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4 0^=5^ C M-^
AND ETHNOGRAPHY
.-jW BY
\
LONDON:
WALTER SCOTT, PATERNOSTER SQUARE.
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS,
153-157FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK
1901.
PREFACE.
have been selected with very great care. With two or three
exceptions, the " types " of the different peoples are photo-
graphs of well-authenticated subjects, often such as have
been observed and measured by competent authorities, or by
myself.
J.
DENHCER.
— — —
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION.
PAGE
Ethnic Groups and Zoological Species ... ... i
CHAPTER I.
Somatic Characters
xii CONTENTS.
CHAPTER II.
PAGE
CHAPTER III.
CHAPTER IV.
CONTENTS. XUl
CHAPTER V.
XIV CONTENTS.
CHAPTER VII.
PAGE
Sociological Characters — {continued) ... ... 229
3. —
Family Life. Relations of the two sexes before marriage
Marriage and family —
Theory of promiscuity Group —
—
marriage Exogamy and endogamy Matriarchate Degrees — —
of relationship and — Polyandry— Levirate— Poly-
filiation
CHAPTER VIII.
CHAPTER IX.
PAGE
Races and Peoples of Europe ... ... ... 299
CHAPTER X.
CHAPTER XL
Races and Peoples of Africa 426
xvi CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XII.
of New —
Guinea Melanesians properly so called of the
Salomon and Admiralty Islands, New Hebrides, New
Caledonia, etc. — IV. Polynesians: Polynesians properly so
called of Samoa, Tahiti, and Sandwich Islands, New
Zealand, etc. — Micronesians of the Caroline and Marianne
Islands, etc. — Peopling of the Pacific Islands and of the
Indian Ocean.
CHAPTER XIII.
CONTENTS. xvil
California —
and Pueblo groups III. Indians of Mexico and
Central America : a. Sonoran-Aztecs 6. Central Americans
;
—
(Mayas, Isthmians, etc.) Half-breeds in Mexico and the
Antilles.
Peoples of South America— i. Andeans : Chibcha, Quechua,
—
and other linguistic families the Araucans li. Amazonians
;
Appendix 577
Index of Authors 597
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
FIO- PAGE
Naga of Manipur in gala costume Frontispiece
1. Skull of gorilla 1
2. Skull of man .
17
3. Microscopic section of skin and of hair 34
4. Mohave Indians of Arizona 35
5. 6. Pure Veddah of Dangala Mountains of Ceylon 36, 37
30. Petition of Chippeway Indians to the President of the United States 139
31. Various signs of symbolic pictography 14°
47. Zulu girl, with head-dress, necklace, belt, and chastity apron - 171
Bechuana - • • 205
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XXI
^I"- PAGE
67. Symbolic adzes of Mangaia Island - 207
68. "Sansa"' or "Zimba," a musical box of the Negroes - 211
69. " Marimba," the Negro xylophone - 212
Bushman playing on "
70. the "gora 213
71. Detail of construction of the "gora" - 214
72. Eskimo geographical map . - 226
73. Chipped ihnt dagger of the Californian Indians - - 256
74. Axe of the Banyai (JVIatabeleland) - - 258
75. Missile arms of the Australians - - 260
76. Throwing-stick of the Papuans of German New Guinea - 261
77. Different methods of arrow release 265
78. Australian shield in wood - 267
79. Indonesian shields 268
80. Shield of Zulu- Kafirs - 268
81. Money of uncivilised peoples - 272
82. Method of tree-climbing in India 276
83. Malayo-Polynesian canoe with outrigger 279
84. Chellean flint implement, Saint- Acheul (Somme) 302
85. Quaternary art (Magdalenian period) - 308
86. Spy skull, first quaternary race 311
87. Chancelade skull, second quaternary race - - - 312
88. Islander of Lewis (Hebrides) - 319
89. 90. Norwegian of South Osterdalen 322, 323
104, 105.
Russian woman, district of Vereia 346, 347
of Ural Mountains -
106. Cheremiss 350
108. Kundrof Tatar (Turkoman) of Astrakhan 352,353
107
109' Georgian Imer of Kutais 355
Chechen of Daghestan
no III- - - -
356,357
xxii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
FIG. PAGE
112. Skull o{ the FiiAecantAro/ius erecius {Dah.) - 360
113. Calvaria of /'?'Ms«??M«/««, seen from above 3^'
114. Polished stone axe found in Cambodia 364
115. 116. Tunguse hunter (Siberia) with ski and staff 368, 369
117. AinuofYezo (Japan) with crown of shavings -
371
118. Educated Chinaman of Manchu origin 384
119. Leao-yu-chow, Chinese woman 385
120. Young Japanese women taking tea - 388
121. Tong King artisan of Son-tai -
390
122. Khamti of Lower Burma, Assam frontier -
393
123. Black Sakai of Gunong-Inas (Perak, Malay Pen.) 396
124. Negrito chief of Middle Andaman 398
125. Gurkha of the Kus or Khas tribe, Nepal -
403
126. Group of Paniyan men and children of Malabar - 405
127. Young Irula girl 406
128. Santal of the Bhagalpur Hills 407
129. An old Toda man of Nilgiri Hills 412
130. Group of Todas of Nilgiri Hills 414
131. 132. Singhalese of Candy, Ceylon -
416, 417
133. Tutti, Veddah wornan of the village of Kolonggala 418
134. Natives of Mekran (Baluchistan) 421
135. Arts and crafts among the Kafirs 430
136. Tunisian Berber, Oasis type 437
137. Moor of the Senegal
Trarza 434
138. Hamran Beja of Daghil tribe ^(.37
INTRODUCTION.
ETHNIC GROUPS AND ZOOLOGICAL SPECIES.
'
In these ethnic groups there may further be distinguished several
subdivisions due to the diversity of manners, customs, etc, ; or, in the
groups with a more complicated social organisation, yet other social
groups priests, magistrates, miners, peasants, having each his particular
"social type."
4 THE RACES OF MAN,
they are intermixed within certain territorial limits. Thus
thenumber of "somatological units" is so much the greater
when the "ethnic groups" are more civilised, and it is only
among entirely primitive peoples that one may hope to find
coincidence between the two terms. In reality, those peoples
are almost undiscoverable who represent "somatological units"
comparable to the "species " of zoology.
But, it may be asked, do you believe that your "somato-
logical units" are comparable with "species"? Are they not
simple "varieties" or "races"?
Without wishing to enter into a discussion of details, it
seems to me that where the genus Homo is concerned, one
can neither speak of the " species," the " variety," nor the
"race" in the sense that is usually attributed to these words
in zoology or in zootechnics.
In effect, in these two sciences, the terms "species" and
"variety" are applied to wild animals living solely under the
influence of nature; whilst the term "race" is given in a
general way to the groups of domestic animals living under
artificial conditions created by an alien will, that of man, for
a well-defined object.
Let us see to which of these two categories man, considered
as an animal, may be assimilated.
By this single fact, that even at the very bottom of the
scale of civilisation man possesses articulate speech, fashions
tools, and forms himself into rudimentary societies, he is
'
See on this point, Y. Delage, VHirSdite, pp. 252 et seij. Paris, 1895.
^ The question is summed up by Darwin, Descent of Man, vol. i., p.
264, 2nd edition. London, 1888.
^ it must be observed, we often confound the
In questions of hybridity,
notions of "race" and "people," or " social class," and we have to be
on our guard against information drawn from statistics. Thus in Central
America we consider "hybrids" all those descendants of the Spaniards
and the Indians who have adopted the semi-European manner of life and
the Catholic religion, without inquiring whether or not this physical type
has reverted to that of one of the ancestors — a not infrequent occurrence.
INTRODUCTION. 7
or, down the course of the ages, in the same people, without
concerning ourselves with the degree of actual civilisation
attained.
Certain authors make a distinction between ethnography
and ethnology, saying the first aims at describing peoples or
the different stages of civihsation, while the second should
lO THE RACES OF MAN.
explain these stages and formulate the general laws which
have governed the beginning and the evolution of such stages.
Others make a like distinction in anthropology, dividing it
theoretically into "special" and "general," the one describing
races, and the other dealing with the. descent of these
races and of mankind as a whole.^ But these divisions
are purely arbitrary, and in practice it is impossible to touch
on one without having given at least a summary of the
other. The two points of view, descriptive and speculative,
cannot be treated separately. A science cannot remain con-
tent with a pure and simple description of unconnected facts,
^ Such is, for example, the scheme of Topinard, consisting of two double
parts [Elements d' Anlhropologie, p. 2i5, Paris, 1885), to which corre-
sponds the system newly propounded by Em. Schmidt [Centralblalt fiir
Anthropologie, etc., vol. ii., p. 97, Bieslau, 1897). The last-mentioned
admits in reality two divisions. Ethnography and Ethnology, in what
he calls Ethnic Anthropology
and two others, Phylography and Phylo-
;
CHAPTER I.
SOMATIC CHARACTERS.
DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS OF MAN AND APES.
12
:
SOMATIC CHARACTERS. 13
'
If we include the Lemurs in the order of Primates, the five families
)
r4 THE RACES OF MAN.
the gibbon, are confined to the south-east of Asia, or, to be
more precise, to Indo-China, and the islands of Sumatra and
Borneo. We can even reduce the group in question to three
genera only, for many gibbon as an
naturalists consider the
intermediate form between the anthropoid apes and the
monkeys ^ The anthropoids have a certain number of char-
acters in common which distinguish them from the monkeys.
Spending most of their life in trees, they do not walk in the
same way as the macaques or the baboons. Always bent
(except the gibbon),- they move about with difificulty on the
ground, supporting themselves not on the palm of the hand, as
do the monkeys, but on the back of the bent phalanges.
They have no tail like the other apes, nor have they cheek-
pouches to serve as provision bags. Finally, they are without
those callosities on the posterior part of the body which are
met with in a large number of Cercopithecidce, attaining often
enormous proportions, as for instance, among the Cynocephali.
The gibbon alone has the rudiments of ischiatic callosities.
If we compare man with these apes, which certainly of
all animals resemble him most, the following principal differ-
ences may be noted. Instead of holding himself in a bending
position, and walking supported on his arms, man walks in an
erect attitude — the truly biped mode of progress. In harmony
with this attitude, his vertebral column presents three curves,
cervical, dorsal, and lumbar, very definitely indicated, while they
are only faintly marked in the anthropoids, and almost absent
in the monkeys. This character, moreover, is graduated in
man; in civilised man the curvature in question is more marked
than among savages. There is no need, however, to see in
that any "character of superiority." It is quite simply an
acquired formation; it is more marked in civilised man just
because one of the conditions of the stability of the
it is
'
J. H. Kohlbruggc, " Versuch Anatomic
einer . . . Hyloliates," ^w/of.
Ergeh. einer Reiss in Ned. Ind., von M. Weber ^ vols. i. and ii. Leyden,
SOMATIC CHARACTERS. IS
orane-outans," Nouv. Arch. Alits. d'hist. nal. de Paris, 3rd Series, vol.
vii., p. 47. '895-
i6 THE RACES OF MAN.
pital condyles of the skull on the atlas. The slight muscles to
be found behind the articulation are there only to counter-
balance the trifling tendency of the head to fall forward.
In connection with this point, we must remember that
Broca and several other anthropologists see, on the contrary, in
the biped attitude, one of the conditions of the development
of the brain, as that attitude alone assures the free use of the
hands and extended range of vision. Somewhat analogous
' R. Munro, "On Interm. Links', etc.," rrocecd. Roy. Soc. Edinh.,vo\.
xxi. No. 4, p. 349, and Prehisloric Problems, pp. 87 and
(1896-97),
165, Edin.-Lond. 1897; Turner, Pres. Address Brit. Assoc, Toronto
Meeting, Nature, Sept. 1S97.
SOMATIC CHARACTERS. 17
vical curve only shows itself at the time when the child begins
to "hold up its head," in the sitting posture to which it
gradually, becomes accustomed —
that is to say about the third
month. On the other hand, as soon as the child begins to
walk (the second year), the prevertebral muscles and those of
the loins act upon the lower regions of the spine and produce
le lumbar curve.
/
Thus, perhaps, the chief fact which determines the erect'
Bonn, 18S0. The difference remains nearly the same if, instead of the
weight of the body, we take its surface, as was attempted by E. Dubois
(Bull. Soc. Anthr, Paris, p. 337, 1897).
* For further
details about this plane, see p. 59.
SOMATIC CHARACTERS. I9
much less than the two first molars. With the anthropoid apes
this tooth is of the same size as the other molars or a little
nearly always smaller than the other molars; the number of the
tubercles is reduced to three instead of four or five; very often
SOMATIC CHARACTERS. 53
' Bell, The Naturalist in Nicaragua, \i. 2.0(j, 1874; Shevyref, "Parasites
of the Skin, etc ," Works Soc. of Naturalists, St. Petersburg, 1891, in
Russian.
2 Walter Kidd, " Certain Vestigial Characters in Man," Nature, 1S97,
vol. Iv. , p. 237.
—
^4 The r/Vces of man.
ment of the face in front and below in the anthropoid ape, and
the growth of the skull upward and behind in man, as if these
parts moved in different directions in relation to a central
point in the interior of the skull near to the selia turcica}
limits of our subject were I to describe here, one by one, all the
anatomical or morphological characters drawn from the bony,
muscular, nervous, and other systems of which the human
body composed. We shall only pass in review the char-
is
ies singes anthropoides, Paris and Poitiers, 1886 (Extr. from ArcJi. de
Zool. experim., 3eser. , vol, iii., supp. , 1885-86).
SOMATIC CHARACTERS. 2S
AVERAGE STATURE.
26 THE RACES OF MAN.
According to this table there would also be from the time
of birth an inequality of stature of the two sexes; boys
exceed girls by a figure which varies from 2 to lo millim.,
that is to say on an average half a centim. (less than a quarter
of an inch). The data relating to different races are insufifi-
cient it may be remarked,
; however, that with people very
low Annaniese (im. 58, or 5 feet 2 inches),
in stature, like the
thousand have been found taller than im. 90. Yet in these
two cases, populations of a very high stature (im. 72 on
an average) were being dealt with. If we turn to a population
lower in stature, for instance the Italian, we find only one
subject im. 90 or above in height in 7000 examined, accord-
ing to the statistics of Pagliani.i In the same way, low
statures under im. 35 (53 inches) are met with only once
in every 100.000 cases among the subjects examined by
the American Commission, and not once among 8,585 in-
habitants of the United Kingdom even in a population low in
;
stature, like the Italians, only three such in every 1000 subjects
examined are to be found. We do not possess a sufficient
number of figures to be able to affirm that among all the
populations of the globe the instances of all these extreme
statures are exceptional, but what we know leads us to suppose
that it is so, and that the limits of normal stature in man are
between im. 35 and im. 90.
The figures of individual cases are much less interesting
than the averages of the different populations, that is to say
the height obtained by dividing the sum of the statures of in-
dividuals by the number of subjects measured. On comparing
these averages it becomes possible to form a clear idea of the
difference existing among the various peoples. But here
there an observation to make.
is
^ These figures differ from those up to the present given in most works,
according to Topinard \E!em. Anthro. gen., p 462), who fixes the limits
between ini. 44 (Bushmen of the Cape) and im. 85 (P.atagonians), Ijut the
first of these figures is that of a series of six sulijects only, measured by
Fritsch and the second the average of ten subjects measured by Lista and
Moreno. This is insufficient, and since the publication of Topinard's work
we have only been able to add a few isolated observations concerning those
interesting populations the actual height of which is still to be determined.
30 THE RACES OF MAN.
the Aeta or Negritoes of the Philippines, and 1746 mm. with
the Scots in generdl. In round figures, then, we can recognise
statures of im. 46 (4 feet 9.5 inches) and im. 75 (s feet 9 inches)
as the extreme limits of averages in the different populations
of the globe. The medium height between these extremes is
SOMATIC CHARACTERS. 3
Beddoe, The Stature and Bulk oj Man in the Brit. Isles, pp. 148
2
cities.!
' Ammon, Die Nalnr. Anslese bcini Meiischen, Jena, 1S93 ; Vacher de
I.apougq, Les selections sociaies. Pari?, 1S96; Beddoe, ioc. cil., p. 180;
Ranke, Der Mensdi., vol. ii., p. log, Leipzig, 1S87.
SOMATIC CHARACTERS. 33
ence between the stature of the two sexes in all races. The
data for the height of women being very scarce, I have only
been able to bring together thirty-five series of measurements
of women comprising each more than fifteen individuals, for
comparison with series of measurements of men.
It follows from this slight inquiry that in twenty cases out
of thirty-five, that
is to say, almost two-thirds, the difference in
3
;
' Manouvrier, Mem. Soc. Anlhro., 2ndser., vol. iv., p. 347, Paris, 1893.
^ Rahon, Mem. Soc. Anthro., vol. iv., p. 403, Paris, 1893/
SOMATIC CHARACTERS.
Fig. 6.— Same subject as Fig. 5, front view. [F/ioi. Brothers Sarasin.)
(Fig. 7). The whole head of hair when wavy produces a very
pleasing effect: I will merely cite as examples certain fair
Scotchwomen. The type is very widespread among Europeans,
whether dark or fair. The frizzy type {/rise in French,
lockig in German) is that in which the hair is rolled spirally,
SOMATIC CHARACTERS. 39
where the hair remains very short (Fig. 9). We must not
think that the disposition of which I have spoken is just
due to the hair being stuck in the skin of the head like the
bristles of a brush, for the mode of insertion is the same in
1894.
" Topinard, EIcdi. Anlhrop. gin., p. 265; J. Ranke, loc. cit., vol. ii.,
p. 172,
^ Baelz, "Korperl. Eigensch. d. Japaner," jT/?'///!. Dcut. Gesell. Nal.und
Volkerk. Oslasiens, vol. iii. , fasc. 28, p. 330, and vol. iv. , fasc. 32, p. 39,
Yokohama, 1883-85 ; Monlano, Mission mix iles Philippines, Paris,
1885 (Exlr, from Arch. Miss. Scient., 3rd series, vol. xi.).
SOMATIC CHARACTERS. 43
to 60 for that of the Negroes, while the straight hair of the
Eskimo will have this axis = 7 7, that of the Thibetans = 80,
that of the Japanese = 85, etc. The hair of Europeans repre-
sents an elliptical section in which the major axis being = 100,
the minor axis will be represented by figures varying from 62
to 72 (Topinard). It can be said to-day with certainty, after
the work of Unna,'^ that the woolly hair of Negroes rolls up
into a compact spiral precisely because of the flattened shape
of this elliptical section, and of the special form of the follicle
and papilla. In fact, in the Negro the follicle, instead of being
straight, as in the European (Fig. 3, A), is curved inward in the
form of a sabre, or even of the arc of a quarter of a circle
(Fig- 3, B) ; further, the_papilla^Ja-JiaUen^d_jnstead^_£f_^^
round. One would say that the hair has encountered in its
development so much resistance on the part of the dermis
(which IS so hard, in fact, among the Negroes), that it would
be twisted, as it were, from the first. Emerging from an
incurvated mould, it can only continue to roll up outside,
given especially its flattened shape ; it rolls up into a spiral,
the plane of which, at the beginning, is perpendicular lo the
surface of the skin.^ As to the thickness of the hair, it appears^
that in general it is greater in straight hair than in woolly;
however, the hair of the western Finns is straight and fine at
the same time.
A certain correlation appears to exist between the nature of
the hair and its absolute and relative length. Thus straight
hair is at the same time the longest Chinese, Americans, —
Indians (Fig. 4), while woolly hair is shortest, from 5 to 15
centimetres (Fig. 9) ; wavy hair occupies an intermediate
position. Moreover, the difference between the length of the
hair of men and women is almost inappreciable in the two
extreme divisions. In certain straight-haired races the hair of
the head is as long with men as with women ; one need but to
is the same with other races generally, and ten principal shades
of colour at least can easily be distinguished. In the first
anthropologists make
of chromatic tables, in which
use
examples of the chief variations of colour are marked by
numbers. The best table, almost universally adopted, is that
48 THE RACES OF MAN.
of Broca, of thirty-four shades.' The Anthropological Insti-
through the whole body, and this is so with the Whites as well as
with the darkest races. In all of them the parts of the body
most deeply coloured are the nape of the neck, the back (as with
animals), the back part of the limbs, the arm-pits, the scrotum,
and the breasts; the belly (as with animals), the insides of
the hands, the soles of the feet, are among the most lightly
' Fair hair with all its met with especially among the European
shades is
SOMATIC CHARACTERS. JI
Aii'lir., Copenhagen, 1893; Extr. from Medciel. om GrSnI., vol. vii., p. 237.
2 Havelock Ellis, Man and Woman, p. 223. London, 1897.
52 THE RACES OF MAN.
CHAPTER II.
races of mankind.
The characters that may be observed in the skull are very
numerous, and may be divided into descriptive characters,
which give an account of the conformation of the bony
structure of the head and its parts, and craniometrical char-
acters, which give the dimensions of these parts by exact
measurements taken by means of special apparatus or instru-
ments. These two orders of characters are complementary to
each other. The cranial characters vary according to race,
but within the limits of each race there are other lesser varia-
according to age and sex.
tion's
will be 81. Further, the series should be considered as not very homo-
geneous, for comprises i dolichocephalic, i sub-dolichocephalic, I meso-
it
we cannot make a horizontal plane pass exactly through the borders of the
two orbits and the two auditory meatus.
6o THE RACES OF MAN.
si «
es
•a
6 S
^6
X!
O
Jl<
oS
MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. 63
The capacity of the orbital cavity and its depth are also
measured, but, as the researches of L. Weiss have demon-
strated, there is no correlation between the form of the skull
(dolicho- or brachy-cephalic) and this depth. On the other
hand, it appears to have some relation with the form of the
even received the name of the Inca bone (Fig. 23, a), on
account of its very frequent occurrence among Peruvian crania
(deformed or not). In fact, it is met with in an imperfect state
Fig. 15. —
Same subject As Fig. 14, seen in profile. Example of nose
concave and flattened, of prognathism, and of prominent super-
ciliary arches. (Photo. Prince Roland Bonaparle. )
they are not all of equal importance. Very few of them, indeed,
are really useful.
The chief of the angular measurements is the facial angle;
. great importance was formerly attached to it when prog-
nathism, or the degree of projection of the maxillary region,
^ Ten Kate, V
Anthropologic, 1894, p. 617.
'^
Ten Kale, Zur Antliropologie der Mongoloiden, Berlin, 1882 (thesis).
MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. 69
Fig. 17. —Two men, Nagas of Manipiir. Examples of large faces with
' See P. Broca, Iiistrtic. gin., elc. ; Garson and Read, Notes and
Qiteries, elc; as well as P. Topinard, " Instrac. Anthrapometr. pour les
voyageiirs," Rev. cf Anthro., p. 397, Paris, 1885.
;
MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. 73
1897.
74 THE RACES OF MAN.
tions of the genus Homo, based, as we shall see afterwards
(Chapter VIII.), on the colour of the skin and the nature of
the hair. Assuredly this index cannot express by itself alone
the true form of the head or the cranium, but it supplies very
clearly a first indication which gives a much better idea than
detailed description, useful, to be sure, but rendering the study
almost impossible when it is a question of comparing with one
another a great number of different types. On the other hand,
this index has such a fixity within the limits of any given race,
that it is difificult to conceive how it could be dispensed with.
