerous
driving.
EDUCATORS
homeless, neglected and delinquent children is a good measure of its civilisation. The
psychologists and sociologists in several parts of the world, much more than the
educationalists themselves.
"The Will of God ......... places the tight of every child that is born into
the world to such a degree of education as will enable him, and as far as possible, will
pre dispose him, to perform all domestic, social, civil and moral duties" (cited in
Cremin : 1960).
most impo1tant inputs to Human Resources Development in its National Policy for
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Children.
is to guarantee each individual throughout his life a full and equal opportunity to
secure the skills, the knowledge and the understanding necessary to fulfil himself as
continues to have little meaning. To say, juvenile delinquency has a long past and
public policy - making and the development of programme strategies for improving
their welfare. The World Summit for Children held in 1990 epitomised this
realisation and reaffirmed the collective commitment to change this situation (cited in
of educational innovation from the 19th century to the present was discussed in a
study by Sedlack (1981 ). It is suggested that the historical preoccupation with using
the schools as agencies of socialisation to prevent ciiminality has not only contributed
to self-fulfilling prophecies, but it has also encouraged educators, social workers and
juveniles, Abraamson (1991) repmts that recidivism rates for juvenile offenders
remain high.
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realities oflife. Both formal and informal modes ofeducation enable the individual to
adjust himselfin the community in a meaningful way. This may be, to a great extent,
keep the educated away from anti-social path (cited in Prasad : 1981).
on social maladjustment in the popular media was stressed by Webber (1992). His
arguments was that the system restructuring of special education should include
different views. Glueck (1959), giving imp01tance to school, says that school is the
James (1995) argues that schools are unfairly isolated from other
agencies that provide services for children by the Juvenile Justice System's failure to
address adequately the problem of juvenile delinquency. School officials need to get
back into the network ofjuvenile justice care agencies that share the common interest
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developing a basic nomenclature for lay persons, professionals, students and teachers
who share an interest in the perceived need to get crime and violence out of schools.
He asse1ts that a better understanding of the crime and violence in our schools and
society can lead to a decline in student's apathy, anger and criminal delinquent
behaviour.
Schools unlike the police, courts and probation officers have a natural
relationship with the parents and their pupils. Hence in the opinion of Kvaraceus and
Ulrich ( 1959), schools occupy a most strategic role in the prevention and control of
Kennedy and Pursuit ( 1965) point out the unique position the schools
have in the personality development of children and that teachers should identify child
and youth problem and initiate corrective action at an early stage. One of the major
more frequent in Secondary Schools than in Middle and Primary Schools and the
overall violence and disruptive behaviour is more common among boys than girls
"It would appear, says Litwack ( 1961), that the more frustrating and
unrewarding the school situation becomes, the more retarded is the youngster
educationally, the more likely is he to rebel in anti-social behaviour, both in and out
of school".
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and school non-attendance were the variables studied by Jenkins (1993) in its relation
involvement in school activities and belief in the fairness and legitimacy of school
that may have led to their dropout and delinquent behaviour was explored by Aller
( 1997). Language literacy in terms of its role in the socialisation of these juveniles
behaviour of a group of students. The samples generally had neither the I.Q. nor the
population.
regular education programme from which the socially and emotionally vulnerable
children cannot make profit. Their major hope is that the disadvantaged in the regular
Fomess ( 1992) points out that the lack of a clear, universally accepted
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the exclusion of youths labelled socially maladjusted from special education services
education for behaviour disordered and delinquent youth. the articles, he says, are
discussed in terms of the trend toward the right of the delinquents to a free and
the facility with which the seniors can make orations or solve mathematical problems;
In the context of rapid social change, the schools are forced to assume
greater share of the burden of the socialisation of children. This fact, Coffey ( 1975)
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says, carries broad implications for preventive work in crime and delinquency.
education, he adds, even though, Aristotle, had said - 'Man is a social animal'.