The figures given by different authors when they rest on a suffi-
' A. Conner, " Verevbung dcr Forme . . . des Scliadel.s," Zeils, fiir
Geburtshilfe und Gyn'akologie, 1895, vol. xxxiii., p. i.
i ,
MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. 75
have taken care to mark these with a letter S. In this table will
be found side by side with indices taken on the living subjects
some taken on crania, but no series contains measurements of
crania and heads intermingled. The series of ten to twenty-
subjects or crania in the table appear there exceptionally, for
the only series furnishing figures really exact are those com-
prising more than twenty individuals.
An inspection of the table shows us that there is a certain
regularity in the distribution of the different cranial forms on
the surface of the earth.
Dolichocephaly is almost exclusively located in Melanesia,
in Australia, in India, and in Africa. Sub-dolichocephaly,
diffused in the two extreme regions, North and South, of
Europe, forms in Asia a zone round India (Indo-China, Anterior
Asia, China, Japan, etc.), but is met with only sporadically in
other parts of the world, especially in America. Mesocephaly
Sciencestial. Rouen, 1895, Nos. i and 2, p. 113; Amnion, loc. cif., p. 143 ;
'
Regalia, " Orbita ed obliquita dell' occhio Mongolico," Archivio p.
Antr., vol. xviii., p. I, Florence, 1888.
'^
E. Metchnikof, Zeitsch. f. Ethnol., p. 153, Berlin, 1874.
78 THE RACES OF MAN.
the eyeball, forming a fixed fold in front of the movable
ciliary edge; this last becomes invisible and the eyelashes are
scarcely seen. Moreover, towards the inner angle of the eye,
the eyelid forms a fold covering more or less the caruncula,
and sometimes extending more or less far below (Fig. 18).
These peculiarities, which can be met with quite often among
the children of all races as a transitory characteristic, may be
explained up to a certain point by the very small development
of the pilous system in general in people among whom they
persist. For among Europeans, for instance, the inversion of
the eyelid {entropion) may become a cause of disease (trichiasis)
precisely on account of the growth of the eyelashes.^
'
J. Denikev, " L'Etude sur les Kalmouks," Revue d'Anlhropologie, 2nd
sciios, vol. vi., p. 696, Paris, 1S83.
MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. 79
CoUignon, "La
' nomenclature quinaire de I'indice nasal," Rev.
d'Anlhropol, 3rd series, t. ii., p. 8, Paris, 1887.
.
14, 15, and 24), but the flattening may also extend to narrow
noses, as for example among the Mongols (Fig. 20). The
sunken, very depressed root of the nose is almost always
associated with a considerable prominence on the supraciliary
liiii'inifls'Viriiiiiii'i'i'
..'11,' I
'
P. Broca, " Recher. sur I'ind. nas.," Rev. d'Anfhro., vol. i., Paris,
1872; Houze, " L'ind. nas, des Flamands et des Wallons," Bull. Soc.
Anthr., Bruxelles, vol. vii,, 1888-89; O. Hovorka, Die atissere Nase,
Wien, 1893; Hoyer, " Beitr. zur Anthr. der Nase," Schwalbe's Morph.
Arb., vol. iv., p. 151, 1894.
2 Schwalbe, " R. Virchow's Feftschrift, " 1891 ; E. Wilhelm, Rev. Biol,
dit nord de la France, Lille, 1892, No. 6.
84 THE RACES OF MAN.
races. We have already seen (p. 14) that the differences of
curvature in the vertebral cohimn according to race may be
explained by the mode of life. As to the other peculiarities
of the spine, — spinous processes split in the cervical vertebrss,i
narrow sacrum, etc., — all that can be said about them is that
they are more frequent among Negroes, and perhaps among
Melanesians, than among Whites.
The pelvis has more importance on account of its function
from the obstetrical point of view, and of its influence on the
general form of the bodyi..__IJnfortunately this part of the
skeleton has Tonly, been studied) in very inadequate series
crests) and its height (from the top of the iliac crest to the
lowest point of the ischion), taking for our unit sometimes the
firstof these measurements following Turner, sometimes the
second following Broca 2nd, the table of the index of the
;
fossa are wider in the former than in the latter ; the superior
inlet or brim is elliptical or reniform in woman, in the form
MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. 85
'
On the index of the shoulder-blade see Broca, Bull. Soc. Anthr., 1878,
(thesis), Paris, 1879; Garson, /««;-«. Anat.
p. 66; Livon, De Vomoplate
Physiol, vol. xiv., 1879-80, p. 13; Turner, loc. cit.
86 THE RACES OF MAN.
—
MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. 87
' It has been thought that this frequency was due to the facihty with
which the thin lamella in question forming the bottom of the cavity can be
destroyed after prolonged interment. However, there are prehistoric
burial-places, as, for example, certain long barrows of Great Britain, in
which not a single perforated humerus in a series of from ten to thirty
bones has been found.
—
88 THE RACES OF MAN.
Fig. 23. —A, Skull wilh Iiica Bone, li; B, Malar Bone divided in two
(a, OSJaponicum); C, superior part of femur with third trochanter
(3), and the hypo-trochanteric fossa {x); i and 2, normal tro-
chanters.
Number
90 THE RACES OF MAN.
In the tibia attention has been called to platycnemia —
that is upper third of
to say, the transversal flattening in the
the diaphysis of the bone, so that its posterior side becomes
transformed into a border. It has been supposed that this
form is a reversion towards the simian type, but Manouvrieri
has shown that platycnemia never attains in the anthropoid
apes the degree which it presents in the human race, where
it due especially to the development of the tibialis posticus
is
... . . . .
.
13
35
14
Hand
Abdominal limb . ....
(from the ischialic plane to the ground.)
. . 11.5
47.5
Foot 15
Span of arms (middle finger of one hand to
middle (inger of the other) . . . 104.4
p. 1076.
' See Ivanovsky, loc. cit., p. 257; Topinard, loc. cit., p. 1089.
MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. 93
MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. 95
veloped calf, and the foot with the prominent heel which
is observed among certain Negroes (but not among all)
on the more or less diverging big toe which is remarked
among the majority of the peoples of India, Indo-China,
and the insular world dependent on Asia, from Sumatra to
Japan, etc.
Two words, however, on the subject of the pretended exist-
ence of races of me7i with tails. We must relegate to the
domain of fable the cases of this kind which are announced
from time to time in publications for the popularisation of
science so called. The costumes of certain populations have
given rise to the fable of men with tails (see frontispiece).
Isolated cases of men having as an anomaly a caudal excres-
cence more or less long, free, or united to the trunk, are known
to science, and numbers have been described, but no single
serious description has ever been given of populations with
tails.i Quite recently, again, Lartschneider has demonstrated
that the ilio-coccygian and pubio-coccygian muscles in mammi-
fera have lost in man their character of symmetrical and paired
skeleton muscles, and are driven back towards the interior of
the pelvis as single unpaired muscle plates (fibres of the levator
ani). Primitive man has never had a caudal appendage since
he acquired the biped attitude ; the disappearance of the tail
is even one of the indispensable conditions of that attitude.^
'
M. Bartels, Arch. f. Anthr., vol. xiii., 1880, p. i.
^ Lartschneider, "Die Steissbeinimiskein, etc.," Denkschr. K. Akad.
Wiss. Wien. ma/, nal. ia.,\o\. Ixii., 1895.
g6 THE RACES OF MAN.
of the face are less differentiated in the former than in the
latter.i In the splanchnic system some differences have also
been observed between the White and the Negro, notably the
excessive volume of the liver, the spleen, the suprarenal-cap-
sules, and, in general, the hypertrophy of all the organs of
' See on this subjcci, Lc Douljle, Traite des variations du Syst. muse,
de riiotniiie, 2 vols , Taris, 1S97 ; and Testul, Anoinalies nmsciit., Pari.s,
1884.
- Hovelacquc and Hevve, Prais d'Anttiro., p. 301. Paris, 1SS7.
" Ten Kate, " Sur quelques points d'osteologie ethnique," Revista del
Miiseo de La Ptata, vol. vii , 1896, p. 263.
MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. 97
among the Bushman race and the people into whose com-
position enters the Bushman element— Hottentots, Nama,
Griqua, etc.i
The breasts of women may also present variations of
form. Ploss ^ classes them under four heads according to
their height, which is inferior, equal, or more or less superior
to the diameter of their base ; we have thus mamm» like
a bowl or the segment of a globe, hemispherical, conical, and
pyriform. These forms may be found in combination with
a more or less extended and prominent areola, and with a
nipple which may be discoidal, hemispherical, digitiform, etc.
It is especially among Negresses that we meet with conical
and pyriform mammae, and digitiform nipples, while maraniEe
shaped like the segment of a sphere predominate among Mon-
golian and European women of the fair race; women of the
south-east of Europe and hither Asia have for the most part
hemispherical breasts.
Among the internal organs, the brain, or better, the ence-
phalon, deserves a little more attention. I have already
said with regard to cranial capacity (p. 56) that appreciable
differences have been observed in the volume of the brain-case
according to age, sex, and race. This difference is in har-
mony with irregularity in thevolume and consequently in
the weight of the brain. At birth, European boys have 334
grammes of brain on an average, girls 287 grammes. This
quantity increases rapidly up to 20 years of age, remains
almost stationary between 20 and 40 or 45, then begins to
decrease, slowly at first, until 60 years, then more rapidly.
Let me also add that the weight of the encephalon varies
enormously according to individuals. Topinard ^ in a series
of 519 Europeans, men of the lower and middle classes, found
that variations in weight extended from 1025 grammes to 1675
7
98 THE RACES OF MAN.
grammes. The average weight of the brain among adult
Europeans (20 to 60 years) has been fixed by Topinard, from
an examination of 11,000 specimens weighed, at 1361 grammes
for man, 1290 grammes for woman. It has been asserted that
the other races have a lighter brain, but the fact has not been
estabhshed by a sufficient number of examples. In reality
all that can be put against the 11,000 brain-weighings men-
ment is 1565 c.c. on an average for men, varying from 1530 c.c.
(22 Dutch) to i6or c.c. (43 Finns). We have in various series
the following succession of cranial capacities for the popula-
tions of the other parts of the world: the greatest is contained
in Eskimo (1583 c.c), the least that of 36
a series of 26
Australians (1349 c.c.) and of 11 Andamanese (1310 c.c).
Between these two extremes the other populations would be
thus arranged in a decreasing order of capacity : 36 Poly-
nesians (rS25 c.c), 18 Javanese (1500 c.c), 32 Mongols (1504
c.c), 23 Melanesians (1460 c.c), 74 Negroes (1441 c.c), and
17 Dravidians of Southern India (1353 c.c).
The difference between the highest and lowest of these
which is shown
figures is 255 c.c, a little greater than that
between man and woman in all races. On the other hand,
Manouvrier' gives the following weights, deduced from
cranial capacities: 187 modern Parisians, 1357 grammes; 61
Basques, 1360 grammes; 31 Negroes, r238 grammes; 23 New
Caledonians, 1270 grammes; no Polynesians, 1380 grammes;
and 50 Bengalis, 1184 grammes; the difference of the two
extremes is 196 grammes. Must we then see in these
differences the influence of stature and bulk of body, as
race. We
might have introduced a third element the weight —
of the body, but it represents too many different things, and
may vary according to the degree of stoutness of the indi-
vidual, the dietary, regimen, etc. C. Voit found, when
operating on two dogs of nearly equal bulk, that the weight
of the brain of the well-fed dog represented i.i per cent, of
the weight of its body, whilst the brain of the dog which had
fasted for twenty-two days represented 1.7 per cent, of the
weight of the body.^ At all events, we cannot deny the
influence of the bulk of the active parts of the body on the
volume of the brain.' But then a new question arises. Is
two series of women (23 and 27 individuals) yielded a similar result (1198
grammes for the low-statured, and 1218 for the tall). A series of 44
distinguished men of all nations and all statures gave a mean weight of
MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. lOl
the increase of the volume of the brain made at the cost of the
white substance formed solely of condiicting-fibres, or of the
grey substance formed principally of cells with their prolonga-
tions (neurons), that is to say, of the part which is exclusively
affected by the psychic processes? This question still
waits its solution. It is not the gross weight of the brain,
but really the weight of the cortical layer which should be
compared in the different races and subjects, in order
to judge of the quantity substance
devoted to the
of
psychic functions in each particular case.i Before the very
delicate weighings of this kind are made, we have a round-
about method of ascertaining the quantity of that substance
by the superficial area which it occupies. The cerebral
cortex, composed of the grey substance, forms on the
surface of the brain sinuous folds called cerebral cotivolutions.
Now, in brains of equal volume, the greater the surface of
the cortex,more numerous, sinuous, and complicated
the
will be these As the thickness of the grey layer is
folds.
very much the same in all brains, it is evident that the
complexity in the structure of the convolutions corresponds
to the increase of the grey substance, and consequently of the
psychic force. Now, the little that is known of the cerebral
—
1430 grammes that is to say, exceeding that of the French of high stature
and the Scotch. From this may be drawn the conchision that intelligence
causes an increase in the weight of the brain independently of the stature.
Here, by way of documents, are several dataof this interesting series. The
minimum of this series belongs to the anatomist DblHnger, who died at
the age of seventy-one (1207 grammes), the maximum to the novelist
Thackeray, who died at the age of fifty-three (1644 grammes). Between
these two extremes are inserted, Harless (1238 grammes), Gambetta
(1294 grammes), Liebig (1352 grammes), Bischoff (1452 grammes), Broca
(1485 grammes). Gauss (1492 grammes), Agassiz (1512 grammes), and
DeMorny (1520 grammes), to mention only the best known names ranging
between these extremes. M. Manouvrier has excluded from this series
exceptionally heavy brains, like those of Schiller {1781 grammes), of Cuvier
(1829 grammes), of Tourgenieff (2012 grammes), and lastly of Byron (2238
grammes).
^ According to Danilevsky and Dr. Regibus, the weight of the grey sub-
Fig. 25. — Brain wilh indication of the three "centres of projection" (2,
general sensibility; 4, visual; 6, auditory) and the three "centres of
association" (i, frontal; 3, parietal ; 5, occipito-temporal); i, fissure
CHAPTER III.
2. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS.
2. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS.
lOS
Io6 THE RACES OF MAN.
observed in certain races more than in others; very frequent
among the Kirghiz, it is rare among their neighbours the Kal-
mulcs, etc. The early obesity of Jewish women, which is
year stature increases very rapidly: the child a year old is one
and a half times as tall as at birth. The increase is less rapid
until the fourth year, when the height is double what it was at
birth. From the fourth year the growth is a little slower till the
age of puberty, when there is a fresh start, and when the sexual
differences are especially marked; girls grow more rapidly
than boys between ten and fifteen years of age, but after fifteen
boys take the lead and grow at first quickly, then slowly till their
twenty-third year, at which age ,they have almost attained
Seii- Kwai [Japanese Med. Journ. of Toll io), February No., i8go.
' Lapicque, Rev. Mens. Ecole. Anthr., 1897, No, 12.
loS THE RACES OF MAN.
or three tenths of a degree, for instance, among two peoples so
different as regards type and mode of Hfe as the French of the
north and the Fuegians. In fact, the temperature talcen in the
mouth is from 37.1° to 37.2° C. among the former and 37.4°
among the latter.^ Besides, among Europeans the individual
variations range between 37.1° and 37.5° C. Among Negroes
the temperature appears to be, on the contrary, a little lower
than that of Europeans.
Let us pass on to the respiratory functions. The vital
capacity or the quantity of air in the expanded lungs, which
is 3.7 cubic metres among the English according to Hutchin-
son, and from 3 to 4 cubic metres among Europeans in
general, falls to 3 metres among the Whites and the Indians
of the United States (Gould), and even to 2.7 among the
Negroes of this latter country. The difference is very trifling;
These figures, as well as those relating to the pulse, are borrowed for
-
the Fuegians from Hyades and Deniker, loc. ciL, p. 182 for the American
;
populations from Gould, loc. cit. for the Europeans from the work of
;
H. Vierordt, Analomische Daten und Tabellen, 1893; and for the rest
from the memoir (in Russian) of Ivanovsky, "The Mongol-Torgootes,"
already quoted.
— :
appears, and those of the West Indies have even framed this
proverb
" The Lord He loves the nigger well,
He knows His nigger by the smell."
^
Maiirel, Bull. Sac. An/h. Paris, 1883, p. 699 ; Hyades and Denikcr,
p. 183.
-
R. Andree, Ethnol. Paralhle, Neue Folge, Leipzig, iS8g.
I 10 THE RACES OF MAN.
dynamometer are deceptive, and cannot teach us anything;
besideSj the individual differences are enormous.
Functions of Relation. A — whole chapter could be written
on the muscles and gestures serving for the expression of the
emotions, and on their differences according to race.^ Let us
content ourselves with a single example connected with
astonishment and surprise. These feelings are expressed
almost everywhere by the raising of the eyebrows and the
opening of the mouth ; several peoples (Eskimo, Tlinkits,
Andamanese, Indians of Brazil) accompany this play of feature
by a slap on the hips; the Ainus and the Shin-Wans
of Formosa give themselves a light tap on the nose or
the mouth, whilst the Thibetans pinch their cheek. The
Negro Bantus have the habit of moving the hand before
the mouth as a sign of astonishment, and the Austrahans,
as well as the western Negroes, protrude their lips as if to
whistle (Fig. 141). In a general way the play of physiognomy
is more complicated the more the people is civilised.
Certain peoples execute movements of facial muscles difficult
to imitate, such as the protrusion of the upper lip alone, which
the Malays axecute with the same facility and grace as a chim-
panzee (Hagen). I shall speak in Chapter IV. of conventional
gestures. The attitudes of the body in repose also vary with
the different peoples : the kneeling attitude is common to
Negroes 135 and 142); the squatting position is
(Figs.
frequently used by them and the peoples of the East, and also
by the Americans; the upright position on one foot, the other
being bent and the sole supported on the knee of the former, is
I.I for the Germans; 1.4 for the Russians; 1.6 for the
Georgians; 2.7 for the Ossetes and Kalmuks; 3 for the
Nubian Bejas; and 5 for the Indians of the Andes. It
is in a Kalmuk that the individual maximum of visual acute-
ness (6.7) has been noted. 1 An interesting fact has been
observed by Dr. Herzenstein from the study of 39,805 Russian
soldiers, viz., that visual acuteness is greater as the pigment of
the iris and the hair is more developed. In fact, we only find
among the fair-haired 72.4 per cent, of individuals whose
visual acuteness is stronger than the normal, and 2.7 per cent.
whose acuteness is weaker, whilst among the dark-haired the
corresponding figures are 84.1 and 1.7; they see then, other
things being equal, better than the fair-haired.^
The functions of reproduction are so difficult to study, even
among civilised peoples, that it is almost impossible to say
anything positive about them when dealing with savage
peoples. Thus, for example, we can scarcely draw up an
exact table of the first appearance of menstruation. This
period varies from the age of ten (Negresses of Sierra Leone)
to that of eighteen (Lapps). The influence of climate is
Austria, with the same climate and in the same social con-
ditions, Jewish girls menstruate at fourteen to fifteen, Hun-
garian girls at fifteen to sixteen, and Slovak girls at fourteen
to sixteen (Joachim) ; on the other hand, it is known that
^ See for further details, PIoss, ioc. cil., vol. i., p. 288.
3;
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. II
in the south the most popular festivals are those of the spring
at the awakening of nature. Others, again, assert that these
differences areowing as much to religion as to latitude.
All these explanations are somewhat unscientific, and have
never been verified by figures or experience. According to
Rosenstadt,^ cosmic and social influences do not count at
'
B. Rosenstadt, " Ursachen welche die Zahl der Conceptionen, etc.,"
Miith. Enihiyol. Instit. Uiiivers, Wien, 2nd series, part 4, Vienna, 1890.
I 14 THE RACES OF MAN.
all in the question, for often the periods during which re-
tion man has sexual relations all the year round, but the
'physiological custom" of procreating at a certain period does
not entirely disappear ; it remains as a survival of the animal
state, and manifests itself in the recrudescence of the number
of conceptions during certain months of the year. This con-
clusion is corroborated by the fact that among certain savage
tribes copulation seems to take place at certain periods of the
'
J. M. Campbell, _/uK«?. Anthr. Soc. Bombay, vol. iv. , 1S95, No. i.
seeing that the Indians of South America, who live in the same latitudes,
are yellow; Norwegians and Great Russians, who are fair and tall, live side
by side with the Laplanders and the Samoyeds, who are dark and of
very low stature. It has been said and repeated frequently that the Jews
'
For details see Bordier, Geogr. Medicate, Paris, 1883, with atlas.
"^
Bull. Giogr. histor. etdescripl., p. 53, Paris, 1889.
122 THE RACES OF MAN.
long been asserted that savage peoples are not afflicted by
nervous and mental diseases. Nothing of the kind. The
genuine "great Charcot has been observed
hysteria'' of
among Negresses of Senegal, among Hottentot women and
Kafirs, as well as in Abyssinia and Madagascar.^ Other
nervous diseases have been noticed among Hurons and Iro-
quois,2 and in New Zealand. Some forms of neurosis appear
to be limited to certain ethnic groups. Such is the "Amok"
of the Malays —a and imitative madness per-
sort of furious
haps provoked at the same time by suggestion. Developed
especially among the Malays, it is also met with among
the Indians of North America, where it has been called
"jumping" by the Whites. The "Myriachit" of the Ostiaks
and other natives of Siberia, the " Malimali " of the Tagals of
the Philippines, the "Bakchis" of the Siamese, are similar
diseases. Under the name of "Latah" are designated among
the Malays all sorts of nervous diseases, but more particularly
the imitative madness which impels women to undress before
men, to throw children up in the air in imitation of a game
of ball, etc. Besides, the name Latah is also given to a
mental state in which the patient is afraid of certain words
(tiger, crocodile), and which is met with somewhat frequently
not only among the Malays, but also among the Tagals and
the Sikhs of India.^
'
G. As \3.To\xttlie, Journal de Medeciue, February, 1893.
^ Brinton, Science, l6lh Dec. 1892 and Globus, 1893,
; 1st half-year,
p. 148.
^ See Logan's Journal of the Indian Archifelago, vol. ill. , Calcutta,
1S49, pp. 457, 464, and 530; H. O. O'Brien, "The Latah, "y«(rK. of the
Straits Branch cf the R. Asiat. Soc, Singapore, June 1883, p. 144;
Metzger, "Amok und Malaglap," Globus, vol. Hi., 1882, No. 7; Rasch,
Neurolog. Centralbl., 1894, No. 15; 1895, No. 19.
— " — — :•
CHAPTER IV.
ETHNIC CHARACTERS.
Various stages of social groups and essential characters of human societies
Progress. —
Conditions of Progress: Innovating initiative, and tra-
dition — Classification of "states of civilisation.
I. —LINGUISTIC CHARACTERS.
Nowhere on the earth has there been found a race of men the
members of which lived completely alone and isolated as the
majority of animals are seen to do. It is in fact but very
rarely that the latter combine into societies; they form a
family group only temporarily during the period of raising the
young, etc. Man, on the contrary, becomes almost helpless
apart from society, incapable of maintaining the struggle for
existence without the help of his fellow-men. The develop-
ment of all the manifestations of "sociality" is then the
measure of progress of human societies. The more man
123
—
a very precise way each of these states. Morgan was the first
and at the
to bring a little definiteness into this nomenclature,
same time he has shown the necessity of introducing another
criterion into the estimate of states of civilisation. In fact,
' Morgan, Proc. Am. Assoc. Acad. Sc, Detroit Session, 1875,
L.
p. 266, and Journal Anlhro. Inst., vol. vi., 1878, p. 114. The distinc-
tion between the first and the second form lies, according to Morgan, in the
—
knowledge of pottery a somewhat unreliable and narrow criterion, which,
however, does not directly interest us here.
^ Grosse, Die Fornien der Wirtschaft, etc., Leipzig, 1896.
LINGUISTIC CHARACTERS. 1
25
of Negroes).
(2) Semi-civilised peoples, making an appreciable but slow
progress, in which the conservativepower predominates,
forming authoritative societies or states of several thousands
or millions of individuals; having an ideographic or phonetic
writing, but a rudimentary literature. They are divided like-
wise into two categories of the soil {exAm-^lti: Chinese,
: tillers
I. LINGUISTIC CHARACTERS.
' See for the details Fr. Miiller, Grundr. d. Sprachwis^ensch., vol. i.,
Italian, and Turkish spread over all the Asiatic and African coast-lines of
the Mediterranean, and particularly among the Levantines. Such also is
the Pigeon (or Pidjin) English, a mi.\ture of Chinese, English, and
LINGUISTIC CHARACTERS. 133
Let us not forget either that the different sexes and certain
castes or classes, especially of sorcerers and priests, have
often a special language, sacred or otherwise, but always
unknown to persons of the other sex or of other castes, and
kept secret. Language varies also among certain peoples
(for example, among the Javanese) according as a superior
speaks to an inferior, or vice versa.
Signals. —To communicate at a distance relatively remote,
all peoples make use of optic or acoustic signals. Optic
signals are at first amplified gestures; thus the various
tribes ofRed Indians recognised each other at a distance
by making conventional signs with the arms and the body.
An arm raised high with two fingers uplifted and the others
closed, signified "Who are you?" etc. Signals by means
of lighted announce the
fires, to tidings of a beast killed,
the approach of the enemy, etc., still remain in use among
the Indians of America, not only in the north, but also
in the south of the continent far as
as Cape Horn.
Signalling by means of objects from afar, of a more
visible
complicated kind, is in everyday use even among civilised
peoples, forming the basis of optic telegraphy; and there
exists for sailors of all nations a truly international language,
by means of flags of different colours, the code and the
dictionary of which are found on board of every ship bound
on a long voyage.
Among acoustic signals, apart from conventional cries and
sounds of instruments, we must note two kinds of language
of a quite special character. There is, firstly, the whistle
language, which by means of whistles more or less loud,
succeeding in a certain order and produced simply by the
mouth, sometimes by introducing into it two fingers, enables
a conversation to be held at a distance.
This language has attained a high degree of perfection in
Portuguese, employed in the ports of the Far East; the "whalers' lan-
guage," a mixture of Hawaiian, Chinese, English, Chukchi, Japanese,
etc., which is heard in the north of the Pacific Ocean; the Foky-Foky of
Guiana, etc.
^
^ Lajard, Bull. Soc. Anthr. Paris, 1891, p. 469, and 1S92, p. 23.
'^
M. Buchner, Kainenm, Leipzig, 1887; Andree, Verh. Berl. Ges.
Anthr. Inst., vol. xxvi., No. 3 (1887), and the interesting note of E. B.
T)lor at the end of this paper. Hamy, Galerie Americ. du Mus. Trocadirc,
Paris, 1897, PI. I.
^ Harmand, Mem. Soc. Anfhro., Paris, 2nd ser. , vol. ii., 1875-S5,
P- 339-
136 tl-lE RACES OF MAN.
12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1893.
LINGUISTIC CHARACTERS. 139
man stretching out his arms despairingly (3), and " to eat " by
the gesture of the hand carried to the mouth (4), exactly as the
ancient Mexicans and Egyptians have drawn it in their hiero-
glyphics, or again, the natives of Easter Island (Fig. 31, 5) in
;
P OD i OD
Fig. 32, — Paternoster in Mexican hieroglyphics.
^ Among the present natives of Easter Island there are only one or two
who can decipher these tablets. — W. Thomson Smith's Rep. U.S. NaU
Mus., 1889, p. 513.
- Aubin, RiZue orientale et Atncrkaine, vol. iii., p. 255.
LINGUISTIC CHARACTERS. I4I
' The two hundred and fourteen "keys "or hieroglyphics comparable
with the hieratic characters of Egypt — that is to say, ideograms represent-
ing categories of objects or symbolising general ideas —joined to a thousand
phonetic signs, suffice by their combinations to convey a definite sense to the
series of homophonous hieroglyphics forming the forty-four thousand char-
acters of Chinese handwriting. Thus the word or syllable pa signifies
banana, war-chariot, scar, cry, etc. To distinguish the various accepta-
tions of the word, there must be joined to the phonetic sign/« (derived
from a word the proper sense of which has long been obliterated) the key
of plants, or that of iron, of diseases, of the mouth, according to the sense
which it is desired to give to it. The monosyllabic structure of Chinese
lends itself admirably to this hieroglyphic writing.
142 THE RACES OF MAN.
writing and running characters (hieratic and demotic). It is
fortunate island that the first alphabet set out. .This writing, more ancient
than the Phoenician characters, is a direct derivative of pictography ; it
is found again at Cyprus and in Asia Minor at the epoch of the jEgean
civilisation. — A. J. Evan.s, Rep. Brit. Ass., 1S96, p. 914.
^ C. Vogt, "L'Ecriture, etc.," Rev. Scienl., 2nd half-year, p. 1221.
Paris, 1880.
LINGUISTIC CHARACTERS, 143
CHAPTER V.
I. MATERIAL LIFE.
144
SOCIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. I45
the case of the Veddahs, Eskimo, etc.) never eat salt, while
those whose chief food is of vegetable origin experience an
irresistible need for this condiment, probably because of the
insufficiency of mineral substances in plants.
Perhaps also to this need of supplying the deficiency of mineral
substances (calcareous or alkaline salts) is due the habit of
appear among all peoples, even among those who have not
been converted to one of the religions whose dogmas con-
demn this practice (Chrictianity, Buddhism, worship of
Riamba in Africa,^ Islamism, etc.).
It appears from the very conscientious work of P. Berge-
mann,* that actually the only regions of the world where
anthropophagy has been really proved to exist are Oceania
(including the Asiatic Archipelago), Central Africa, and
Southern America.
The Battas of Sumatra, the natives of the Solomon Islands,
of New Britain,and of certain islands of the New Hebrides,
as well as a large number of Australian tribes, are known as
'^
Wissmann, Im Iniieren Afrikas, p. 152, Leipzig, 1888.
* P. Bergemann, Verbreitimg d. Aiilhropoph., Breslau, 189 j.
;
which are left untouched from a fear of disease "which retires to them as
the last place of refuge" (Wissmann).
^ R. S. Steinnietz, "F,nAoc!mmha\i%mu&," Miitheilungen dei- Anlhrofol.
times and in the Middle Ages; the Salic law forbade the magical
practices associated with anthropophagy. To drink from the
skull ofan enemy was a very widespread custom in Asia and
Europe, and even until the beginning of this century the
remains of the skull of a hanged criminal figured among the
remedies in the pharmacopoeias of Central Europe.
Preparation of Foods. —
There is no people on earth which
eats all food quite raw, without having subjected it to pre-
its
^ An apparatus of this sort was in use half a century ago among Polish
peasants [Globus, vol. lix. , 1S91, p. 3S8).
^ Tylor, Anltiropology , 262.
p.
SOCIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. I
53
are red-hot stones ; the straw burns, the husk comes off and
partly burns too, whilst the grain is being roasted.
From the time when some intelligent man perceived when
crushing a grain of corn, perhaps by chance, between two
stones, that flour might supply a more delicate food than
roasted grain, the art of the miller was discovered. There
are three ways of preparing fiour pounding in a mortar,
:
the view of being removed, however lisht and imperfect it be. Thus, the
rude hut which the Fuegian abandons so readily is nevertheless a fixed
habitalion, whilst the tent of the Kirghiz, a much more complicated
structure, and far more comfortable, must nevertheless be classed
among movable habitations.
) ;
S
V
up the holes, eventually formed the walls, and the ancient hut
thus raised was transformed into a dwelling a little more com-
SOCIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. 163
fortable, having roof and ivalls. This was probably the origin
of the hive-shaped huts of the Zulu Kafirs (Fig. 41), and the
cylindrical, conical-roofed huts of the Ovampos (Fig. 42), and
the Gauls of the time of Csesar. Straw entering into the com-
position of the roof, and soflnetimes even the body of these
dwellings, they may be styled sirazv huts or thatched huts. As
to the quadrangular huts, they are transformed in the same
manner into those little houses so characteristic of the Muchi-
kongos, of French Congo and the coast of Guinea. ^ Among
the peoples inhabiting the shores of the Pacific and Indian
Oceans, from the Kamtchadales and the Indians of the north-
west of America to the Maoris and the natives of Madagascar,
the quadrangular houses are erected on poles even when they
are far from water. The materials of which they are con-
structed are bamboos, reeds, and palm-leaves.^
In order to give solidity to the straw and reed-built walls,
it must have been necessary an early period to plaster them
at
over with potter's earth (Senegal, palafittes of the bronze age in
Europe). In very dry countries it was seen that lumps of clay
were able of themselves to form sufficiently solid walls, and
this observation has led naturally enough to the making of
sun-dried bricks, which were known to the Babylonians, to
the Egyptians, and are still used to-day in the Sudan, in
the reed-built houses of Lob Nor (Eastern Turkestan), the Finnish houses
derived from semi-underground structures, the dwellings of the Caucasian
mountaineers, etc.
iC4. THE RACES OF MAN.
exceptionally, in Siberia for example, and for summer tents only
(Fig. 43). Like the hut, the tent may be circular, conical
(Indians of North America), cupola-shaped (Kafirs), or quad-
rangular in the form of a prismatic roof (Thibetans, Gypsies).
The last-mentioned of these fofms has not been improved
on, and the Arab tent of the present day, which is derived
from it, differs from its prototype only in its dimensions and
the awning set up at the entrance. On the other hand, the
two circular forms have been improved on by the use of pieces
of wattling instead of poles, and felt instead of skins. The tent
"-to
wi '
"rt -O
^ i
O
1 66 THE RACES OF MAN.
in the " Yourte" of the Kirghiz.^ This dwelling of the nomads
has even served as a model for the permanent wooden habita-
tions of the tribes of the Yenisei or Altai. Their wooden house
has a ground-plan of hexagonal or octagonal form, imitating
the circular yourte or felt tent (Fig. 45), and it is only little by
^^il';^^p^^/.f
genital organs which are worn by the Kafir women (Fig. 47),
etc. Certain authors (Darwin, Westermarck) even think that
ornament in general, that of the region of the abdomen in parti-
cular, was one of the most powerful means of sexual selection,
by attracting attention to the genital organs. It is, rather, the
garment which gives birth to the sentiment of modesty, and not
modesty which gives birth to the garment. Among a people as
civilised as the Japanese, men and women bathe together quite
naked without any one being shocked. It was the same in
Russia during the last century.
Fir,. 47. —Zulu girl wilh the three types of ornament: headdress,
nscklace, and belt ; also leather chastity apron decorated with
pearls. {Phot, lent by Miss Werner.]
172 THE RACES OF MAN.
are shocked to see the nude in works of art ; ^ that it
is
as indecent for a Chinese woman to show her foot
as for a
European woman to expose the most intimate parts of her
Europe).
Tattooing may be already con-
sidered as an ethnic mutilation
but there exist many others of a
less anodyne character which are
also connected with ornamenta-
tion. women deform
Chinese
their by means of tight
feet
bandages, and end by transform-
ing them into horrible stumps fig. 51.— Skeleton of the foot
Fig. 52. —
Native of the Department of Haute-Garonne whose head
has undergone the deformation called " Toiilousaine." (Phot.
Deliste ; engraving hetonging to the Paris AntJi.ro. Society.)
great deal on its nature. The Negroes, with their short and
woolly hair, are enabled to have a complicated head-dress (Figs.
47 and 141). Peoples with smooth hair are content to leave
it floating behind (Americans, Fig. 160, Indonesians), or to
gather it up into a chignon (Annamese, Coreans, Eskimo), in
one or several plaits (Chinese), or in several rolls or bands,
stuck together and disposed in various ways (Mongols, Japanese,
Fig. 120, Chinese). But it is among peoples with frizzy and
slightly woolly hair that the head-dress attains a high degree of
perfection. We have but to mention the capillary structures
of the Bejas (Fig. 138), the Fulbes (Fig. 139), the Papuans and
some Melanesians, whose mops of hair with a six-toothed comb
coquettishly planted at the top are so characteristic (Figs. 152
and 153).
The custom of shaving the hair of the head and the beard,
as well as the habit of plucking out the hairs, are more general
among peoples whose pilous system is little developed than
SOCIOl^OGICAL CHAKACTERS, 1/9
l8o THE RACES OF MAN.
wire rolled several times around the neck and the lirabs,
were substituted for thongs of skin, blades of grass, and
1 82 THE RACES O? MAN.
shell beads. The inlaying of precious stones has transformed
ornament. The wearing of massive metal becomes uncomfort-
able even in the climate of the tropics; in certain countries of
have slaves specially employed in
Africa, rich ladies of fashion
emptying pots of water over the spiral-shaped bracelets which
coil around the whole arm or leg and become excessively hot
in the sun (J. G. Wood).
It is necessary, however, to say a few words about the
fabrication of stuffs and the making of garments.
The skins of animals — ox, sheep, reindeer, horse, seal, dog,
eland, etc. — were used at first just as they were. Then men
began to strip off the hair when there was no necessity to
protect themselves from cold, soaking the skin in water,
to which they added sometimes cinders or other alkaline
substances. This is still the method adopted by the Indians
of the far west to obtain the very coarse and hard ox-hide
for their tents. But if they wish to utilise it for garments,
or if they have to deal with the skin of the deer, they scrape
it afterwards with stone or metal scrapers, cut it into half
the thickness and work it with bone polishers to render it more
supple.i Tanning comes much later among half-civilised peoples
(like the ancient Egyptians, etc.). Apart from the mammals,
few animals have furnished materials for the dress of man;^ the
famous mantles and hats of birds' feathers so artistically worked
by the Hawaiians and the ancient Mexicans were only state
garments, reserved for chiefs; clothes of salmon skin, prepared
in a certain way, have not passed beyond the territory of a
single tribe, the Goldes of Amoor; the fish-bladder water-
proofs of the Chukchi are only fishing garments. On the
other hand, the number of plants from which garments may be
made is very great. Several sorts of wood supply the material
of which boots are made (the sabot in France and Holland).
The bark of the birch is utilised also for plaited boots
("lapti" of the Russians and Finns), the bark of several tropical
Note also that almost everywhere foot-gear and often head -gear are
^
made from materials obtained from the mammals leather, fur, and felt.
;
SOCIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. 1
83
'
See for details W. Brighani, "Hawaiian Kapa-making,'' Hawaiian
Alman. and Annual, p. 76. Honolulu, 1896.
"^
Tyler, Anlhropology, p. 246.
^
the Eskimo when they are making their knives, and among the
Fuegians and Californians when they are preparing their spear-
heads or arrows, etc. (Figs. 56 and 73). The process of
polishing takes longer and produces finer tools (Figs. 7 1 and 1 1 2).
In Europe it succeeded that of stone-cutting, and it flourished
among the peoples of Oceania and America before the arrival
of Europeans. Polished tools are obtained by rubbing for a
long time a chipped or unchipped stone against another stone
with the addition of water and sand, or the dust of the same
rock from which the tool is made.
' Weeren, "Analyse, etc.," Verh. Berl. Ges. Anthr., June-Oct. 1895.
SOCIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. 1 87
from the German), Paris, 1876 (extr. from the section Ciiiematique).
1 88 THE RACES OF MAN.
:C
§^
6 3
I
-a
but the special missile used in fishing is the harpoon, the wood
or bone head of which usually takes the form of a fork or pike
with one or several barbs.
The Fuegians simply throw their harpoons like a javelin, the
SOCIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. IQI
wounded the shaft separates itself from the head and acts as a
float, indicating the spot where the victim has plunged, for it
millet is still the "national cereal" of the Turkish peoples, who, like
all other nomad shepherds, beginning with hoe-culture, have arrived at
their present state through having preferred to breed animals other than
those used in ploughing — that is to say, the camel, sheep, and later, the
horse.
13
194 THE RACES OF MAN.
operation with winnowing and the preparation of food (see
p. 156) in hoe-culture, is accomplished in true agriculture
with the aid of domestic animals, either by making them tread
on the draw over the cut corn a heavy plank
threshing-floor, or
strewn with fragments of flint (the tribulum of the Romans,
hiding the crop in, exist among the Kabyles of Algeria, the
Laotians (Neis), the Mongols of Zaidam (Prjevalsky), etc.
cat, leopard, and falcon; but man has only been able to
domesticate two: the ferret and the cat. The Chinese have
succeeded in domesticating the cormorant and utilising it for
fishing, placing, however, a ring on its neck, so that it can-
not give way to its wild instinct to swallow the fish which it
catches.
Many animals have been domesticated by peoples acquainted
only with hoe-culture; such as the pig and the hen in Africa
and Oceania; the she-goat in Africa; the turkey, the duck
(Anas moschata), the guinea-pig, and the llama in America.
But true agriculture begins only with the domestication of the
bovine races, the she-goat, and the ass; and true breeding of
cattle with the domestication of the camel and the sheep
among nomads. The horse and the mule do not appear until
a little later among nomads, as among sedentary peoples.
Among the domesticated bovidae other than the ox must
be mentioned the yak in Thibet and around Thibet; the
gayal of Assam and Upper Burma; the banteng {Bos
sondaicus) of Malaysia; and the buffalo, which is found
everywhere where rice is planted. In mentioning, besides
the animals just referred to, the reindeer of hyperborean
peoples (Laplanders, Samoyeds, Tunguses, Chukchi), we
shall have exhausted the list of nineteen domesticated
mammals actually known to the different peoples, according
wissench. Wochenschrift, 1897, No. 28. See also Mem. Soc. Hihitique
sciences naturelles, 1 896.
196 THE RACES OF -MAN.
the pigeon, which perhaps of all the winged race is the easiest
to tame. The other classes of animals have furnished few useful
helpers of man. Among insects there are the bee and the silk-
CHAPTER VI.
2. PSYCHIC LIFE.
Games and —
In two works based on carefully
Recreations.
observed Groos has shown that animals do not expend
facts,
'
K. Groos, Die Spiek der Tliierc, 1896; Die Spiele der Mensclien, 1899.
197
198 THE RACES OF MAN.
girls treat their rag dolls as actual children, repeating the
gestures and words of their mothers. It is the imitative game
of the young.
But if the object of the game is to exercise the strength and
skill, it becomes common to children and adults. It is such
with the game of hand-ball, known lo all peoples with the
exception perhaps of the Negroes; and stilts, which are met
with in Europe, China, Eastern Africa, and Polynesia. Side
by side with these games in which muscular skill plays the prin-
cipal part, there are others in which attention and quickness
of the senses are put to the test. To guess in which hand
some object is hidden is a recreation among the Tlinkits, as
among Europeans. Among the Hottentots this game is com-
plicated, inasmuch as it is necessary to point out by a special
position of the fingers the hand of the partner which is
'See the interesting study on this game by Tylor, Journ. Anthr. Inst. ,
vol. viii.,p. 116, and in Internationales Archtv. Ethnog., suppl. vol. ix.
(Festg. Bastian), Leyden, 1896.
^ " Hawaiian Surf- Riding," Haw. Alinan., p. lo5, Honolulu, 1896.
200 THE RACES OF MAN.
s.
5,
o ^
b -vt
° b
O ^
u J*
I
)
the United States, but also in Spanish America, all over the
Malay Archipelago, etc. In China and Siam people are less
blood-thirsty; they are content to look at contests between
crickets, grasshoppers, and fishes.
Masks play an important part in
festivals, ceremonies, and spectacles,
as in so many other manifestations
of the social life of uncivilised and
half-civilised peoples (religion, war,
justice). Let us merely mention the
fantastic masks used in dances and
processions among the Javanese
and Dyaks,
the and especially
those of the Melanesians ; certain
of them are made of cocoa-nuts,
with an imitation of the beard and
moustache in the fibres of this
lU u are drawn
1
•
J c Guinea). (After
" HadJoii.)'
those which from ' ^
1 In this connection see E. Grosse, Die Anfdn!;e der ICiiint, Freib. and
I.eip., 1894; Haddon, Evotulionin Art, London, 1895; H' Stolpe, Studies
i Aiiuril;ansli Ornamenti/i, Stockholm, 1896.
SOCIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. 203
we see two faces with only the mouth and a single eye left, its
companion having strayed into the intervening space between
the two faces. Another example: the head of the frigate bird,
a favourite ornamental //i^/// of the half-Melanesian populations
in mother-
of-pearl of the islanders of the
Torres Straits,- and the orna-
mental and symbolic axes of
the Polynesians of the Hervey
Sehk. Shrif., 5th series; Hist. Fhilos., vol. v., No. 4, Copenhagen, 1892
(with French Summary).
;
14
^
(tjth of a semitone.
SOCIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. 211
(Brazil).i The bow was the first corded instrument; the Kafirs
and Negroes of Angola "play on the bow" by attaching to it
a gourd and tightening at will by means of a sliding ring the
cord which they play (Fig. 135). As to instruments of percus-
sion: the most generally used among the Negroes are the
Sansa, a sort of musical box (Fig. 68), and the xylophone, a
kind of piano (Fig. 69). The most uncivilised peoples, how-
ever, have composite instruments; as, for instance, the "gora"
of the Bushmen (Figs. 70 and 71).^
The harp of the Kafirs and the gora give forth only feeble
sounds, and serve chiefly to satisfy the musical taste of the
performer; they are scarcely heard by the others. This fact,
fingers in his nose and the other in his ear so as better to hear the
music;
'
' The Kangaroo ran very fast,
O Kangaroo, O Kangaroo.''
very wicked imaginary beings living in the depth of the forests, and, 2,
who has a strange or wicked character. They give the name
every person
of "Hanuch" to: i, imaginary beings with an eye at the back of the
head and no hair, and, 2, to madmen or individuals living alone in the
forests. It is the belief in these three or four imaginary beings to which
all religious manifestations of the Yahgans may be reduced. (Hyades and
Deniker, loc. cit., p. 253.)
^ R. Woodthorpe, yo?/r«. Anihr. Inst., vol. xxvi., No i, August 1896.
In Yorkshire the country people call the night butterfly (sphinx) "soul,"
and in Ireland butterflies are the souls of ancestors (L. Gomme,
Ethnology in Folklore ,
2l6 THE RACES OF MAN.
out,which represents the .immaterial being that forsakes the
body. Thus, among the natives of Nias Island, the one to
become chief is he who succeeds, sometimes not without a
desperate struggle with his rivals, in swallowing the last breath
1 The word " felichism " is a corruption of the Portuguese term feitifo,
"charm," derived probably from the 'L^'Cva faetiihis, in the sense "full of
magical artifices," which the first navigators on the coast of Guinea applied
to the fetiches venerated by the Negroes. Des Brosses was the first to
introduce, in 1760, the term " fetichism " to denote the belief in fetiches.