Smith (1988) with incarcerated juvenile delinquents. This was found to have positive
Flanders (1959) observes that the role which teachers occupy in the
modelling as a social skill training and status improvement technique was proved
Caspari (1976) asserts that " all teachers have certain kinds o:f _expertise
development norms of behaviour than the teachers, seeing as they do children over a
which are detrimental and injurious to the best interests of the society in the opinion
of Brar and Dhillon (1971) is that parents and teachers do not show sympathetic and
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cautious attitude, put unnecessary restraints and fail to provide desirable outlets.
study program. l11e teachers who did pa1ticipate had more insight into their pupils'
personalities and were more likely to change in the direction of greater congruence
In a study among 200 teachers, Sudha (1966) found that teachers were
an ove1t and aggressive type as more serious than those of a withdrawing and
recessive nature whereas the reverse was true for mental hygienists.
"l11e teachers' energy " explains Simpson (1974), " is drained by the
meet insolence without losing self control and to cool the tempers of those whose
elimination was found to be effective by Becker et al. (1968). They found that
children who had been previously well behaved showed increased dis111ptive
Patel (1974) found that indirect teacher influence had favourable effect
on motivation and classroom organisation and also on the attitude towards teacher.
proportion of her attention to problem behaviour. He is also of the opinion that peers
pay I 00% attention to the problem behaviours. Both peers and teachers largely ignore
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adolescents do better academic work than those who suffer from a feeling of
was the concern of research for Earl ( 1993). Data indicate that stress was a significant
occupational stress were different between special school teachers and regular school
teachers in Taiwan.
behaviour, estimates of the teachers' use of positive and negative reinforcement were
desired behaviour and ignoring the deviant ones was the techniques employed. Net
classroom teacher practices and provided child social skills training was evaluated by
Donnell, et al. ( 199 5) to find its effect in preventing school failure, drug use and
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behaviours, peer behaviours and their own behaviours. Rutherford ( 1982) in this way
writing behaviour, far beyond those evidenced in the traditional classes held at the
correctional facility. This study shows that such a program can make productive
( 1997). It was found to have effect in lowering the need for remedial services and
( 1965) indicated that children who persistently behave in aggressive and disruptive
ways in the classroom or who are delinquency-prone, when compared with their non-
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aggressive and non-dismptive peers are not only low in intelligence but also lower in
basic scholastic achievement than would be expected on the basis of their intelligence.
I.Q. or age, but differed in socio-economic status were compared on the Torrance Test
of Creative Thinking. Anderson and Stoffer (1980) did not find significant effect or
intention between 1.Q. and adjudication status with respect to figural creativity. But
with a matched group of controls, on measures of logical operational ability and found
Needs in Education
discussions, now a days. Mace (1953) once said in a discussion of 'need': ''It is not a
technical term, it is in common use, and it is perhaps less ambiguous than any of the
alternatives that might be suggested". The most obvious criterion of need is that a
state of affairs conceived of is absent: People are without food, children are without
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tends to "quicken the intellect, inspire self-respect, excite to higher aims and afford a
healthful substitute for low and vicious amusements" among the criminals (Cited in
Viswathasi: 1982).
to prisons of India are illiterate. Fonnal education is a remedy for the idle mind and
makes prisoners friendly and co-operative. All. the more it spreads literacy among
major concern in the field of education. But Woody ( 1969) feels it surprising that
more professional effo1ts have not been directed at combating the difficulties these
Schools are ill prepared to adapt to the needs of many children who
come from the streets. Students who do not fit in well are either expelled or otherwise
deprived of education on the grounds that they could not benefit from regular schools.
violence employed both internal and social tactics to maintain safe schools. Nicoll's
(1996) observation in this respect was that schools were reaching out to meet a variety
The study of Jayasingh (1982) revealed that for property offenders, the
period of jail sentence varies between a few days and a year or two and rarely up to
three years. Therefore, none of the prope1ty offenders were found to be availing the
facilities for education. TI1is attitude was more among recidivists than among first
offenders.
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Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and suggested stmctural changes to include post secondary
education finding that the incarcerated inmates benefited and valued the on-going
educational programmes.
juvenile justice system, Edalman (1986) found Children's Action Teams which were
raising awareness of the need of children and developing ways for communities to
meet them.
children, success lies in using the human needs as a springboard to learning, in the
opinion of Bottom ( 1970). TI1e deprived child is a paradox to many who teach him.