Auguste Comte gave a much more extended meaning lo the word, to de-
note a religious state opposed to polytheism and monotheism. Today the
fetichism of Auguste Comte is the animism of English ethnographers, of
which true fetichism forms only a part. (E. Tylor, Prim. Cult., vol. ii.,
P- 143-
2 In certain cases, fetiches are supposed to be animated with power of
movement ; thus the staffs which negro sorcerers put into the hands of men
in convulsions, caused by wild dances, are reputed to draw these men in their
mad career,and to direct them in the search of persons accused of crime.
Similarly, the two staffs which the Siberian Shamans hold in their hands
during their exorcisms are supposed to draw them, like horses driven at
full gallop, towards regions inhabited by spirits.
"
2l8 THE RACES OF MAN.
Buddhism and Taoism, and they are not only tolerated but
prescribed by other universal religions. I need but mention
the amulets, talismans, scapularies, miracle-working relics, etc.,
their fishing feats, and may even die there a second time ; the
Polynesians give themselves up there to the same pleasures as
they enjoyed on earth, etc. The other world is only a dupli-
cate of this world, and no idea of justice is connected with itj
the evil and the good in it have the same destiny.^
Rites and Ceremonies. —
What is the nature of the relations
of man and spirits in primitive religion ? Sometimes an
attempt is made to combat the spirits. The Fuegians barri-
cade themselves in their huts and keep themselves armed, in
readiness to ward off blows, the whole night long, when
they fancy they hear the "walapatu";^ the Australians hold
^ E. Tylor, Priviitive Cidtiire^ vol. i., p. 427.
^ Put forward by Tylor {Prim. Cult., vol. ii., chaps, xii. and xvii.), the
frantic howhng, they return home and assert that they sleep
more easily, and for a while afterwards enjoy better health.i
But these contests with spirits are rare, and it is usually found
preferable to employ craft against them (hence exorcism,
incantation, the use of symbols, etc.), or gentleness (prayer,
offerings, sacrifices). The last method, which is most fre-
quently used, develops into an outward cult; the "fetich-
house," like that seen in Dahomey and other Negro countries,
becomes transformed into a temple the place of sacrifice into ;
civilised peoples.
The knowledge of numbers existsmore or less among all the
peoples of the earth. We often say, " Such a people can only
1 See A Lang, Culture and Myth; and his Modern Mythology, London,
1897.
- Legends, traditional tales, proverbs, etc. , are simplified mytlis, with
'
226 THE RACES OF MAN.
CHAPTER VII.
SOCIOLOGICAL CHARACTKRS^COnc/uswn.
3. Family Life. —
Relations of the two sexes before marriage^
—
Marriage aiid family Theory of promiscuity Group marriage —
—
Exogamy and endogamy Matriarchate Degrees of relationship and —
filiation — Polyandry Levirate — —
Polygamy and monogamy Patri- —
— —
archate Rape and purchase of the bride Duration of conjugal union
— Children —
Birth — —
Nurture Name of the child and of adults
Initiation, circumcision, etc. —
Old men and their fate Funereal rites —
— Mourning.
3. FAMILY life.
—
and Family. But marriage once contracted,
Marriage
the woman, among almost all uncivilised and half-civilised
peoples, is no longer free. From this moment either the
husband, the family on the mother's or father's side, or the clan,
see strictly to the observation of the marriage rules which are
in vogue, and the laws, written or unwritten, punish every slip
of the woman who was so free before marriage. It is the con-
clxxxiii., Calcutta, 1896), should be mercilessly struck out of this list, since
like the Australians, theTodas, the Nairs, have been entered in it because
they practise "group marriage" or certain forms of polyandry, which
is not the .same thing as promiscuity. There remains of the list but two
or three tribes about whom we have no exact general information at all
(example, the Olo-Ot of Borneo).
232 THE RACES OF MAN.
' A. \V. Howitt, " Dieri, zic." Jourti. Anihr. Inst., vol. xx., 1S90,
p. 53. Among the Nairs of the coast of Malabar things are done in
exactly the same way. The main point in both cases is the prohibition of
marriage in the clan itself (L. Fison, " Classificat. Relationship," /o««-«.
Anthr. Inst., vol. xxv., 1895, p. 369). Among the Todas of Nilgiri the
groups are limited in this sense, that the men who cohabit with a woman
must be brothers, and at the same time can only marry with the sisters of
this woman.
^ Bachofen, Das Mutterrecht, Stuttgart, 1S61 ; J. P". McLennan,
Stuiies ill Ancient History, London, 1876.
234 THE RACES OF MAN.
his uterine sister, since she is of the same clan as he is, but
only an alien woman, or a relative, according to our conven-
tions, of the Gamutch clan, for example, the sister of his father.
Theoretically, a father of the Gamutch clan would be able to
marry his daughter, since she belongs to the Krokitch clan ; but
in practice these cases are forbidden by custom, for example
among the Australian Dieri,i or they are avoided by the
existence not of two, but of four or a greater number of classes
in the tribe, with prohibitions against the marriage of people
of certain of these classes.^
However, peoples who practise group marriage and
exogamy have not to regard incest very seriously, for
See also the very clear statement of the system in Lubbock, loc. cit, and
its extension to the Australians and the Melanesians of the Fiji Islands
in Howitt and Fison, loc. cii.
SOCIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. 235
the fact that the witness means his "little" father, equivalent to
our term uncle.^ Westermarck has tried to interpret the classi-
ficatory system differently ; he sees in it only an artifice of
speech, a vfay of addressing persons of different ages ; but as
Fison judiciously observes, if it be held that this system has
no reference to degrees of relationship we should have to
deny any idea whatever of this subject to certain peoples
who have no other expressions to denote degrees of rela-
tionship.^
Polyandry, that is to say, marriage in which the woman
possesses several husbands, is considered by the majority of
authors as a form derived from group marriage. With the
exception of two doubtful examples (Khasias and Saporogian
Cossacks), polyandry always assumes the fraternal form ; that
is to say, the husbands of the woman are brothers. The
classic country of polyandry is Thibet. There each of the
brothers cohabits in turn with their common wife, a certain
period being allotted. Among the ancient Arabs, according to
Strabo, matters were arranged less systematically, and the first
comer on his arrival at the woman's house asserted his marital
rights, after having taken care, however, to place his staff
'
Tylox,Journ. Aiithr. Inst., vol. xviii., 18S8-89, p. 262.
^ Westermarck, loc. cil., p. 82 L Fison, /^iir. cit. ("Classific. System"),
;
p. 369.
—
' Maine, Ancient Law, p. 241, London, 1SS5 ; Westermarck, loc. cii.,
p. 51C.
^ Transact. Elhn. Soc, London,
Shoi'tt, N.S., vol. vii. , p. 264;
Ilaxlhausen, Transcaucasia, p. 403, London, 1854. Leioy-Boaulieu
(VEmpire des Tzars, vol. vi., chap. 5, p. 48S, Paris, 18S5-89) aUiibutes
this custom to the over-exercise of paternal authority.
SOCIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. 237
istreated like any other property; the more wives a man has,
the richer and more esteemed is he. Polygamy is widely
diffused over the world, either in pure form (Mahomedans,
its
still dominant.
Patriarchate. — Individual polygamous marriage is most
frequently allied to a new form of affihation, that of kinship
through males, which, in its turn, is rooted in the constitution
of property and the subordination of woman to man. In
the matriarchate the natural protector of the child and the
family is the mothers brother ; in the patriarchate his
place is taken by the father, who extends the right
of property not only to include the mother, but also the
children ; he may sell them out, etc.
them, The
hire
patriarchate is the regime under which live most half-civilised
peoples and a great number of uncivilised.
Several matrimonial customs may be explained by the
primitive forms of marriage. Thus the practice of showing
hospitality to a stranger by lending him one's wife, so common
among savages and half-civilised nomads, may be explained as
a relic of group marriage, in which, as we have seen, the
exchange and the lending of women are practised.^ Similarly,
the custom, very prevalent, especially in Malaysia, which
requires a husband to live in his wife's family, is considered
by most authors as a relic of the matriarchate. Another
' The Torgoot Mongols, who practise this ciislom, explain it by the
general rules of hospitality (Ivanovski, loc. at.); in this respect they are in
agreement with Westermarck, toe. cil., chap. vi.
238 THE RACES OF MAN.
custom, nearly always allied to the first, but which is also met
with as a survival in the cases where the woman goes to live
but rather a social habit springing from sexual repulsion for persons, even
unrelated to the family, with whom one has been brought up from infancy.
Thus we often see marriages prohibited between one village and another
(ancient Peru), or between god-parents, who superintend the baptism of a
child, and are in no way aUied to each other by lilood (Russia). The learned
Helsingfors professor, who believes in the omnipotence of sexual selection,
explains the frequency of the aversion to incest by the survival of
individuals who did not contract consanguineous marriages, always mis-
chievous in his opinion. However, he admits that the bad effects of
consanguineous marriages may be mitigated by material well-being, as is the
case in Europe.
SOCIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. 239
the fear of spirits; the Dyaks and the Mongols change the
name of sick persons to " deceive the spirit " who has caused
the disease; among the Fuegians, the Indians of North
America, the Polynesians, and the Malays, the name of a
dead man is not allowed to be uttered, and all his name-
sakes are obliged to change their name. Often, too, the
name is changed because their "trade" requires it; the
Okanda healers bear another name when they practise their
art and among civilised peoples changes of name are bound
;
' Ploss [loc. eit.) mentions Australian, Eskimo, and North American
Indian tribes among whom the child is suckled till the age of fourteen or
fifteen.
16
242 THE RACES OF MAN.
' For an illustration of this see the " Description of Australian Initia-
money put into the mouth or the hand of the dead as one never knows ;
what may happen, it is always well to have a little money at one's service.
SOCIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. 243
Many practices in relation to the dead are explained by the belief that
they are sleeping for a greater or less time (see p. 216). Thus, among the
Micronesians of the Gilbert Islands, the woman sleeps by the side of her
dead husband, and covers her body with the putrid matter which oozes
from the corpse.
244 THE RACES OF MAN.
tians, Caribs of Guiana, Italians, Russians). Then succeed
material signs displayed on the body, some of which are
the consequence of cruel practices which seem to suggest
the idea of sacrifice for the purpose of removing the anger
of "the dead man's soul," which wanders about the survivors.
We need only mention the cutting off of the finger-joints
among the Bushmen, of the toes among the Fijians, the
drawing out of teeth in Eastern Polynesia, the laceration of
the skin among the Australians, the burnings among the New
Caledonians. Under a milder form the same idea of sacrifice
manifests itself in the custom of plucking out the hair of the
beard (Australians, Fijians), of cutting or shaving off a part
or the whole of the hair (Jews and Egyptians in ancient times,
Huns, Albanians, Hovas, Malays, American Indians, Basutos,
Gallas). Certain signs of mourning on the body seem to be
caused by the desire not to be recognised by the "spirit" of
the dead person; such is the custom of daubing the face or
the whole body, practised by the Negroes of Central Africa,
the Australians, the Polynesians, etc. Among peoples who
are more clothed, the mode of dress is altered. General
negligence in dress is a sign of grief among the Bechuana
and the Malays tearing of the garments is practised among
;
4. — SOCIAL LIFE.
his who gave the finishing stroke. For this reason each arrow
bears the mark of its owner.
It is thus that matters are arranged among the Tunguses
and North American Indians. Among the latter, rules have
been strictly laid down in regard to bison-hunting from the
point of view of individual property.^
But since the introduction of fire-arms, the balls bearing no
distinctive marks, the slain bisons are divided equally; they
are considered as common property. This example shows
plainly how closely are related production and the system by
which property is held. Common and private property do not
lead among savages to monopoly, for the products of the
chase cannot be kept for long without getting spoilt; so after
having taken what he wants for himself, the hunter gives the
remainder to his relatives, his family, or the tribe. It is this
'
Even in the cases where several arrows have pierced the animal their
totem and ancestor, got rid of its shell and gradually developed
'
Laveleye, Proprtete pri>iiitive, p. 9, Paris, 1S91 ; Kovalewsky, loc. cit.,
passim ; Sakuya Yosbida, Ceschkhll. Eniwickl. d. Slaats- Verfass. in
Japan, p. 46, Hague, 1890 ; Bancioft, Native Races of Pacific Slates,
vol. ii., p. 226, San Francisco, 18S2.
250 THE RACES OP MAN.
the foot of the ladder are " slaves," in the strict sense of the
word, not regarded even as men; while at the top are found
those who by birth are not free, but who by fortune or other-
wise may come to occupy a position almost equal to that of
free citizens of the highest class.
What are the qualifications required in order to become
chief in primitive social organisations ? Most often, by
election, those become chief who are bravest in war, strongest,
most skilful in the chase (American Indians, Congolese), or
the chiefs are the richest (Indians, Polynesians, Negroes), or
simply they are the biggest, the best fed (Athapascans,
according to Bancroft). But whatever may be the ground on
which they are chosen, the power of these chiefs is often most
precarious, and it may disappear with the cause of its
merely say that almost all half-civilised peoples are still in the
midst of the feudal regime or are just emerging from it. The
recognition of individual liberty forms the first step towards
the organisations of modern European states, constitutional
monarchies or republics, in which the aim is to reduce to a
minimum governmental action and the differences of classes,
especially before the law, — to establish, in a word, a democratic i
regime. y
Social morality, or the basis of conduct imposed on the
members of society, is a convention recognised by the laws and
by public opinion. This is to say that it changes from one people
to another, according to the degree of culture, surrounding
circumstances, In the most uncivilised tribes life has a
etc.
Buru, etc.
254 THE RACES OF MAN.
1 The custom of applying the nose to the cheek and drawing a breath,
with closed eyes and a smacking of the lips, exists among the Southern
the same for hunting and war. It is only among the half-
civilised that, with more or less permanent armies, weapons
specially designed for war make their appearance, as well as
works of a defensive character — fortresses, palisades, protective-
moats, and caltrops.
I can give here but a very brief description of offensive
and defensive weapons.
Offensive weapons may be divided into two categories
weapons held firmly in the hand and missile weapons each ;
sabre. In order not to wound himself, the wearer covers the edge with a
circular case which he only removes for battle.
17
258 THE RACES OF MAN.
^ See for details and series of forms, Lane-Fox (now Pitt Rivers), Cat.
Aiithr. Collection in the Betluial Green Museum, London, 1S77, with
illustrations. (Tlie remarkable collection in question is now at Oxford.)
26o THE RACES OF MAN.
(which must not be confounded with the lasso) and the balls
' See H. Balfour, "On Ihe Structure and Affinities of tlie Composite
Bow," Joiirn.- AnI/ir. London, 1889, vol. xix.,p. 220; Anuchin,
Inst.,
Look i Slrcly (Bow and Arrows), Moscow, 1889 (in Russian); 0.
Mason, " Bows, Arrows, and Quivers of the North American Aborigines,"
Smithson'.an Report, Washington, 1893.
' Phillips, Trans. N. Zeal. Inst.,
vol. a., p 97, Wellington, 1877.
SOCIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. 263
out thumb and the second joint of the bent forefinger (Ainus,
Chippewas, Assyrians, etc.). The second method is only a
variant of the first, and is
SOCIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. 27
esteemed. 1
Money. — In the primitive forms of commerce exchanges
were made directly ; object was bartered for object, as we
see it still done to-day sporadically in many countries. But
soon the need for values was felt — standards which would
render exchanges more rapid, easy, and equitable. For
this purpose objects coveted by the greatest number of per-
sons were chosen. These objects were either ornaments (on
which primitive commerce especially depends) or things which
everybody wanted. It is thus that jewels, objects of adornment
ii
o .C
SOCIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. 273
vadaat.
18
;
fiir Elhn., Berlin, 1872, vol. iv., p. 65Andree, Ethnol. Parall, p. 233
;
from Manilla, for the most part to England. In 1848, 59I tons of'cowries
were imported into Liverpool. At the time of the Dutch dominion of
Ceylon, Amsterdam was the principal market of this trade ; there were
sold there in 1689 192,951 pounds (Dutch) of these shells; and in 1780
thin rings, from five and a half to six inches long, and vveigli-
ing about seven ounces, was used.
A general fact to be noted in regard to primitive money is
'
O. Mason, loc. cil., p. 327, and "Prim. Travel and Transport,"
Sinithsoiian Report U.S. Nat. Mtis. for i8g4, p. 239, Washington, 1896.
2-]^ THE RACES OF MAN.
siedges of the former, the canoes of the latter, fitly take the
antiquity.!
The two-wheeled chariot was known in Asia from the most
remote antiquity; it was used either in war (Assyrians, Chal-
deans, Persians) or for purposes of transport. Even at the
present day in India, Ceylon, Indo-China, the light waggon
drawn by zebras or asses is much more common than the four-
wheeled cart drawn by buffaloes. In the far East, where man
is employed for draught purposes, the wheel-barrow takes the
place of the car, and the Japanese jinrickshaiv, as well as the
Indo-Chinese pousse-pousse, are only adaptations of modern
mode of transport by men. It is only to the
carriages to this
north of the Yang-tse-Kiang that one comes across Chinese
cars with two cogged wheels, and heavy waggons, a sort of
tumbrel without springs, with massiVe and sometimes solid
wheels, drawn by buffaloes. It is perhaps such vehicles
1 D. Anuchin, "Sani, etc " (The sledge, the canoe, and horses in
280
1
among the people called Bushmen (Fig. 24), and less pure
among the Hottentots (Fig. 143). The presence of the Bush-
man type may be detected among a great number of Negro
peoples to the south of the equator (for example, among the
Bechuana and Kiokos, etc.),
II. The Negroid group comprises three races : Negrito,
Negro, and Melanesian.
;
' Fig. 153 represents individuals of one tribe only, but belonging to the
two sub-races mentioned. Fig. 151 represents the blending of the two
types with Polynesian admixture.
CLASSIFICATION OF RACES AND PEOPLES. 289
oij.iSaN -HI
•UBISSUB[3JAJ
•II
1^ •UBin'.TlStTW
•UBjIB-HStlV s
c
•AI
X
290 THE RACES OF MAN.
among the Somalis, Abyssinians, etc., and by Negro blood
among the Zandehs (Niam-Niams, etc.), and especially amoug
the Fulbe or Peuls, though among the latter fine Ethiopian
types, almost pure, are still met with (Fig. 139).
IV. 6. The Australian race (Figs. 14, 15, 149, and 150) is
remarkable for its unity and its isolation on the Australian
continent, and even the Tasmaniaiis (see Chapter XII.), the
nearest neighbours to the Australians, at the present day
extinct, had a different type.
V. 7. The Dravidian race, which it would have been better
to call South-Indian, is prevalent among the peoples of Southern
India speaking Dravidian tongues, and also among the Kols
and other peoples of India it presents two varieties or sub-
;
with frizzy or wavy hair (Hyades and Deniker, loc. cit.). See also
Fig. 171, which represents the blending of the Central American and
South American types, and portraits of the Goajires in Le Tour du Monde,
iSgS, 1st half year.
- A. Barcena, "Arte . . . lengua Toba," Jiev. Mus. de la Plata, vol.
' Each continent in fact contains distinct populations, witli tlie exception,
CHAPTER IX.
vol. xiv., 1885, p. 289, and Rev. d'' Anthr., 1885; Cartailhac, La France
Prehistorique, p. 35, Paris, 1889; Newton, "The Evidence for the
Existence of Man in the Tertiary Period," Proceed. Geohg. Assoc, vol.
XV., Ijondon, 1897; Salomon Reinach, AntiquitSs Nationales, Descrip.
Mush St.-Germain, vol.
i., p. 96, Paris, l88g, —
this work contains a
mass of prehistoric information and a copious bibliograpliy.
RACES AND PEOPLES OF EUROPE. 30I
cold and moist, was not very favourable to the peopling of the
country. Besides, if we consider that all the great mountain
chains, the Alps, the Pyrenees, the Caucasian range, with their
advanced peaks, were covered entirely with ice, and that the
Aralo-Caspian depression was filled with water as far as the
vicinity of Kazan on the north (Map i), we shall easily under-
stand that the habitable space thus available for man at this
f 1
;
the first interglacial period, and that the others coincide with
the second (Boule). In a general way, we may distinguish
in the latter a more ancient period, characterised by the
abundance of mammoth bones and by smaller and more varied
implements than the Chellean tool ; and a more recent period
characterised by the presence of the reindeer in Central and
Western Europe, by the frequent occurrence of bone tools, and
29
;
guish it from the Chellean, called " River-drift" period, but this term is
open to objection; thus, for example, in the celebrated Kent cavern there
have been found at the bottom implements of the Chellean type identical
with certain objects of the River-drift. (See the works already quoted, as
well as Windle, Life in Early Britain, p. 26, London, 1897.)
According to G. de Mortillet, Mousterian industry also differs from
'*
laurel leaf. But the zone in which these implements are met with is
limited to certain regions of the south and west of France only. For
many palccethnographers this is a " facies local" of the Magdalenian
period.
^ There may be added to the masterpieces here reproduced the famous
representation of the mammoth carved on the tusk of this animal itself by
a man of La Madeleine (Dordogne), discovered and described by Lartet
and by Boyd Dawkins, Early Man in Brit., p. 105, London, 1880. See
Cartailhac, loc. cit., p. 72-
^ After the second interglacial period the "Great Baltic Glacier" still
covered the Scandinavian peninsula, with the exception of its southern part
(Gothland), extended over the emerged bottom of the Baltic, over nearly
the whole of Finland, and spreading round Gothland invaded the east coast
of Denmark and the littoral of Germany to the east of Jutland. After the
and a series of changes in the surface of the ground
retreat of this glacier
(a sinking which brought the Baltic into communication with the North
Sea by means of the Strait of Svealand, followed by the upheaval
which cut off that communication and made of the Baltic the Ancyhts
Lake of the geologists), the climate became milder in these parts, and
the trees of Central Europe, first the pines, then the oaks and birches,
penetrated into Denmark and Gothland, while in the north of Sweden
there were two other new glacier movements. (Gerard de Geer, Om
Skandinavens Geografiska Utveckling, Stockholm, 1897; G. Andersson,
Geschichte Vegetal. Schtved., Leipzig, 1896.)^
;
' Out of forty-six skulls to which the title " quaternary " has been
applied, I have only been able, after a careful examination of all evidence,
to recognise as such the ten to fifteen following skulls. For the age of the
mammoth or "Mousterian" period, seven skulls certainly quaternary;
two from Spy (Belgium), and those from Egisheim (Alsace), Olmo
skulls
(Val d'Arno, Italy), Bury St. Edmunds (England), Podbaba (Bohemia),
and Predmost (Moravia). Perhaps we should refer to this period the
skulls which cannot be definitely traced to a certain alluvial bed, like those
of Neanderthal (Rhenish Prussia), Denise (Auvergne), Marcilly-sur-Eure
(Eure), La Truchere (Sa6ne), and Tilbury (near London). As to the
skulls of the " reindeer" age (Magdalenian period), three only are known
which are not called in question these are the skulls of Laugerie-Basse,
:
'
De Quatrefages and liamy, Cr. Elhn., p. 44; De Quatrefages, Hist.
Chi. Races Hum., vol. i., p. 67; Herve, Kev. Ecole. Anthr., Paris, 189J,
p. 173; 1894, p. 105; 1896, p. 97.
' Herve, " Les brachycephales neolith.," Rev. Ecole. Anlhr., Pans,
1
J. Beddoe, The Races of Brilain, Bristol-London, iSSj, and "Hist,
de I'indice ceph. dans les ties Britan.," L' Anthropol. , 1894, p. 513; Windle,
loc. cil., p. 9; Inostrantsev, Bo'tslorikheskn, etc. [Ptehistor. Man of
Ladoga), St. Petersburg, 1S82, fig. and pi.
the valley of the Elbe, the Moldau, and the Danube. The
commercial relations between the north and south explain the
similarities which archaeologists find between Scandinavian
bronze objects and those of the ^Egean district (Schlieraann's
excavations at Mycense, Troy, Tiryns, etc.).^
' Reinach, "Mirage oriental," I' Anthropo!ogie, 1894, pp. 539 and
S.
6gg; A. Evans, "Eastern Question," Rep. Brit. Assoc, 1896, p. 911;
Vienna, 1S92.
RACES AND PEOPLES OF EUROPE. 317
' Together with the Sards, the Turses are the only European peoples of
1 Th. Poesche, Z)/a^;-«;-, Jena, 187S; Venkz., Die Herkunfl der Aricr,
Vienna, 1886. This identification has been turned to account by several men
ofscience, especially by 0. Amnion (loc. cit. in Germany and V. de Lapoiipe
)
Aryan language would be found to the north of the Carpathians, in the Letto-
Lithuanian region. From this point two linguistic streams would start,
flowing round the mountains to the west and east; the ^yeslern stream, after
1894.
" D'Arbois de Jubainville, loc. cit., vol. ii., p. 297.
322 THE RACES OF MAN.
later (about 300), other waves of Celts, the Galatians,
little
they spread out into the plains of Champagne, then drew back,
severed the Slavs into two groups (northern and southern).
324 THE RACES OF MAN.
d'Anthropol., 1897, pp. 1S9 and 291; I' Anthropologic, 1S98, p. 113 (with
map); and "Les Races de rEiu'ope," first part, Viiidice Ciphal., Paris,
1S99 (coloured map). Cf. Ripley, "Racial Geography orEurnpc,"y////«Ai;/'.f
Popular Scieiuc l\lonthly. New York, for the years 1S97, 1S9S, and 1899.
326 THE RACES OF MAN.
Fig. 94. —Young woman of Aries. Mixed Littoral race (?). {Phot,
lent by School of Anthropology, Paris.)
dark brown eyes, rounded face, thick-set figure (Fig. 98, per-
ceptibly softened type of this race).
5. Dark, mesocephalic, tall race, Littoral or Atlanto-
Mediterranean race, so styled because it is found in a pure or
mixed state along the shores of the Mediterranean from
Gibraltar to the mouth of the Tiber, and on several points of
332 THE RACES OF MAN.
the Atlantic coast, from the straits of Gibraltar to the mouth of
the Guadalquivir, on the Bay of Biscay, in the lower valley of
the Loire, etc. It is anywhere at a greater
not met with
distance than 120 or 150 miles from the sea. This Littoral race
is still httle studied; it is distinguished by its moderate dolicho-
^ Houze, " Caract. phys. des races eitrop^ennes," Bull. Soc. Anthro.,
Brussels, vol. ii., 1883, 1st part.
RACES AND PEOPLES OF EUROPE. 333
the north-west of Ireland (Fig. 93), in Wales (Fig. 19), and the
east of Belgium.
6. Dark, br achy cephalic, tall race, called Adriatic or Dinaric,
because its purest representatives are met with along the
coast Northern Adriatic and especially in Bosnia,
of the
Dalmatia, and Croatia. They are also found in Rumania,
Venetia, among the Slovenes, the Ladinos of the Tyrol, the
Romansch of Switzerland, as well as in the populations of the
' R. Collignon, Bull. Soc. Antkro., Paris, 1883, p. 463, and V Anthro-
pologie, 1890, No. 2.
RACES AND PEOPLES OF EUROPE. 335
prises the populations (Fig. 98) on the north of the line which,
starting from the Gironde, passes by Angouleme, Montmorillon,
Montlucon, Lyons, and the crests of the Jura, to terminate in
the neighbourhood of Berne in Switzerland. ^ Among the
numerous dialects recognisable in it, we must make special
mention of Wallon, spoken in the southern part of the depart-
ment of the north in France, and in the southern half of
Belgium,^ in the commune of Malmedy in Prussia, and in
^ Ch. de Toiutoulon and Bringuier, " Limite de la langue d'oc,
. .
etc.,". Arch. Miss. Sc. Paris, 1876. Cf. Kev. Ecole AiUhr. Paris, 1891,
p. 218.
^ Province of Namur, nearly the whole of ihe provinces of Hainault,
Li^ge, and Luxemburg, as well as the southern part of Brabant. Cf.
Bremer, Nationalit. tmd Spraciie in Belgien (with map), Stuttgart, 1887.
336 THE RACES OF MAN.
several places in the grand duchy of Luxemburg. Northern
French is likewise spoken in the west part of Lorraine and
lower Alsace annexed to Germany, as well as in several places
in upper Alsace.
2. The Languedocian-Caialan group, or the Langue ifoc,
situated south of the hne referred to above, comprises four
great dialectal divisions which make a distinction between
the Gascons (south of the Garonne) (Figs. 99 and 100) and the
Languedodans and Provencals (Fig. 94), while admitting the
mixed so-called Rhodanian group (basin of the upper Rhone,
Roman Switzerland, Savoy, and the French valleys of
Piedmont) ^ and the Catalan group (Roussillon in France,
H. Gaidoz, "Die franzosisch. Thaler Piemonts," Globus, p. 59, 1891,
'
No. 2.
^ See Langhans, Deutsch. Kolon. Alias, maps Nos. 3 to 7. For a com-
Germans generally, see Ranke, Der Mensch., vol. ii.
prehensive view of the
" Deutsche Volkskunde " (Ethno-
Somat., Arched.), and E. H. Meyer,
graphy, Folk-lore), Strassburg, 1898; for the Austrians Oester.-Ung.
:
Monarchic, vols. iv. and vi., Vienna, 1886-89; and for the Bavarians,
Beitrdge z. Anlhr., etc., Bayerns, Munich (1876-99).
342 THE RACES OF MAN.
northern race
is especially felt in the counties of Leicester and
general view: F. von HelUvand, Die Welt der Slaveii, Berlin, 1890
Zograf, Les feuples de la Rttssie, Moscow (1S95); and Oester-Huiig.
Alonarcti., vols. i\'., xi., xiv., xv. (1891-96) ; for ethnogeny and archEeology:
Lul3or Niedcrlc, O Pzivodu Slovantt (Origin of the Slavs), Prague, 1897
(in Czech) ; and Ctieloviechestvo, etc.(Prehistoric Man), Russian transla-
tion, Si. Petersburg, 1S98.
RACES AND PEOPLES OF EUROPE. 345
also met with among the Great Russians, the Mazours, and
the Wends; the Adriatic race characterises the Serbo-
Croats, as well as certain Czechs and Ruthenians ; the sub-
Adriatic raceis well represented by a section of the Czechs, while
numerous elements of the Western race are met with among the
Slovaks, the Little Russians, and certain Great Russians.
Joined to the three great- linguistic groups of Aryan peoples
which we have just characterised are three others, less consider-
most part.
f Antra., vols. xvii. and xix. (1887-89); Mainof, Resooltaty, etc. (Anthr.
andjurid. Studies ofthe Mordva); "Zapiski," Russian Geog. Socy. (Ethnog.
Sec), vols. xi. andxiv. (1883-85); works of Smirnov on the Mordva, Chere-
miss, etc., Fr. trans, by Beyer (Paris, 1897-98).
^ P. Mantegazza and Somtnier, Studii anlr. sui Lapponi, Turin, 1880
c. Caucasian Peoples.^ —
All who have seen the ethno-
graphical maps of the Caucasus must have been struck
by the motley appearance which they present ; fifty various
Iranians and the Armenians, but the three other groups form
a perfect linguistic unit. The dialects which they speak
preserve the impress of a common origin and form a family
apart which has nothing in common with any other.
The Cherkess or Circassians, until the middle of this century,
inhabited all the western part of Ciscaucasia; but, since the
conquest of their country by the Russians, they have emigrated
en masse into the Ottoman empire. At the present day there
are only a few remnants of them in the Caucasus. Principal
tribes, Abkhazians, Adighe or Cherkess (Circassians) properly
so called, Kabards of the plain, Abadzeh, Chapsugh, etc.
The Chechen-Lesgians are divided, as the name implies,
into two groups : the Chechen (with the Ingushes, the
Kists, etc.) of the upper basin of the Terek, who have long
been considered as a population apart (Figs, no and iii),
and the Lesgians of Daghestan. These last are sub-divided
into five great sections, according to their dialects: (i) The
Avars-Andi, with the Dido, whose language tends to pre-
ponderate owing to the historic part played by the tribe of
the Avars, to which belonged the famous Shamil, the hero of
the Caucasus, whose memory still lives. (2) The Dargha in
the centre of Daghes.'an, the best known
which istribe of
that of the Kubachi, living in little houses piled one above the
other on the sides of the mountains. (3) The Kurines of the
Samur basin, with the 7>aM«;-j- (Tabassaurans, etc.). (4) The
Laks or Kazi-Kumyks, with which are connected lesser known
tribes, like the Agtcl, the Budukh, and the Khinalugh, whose
RACES AND PEOPLES OF EUROPE. 355
race. They are above the average in stature (im. 68), and
sub-brachycephalic (ceph. ind. on the liv. sub. 82.6).
As to the somatic characters of the other Caucasians, we
know little of those of the Cherkess (sub-brachycephalic, of
medium height), but we are better informed in regard to the
Lesgians and the Kartvel. The contrast between the two
groups is striking. The I.esgians are very brachycephalic (see
Appendix II.), especially the tribes of the east; their stature is
CHAPTER X.
359
36o THE RACES OF MAN.
\
zxi'^ri
..M
Fig. 112. —
Skull of the Pithecanthroptis erecius, Dub. The calvaria
(a) and the teeth (b c) are designed by P. Moutel after the
casts and photographs of E. Dubois. The reconstruction of the rest
is made after Dubois aitd Matiouvrier.
1896, pp. 396 and 467; G. Schwalbe, Zeitsch. Morph. u. Anthr., vol. i.,
p. 16, Stuttgart, 1899.
^ Uvarof, Arkheologia, etc. (Archeol. oj Russia, vol. i., Moscow,
1881, p. 162, in Russian); Kuzn^tzof, Mittheil. Anthr. GeselL, Vienna., 1896,
Nos.4and5; "Agedelapierreau Japon,"j1/a/er./«2.fA . . , homme,Ton\oaiie-
362 THE RACES OF MAN.
Paris, 1879, p. 31; S. Yase,Joum. Anthr. Soc. Tokyo, vol. xi., 1895, No.
122 (in Japanese); Inuzuka, ibid.. No. 119; E. Cartajlhac, " L'age de la
pierre en Asie," Congr. Orienlalistes, 3rd ser., r, p. 315, Lyons, 1880;
G. Chaiivet, "Age de la pierre en Asie," Congr. inietn. arch, prehis.,
nth session, vol. i., p. 57, Moscow,
1892. The arrows picked up by Abbe
A. David in Mongolia, and supposed to be palceolithic, belong to the historic
period (Hamy, Btill. Mus. Hist. Nat., 1896, p. 46).
1 Medlicot and Blandford, Manual
of Geol. of India, Calcutta, 1879, 2
vols.; Cartailhac, loc. cit.; Rivett-Carnac, rowiz. Anthr. Inst., vol. xiii.,
1884, p. 119.
RACES AND PEOPLES OF ASIA. 363
1887. The only skull found in these heaps is dolichocephalic and reminds
one of the Ainu skull. Thus one might suppose, as Milne had done
(Trans. As. Soc. Jap., Tokio, 1899, vol. vii., p. 61), in connection with
364 THE RACES OF MAN.
have been found China in the vicinity of
in the north-east of
tumuli resembling American " mounds " (Williamson);
the
others have been picked up in the Yunnan (Sladen), and in
Burma (Theobald); Moura, Jammes, and Morel exhumed in
Cambodia, between Lake Tonle-Sap and the Mekong, side by
side with objects of bronze, several polished stone implements
of a peculiar type (Fig. 114), a kind of square-tongued axe
(shouldered celt), which has since
been found again in several other
places in Indo-China as far as the
upper Laos (Leffevre-Pontahs) and
Burma.i In the district of Somron-
Sen (Cambodia), previously explored
by Jammes, as well as in the neigh-
bourhood of Saigon, Corre dis-
the similar kitchen refuse found in Japan, that they are the work of the
Ainus; however, the presence of pottery, unknown to the Ainus even to
recent times, militates against this view.
' The Nagas have still at the present day axes of precisely the same
form, which they use as hoes. (S. '?ftz\.,Journ. As. Sac. Bengal, vol. Ixv.,
Part III., p. 9, Calcutta, 1896.) Cf. Noulet, "Age de la pierre . . .
' Schrenck, Reisenin Ainur-Lande, vol. iii. , Parts I. and II. , St. Peters-
burg, 1S81-91.
''
Miiller and Gmelin saw in 1753 the last surviving Arines, and in 1855
Castren was still able to find five individuals speaking the Kotte tongue.
RACES AND PEOPLES OF ASIA. 367
{Phot. Shimkiivich. )
RACES AND PEOPLES OF ASIA. 369
Fig, 116. — Same subject as Fig. 115, full face. {Phol. ShimkilvUh.)
24
370 THE RACES OF MAN.
was believed until the last few years that even the Yukaghirs
had disappeared, but quite recently lokhelson^ ascertained
that there are at least 700 individuals, and that their language,
which has no affinities with any of the Uralo -Altaic dialects,
is spoken by a certain number of Tunguse-Lamuts (see p. 373),
haired as a rule.
The Ainus (Figs. 49 and 117), who are classed among
the Palaeasiatics, inhabit the north and east parts of the island
'
Anuchin, " Izviestia " Soc. Friends Sc. AIoscow, suppl. to vol. xx.
1876 (analysed Rev. d'An/hr., 1878, p. 148); Scheube, Mill. Deut.
Gesell. Naiur. u. Volkenk, vol. iii., pp. 44 and 220, Yokohama-Tokio,
1880-82; G. Batchelor, Trans. As. Soc. Japan, vol. x., part 2, Tokio,
1882, and The Ainu ofJapan, London, 1892; Chamberlain, Mem. Imper.
Univ. Japan, Litter, coll. No. i, Tokio, 1887 (analysed Kev. d'Anthr.,
1888, p. 81); Tarenefsky, Mem. Ac. Sc. St. Petersburg, 1890, vol. xxxvii.
No. 13; Hitchcock, Rep. U.S. Nat. Mtis. for iSgo, pp. 408 and 429;
8. Landor, Alone zuith the Hairy Aimi, 1893 Koganei, Beitr. z. Phys.
;
Anlhr. Aim (extr. from Mit. Med. Fakult. vols. i. and ii., Tokio, 1893-94).
,
- Schrenck, loc. cit.; Seeland, Russiche Rev., vol. xi., St. Petersburg,
1882 Deniker, Les Ghiliaks, Paris, 1884 (extr. from Rev. d'Ethnogr.).
;
374 THE RACES OF MAN.
^ Dutreuil de Rhins and Grenavd, Miss. Sc. Haute Asie, vol. ii., Paris,
1898.
2 See bibliogvaphy in the monograph on the Kirghiz- Bukei by Kharouzin,
" Izviestia" Soc. Friends of Nat. Sc, Moscow, vol. 72, 1891.
^ We must distinguish among the "Tatars of the Crimea" two ethnic
groups, speaking the same Turkish dialect the Tatars of the Steppes
:
(Nogai), and the Tatars of the Mountains and of the Coast, or Tauridians
[Krimchaki in Russian). These are the Islamised descendants of the
ancient populations of the Taurus {Kipchaks, Genoese, Greeks, Goths).
The Nogai belong to the Turkish race, more or less crossed, while the
Tauridians have many traits of the Adriatic and Indo-Afghan races.
RACES AND PEOPLES OF ASIA. 377
average (im. 67 —
im. 68); head, hyper-brachycephalic (ceph.
ind. on the liv. sub., 85 to 87), elongated oval face, non-
Mongoloid eyes, but often with the external fold of eyelid
(p. 78) ; the pilous system moderately developed ; broad
cheek-bones, thick lips; straight, somewhat prominent nose;
tendency to obesity.^
The Turks are essentially nomadic, and when they change
their mode of life it is rather towards the chase, commerce, or
trade that their efforts are directed ; the true cultivators of the
soil (Taranchi, Sartes, Osmanli, Volga Tatars) are Turks already
powerfully affected by intermixtures. The Turkish tent is the
most highly finished of transportable habitations (p. 164-166).
Meat and milk products form the staple foods, as they do
among all nomads. With the exception of the Christian
Chuvashes and the Shaman Yakuts, all the Turks are Mussul-
mans; but often they are only nominally such, at bottom remain-
'
For statistics as to stature, ceph. index, etc., see Appendices I. to
III. these figures are borrowed fronn the works of Benzengre, Bogdanof,
;
' Cf. Prjevalsky, TrStie, etc. (Third Journey in Central Asia), St.
Petersburg, 1883; and/««-. Geo;;.Soc, 1886-87; Rockhill, The Land of
the Lamas, London, 1891 ; Ethiwl. 0/ Tz'to, Washington, 1895; and i?e/.
U.S. Nat. Mus. for i8gj, p. 665 Desgodins, Le Tibet, 2nd ed., Paris,
;
' Prjevalsky, loc. cit.; Risley, " Tribes and Castes of Bengal," Anthr.
Data, Calcutta, 1891, 2 vols.; Rockhill, loc. cit.; Dutreuil de Rhins, loc.
cit.
^ Fr. Gamier, Voyage en Indo-Chine, Paris, 1873, vol.
. . . p. 519, i. ,
s Colb. Baber, "Travels ... in West China," Supp. Pap. Geogr. Soc,
vol. i., London, 1882; Colquhoun, Across Chryse, London, 18S3,
vol. ii-, Appendix.
382 THE RACES OF MAN.
the northern part of the Kwang-si, the north-west district of
Kwang-tung, more or less intermixed with the Chinese ; the
Lissus of the Lu-tse-Kiang (Upper Salwen) and the Lantsan-
Kiang (Upper Mekong), near to the new boundary of Chma
and British India; the Mosso or Nashis of the district of Li-
Kiang to the east of the Lissus, related to the latter and
having an iconomatic writing; lastly, the Lu-ise or Kew-ise,
who call themselves Melams or Anoogs, to the west of the
Lissus and separated by an inhabited tract from the Mishmee, the
Sarong and other Thibeto-Indonesian tribes. The language of
the Lu-tse differs from that of any of the neighbouring peoples,
and their physical type places them between the Lissus and
the Indonesians, such as the Naga for example; they are short
(im. 56 according to Roux), but strong and vigorous; their
hair is frizzy.^ The
Mtt-ise mentioned by Terrien de Lacou-
perie, the Lawa
Does described by Holt Hallet, the Muzours
or
of T. de Lacouperie or the Musos of Archer, the Kas-Khuis of
Garnier, scattered between the Mekong and the Salwen from
the twentieth to the twenty-fifth degree of north latitude, are
probably akin to the Lo-lo and the Mossos.^
III. Populations of Eastern Asia. — The far east of Asia
is inhabited by three nations of mixed origin; Chinese, Coreans,
Japanese.
I. The Chinese form by themselves alone more than the
third, if not the half of the population of Asia. They occupy
in a solid mass the whole of China properly so called, and
the body and limbs with rings, so characteristic of the Dyaks and other
Indonesians, is also found among the Lu-tse they wear around the
;
loins and limbs numerous iron wire rings coated with black wax and fastened
together in two places with metal rings. Great phalanstery-like houses, 40
metres long, similar to those of certain Indonesians and Polynesians, and
used by several families, in which men and women sleep promiscuously, are
met with among the western Kew-ise on the boundary of their country with
the Khamti (see p. 40).
'^
Terrien de Lacouperie, The Languages of China before the Chinese,
p. 92, London, 1887; Fr. Garnier, he. cil.; II. Hallet, Proc. Geogr. Soc,
p. I, London, 1S86 (with map).
RACES AND PEOPLES OF ASIA. 383
1 See the summary of the data in this respect in Richthofen, China, vol.
i,, Berlin, 1875,and in Redus, Geogi: Univ., vol. vi., Paris, 1882.
384 THE RACES OF MAN.
• Note also the inferior position of woman, her ability to move about
limited by deformation of the feel (p. 175).
2 The exact figures for the height of Coreans are contradictory : Dr.
Koike (Inlernat. Arch. Ethnogr., vol. iv., Leyden, 1891, Parts I. and 11.)
gives the excessively high stature of im. 79 as the average of seventy-five
men measured; while Elissieef {" Izvieslia" Kuss. Geogr. Soc. St.
Petersburg, 1890) found im. 62 the average height, but according to the
measurements of ten men only.
RACSS AND PEOPLES OF ASIA. 387
Fig. 120. —Young Japanese women taking tea; fine type. (Phot,
lent by Collignon. )
RACES AND PEOPLES OF ASIA. 389
' It might be supposed that the representatives of the first type were
the descendants of tribes who had come by way of Corea and the Tsu-
shima and Iki-shima islands in the south-west of Nippon at some period
unknown, but at any rate very remote. As to the coarse type, its repre-
sentatives are perhaps descended from the warriors who invaded about the
seventh century B. c. (according to a doubtful chronology) the west coast
of the island of Kiu-siu and then Nippon. These invaders, intermixing
with the aborigines of unknown stock, founded the kingdom of Yamato,
and drove back the Ainus towards the north (see p. 372).
^ The ancient practice of suicide in case of injury {Harakiri), now
abolished, also denoted great courage; sometimes was a disguised form
it
tude of tribes into which they are divided (the Mo, the Sas,
the Bru7is, the Bolovens, the Lcve, the Bannars, the Rde, the
Late, the Thioma, the Trao, etc.), the Mois exhibit a remark-
able uniformity in physical type and manners (Neis). They
are as a rule short (im. 57), and dolichocephalic (ceph. ind. on
the liv. sub. 77); their skin is tan-like white in colour, reddish;
their hair is more or less wavy, they have straight eyes, etc.
In short, they differ as much from the Annamese as the Thai,
and in all probability belong for the most part to the Indo-
nesian race. Hunters or primitive husbandmen (the crop is
gathered by picking with the hand the rice from the stalk; the
cooking of the rice is effected in bamboos, which roast on the
fire, etc.), they go almost naked and use only primitive arms,
spears, poisoned arrows, etc. They are of fairly peaceful
habits.
b. The Kiiis. —This
name distinguishes two ethnic groups
of Indo-China one in the south-east of Siam and the north-
:
'^
Aymonier, "Voyage dans le Laos," Ann. Mtis. Guimet. (Bibl,
d'Etude, vol. v.), vol. i., p. 38, Paris, 1895; Harmand, loc. cil.
^
^
Mrs. Mason, Civilising Moun!ain Men, etc., London, 1862, and
other works of this author. Smeaton, The Loyal Karen, etc., London,
1886.