''You need the wisdom of Solomon, the patience of Job and strength and endurance of
the roles of teachers and students. Leamer-centred instmction and an active role for
Ashford, 1994 ). The World Bank Repmt on Priorities and Strategies for Education
reports that Basic inputs, classroom activities and adequate time and materials are
required for students to learn". The traditional view of teacher's role in instituting
truths and transfeITing knowledge should be abandoned, at least during part of the
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high levels of subject matter knowledge, clarity of explanations, and organisation and
modification are based on the operant learning theory of B.F. Skinner and his
followers.
launched by Cohen ( 1965) who used the method of programmed instruction to reach
specific target of academic achievement. (If the learner completed a unit of program
with a score of 90 percent, he was eligible to take examination in which he could earn
reinforcement in the form of points each worth one percent. These points could used
to buy potato chips, cakes and other facilities. l11e only way, the student could·obtain
generated desirable activities. The study established the fact that systematic
antisocial behaviour.
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problems. Need satisfaction is essential for the growth and development of a person.
following characteristics:
school and college students. The study found that there was close correspondence
between the problems and needs of students. The need for guidance service was also
adolescents and found that ( 1) the socio-economic status is highly related to the
problems of the adolescent (2) urban students have significantly higher achievement
different types of behaviour problems. Sudha (1966), in her study, requested 166
serious problems by the teachers of Kera la. The least serious problems according to
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minded.
and neuroticism on the problem solving ability of children. Social deprivation was
compared by Sahney (1984) to find out the differences between the groups in relation
maladjustment and automism and denial. The delinquents also showed significantly
equated for age and intelligence and similar socio-economic background were given
delinquents would give a characteristic pattern on this test. There was statistically
significant difference between these two groups only for two of the sub tests, the
delinquents being inferior to the non-delinquents for both. On the whole, the
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(I) Morally developed adolescents felt more secure than the morally
underdeveloped.
underdevelopment.
studied by Bandopadhyay ( 1981), was found to have a linear relationship with age.
All the more girls were found to have more matmity than boys in three areas of moral
judgement viz., attitude towards justice, equality and authority and collective
responsibility. Boys and girls of missionary schools were better in moral judgement.
observed. Where both parents adopted the same form of discipline (love oriented or
power assertion) children showed more mature moral judgement. The greater the
divergence between parents the lesser was the development of moral judgement.
moral growth.
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delinquent males was done by Franklin ( 1979). Results of the study indicated higher
Unless inter-religious values are built into the education system, it will
be difficult to expect the younger generation to imbibe them. They will reject
religious values altogether and fall into a sterile and ultimately destructive hedonism,
or they will lapse into religious fundamentalism that can create havoc in the 21st
century. The universal values inherent in all the great religious systems of the world
educational theory and mass communication. One of the measures necessary for this
1998).
and academic chances of 'at-risk' students. The results show that values and
character education will improve the cognitive learning of 'at risk' students while
reducing their socially deviant behaviour. The results also challenge the reticence of
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educational structure, may suffer from a disjunction between education and the world
of work (cited in Statistical Cha1ts and Indicators on the Situation of Youth: 1995).
programme used in Jefferson Parish, Bauer (1995) found that finding work for
juveniles is a most effective way of keeping them away from a life of crime.
among students in below average socio-economic status, black and at-risk of dropping
out of school, Enzor (1991) found that these students had less information for making
appropriate career decisions and were limited in their knowledge of working world as
compared to average to high socio-economic status, white and non at-risk students.
At-risk students were significantly less committed to community service and leisure
The study of Williams (1993) supp01t other studies that report lower
than average intelligence scores for delinquents. He explains that delinquents with
success when raced with limited opportunities for success. The investigation
dropout rate of special needs population when studied by Aguirre (1992} suppo1ted
the concept that centre characteristics such as peer tutming, counselling, computer
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programs, parental participation and teacher ability were the services that helped to
unemployment to see that serious delinquency and substance use problems were
lower job access were associated with a decreased likelihood of employment. High
student's academic performance (Barton: 1989). The need for causal modelling to
percent to 90 percent of the total repeated offences committed against property have
best adapted, his chance of getting employment, and becoming law abiding would be
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on the post release behaviour of youthful property offenders, Lattimore, Witte and
training and employment services provided by various agencies into one program.
The V.D.S program was designed to increase pa1ticipants' vocational skills through
training. The first element of the V.D.S was the evaluation of the inmates' vocational
aptitudes and interests. Among the 18-22 year-old males of N01th Carolina prisons,
the experimental group had positive effects on the post release recidivism.
System is found in the economic models of criminal behaviour which suggest that
vocational and technical education, as observed by Meade ( 1965). But the task before
us is how to integrate successfully the very best of both worlds-general and vocational
education. He continues-during the past 50 years, the united states has developed a
dual system of education. They have devised vocational education of the contributory
resources of general education just as they did not allow general education to be
Employers have indicated that people most often fail at jobs because of
tli�ir lack of proper work attitudes. Patt of the responsibility of the discipline of
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vocational education is to develop in students the values related to work that are
predict the work attitudes of students enrolled in vocational teacher education at the
parental work attitudes, perception of peer work attitudes, and work attitudes of
people in expected occupation were the three independent variables that were found to
prolonged Deprivation, when studied by Kathuria (1982), revealed negative and non
problems of 1800 XI and XII standard arts, science and commerce students of Greater
Bombay, reported that absence of guidance for choice of courses, lack of co-
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syllabi and tools, defective admissions, large classes and inadequate facilities,
dissatisfaction among teachers regarding low wages and heavy workload are some of
guidance, different aspects of work and students, attitude towards it, issues related to
college studies as their most likely choice after school. Only less than a fifth planned
to seek admission to vocational training. It was also found that students' knowledge
to the current situation and to improve the field of vocational education. While
found vocational educators were moderately flexible and there was no statistically
education is the stage at which vocationalisation should begin. The age of maturity of
children, the vocational needs of society, the quantum of essential general knowledge
to be impa1ted to students, the balance between knowledge and skill in the curriculum
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are some of the considerations that figure in a discussion of this issue. Socially useful
productive work, work experience, and work-education have been provided for in
prepared brief case studies on disadvantaged youth who had certain characteristics
school student was analysed by Gomez ( 1997). Through the analysis of the alert
score for the making of vocational decisions of the 'Vocational Advice System', it was
seen that there was an excessive need on the part of the individual for advice and
oneself and in his/her own academic possibilities, as well as the lack of clarity in the
within the given economic systems, which is feasible to plan training programmes to
"realistic" (i.e. matching the skills of each coho1t to the existing job situation) and
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not provide them an appropriate educational experience. Doxey (1993) assessed the
occupational analysis compiling a prioritised listing of skills for the spectrum of their
productive level, general work ethics and motivation need improvement, the college
should establish a strong institutional culture and identity were his recommendations,
(1983) conducted case studies on selected communities. It revealed the need for
towards enrolment practices and career value of their cunent vocational program was
found to be similar. Presly (1994) fmther found that vocational enrolment decisions
are often left largely to the discretion of the student, rather than supervised by a
differences in degree of strength of the students' beliefs. Students in the 9th and 10th
grades are more likely to benefit from organised career planing practices.
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whether boy or girl, did not differ in industrial communities, whereas they differed in
non public schools in St. Crove. Data was gathered from students, educators and
parents of students using occupational label s01t. It requested the participants to select
five occupational category (from total 25) which they considered to be first in
importance to prepare the students for the world of work. The choice made by the
respondents were compared, ranked and pri01itised to yield the perceived vocational
need of students. The choices made by the study population were compared with data
relating to the manpower needs of the country and also with the choices made by
another population in a similar study. Findings showed a strong consensus that white
collar occupations are considered more important than the blue-collar manual
occupation.
Emphasising the need for preventive action, the 8th united Nations
crimes and abuse of power. These topics should become part of the curricula of
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judicial colleges.
Prevention and Criminal Justice: 1993). Successful crime prevention pose several
obstacles like deplorable living condition in many urban areas of the world, in
particular in developing count1ies and in the least developed countries; the rapidly
variety of activities that, in effect, treat young offenders for the purpose of
differences were noted on life skill development, school attendance and average
grades.