^ There exists among them a strange custom : the men experience great
pleasure in putting into their mouths and then spitting out the juice from
the narghiles smoked by the wives. The offer of tobacco juice is one of
the first duties of hospitality.
396 THE RACES OF MAN.
Lushai dwell the Tippera and the Mrows, tribes of short stature
(im. 5g), still more pronouncedly intermingled with the
Burmese.^
g. The ^/kw^j- are also regarded as Indonesians; numbering
but a thousand in all, they live in their canoes in the Mergui
'
J. Butler, "Angami Nagas,''yOT/r. As. Soc. Bengal, vol. xliv., p. 216,
Calcvitta, 1S75; Woodtliorpe, "Notes . . . Naga Hills," [our. Anihro.
Inst., vols. ix. (1S82) and xix. (i8go); Reid, Chin-Lushai Land, Calcutta,
1893; Peal, " Naga,"yu««-. Anthr. Inst., vol. iii., 1874, p. 476; Natttre,
20th May iZ<)T, Jour. As. Soc. Bengal, vol. Ixv. ,
part 3, p. 17, Calcutta,
1897; and " Ein Ausflug, etc.," Zeit. f. Ethn., 1898, p. 281 (trans, by
Klemm, with notes and bibliog.); Miss Godden, "Naga, etc.," Jour.
Anthr. Inst., vols. xxvi. and xy.'fa. {1896-97).
RACES AND PEOPLES OF ASIA. 397
their skin, their stature, higher than that of the Sakai, but still
'
J.
Anderson, The Sehmgs, Lond., 1890; Lapicque, Bull. Soc. Anthr.,
1894, p. 221, and "A la rech. des Negritos," Le 7'otirdn Monde, 1S95, 2nd
half-year, and 1896, ist half-year; MaM, Journ. Anlhr. Insl., vol. xiv.,
1886, p. 428; Roepstorff, Zeitschr.f. Ethnol., 1882, p. 51.
' Man, "Aborig. Andam. Isl.," four. Antlir. Inst vol. , xi., 1882; De
Quatrefages, Zes Pygmies, Paris, 1887; Lapicqne, loc. cil., and "La
race Negrito," Ann. de Ceogr., No. 22, Paris, 1896.
398 THE RACES OF MAN.
2. Let us pass on to the mixed populations of Indo-China,
springing from the probable cross-breeds of the autochthones
and the invaders.
The Cambodians or Khmers have the first place by seniority.
At the present day they inhabit Cambodia, the adjoining parts
of Siam, and the south of Cochin-China, but they formerly ex-
tended much farther. Two centuries ago, before the arrival
of the Annamese, they occupied the whole of Cochin-China,
cephalic (ceph. ind. on the Hv. sub. 83.6); their eyes are rarely
obliqiie, theirhair is often wavy, etc. This population has
preserved much of its primitive savagery in spite of the influence
of several successive civilisations, of which remain the splendid
monuments of Angkor-Vat, Angkor-Tom, etc.i
The population which chronologically succeeds the Cam-
bodians is that of the Annamese (Fig. 121), the inhabitants of the
delta in Tong King, of the coast in Annam, and most of Cochin-
China. Some Annamese colonies are also found in Cambodia,
in Laos, and among the Mois. The Annamese people, fifteen
to seventeen millions strong at the present time, is the outcome
of numerous interminghngs. Of western origin, according to
itstraditions, that is to say akin to the Thai peoples, it came
atan early period into the country which it now occupies. It
found already installed there the Mois, the Khmers, and the
Malays, which it succeeded in assimilating or pushing back into
the mountains and the unhealthy regions ; but it has had to
support in its turn the continual immigrations of the Chinese
who brought their civilisation to it. In spite of these complex
interminglings the Annamese type is very uniform (Harmand).
The men are short in stature (im. 58), with slender limbs,
brachycephalic head (ceph. ind. 82.8), of angular visage with
prominent cheek-bones, and Mongoloid eyes.
The Annamese of Tong King are a (im. 59) and
little taller
intermixture with the Thos mountaineers (p. 401) who live near
Les Ruins d' Angkor, etc., Paris, 1890; Morel, Mem. Soc. Anthr., vol. iv.
Paris, 1893.
2 Deniker and Laloy, "Races exot.," V Anthropologie, 1890, p. 523.
400 THE RACES OF MAN.
people. Very docile, the Annamese are intelligent, cheerful,
and well gifted, without being exempt from certain defects
of character, common to all Asiatics of the far East, such as
dissimulation, hypocrisy, and perfidy.
The Burmese or Mramma made a descent on Indo-China
perhaps at the same time as the Annamese, from their original
country, which supposed to be the mountains of the south-
is
1888 C. Baber, loc. cit. Hosie, Tliree Years' Jour, in Western China,
; ;
London, 1890; Labarth, " Les Muongs," Bu'l. Soc. Ghgr. hist, el descr.,
Paris, 1886, p. 127; H. Hollet, loc. cit.; Aymonier, loc. cit., ch. vii ;
Billet, " Deux ans dans le Haut Tonkin," Bull. Scient. de la France
et de la Belgiqne, vol. xxviii. Paris, 1S9698; Deblenne, Mission
,
The latter, as well as the Shans, differ somewhat from the Thos
in regard to type, inwhich we may discern interminglings with
the Indonesians, Malays, Mois, and Burmese. Among the
Shans we must distinguish the Khamti (Fig. 122), a very pure
race, and the Sing-po with the Kackyen or Katchin, somewhat
26
^
subsequently.
2 The ingenious deductions of Risley (he. cil., Ethnogr. Glossary, vol. i..
too absolute in his statements, and does not take any account of the
seriation of anthropometric measurements.
RACES AND PEOPLES OF ASIA. 405
s
g
o
s
au
a.
3
o
o
fA "^^ miM'^
;
(
Coll. India Museum, London. )
one, with broad flat nose, rounded face, found in the moun-
loc. cit., Deschamps, Au pays des VedJas, Paris, 1892, with pi.
^ Jellinghaus, " Sagen, Sitten der Miinda-Kolhs," Z«V. y; Ethn
. . .
vol. iii., 1872, p. 328; Dalton, loc. cit., p. 150; Risley, /o,:. cit., Ethnogr.
Glossary ; Crooke, loc. cit.
RACES AND PEOPLES OF ASIA. 409
zygomatic arches projecting outwards, and flat face, as well
as by certain ethnic characters; they go nearly naked, live on
the products of the chase and the fruits and roots gathered;
they also practise a little primitive cultivation by burning the
forests, etc. The Kharia of Lohardaga (Chota Nagpur), who
resemble the Juang in type, language, and tattooings (three lines
above the nose, etc.), are partly civilised; some cultivate the
ground with a plough, have a rudimentary social constitution,
etc. The other Kols are, for the most part, still further
advanced. Such are the Santah or Sonthah (Fig. 128) of
Western Bengal, of Northern Orissa, and of Bhagalpur, who
call themselves "Hor"; the Munda or Horo-hu of Chota
and very dolichocephalic (ceph. ind. on the liv. sub. 74.5 and 75), the
Santals are below the average height (im. 61) and a little less dolichocephalic
(76. l). The Ho, among whom we may assume a greater infusion of Indo-
Afghan blood, are of somewhat high stature (im. 68). The number of
these four tribes, united under the name of Santals in the census of 1891,
amounted to a million and a half.
'^
BaW, Jungle Life in India, p. 267; Fawcet, " The Saoras of Madras,''
Journ. Ant. Soc. Bombay, vol. i., 1888, p. 206; E. Dalton, loc. cit., p. 149.
;;
! They must not be confused with the Ma'-Paharia, who dwell farther
to the south in the same district of Santhal Parganos (Bengal), and whose
affinities are still obscure ; from the somatic point of view there is, how-
and none of them has the right to marry again without the consent of her
brother-in-law. There is no term in the Chin and Yeshkhun languages to
denote nephews and nieces— they are called " sons or daughters ; aunts
"
1 De Ujfalvy, " Les Koulou," ^(^//. Soc. Anthr., 1882, p. 217; Forsyth,
Yarkand Mission, Calcutta, 1875; S. Mateer, Native L'fe in Travancore,
London, 1883; EHe Reclus, loc. cit p.,143 (Nairs); E. Schmidt,
"Die Nairs," Globus, vol. Ixviii. (1895), No. 22; Waddell, loc. cit. (Am.
Himal.], chap. ix.
RACES AND PEOPLES OE ASIA. 417
traits incommon with the Indo-Afghans and the Assyroids,
but their type has been affected by the neighbourhood of a
^ Sarasin, loc. cit., gives bibliog. ; Deschamps, Ceylan, loc. cit. For
the measurements of these peoples, see the Appendices I. and II.
RACES AND PEOPLES OF ASIA. 419
Asia Minor in ancient times. The famous sculptured head of Tello (in
the Louvre) has a, false Turkish air, owing to the head-dress and the
broken nose; three other statuettes from the same locality, preserved at
Paris, have a fine and prominent nose and meeting eyebrows: Assyroid
characters (see De Clercq, Album des Antiq. de la Chaldh, Paris, 18S9-91;
Maspero, Hist, des peupl. Orient. Class., vol, i., p. 613, Paris, 1895; and
E. de Sarzec, Decouvertes en Chaldie, published byHeuzey, Paris, 1885-97).
' D. Menant, " Les Parsis," Ann. Mus. Gtiin., Bibl. Et., vol. vii.,
Paris.
^ E. Oliver, Across the Border, Pathan and Biloch, London, 1890.
" For the measurements of the Iranians see Appendices I. to IIL (from
Danilof, Houssey, Ujfalvy, Bogdanof, Chantre, Troll, Risley).
RACES AND PEOPLES OF ASIA. 421
' Mockler, "Origin of Bahich," Proc. As. Soc, Bengal, 1893, p. 159,
422 THE RACES OF MAN.
physically resemble the Hajemis : sub-dolichocephalic head,
78.5 when it is not deformed (p. 176), height above the average
(im. 68), aquiline nose, etc. They occupy in a more or less
compact mass the border-lands between Persia and Asia Minor;
but they are found in isolated groups from the Turkmenian
steppes (to the north of Persia) to the centre of Asia Minor (to
the north-west of Lake Tiiz-g61). As to the Armenians or Hai,
they are found in a compact body only around Lake Van and
Mount Ararat, the rest being scattered over all the towns of the
south-west of Asia, the Caucasus, the south of Russia, and even
Galicia and Transylvania. It is a very mixed and hetero-
' Chantre, Rech. Anthr. As. Occid. Transcaucasie, Asie Alin. et Syrie,
Lyons, 1895 (with pi. and fig.); and " Les Kurdes," j5;i//. Soc. Anthr.
Lyons, 1897. The Liirs of Western Persia living south of the Kurds are
akin to the latter they may be divided into Luri-Kuchucks (250,000) or
;
part of Fars. Their best known tribes are those of the Bakhtyari and
Maaviaseni. The Lurs are above the average height (im. 68), and sub-
brachycephalic (ceph. ind. 84.5), according to Houssay, Duhousset, and
Gautier. Cf. Houssay, "Les Peuples de la Vexse," Bull. Soc. Anthr,
Lyons, 1887, p. loi ; and Pantiukhof, loc. cit.
RACES AND PEOPLES OF ASIA. 423
1 The Arab tongue of the present day includes three dialects Western, :
1 It is known, in fact, that the isolation of the Jews from the rest of the
population is not always absolutely complete. There have been peoples of
other races converted to Judaism the Khasars in the seventh century, the
;
(1885-86), p. 24; and Jacobs and Spielmann, ibid., vol. xix. (1889-90).
2 The Aissors or Chaldeans who migrated to the
Caucasus are probably
allied to these "Jews of the mountains"; they are also very brachycephalic
(ceph. ind. 88) and of rather high stature (im. 67) (Erckert, Chantre).
1
' See the art. " Juifs" in the Diet. Giog. Univers. of Vivien de Saint-
Martin and Rousselet, vol. ii., Paris, 1884 (with bibliog.); Andree,
Zur Volkerktinde der Juden, Bielefeld, 1881, with map; and publications
of the Soc. des Etudes Jtiives, Paris. The measurements given in the
Appendices are after Ikof, Chantre, Jacobs and Spielmann, Gluck,
Kopenicki, Weissenberg, Weisbach, etc.
2 See my art. " Tsiganes," in the Diet. Giog. Univ., quoted above,
vol. vi., 1893; Paspati, Etude sur les TchinghianS, Constantinople, 1870;
A. Colocci, Gli Zingari, Turin, 1889, with map H. von Wlislocki,
;
CHAPTER XL
RACES AND PEOPLES OF AFRICA.
—
Ancient Inhabitants of Africa Succession of races on the " dark
continent" Present Inhabitants of Africa — i. Arabo-Berher or
Semiio-Hamite Group : Populations of Mediterranean Africa and
—
Egypt II. Ethiopian or Kushilo-Hami/e Croup: Bejas, Gallas,
Abyssinians, etc. — III. Fula/t- Zandeh Group: The Zandeh, Masai,
Niam-Niara populations of the Ubangi-Shari, etc., Fulbe or Fulahs
IV. Nigritian Group: Nilotic Negroes or Negroes of eastern
— —
Sudan Negroes of central Sudan Negroes of western Sudan and
—
the Senegal Negroes of the coast or Guinean Negroes, Kru,
Agni, Tshi, Vei, Yoruba, etc. — v. Negrillo Group: Differences of
—
the Pygmies and the Bushmen vi. Bantu Group : Western Bantus
of French, German, Portuguese, and Belgian equatorial Africa
Eastern Bantus of German, English, and Portuguese equatorial Africa
— —
Southern Bantus: Zulus, etc. vii. Hottentot-Bushman Group:
—
The Namans and the Sans VIII. Populations of Madagascar : Hovas,
Malagasi, Sakalavas.
The term " Black Continent " is often applied to Africa, but it
'
Fl. Petrie and Quibell, Nagada and Ballas, London, 1896 De ;
Annales Mus. du Congo, 3rd series (Anthr.), vol. i., part 1, Brussels, 1899
(with plates).
3 R. Collignon, " Les ages de la pierre en Tunisie," Mater. Hist. Nat.
Homme, 3rd series, vol. iv., Toulouse, 1887; Couillault, "Station
prehist. Gafsa," L'Anthropologie, vol. v., 1894, p. 530; Zaborowski,
"Period neolith. Afr. du nord," Rev. Ec. Anthr., Paris, 1899, p. 41.
428 THE RACES OF MAN.
infer from them the existence of one and the same primitive
industry over the whole continent.^ Numerous facts on the
contrary, particularly the absence of stone implements among
the^ most primitive of the existing tribes of Africa (with the
exception of the perforated round stone with which the
digging-stick is weighted, as well as the stone pestles met
with among some Negro tribes), and the rarity of super-
stitions associated with stone implements, lead us to suppose
that the stone age only existed on the dark continent in a
sporadic state and in virtue of local and isolated civilisations.
Further, the absence of bronze implements, outside of Egypt,
leads us to suppose that the majority of the peoples of Africa,
with the exception of the inhabitants of Egypt and the
Mediterranean coast, passed from the age of bone and wood
to that of iron almost without transition.
Several palseethnologists go so far as to think that the iron
industry was imported into Europe from Africa. At all events
skilful smiths (Fig. 135) are found in the centre of Africa
among Negro tribes somewhat backward in other respects.
Historic data are lacking in regard to most of the peoples
of Africa, especially for remote periods, except in Egypt. How-
ever, combining the various historic facts known to us with
the recent data of philology and those, still more recent, of
anthropology, we may assume with sufficient probability the
following superposition of races and peoples in Africa.
The primitive substratum of the population is formed of
Negroes, very tall and very black, in the north; of Negrilloes,
brown-skinned dwarfs, in the centre; of Bushmen, short,
yellow, and steatopygous, in the south. On this substratum
was deposited at a distant but indefinite period the so-called
Hamitic element of European or Asiatic origin, the supposed
continuators of the Cro-Magnon race.^ This element has
been preserved in a comparatively pure state among the
1 See for details, R. Andree, " Steinzeit Afrikas," Globus, vol. xli.
Morgan, and others suppose that Pelrie's "new race" of the neolithic
period which preceded Egyptian civilisation in the Nile valley is related to
the Libyans coming from the north-west of Africa, and perhaps from
Europe, Schweinfarth (Zeitsk.f. EthnoL, 1897; VerhandL, p. 263) thinks
that these neolithic people were immigrants from Arabia (Semites?), who
had come into the Nile valley from the south, through Nubia. The recent
discovery of chipped flints in the country of the Sonialis, as well as con-
siderations of a botanic character, confirm this supposition, without
excluding, however, the possibility of the arrival of the Libyans of the
north-west in the palseolithic period, and the tribes of Syria and Mesopo-
tamia in historic times. (Evidence: the " Hyksos " of the Egyptian annals,
the presence of cuneiform tablets at Tel-el-Amarna, upper Egypt, to
which attention was drawn by Sayce, etc.)
1 Barthel, " Volkerbewegungen . . . Afrikan. Kontin.," Mitlheil.
Verein Erdkunde, Leipzig, 1893, with map.
430 THE RACES OF MAN.
<u S>
^ 1
Hindus on the east coast and the islands ofif it; a few hundred Chinese
introduced into the Congo State and the Mauritius and Reunion islands.
Among the Europeans, the Boers of Cape Colony, of the basin of the
Orange river, and the Transvaal, as well as the Portuguese of Angola and
Mozambique, are more or less intermingled with the natives. The English
of the Cape, and the French of Algeria-Tunis, and the "Creoles" of the
island of Reunion have kept themselves more free from intermixture.
Finally, let us note the Spanish of Algeria-Morocco and the Canary Isles,
the latter the hybrid descendants of the prehistoric Guanches, which are
perhaps connected with the European Cro-Magnon race. (See S. Berthe-
lot, " Les Guanches," Metn. Soc. Ethnol., Paris, vols. i. and ii., 1841-45;
the Arab and Berber races. Under the name of Berbers are
included populations varying very much in type and manners
and customs, speaking either Arabic (Semitic language) or
"
Berberese (Hamitic language). Three-fourths of the " Arabs
of Northern Africa are only Berbers speaking Arabic, and are
the more "Arabised" in regard to manners and customs as
they are nearer to Asia. The nomads of the Libyan desert
and Tripoli have preserved fairly well the Berber type,
but they have become Arabs in language and usages. In
Tunis and Algeria the Arab influence is still very much felt
Anthr. Paris, 1881; Villot, Mmirs, coutumes des indig. del' Algeria,
. . .
Algiers, 1888; Ch. Amat, "Les Beni-Mzab," A'ez;. Anthr., 1884, p. 644.
RACES AND PEOPLES OF AFRICA. 433
the black veil which covers the head leaving only the eyes
free, the stone rings on the arms forming also a very national
ornament. They employ certain characters in writing peculiar
to themselves. In the Maghrebi, who roam over the plateaus
situated to the west of the Nile, the Arab strain is very
' Duveyrier, Le; Touareg du Nord , Paris, 1864; Schirmer, loc. cit.
* Rohlfs, Quer dttrch Africa, vol. i., Leipzig, 1888.
RACES AND PEOPLES OF AFRICA. 435
wrongly, for this leads to a triple confusion, " Nuba" being still the name
of a Negro tribe (see p. 444). It would be more correct to employ this
Sergi, loc. cit., p. 178; Santelli, Bull. Soc. Anthr. Paris, 1893, p. 479.
;
Dar Banda and the upper basin of the Shari ; a good part of
the basin of the Niger-Benue and the whole of the basin of
the Senegal. This territorial zone may be divided from the
ethnographical point of view into two distinct portions by the
line of the watershed between the basins of the Nile and
Congo on the one hand and the basins of the Chad, Niger,
and Senegal on the other. To the east of this line dwell,
in compact groups, the Zandeh or Niam-Niam, Masai, and
other populations who have sprung from the intermingling of
the Ethiopians with the Negroes of the eastern Sudan (Nilotic
Negroes), and in some rarer cases with the Negrilloes and
Bantus. To the west, on the contrary, we find, scattered
over an immense tract, isolated groups of one population only,
that of the Fulahs or Peuh, sprung from the crossings of
' See Appendices I. to III. for the measurements given from the works
already quoted of Deniker, Paulitschke, Santelli, Serpi, and Virchow.
44<i tHE kACES OF MA^f.
'
J. Thomson, Through Masai Land, 2nd ed., London, 1887; Sluhl-
mann, MU Emin
Pascha ins Herz von Afrika, Berlin, 1894; F. von
Luschan, Beitr. zur Volkerk. d. Deutsch. Schutzgebiet, Berlin, 1897, with
meas. and phot.
= W. Junker, Reisen in Afrika, Vienna and Olmiitz, 1S89-91 ; and
Ergdnzungsh. Peter. Mit., Nos. 92 and 93, Gotha, 1888-89.
1
Africans, Leipzig, 1875; Junker, he. cit.; P. Comte, Les N' Sakkaras,
Bar-le-Duc, 1S95.
2 See Schweinfurth, loc. cit. {Artes Africance], and The Heart of Africa,
Fig. 139. —Yoro Combo, fairly pure Fulah of Kayor (Futa-Jallon); height,
im. 72; ceph. ind., 68.3; nas. ind., 81.2. {Phot. Collignon.)
are the Fulbes or Fulahs ^ speaking the Fulah tongue, their true
"
name being Pul-be' (in the singular FuZ-o, which means "red
1 Stature, im. 75; ceph. ind., 74.3; nas. ind., 95.3 (Collignon and
Deniker on 32 subjects).
i
Ghazal and the Nile; on the south, the coast of the Gulf of
Guinea to the Cameroons, then the mountain ranges of
Adamawa and the seventh degree of latitude N., to the
countries occupied by the peoples of the Fulah-Zandeh group,
and farther to the east to the basin of the upper Nile. The
latter constitutes the eastern limit, while to the west this limit
is clearly indicated by the Atlantic Ocean.
Among the Nigritians we also class the Tibus or Tedas of the
country of Tibesti, which extends in the midst of the Sahara
between the encampments of the Tuareg on the west and the
Libyan desert on the east. But it is a population already
much mixed with Berber and Arab elements.^
The Nigritian group maybe divided into four great sections:
(7, Sudan (Anglo-Egyptian) or
the Nigritians of the Eastern
Nilotic Negroes; b, those of the Central Sudan (French), that
is to say the Hausa-Wadai group, with the Tibu already
mentioned; c, the Nigritians of the Western Sudan (French)
and the Senegal; lastly, d, the Nigritians of the coast or Negroes
of Guinea.
a. The Nigritians of the Eastern Sudan or Nilotic Negroes
^ It follows from what has been said previously that in many places the
northern portion of the Negro territory is invaded by the Ethiopians, the
Fulah-Zandeh, and the Arabo-Berbers.
^ Nachtigal, Sahara el Soudan, vol. i. (trans, into French), p. 245,
Paris, 1 88 1.
RACES AND PEOPLES OF AFRICA. 445
with the Arabs, have exchanged their language for the Semitic
mode of speech. The Negroes of Darfur (the Furs or Furava
and the Dajo), of high stature, and very black (Nachtigal),
are much purer; they speak a Nilotic-Negro dialect. In the
west of the country they are mixed with the Fulahs, and
Arab tribes surround them on all sides. The predominant race
is descended from pure Arabs established first in Tunis, who
' The Diumma or Diammo, to the north-east of the bend of the Black
Volta, are probably a branch of the Gurunga ; only having for long been
subject to the Ashantis they have adopted their language, which is the only
one they use in addressing strangers. (Binger, Du Niger au golfe de
Guinie, Paris, 1892.)