"Our juvenile laws are founded on the ideal that children .should
receive from the state, care, training and treatment-all designed to rehabilitate them
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recommendations made at the presentencing level are followed by judges and agreed
stable in employment, residence and family and were considered a less likely to have
programmes that have positive effects on post release behaviour of youthful property
offenders have, for the most part, proved futile. This 'nothing works' attitude of
justify that we do not know of any program or method of rehabilitation that could be
guaranteed to reduce the criminal activity of released offenders ". Sechrest, White
and Brown ( 1979) experts in the panel subsequently observed that much of the
designs.
by Ettner ( 1995). The perception about the characteristics of the program differed for
offenders who failed to complete the program and for those who completed the
program.
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court system and social agencies, Chicago Public Schools have successfully attempted
Polan (1994) between client who dropped out prior to completion of the programme
and clients who completed the programme. Findings showed that clients who
completed the' programme reduced law violation and had a positive change in family
interaction. The diversion programme fulfilled its broadly stated goals of teaching
RECLAIM Ohio: Reasoned and Equitable Community and Local Alternative� to the
community while reserving space in institutions for more serious offenders. Moon
(1997) evaluated the RECLAIM: Ohio and found that the pilot counties significantly
increased the number of offenders incarcerated for serious offences, and significantly
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Intervention Programmes
the effects of at-1isk variables and make positive changes in overall functioning of
Williams (1998) studied the effect of the training programme on parents and children.
Mothers who were experiencing high levels of stress and anxiety associated with child
rearing skills were found to have a decline into their stress and anxiety levels across
time.
beginning of each session of the program revealed that there was statistically
significant decline in the number of aberrant behaviours reported by parents across the
Kirigin (1982), found that rate of alleged criminal offences, percentage of youths
individually and consult with staff more than doing parent consultation. Workload
and work schedule were rated as the largest barriers to providing family interventions.
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facilities was studied by Balson ( 1998). All individuals expressed strong opinions
general self-esteem and value for the pa1ticipant students were based on how teachers
and other educational staff treated them. All interviewed have defmite opinions on
themselves and the society that ignores them. Bembry ( 1995) studied experimentally
at-risk youth in a community se1vice programme where they engaged with the elderly
service to the dependent variables of self-esteem, grades and school attendance were
studied. The results suggest that unless there is a special academic component within
academic perfonnance.
education programme in a private prison in N01th Carolina. The findings of the study
percent of all inmates entering prison have less than a high school diploma and many
cannot read. About 25 percent of the inmates were assumed to be able to benefit from
delinquents. The study involved four experimental groups who led some form of
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work expenence and/or remedial education along with a control group that was
involved in a regular school programme. TI1e exponential subjects did not differ
intervention programme on attitude towards leisure, alcohol and other drug use as
Hutchinson (1993). Treatment did not produce a difference between the experimental
learning along with it, the remedial instruction model and the educational enrichment
model. Each model operated in conjunction with a job was evaluated by McCausland
(1995). All significant findings favoured youths in enrichment projects, rather than
remedial classes. Youth in job alone had the most positive outcome.
tendencies. The study began in 1961 and continued till 69. 13-14 years boys were
involved. Regarding the overall impact of the programme, Ahlstrom and Havighurst
(1971) obse1ves: "By 1969, it was apparent that all these efforts and expenditure of
money had remarkably little effect". Only I/4th of the boys benefited from the
programme.
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modify the behaviour of delinquents. The adolescents working within the project
were labelled by comt. The laboratory of the project was set up in a large store in
front on a street comer. This project is known as Street Comer Research . The
parents found significant differences between the pre-test and post-test scores for the
that parents were living in a very constricted, mundane environment, where very little
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difference between the groups on pre test measures in favour of control group and
children were given training, family counselling and group counselling. The
tasks were the most imp01tant, supportive tasks and educational tasks were rated as
quasi experimental study by Waxman (1992) was conducted among academically at
significantly improved grades, retention rates and academic persistence for. at-risk
students.
grasp of the context from which to sta1t her investigation. The problem of juvenile
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explanations in this respect, the legal enactment to deal with the problem., the
educational status of the delinquents as well as the vocational prospects, treatment and
rehabilitative measures were probed in detail. Studies dealing with the needs and
helped the investigator to give final shape for the present study.
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