Beranger-Feraud, loc. cit., ch. v., a.xid Rev. Anthr., 1874, p. 444;
Binger, loc. cit.
448- THE RACES OF MAN.
nke signifying "people" in the Mandd language) form a compact
group whose domain extends from the Senegal and
linguistic
Upper Niger to that portion of the West African coast comprised
between Saint Louis and Monrovia. The domain of the
Mandd language extends much farther to the east than the
territory of the Manddnke peoples properly so called it en- ;
5 Binger, loc. cit.; Tautin, "Les Castes des Mandingues," Rev. Ethnogr.,
' For details in regard to the Wolofs, the Toucouleur, etc., see Beranger-
Feraud, loc. cit., and Rev. Anlhr., 1875; Tautin, "Etudes
chap, i., . . .
ethnol. peuples Senegal," liev. Etitnogr., 1885 Deniker and Laloy, loc. ;
cil., p. 259; Collignon and Deniker, unpublished notes Verneau, " Serer, ;
Negroes imported from the Slave Coast, while those from the Gold Coast
RACES AND PEOPLES OF AFRICA. 453
presently speak.i
The Protectorate of the Niger coast and the delta of this
river are occupied by populations related to the Yorubas, but
much intermixed. The Benin, in the interior, whose kingdom,
where human sacrifices were much in vogue, has lately been
destroyed by the English then on the coast the active-trading
;
loc. cit., p. 28S Emin Bey (afterwards Pasha), " Sur les Akka, etc.," Zeit.
;
these last two are probably the same tribes as those spoken of
by the old explorers, D'Abadie and L. des Avranches, under
the name of Areya and Maltha.
According to Stuhlmann, the populations of the upper basin
of the Ituri are a blend of Pigmies with Bantus (the Vambuba,
the Vallessi), or with Nilotes (the Momfu).
Several authors confound in one group of Pigmies the
Negrilloes and the Bushmen. Nothing, however, justifies their
^ Schinz, loc. cit.; Emin, he. cit.\ Wissmann, Wolff, Von Fia.n9ois, and
Miiller, /;« Innern. Afrik., Leipzig, 1888, Appendix IV., and Zeil. f.
Etkit., 1884, Verh , p. 725.
)
^ Dybowski, he. cit.; Maistre, he. cit.; Clozel, Totir dii Monde, 1896,
vol. ii. ; Guiial, Le Congo Franfais, Paris, 1889; Deniker and Laloy, he.
cil., p. 274; Biicliner, Kainerun, Leipzig, 1887; Morgen, Durch Kamerun,
Leipzig, 1893;Nord-Kaniernn, Berlin, 1S95, and " Congo-
Zinlgraff,
Volk.," Z.f. Elhn., 1886, Verb., p. 27, and 1S89, p. 90; F. von Luschan,
he. cil. (Beilr., etc.); V. Jacques, " Le Congolais de I'expos. d'Anvers,"
Bull. Soe. Anthr., p. 2S4, Brussels, 1894; J. Wauters, L'Etat Indep. du
Congo, Brussels, 1899; Mcns^, " Volk. Mittl. Kongo," Z. f. Ethn., 1897,
Verb., p. 624.
2 The Oshyeba are a section of the Fan people; they may be divided
into Makima (in the Upper Ogowe) and into Mazuna (of the Gabun).
They are a people of famous warriors, composed of 200,000 individuals,
which number is increasing with extraordinary rapidity.
RACES AND PEOPLES OF AFRICA. 459
about the eighteenth century, and their migration towards the south,
stayed for the time being by the Batekes, has gone on to the present day.
^ Pogge, Im Reiche d. Mtiata Jamwo, Berlin, 1880, and Mittheil.
Afrik. Cesell., vol. iv., 1883-85, p. 179; Wolff, Verh. Cesell. Erdkunde,
Berlin, 1887, No. 2; A. J. Wauters, UElat independant du Congo,
Brussels, 1899, p. 257 et seq. ; Serpa Pinto, How I Crossed Africa, 2
vols., London, 1S81, with figs. Wissmann, Wolff, Von Francois, and
;
entirely characteristic.
Most of the western Bantu of French Congo and Congo
Free State wear ornaments in the lips, file or pull out the
incisor teeth, tattoo, and build small square dwellings.^
b. The group of Eastern Bantus includes numerous
tribes often having an intermixture of Ethiopian blood,
and ranging from the region of the sources of the Nile
to 15° S. latitude, between the east coast of Africa and the
Fig. 142. — Swazi-Banlu woniLin ami girl. (Co!/. Aiilhr. Ins/, deal
JU'ila/n. )
the Malagasies of the east coast, and" the Sakalavas of the rest
of the island. There is further to be noted the Arab infusion,
especiallyon the north-east and south-east coast.
The Hovas, or better, Huves, who occupy the high table-
land of Imerina (from which comes their true name, "Anta-
1 For particulars see Sibree, Great Afric. Island ifadai^ascar, . . .
Madagascar, Paris, 1895, in quarto; Grandidier, " Les Hovas,'' Kev. gUi.
des Sciences, No. for 1st June, 1895 A. Jolly, ; V
Anthropologic, 1894, p.
385; Besson, ibid., p. 674; '' Le Madagascar," Rev. gen. des Sciences,
Paris, No. for iSth Aug., 1895, fig.; Last, Joiirn. Anthr. Ins/., 1896, p.
47; Bouchereau, V
Anthr., 1897, p. 149; J. Carol, Chez les Hovas, Paris,
1898.
470 THE RACES OF MAN.
Imerina"!) are Indonesians more or less intermixed with
Malay stock ; their skin olive-yellow, their hair straight or
is
etc.), but are adopting more and more the mode of life of the
last lives inland, to the south of Betsilco, side by side with the
Antaisara, said to be true savages, but among whom are never-
theless observed signs of Arab blood (Scott Eliott). The
Antanosi are grouped round Fort Dauphin, but some of this
tribe has emigrated to the interior, extending as far as the
neighbourhood of the west coast, where it has assimilated the
customs of the Bara people. As a race the Antanosi are less
negroid than the other Malagasies, and recall rather the
Fig. 144. — Iloia uf Tanaiiaiivo ; 21 years old; licight, im. 62; ccph.
ind., 70 3. [Pho.'. ColIi,^-non.)
Ind., Batavia, 5th series, vol. ii., p. 586; Wilken, loc. cit., p. 83; Ethe-
ridge, " Has Man a Geological History in Australia?" Proc. Linn. Soc.
N. S. Wales, 1890, p. 259; B. Smyth, loc. cit., vol. i., p. 239, and vol. ii.,
p. 234; R. Chapmann, 7'rans. N. Zeal. Inst., 1891, p. 479.
' See W. Thomson Smith, loc. cit.; Tautain, "Monuments des Mar-
quises," L'Anlhropol., 1897, p. 4 ; F. Christian, "On Micronesian
Weapons,"y«<rK. Anthr.Inst., N.S., 1899, vol. i., p. 288, pi. xx. and xxiv.
'^
Besides, the Maoris of Nevf Zealand know nothing of pottery, notwith-
standing their clay deposits, nor of weaving, notwithstanding the presence
in their island of Formium and other textile plants.
476 THE RACES OF MAN.
Gabelentz), are perhaps the most characteristic traits of
Oceanic ethnography.
I. x^usTRALiA. — The form a distinct ethnic
Austrahans
group, even a race apart from the rest of mankind. Notwith-
standing some local differences, they exhibit great unity, not
only from the somatic point of view, but also from the point of
view of manners, customs, and speech. Up to a certain point
Fig. 145. —
Ambit, Sundanese of Java (Preanger prov. ),
30 years old; height, im. 67; ceph. ind., S5 7;
nas. ind., SS.6. [Phot. Pr. Rohvid Bonaparte.)
this unity may be explained by the fact that the nature and
surface of the soil, as well as the climate, the fauna and
flora, vary to a relatively slight degree throughout the whole
extent of the continent.'
'
The division, based on physical characleis, of tribes of the interior,
composeil of a strong people of high stature and regidar featiucs, and of
tribes of the coast, formed of a little, ugly, and puny people, a division
proposed by Topinard (Bull. Soi. Aiitliro., 1S72), has not been confirmed
by later investigations.
—
' " Report Horn Scientif. Exped. Centr. Austr.," Part IV., Anlhro-
. . .
London, 1897. For tribes of the east and south, see E. Curr, The
Australian Race, Melbourne, 1886, 3 vols, with atlas; Lumholtz, Among
Cannibals, London, 1890; and the works already quoted of Hewitt, Fison,
and B. Smyth. The measurements given in the Appendices are obtained
from the works of Stirling and Gillen, Houze [Bull. Soc. Anihr. Bruxelles,
vol. iii., 1884-85); Cauvin, " Les Races de rOceanie,"^rc/;. Miss. Scienl.,
3rd series, vol. iii., Paris, 1882; Topinard, loc. cit.\ Turner, loc. cit., etc.
'^
These natives and mixed breeds are apportioned by colonies, thus:
Victoria, 565; New South Wales, 8,280; South Australia, 23,789; West
Australia, 6,245; Queensland, 20,585 (of which 12,000 are pure aborigines).
478 THE RACES OF MAN.
prominent superciliary arches, nose flat and often convex,
sunken at tlie root, where it is very thin, but much enlarged on
the level of the nostrils, thick and sometimes protruding lips,
etc. The cranial capacity is rather low (see p. 99). The
pilous system is well developed over the whole body (Figs. 14,
15, 149, 150). Some of these characters, the dolichocephaly
and crooked nose, are common both to the Austrahans and the
Melanesians of the archipelagoes extending north-east of the
continent; while other traits (wavy or frizzy hair, etc.) differen-
tiate these two races, and connect the Australians with the
Roth).
The Australians are typical hunters (for their weapons, see
pp. 259 and ^67, and I'igs. 75 and 78). They know notliing
of cattle-raising; their only domestic animal, the dingo, is half
wild. Fruit gathering and the digging up of roots of wild
plants arc the principal occupations of the women. Into.xi-
are unknown; the custom of chewing " pituri " leaves {Diihoisia)
as a narcotic is fairly widespread.
Most of the tribes live under such shelters as nature affords,
or in huts made of leafy branches, hemispherical or semi-ovoid
in shape, and very low (p. 161); even these they do not take the
trouble to put up if they have other means of protecting them-
selves from cold, such as the woollen blankets distributed by
the Colonial Governments.
{Phot. Lapuque. )
these people.
In most ethnographical works, the extinct Tasmanian
people are described side by side with the Australian. The only
reason of this lies in the proximity of their habitat, for really
the Tasmanians recall rather the Melanesians, both in somatic
traits and in mode of life. The language of the Tasmanians,
which is agglutinative with prefixes and sufifixes, presents no
analogy either with Australian or Melanesian tongues. The
Tasmanians appear to have been of stature below the average
(im. 66); head, sub-dolichocephalic (ceph. ind., 76 to 77);
broad and prognathous face; flattened and very broad nose;
frizzy hair (which last constituted their chief difference from
the Australians).^
II. Asiatic Archipelago or Malaysia.— The population
of this part of Oceania may be separated into four great ethnic
groups Malays, Indonesians, Negritoes, and Papuans.
:
The
first two form the basis of most of the ethnic groups of the
" In his work. The Aborigines of Tasmania, 2nd ed., London, 1899,
with figs.. Ling Roth has conscientiously summarised all that has been
The Papuans (see p. 493) are still less numerous than the
Negritoes in the Asiatic Archipelago. They are to be found,
more or less pure, only in the Aru, Salawatti, and Waigiu
Islands, etc. All these islands form part of the Archipelago only
from the political point of view ; they belong by their climate,
their flora and fauna, to the New Guinea and Australian
Nos. 13-14, 1877). See on this point, Kohlbrugge, " L'Anthr. des
Tenggerois," V An:hropologie, p. 4, 1898.
^ See Montano, "Mission aux PhiHppines,'' Arch. Miss. Scient., 3rd
series, vol. xi., with iigs., Paris, 1885; De Quatrefages, /iJf. cit. [Les
(
Tour du Monde).
486 THE RACES OF MAN.
the Archipelago : the Indonesians and Malays, who differ from
each other much less than till recently was supposed.
It has been said and frequently repeated, though without
precise documents to warrant the assertion, that the Indonesians
resemble the Polynesians, and the Malays the Mongols, but
recent anthropological research has proved that this is not the
case.'' The Indonesians, which is the collective name under
which, since Junghuhn, Logan, and Hamy,^ have been com-
prised the little intermixed inland populations of the large
islands (Dyaks of Bornea, Battas of Sumatra, various "Alfurus"
of Celebes and certain Moluccas, etc.), have none of the special
characters of Polynesians. They are of very short stature
(im. 57 on the average), mesocephalic or dolichocephalic
(av. ceph. ind., 78.5 on the liv. sub.), while the Polynesians
are very tall (ira. 72 on the average) and brachycephalic and ;
if the yellow colour of the skin and the nature of the hair
(straight or slightly curled) are almost the same in the two
races, the form of the nose, of the lips, of the face, as well as
various other traits, present notable differences.
On the other hand, the Indonesians singularly resemble the
Malays. Speaking generally, the Malays are somewhat taller
(av. height, im. 61) and brachycephalic (av. ceph. ind., 85
on the liv. sub.), but there is a great variety of type in this
group, which is much more mixed than the Indonesian. It is
even possible that the Malays (that is to say, the Malays
properly so called and of Menangkabau in
of Malacca
Sumatra, as well as Sundanese, and the
the Javanese,
riverine "Malays" of the other islands) are a mixed nation,
sprung from the intermixture of Indonesians with various
Burmese, Negrito, Hindu, Chinese, Papuan and other elements.
1894; Danielli, " Cranii di Engano," Archiv. p. Tanthr., vol. xxiv. See
also the works already quoted of Montano, Hagen (as well as his
Anlhropolog. Alias Ostasiat Volk., Wiesbaden, 1898), Ten Kate
. . .
Alfourous de Gilolo," Bull. Soc. Geogr. Paris, 6th ser., vol. xiii., p. 490.
RACES AND PEOPLES OF OCEANIA. 487
well as the Balinese of Bali, are like the Javanese. In the less
accessible mountains of the province of Bantam (west of the
island) live the Baduj, and in those of the east (province of
Pasuruan) the Tenggerese. These are two fairly pure Indo-
nesian tribes, who have preserved their heathen customs in
the midst of the Mussulman population of Java. There are
people like them in Bali, Lombok, and Sumbawa.^
In Borneo, the coast is occupied by Malays, except the
north-east part, where are found Suluans (Arabised Indonesians
from the Sulu Islands), Bugis, and the Bajaus or Sea Gypsies,
analogous to those of Riu and Mergui (p. 396).
The interior of the large island is, however, the exclusive
domain of the Dyaks, the numerous tribes of which may be
divided into two great groups, the one of stationary, the other
of nomadic habits. The sedentary tribes, more or less inter-
mixed with immigrant elements, Chinese, Malay, and Bugi,
are more or less civilised. First come the Kayans, the Bahau,
and the Segai; then the Tagans, among whom, it is said, the
practice obtains of girls being deflowered by their fathers; and,
lastly, the Dusuns or Sun Dyaks, the Baludupis, the Land
_
^ For the populations of Celebes, Timur, Floris, etc. , see Max Weber,
jydsch. Aardrijksk. Genools., 2nd ser. vol. vii. Amsterdam, 1890, and
, ,
Inter. Arch. Ethnogr., suppl. to vol. iii., Leyden, 1890, pi.; Brothers
Sarasin, Verh. Ges. Erdk. Berlin, 1894, 1895, and 1896; Ten Kate,
"Reis in de Timor groep," TijJ. Aardr. GenooL, 2nd ser., vol. xi.,
p. 199, Amsterdam, 1894, and VAnthiopologie, 1893, p. 279; Lapicque,
loc. cit,
^ See my summary of what was known of the Papuans in 1882 in the
/iev. cCAnlhr., 1883, p. 484, and the following works which have since
appeared Chalmers, Pioneering in New Guinea, London, 1887, and
:
brachycephalic, or seven per cent. More than half of these skulls come
from one and the same Kiwai and Canoe Islands in the delta
locality, the
of the Fly. Either a Malay colony may therefore be assumed there, a
remnant of Negritoes, or that it was a centre of the custom of deforming the
head, a custom which in fact obtains in the neighbourhood of the mouth of
the Fly. On this question see my summary of 1882 cited above, and
Haddon, loc. cit.; Schellong, "Anthr. Papus,"
Zeit. f. E/hn., p. 156,
d.
Daudai to the west of the mouth of the Fly, the Kiwai in the
mouth of this river; the Orokolo and the Motu-Motu or
Toaripi in the Gulf of Papua; the Motu or Kere-
punu (Fig. 152) of Port Moresby ;i the Koitapu and the
Kupele more in the interior of the country, near the Owen
Stanley range ; the Loyalupu and the Aroma to the south of
quite remarkable (Fig. 152). The soil is turned up at the word of com-
mand by a row of men, each of whom thrusts into the earth two pointed
sticks, then using these sticks as levers a layer of earth is raised and a
furrow is thus made.
2 ?Iamy, " Papous de la mer d'Entrecasteaux," Rev. Elhnog., 18S9.
496 THE RACES OF MAN.
kAdES AND tEOPLfiS 0# OCfeANIA. 497
The Papuansare tillers of the soil, and especially cultivate
sago, maize, and tobacco; occasionally they are hunters and
fishers, and are then very adroit in laying snares and poisoning
waters their favourite weapons are the bow and arrow with
;
' Haddon, _/ourii. Antlir. Inst., vol. xix., p. 297; S. Ray and Haddon,
"Languages of Torres Straits," Proceed. K. Irish Acad., 3id ser.,
vol. iv., 1897; Rev. Hunt, yo«r«. Aiithr. . . . lint., N.S., vol. i., p. 5,
1898-99.
'^
R. Codrington, The Melanesians, Oxford, 1891, fig.; Finsch, loc. cit..
Rev. Ethnogr., 1883, p. 49, and Anth'op. Ergcb. einer lieise in der
Sndsee, Berlin, 1884, with fig.; Flower, " Cran. caract. Fiji Islanders,"
Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. x., 1881, p. 153; IJagen and Pineau, " Les
Nouvelles-Hebrides," Rev. Ethnogr., 1888, p. 302; Guppy, The Solomon
Islands and their Natives, London, 1887; Hagen, "Les Indigenes des
Salomon," VAnthropoL, 1893, pp. I and 192; Aug. Bernard, La Nouvslle
Caledonie (thesis), p. 249 et seq., Paris, 1894; Luschan, loc. cit.; Schel-
long, loc. cit.
32
498 THE RACES OF MAN.
Fig, 153. — Wuman of the Fualii clan (east coast of New Caledonia),
of pure Mclanesian race. (/Viol. E. Kobin.)
weapons are the club, bow, and spear, this last being used
only in war (except in New Caledonia, where the bow is little
employed).
The arrow and spear heads are most often of human bone,
barbed, and sometimes poisoned with juices of plants or
microbes from the ooze of ponds or lagunes.
The Melanesians build outrigger and twin canoes, but they
do not sail far from the coasts. Pottery in certain islands is
unknown; the dwellings are little houses on piles, except in
New Caledonia, where circular huts are met with. Communal
houses ("Gamal") exist everywhere. Tattooing, little practised,
is most often done by cicatrices. The habit of chewing betel is
general, except in New Caledonia; but kava is almost unknown.
Anthropophagy is now indulged in only on the Solomon
Islands and in some islands of New Britain and New Hebrides,
although the custom of preserving the skulls of the dead, and
of hanging them near the hut side by side with those derived
from head-hunting, is general. As in New Guinea, there exists
a mob of dialects and tongues in each of the Melanesian
Islands, and even in different parts of the same island.
Melanesian women are very chaste and virtuous, and that not-
withstanding the absence of the sense of modesty, at least in
New Britain, where they go completely naked, as also do the
men. The men, in certain islands, wear only antipudic
garments (see p. 170). Taboo in Melanesia assumes a less
clear form than in Polynesia, where it amounts to simple inter-
diction without the intervention of mysterious forces. As in
Australia there are no " tribes " among the Melanesians
(except perhaps in New Caledonia), but in each island there
exists two or more exogamou|j "classes" or clans (as in
Australia), and the regulations of group marriage (p. 231) are
observed as strictly in the Solomon Islands as in Viti-Levu
(the largest of the Fiji Islands). Secret societies (Duk-Duk, etc.,
Marquisiens," L
Anthropologie, 1^4, 1895, and 1898; Meinecke, Die
Inselen des stillen Oceans, 2 vols. , Leipzig, 1875; Markuse, Die Hawai-
schen /nselen, Bexlin, 1894; Lister, "Natives ofFakaofu (Bowditch Island),"
Journ. Anthr. Insl., vol. xxi., 1892, p. 43; Ch. Hedley, "The Atoll of
Fanafuti, EUice group," Australian Museum,, Memoir III., Sydney,
1897; H. Gros, " Les populations de la Polynesie franjaise en 1891,"
Bull. Soc. Anthr. Paris, 1896, p. 144 Ten Kate, loc. cit.
;
RACES AND PEOPLES OF OCEANIA. SOI
only 4,304 at the census of 1S94, while in 18S7 there were still
5,246; the principal cau?e of this diminution being tuberculosis
(Tautain). Tiie Moriori of Chatham Island (east of New
Zealand) are reduced to fifty in number; and the Maoris of
New Zealand, so celebrated for their tattooings, their legends.
504 THE RACES OF MAN.
Tongans
The Samoans (35,000), and their neighbours the
who have frequent relations with the Fijians, seem
(25,000),
to remain stationary in nmnber. The native population (t,6oo)
of the French
of Tahiti has not varied since the establishment
Cook Islands shelter Sooo
dominion. The Ilervey or
type from the Polynesians ; they are more hairy, are shorter,
RACES AND PEOPLES OF OCEANIA. SOS
tions were effected more easily across large islands fairly near
each other, like those of the Indian Ocean or the western
Pacific, even granted contrary winds and currents, than across
very small and very distant islands like those of the western
Pacific, even granted favourable currents. If it is a question
of involuntary migrations, the cyclones and tempests which
drive canoes afar amount to an inversion of normal winds,
and migrations of this kind are effected in all directions.* As
to voluntary migrations, they are also deliberately made in a
' Kubary, loc. cit., and/otirn. Mus. Godeffroy, parts 2 and 4, 1873.
^ De Quatrefages, Les Folynesiens el leurs migrations, Paris, 1 866, with
maps.
* A. Bernard, loc. cit., p. 272.
* Sittig, " Unfreiwillige Wanderungen . . .," Pelerm. Mittheil, p. 61,
1890.
S06 THE RACES OF MAN.
some chance breeze in setting off Legends afford little help
to determine these migrations in detail, and, apart from some
historic facts, it is difficult to state precisely the origin of the
populations of each of the Oceanian islands.
— — ^
CHAPTER XIII.
The four ethnic elements of the New World Origin of the Americans —
Ancient Inhabitants of America — Problem of pateolithic man
in the United States — Palasolithic man
in Mexico and South America
— Lagoa Sambaquis and Paraderos Problem of the
Santa race ; —
—
Mound-Builders and Cliff-Dwellers Ancient civilisation of Mexico
and Peru Present American Races American languages. —
—
Peoples of North America i. Eskimo ii. Indians of Canada and —
, —
United States: a. Arctic Athapascan group; ^. Antarctic Algonquian- —
Iroquois, Chata-Muskhogi, and Siouan groups c. Pacific North- ; —
west Indians, Oregon-California and Pueblo groups III. Indians —
of Mexico and Central America : a. Sonorian-Aztecs b. Central ;
—
Americans (Mayas, Isthmians, etc.) Half-breeds in Mexico and the
Antilles .
Nouveau Continent, Paris, 1825, reckoned that in the Americas there were
13 millions of Whites, 6 millions of Half-breeds, 6 millions of Negroes, and
9 millions of Indians ; three-quarters of n century later (in 1895-97) it was
computed that there were 80 millions of Whites, 37 millions of Half-
breeds, 10 millions of Negroes and 10 millions of Indians in a total
population of 137 millions (1897).
507
So8 THE RACES OF MAN.
in this chapter, as they are especially interesting from the
ethnological point of view, besides having been the best studied
from this point of view. A few words will sufifice in regard to
the Whites and Negroes. The white colonists and their
uncrossed descendants belong for the most part to Anglo-
Saxon or Germanic peoples in North America, and to Neo-
Latin peoples in South America. Nine-tenths of the popula-
tion of theUnited States owe their origin to the Anglo-Scotch,
to the Irish,Germans, and Scandinavians, the fusion of which
with other European types and with half-breeds tends to pro-
duce the Yankee type, which, if not a physical, is at least a
social type. In Canada two-thirds of the white population are
Anglophones, and the rest Francophones. In Mexico, in the
Antilles, andSouth America, nearly all the "white" popula-
in
tion is made up of Neo-Latins —
in Brazil descendants of the
' At this period Greenland, all Canada, a corner of Alaska, and a good
part of the United States were covered with glaciers almost uninterruptedly.
The limit of the moraine to the south may be indicated by a line which,
leaving New York, for Lake Erie, would follow the course of the Ohio as
far as the region of its junction with the Mississippi, and would be continued
along or a little to the west and to the south of the Missouri to coincide then
with the Canadian frontier. The fauna of the American quaternary period
differed somewhat from that of Europe the Rhinoceros tichorhinus, for
:
instance, was missing, while the Mastodon ohioticus and several large
edentata, such as the Megatherium, Mylodon, etc., are met with.
RACES AND PEOPLES OF AMERICA. 51I
The he Age in North America, New York, 1889, chaps, xxi. and xxii.,
and Meet. Ainer. Assoc. Adv. Sc. of Buffalo, 1896; Geikie, loc. cit. (chap,
li., written by T. Chamberlin); Metz, Proceed. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol.
xxiii., p. 242; W. Uphani, ibid., p. 436; Hille-Cresson, Proceed. Bost. Soc.
Nat. Hist., 1889; Holmes, loc. cit. {^Fifteenth Rep. Bur. Ethn.); Th. Wilson,
A Study of Prehist. Anihrop., Washington, 1890 {Extract from Rep. U.S.
Nat. Mus., 1887-88, p. 597). For the discussion, see Science for 1892 and
1898. Marcellin Boule has summarised most of the works quoted, and shows
the present state of the question in Revue d'Anihropologie, 1888, p. 647, and
iaL' Anthropologic, 1890 and 1892; see also Nadaillac, Z'v4«//i?-fl/u/£;f«, 1897
and 1898. I will merely note that the tendency of surface objects to sink
towards deep beds, brought forward by the opponents of Abbott, Wright,
etc., altogether fails to explain why other implements (in flint, jade, etc.)
or pieces of pottery have not similarly been carried down, and that only
argilite tools are ioundflat in deep beds.
^ Hamy, " Anthropologie du Mexique," Miss, scientifique du Mexiqtie
{Reck, zool., 1st part), p. 11, Paris, 1884.
2 S. Herrera, Proceed.Am. Ass. Adv. Sc, Madison, 1893, pp. 42 and
312 Th. Wilson, lac. cit. De Nadaillac,
; ; V
Amerique prehistorique, Paris,
1883, and Revue (t Anthropol., 1879 and 1880.
512 THE RACES OF MAN.
and flint objects, together with remains of animals which, if
not quaternary, at least exist no longer in the country.
Ameghino^ also has collected in quaternary layers of the
Pampas of the Argentine Republic remains of primitive human
industries. I will only mention the numerous neolithic objects
found almost everywhere in America. Among these objects
it is necessary to give special attention to the " grooved
axes" which are entirely characteristic of the New World
(Wilson).
As to prehistoric human bones, investigation reduces them
to little. I have already said that the tertiary or quaternary
skull of Calaveras (brachycephalic) is classed as doubtful.
The skeleton of Pontimelo (with dolichocephalic skull), found
by Roth under the carapace of the glyptodon, an enormous
armadillo of the Pampas regions of the Rio Arrecifes,
a tributary of Rio de la Plata, also inspires but a limited
confidence in many authorities. Lastly, the skulls and
bones of Lagoa Santa, if not quaternary, at least very ancient,
afford special characters (dolichocephaly, short stature, third
trochanter), on the strength of which De Quatrefages has
established a special race,^ whose probable descendants
constitute my Falce-American sub-race. (See p. 292.)
Side by side with finds of stone objects and bones in very
ancient strata, it is necessary to note also the shell-heaps
and kitchen-middens scattered along all the coast of both
Americas, from Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and Louisiana
to Brazil, to Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. In this last
country the present inhabitants, who subsist especially on
molluscs, contribute to the piling up of these heaps or to the
formation of new ones. This is enough to indicate that all the
kitchen-middens are not synchronous and if there be some ;
chiv. do Mus. nac, Rio-de-Janeiro, vol. i. 1876, and l\/em. Soc. Anthrop.,
,
Paris, 2nd ser., vol. ii., 1875-82, p. 535; H. von Iliering, '"A civilisa9ao
prehist. de Brazil merid.," Revista do Mtiseu-PauKsta, vol. i., p. 95, S.
Paulo, 1895.
^Moreno, "Cimet. et paraderos prehist., etc.," Rev. Anthrop., 1S74,
p. 72; Verneau, "Cranes prAist. de Patagonie," VAnihropol., 1894,
p. 420.
33
514 THE RACES OF MAN.
arrived at: the mounds of the north have been built by the
Iroquois and Algonquians, except the mounds of animal shape,
which are due to Dakota-Siouan mounds of the south
tribes; the
may be attributed to tribes of the Muskoki or Muskhogi family;
and, as regards the numerous monuments of the basin of the
Ohio, there is a strong presumption in favour of their having been
raised by the Shawnies and the Leni-Lenaps in the south, and
by the Cherokis in the north. The study of these mounds,
in connection with historic data, suffices to determine very
satisfactorily the migrations of all these tribes, to which I shall
refer later.
West of the Rocky Mountains no more mounds are met
with. Their place is taken by other monuments, structures of
stone erected among the rocks and along the canons. A large
number of these are found in the valley of San Juan, in that of
Rio Grande do Norte, of the Colorado Chiquito, etc. These
monuments are still more modern than the mounds. The
peoples who erected these structures, the " Cliff-Dwellers," are
still represented by the Moqui, Zuni, and other tribes who
monuments of rude form; the southern zone, between the Gulf of Mexico
and the basin of the Ohio, is distinguished by mounds in the form of a
truncated pyramid; while the middle zone, that of the basin of the Ohio,
presents a large number of mounds of peculiar and very perfected types.
In each of these zones special regions may be distinguished, characterised
by the shape of the mounds and by the nature of the objects immured in
them.
Sl6 THE RACES OF MAN.
which the conquering Spaniards called pueblos.^ Adobe
pueblos are still occupied by Zuiii people, descendants of the
Cliff-Dwellers.
While in North America among the Mound-Builders only
rude attempts at civiUsation are found, in Central America and
Mexico there flourished up to the period of the conquest a
advanced civilisation. Various peoples, whom many
relatively
authors have sought to identify with the Mound-Builders,
formed more or less well-organised states in Mexico. Such
were the Mayas in the Yukatan peninsula; the Olmecs, and,
later,the Aztecs, on the high table-land. And on the west of
South America there developed a corresponding civilisation,
that of the Incas of Peru. The Incas were none other than
one of the tribes of the Quechua people, who, after having
brought into subjection the Aymara aborigines founded in
Peru a sort of communist-autocratic state. To the north, in
present Columbia, lived the Chibchas, who have equally
attained a certain degree of civilisation. Lastly, to the south
flourished the civilisation of the Calchaquis.
Existing American Races. —
The natives of America, cut off
from the rest of the world probably since the end of the
quaternary period, form, as we have already seen, a group of
races which may be considered by themselves, in the same way
as the Xanthochroid or Melanochroid groups of races (see
Chap. VIIL). It must be borne in mind that there exists but
a single character common to these American races, that is
the colour of the skin, the ground of which is This
yellow.
appears to conflict with the current opinion that the Americans
South America, the prevalent yellow colouring has been further noticed by
A. von Humboldt, and recently confirmed l)y Ranke [Zeihch. f. Et/inoL,
1898, p. 61).
2 Gatschet, "Klamath Indians," Contrib. N. A. Elhwl, vol. ii..
Point Barrow, Washington, 1888; Soren Hansen, loc. cit., and " Ost
Grbnl. Anthropol.," Meddel om Groenland, vol. x. Boas, " The Central ;
Eskimo," Sixth Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethn., 1888, 409; G. Holm, loc. cit.; p.
Rink, "The Eskimo Tribes," Meddelel. om Gronl., vol. xi., and other
works by this author in Danish, quoted by Bahnson, Ethnographien,
vol. i., p. 223, Copenhagen, 1894; F. Nansen, Eskimo Life, London,
2nd edit., 1894, figs.; Dix Bolles, Catal. Eskiino Collect. Rep. U.S.
Nation. Mus. for i8Sj, p. 335 R. Peary, Northward over the Great Ice,
;
the Greenland side of Smith's Sound, 78° 8' N. lat. (see the description of
this tribeof 2,344 persons in Peary, loc. cit., vol. i., p. 479) but Greely ;
found traces of the permanent settlement of this people near Fort Conger,
in Greenland, 81° 44' N. lat. The most southern point occupied by the
Eskimo is Hamilton Inlet {55° N. lat.) in Labrador, but it is not long
since they reached as far as the straits of Belle- Isle in Newfoundland and
even farther south, to the estuary of the St. Lawrence (^0° N. lat.).
1
vol. iii., pp. 159 and 205; Dall, Alaska, etc., London, 1870; Bancroft,
Native Races Pacif. St. of America, Washington, vol. i., 1875-76, pp. 87
and iir, and 1882, p. 562.
5 Brinton, loc. cit. (Amer. Race); Schoolcraft, loc. cit. ; Powell, loc. cit.
{Ind. Ling. Fam.)\ CatUn, Letters and Notes N. Amer. Ind., London, 1844
(cf. Reprt U.S. Nation. Mus., 1885).
THE RACES OF MAN.
Fig. 159.— Siouan chief of Fig. 15S, front face. (/-"/«/, Pi iiice Koland
Bonaparlc,
-
1 Ten Kate,
Bull. Soc. Anthrop., Paris, 1884, p. 551, and 1885, p. 241.
According to Powell, Siniihs. Rep., 1895, P- 658, the Atlantic slope
^
southern pa>t of the United States (Muskhogean), and that of W\s plains of
the Great West. The Pacific slope is split up in its turn into five provinces:
North Pacific, Columbia, Interior Basin, California-Oregon, and the
Pueblos region which encroaches upon Mexico.
RACES AND PEOPLES OF AMERICA. 525
and the Apaches (Fig. 161), taller (im. 69), more brachy-
cephalic (ceph. ind. 84) than their northern kinsfolk' live in —
the open country of the Pueblo Indians (Arizona, New
'
The " Pueblos," from whom these Athapascan.?
Ziuiis, IVIoquis, etc.,
have modified only the form of the head of the Southern Athapascans but ;
cal province " which bears their name and extends over the east
of Canada and the north-east of the United States, between the
Mississippi and about the 36th degree of N. latitude. This
province characterised by a temperate climate, abundance
is
^ There are some Apache tribes in Mexico, the Lipans, the Jams, but
their numerical forceis not known.
'^
See J. Stevenson, "Navajo Ceremonial," Eighlh Rep. Bur. EthnoL,
and articles by Matthews on the Navajos in the 2nd, 3rd, and 5th Reports
of the Bur. EihnoL; Ten Kate, Reizen en Ondezokongei in N. Amer.,
Leyden, 1885; cf. Bull. Soc. AnthropoL, 1S83, and " Soraatol. Observ.
Ind. South-west,"y'«(;-K. Amer. Ethnol, vol. iii., Cambridge, 1891.
^
and 1890.
- H. Hale, " The Iroquois Book of Rites," No. 2 of the Library of
Aborig. Amer. Lit. of Brinton, Philad., 1883, chaps, i. and ii. (history of
the confederation summarised from the standard works of Morgan, Golden,
etc.); G. Royce, "The Cherokee Nation, etc.," Fifth Rep. Bur. Eihn.
for 1883-84; Mooney, "Sacred Formula; of Cherokee," Seventh Rep. Bur.
Ethn. for 1883-86.
528 THE RACES OF MAN.
The wars which the Iroquoians have been engaged have
in
that the original home of the Siouans was the Alleghany Moun-
tains and the surrounding country; thence they were doubtless
forced back by the Algonquians into the prairies to the west
of the Mississippi, where they became buffalo-hunters.
The Siouan tribes are; the Assinahoins on the
principal
Saskatchewan, the Alinnefaris on the Yellowstone river, the
34
^
Ainer. Ethn., vol. viii.; Dorsey, " Furniture and Implements of Omaha,"
pally taken from Boas, Ten Kate, the American military commission, and
my own observations with Laloy.
1
^ The Moquis and Zunis are in fact 1 m. 62 in height, and have a ceph. ind.
of 83.3 and 84.9. We must, however, notice some exceptions in regard to
the somatic type of the Indians of the Pacific slopes : the Salishans of
the coast (with the exception of the Bilcoolas) are almost short and
brachycephalic, while those of the interior are almost tall and brachycephalic,
like the Bilcoolas, the Maricopas, the Mohares (Fig. 4).
^ The first of these groups occupies Powell's North Pacific and
Columbian " ethnographic provinces" {loc. cit.) ; the second, the province
of Oregon-California; the third, the Interior Basin and the region of the
Pueblos.
^ Gibbs, "Tribes of W. Washington and N.-W. Oregon," CoiUrib. N.
Am. Ethn., vol. Washington, 18S7 Dall, "Tribes N.W.
i., p. 157, ;
mittee, North-West Tribes Canada" (in the Kep. Brit. Assoc, from 1885
. . .
1885 and 1887, and the full reports of Boas, 1888 to 1890, and in 1898,
partly summarised in Peterm. Mittheil., 1887 and 1896, and in the Transact.
Koy. Soc. Canada, 1888, 2nd sect.); Boas, "Die Tsimshian," Zeitsch. f.
Ethn., 1888, p. 231; Niblack, " CoaSt Ind. South Alaska and N. Biit.
Colomb.," Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus. for iSgS.
:
burnt their dead while all the other Yumas buried theirs.
The population of lower California was very scattered (10,000
individuals in all) ; they gained a miserable existence from
hunting and fishing, and could not even make canoes. To-
day but few are left. To
judge from the bones gathered at the
extreme end of the Californian peninsula, the Indians who
dwelt there (the ancestors of the Periqufes ?) were if anything
of short stature; by this characteristic, as well as by their
dolichocephaly, they would appear then to be allied to the
Palaeo-American sub-race. ^
'
Bancroft, he. cit., vol. iii. ; Ten Kate, Bull. Soc. Antkrop., Paris,
1884, and loc. cit, ; DeniUer, Bull, du Museum cCHist. Nat., 1895,
No. 2.
534 THE RACES OF MAN.
the deep caiions and the " pueblos " of the warm and arid
table-lands of Arizona, New Mexico, and the adjacent parts of
Utah, California, and Mexico.
Some of these populations, the Moqiiis (2000) for example,
belong to the Shoshone linguistic family,^ others perhaps to the
Pitna stock (see p. 535) but there are three small groups of
;
dialect with the Sonoran-Aztec linguistic group (see p. 535), while Gibbs
(loc. cit., p. 224) was the first to point out their probable migration from the
region situated between the Rocky Mountains and the Great Lakes
towards the deserts of the Great Basin. Brinton (Anter. Race, p. iig)
confirms this observation, arriving at his conclusion from new facts.
^ It should be mentioned that this brachycephaly is also found, even a
little more accentuated, in the skulls which Mr. Gushing and the members
of the Hemenway expedition discovered in the ancient habitations of
the Salado valley and in the Ilanolawan pueblo, attributed to the not very
remote ancestors of the Pueblos of the present day. These skulls are
hyper-brachycephalic (mean ceph. ind. of 94 skulls, 89) they also exhibited
;
an extraordinary frequency of the " Inca bone" (p. 67), and several other
osteological peculiarities, as, for instance, in the structure of the hyoid
bone (p. 96).
RACES AND Peoples of americA. 535
The Huicholes worship the sun and various plant divinities, more par-
ticularly the "peyote" (a cactus, Anhalo7iium Lewini:), the fruit of which
has stimulative and anaphrodisiac properties. (Hamy, Bull. Mus. Hist.
Nat., 1898, p. 197; Lumholtz, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1898, p. j,
with plates; L. Diguet,_A'«<z'. Arch. Miss. Scientif., vol. ix., p. 571,
plates, Paris, 1899.)
S3^ ti-iE RACES oir MAN.
Under name of
the collective Aztecs or NaJuia are comprised
several peoples and tribes who formerly occupied the Pacific
slope from Rio de Fuerte (26th degree of N. lat.) to the frontiers
of Guatemala, with the exception of the Isthmus of Tehuante-
pec; their colonies even extended farther into Guatemala and
Salvador (example, the Pifils). On the other side, on the
Atlantic slope the Nuhua tribes inhabited the regions around
Mexico. There they had formed, probably two or three
centuries before the arrival of the Europeans, three confederate
states: Tezcuco, Tlacopan and Tenochtiilan, under whose
dominion were ranged tribes of the same origin scattered along
the coast, among the TolonacpeopXe in the existing province of
Vera Cruz; one of these tribes, the Nicaraos or Niquira:is,
migrated into Nicaragua.^
^ Hamy, " Distrib. geogr. des Opatiis, Taraliumars, etc.," Bidl. Soc.
Anlhrop., Paris, 1883, p. 785; Ten Kate, "Sur les Pimas, eic," Bull. Soc.
Anthr., 1S83; Lumholtz, "Tarahumara," .ff?*//. Anier. Geogr. Soc, 1894,
p. 219.
It is impossible to enter here into details on the ancient Aztec society.
'^
Let us simply bear in mind that from the economic point of view it was
based on "hoe-culture" (see p. 192) of maize, tobacco, and cocoa, as well
as on a well-developed industry : the weaving of stuffs, pottery, manufacture
of paper, malleation and melting (a somewhat rare case in pre-Columbian
America) of gold, silver, copper, and bronze. Architecture and sculpture
had attained there a great perfection, as well as ideographic and iconomatic
writing (see p. 140). It was politically a confederacy of democratic states,
Americanist, Philadelphia, 1890, and Am. Race), and Bruhl (Die Cnltur-
volker Alt-Aiiierikas, Cincinnati, 1875-87), we may conclude that the
name Toltec has only relation to a small clan or even perhaps to an
imaginary mythical people. As to that of Chichiniec, it was employed by the
Nahuas to denote all those peoples outside of their own civilisation ; ihey
used this term as the Romans did that of "barbarian."
^ —
b. —
The Central Americans. They may be divided into three
geographical groups, the Indians of Southern Mexico, the Mayas,
and the Isthmians.
I. Among the numerous aboriginal peoples of Southern
Mexico the Zapotecs of the state of Oajaca are the most
^ I think that it corresponds better with the facts themselves than the
mixed and chronological classification of the South Americans into four
groups (Esldmoid and Ugroid peoples of the early stone age; Caribs of the
later stone age; Mongoloid semi-civilised brachycephals of the stone and
bronze ages; hunting and warlike tribes of the bronze age) proposed by
Siemiradzki, Mittheil. Anihrop. Geselhch., vol. xxviii., p. 127, Vienna,
544 THE RACES OF MAN.
' Lafone Quevedo, Preface to the " Arte de la lengua Toba " of
Barcena
Revisla Mus. La Plala, vol. v. , p. 143, 1894. This distinction is criticised
by Biinton, Proc. Am. Philos. Soc, vol. xxxvii., p. 179, Philad., 1898.
1 ;
form the most northern tribe of this group ; they dwell partly
on the Atlantic slope, partly on the Pacific. By certain ethnic
characters (feather ornaments, use of the blow-pipe) they are
related to the Amazonians.^ Farther away the Gtiaymis in-
in Brazil, etc.
2 D'Orbigny, L' komme Americain, Paris, 1859, 2 vols.
^ G. Bovalius, "En reza . Talamanca Land,"
. Ynier, p. 183,
map, Stockholm, 1885.
35
546 THE RACES OF MAN.
and the game of balza, which consists in throwing a sort of
club at the legs of their adversaries. There are also lesser
spoken to-day on the coast, and along the chain of the Andes
from Quito to the 30th degree S. latitude. This is practically
the extent of the ancient empire of the Incas^ the best known
nation among Quechua peoples. But the influence of the
the
Inca civilisation and the Quechua language extended even
farther, to Columbia, the borders of Ucayale, and the Bolivian
table-land on the north, to the edge of the Pampas on
the south (among the Calchaquis). For the western part of
South America the Quechua tongue was the lengua general, as
the Tupi-Guarani tongue was the lingua geral for the east
' I shall not deal further with the important part which the Quechua
civilisation played in all the western regions of South America. Let me
observe, however, that this civilisation differed in many respects from that
of the Nahuas ; the Incas lived under a despotic communistic regime, they
had no and were content with mnemonic means to com-
art of writing,
municate with one another, they reared the llama, their religious rites
were less sanguinary than those of the Nahua, etc. (Seler, Feruanische
Alterthiim, Berlin, 1893; Brinton, loc. cit.; Bruhl, loc. cit.; Uhle, Kultur
Sud-Amerik. Volker, vol. iL, Berlin, 1889-90.)
2 Middendorf (E.), Pent, Berlin, 1893, 3 vols.
KiG. 165. — Guaraunos chief (Moutli of the Orinoco) willi his two wives.
{rliot. Crcvaux, Coll. Mtis. Nal. Uht. r'aris.)
'
L. Catat, " Les HabitanLs lUi Darien Eio. 1C6. — Guaraunoi of llie
Merid. ," A'sz'. ^Mwo^;-. , 1888, p. 397 ; Pinart, mouth of (he Orinoco.
"Les Indiens de Panama," 1\.€V. Elhnogr., (Phoi. Crevaiix, Colt.
^ Siemiiadzki, loc. cil., p. 160. The figures here given from Oldendorf,
Manouvrier, Hamy, Virchow, and derived from my own observations, relate
to the Chilian Araucans. The Araucans of the Pampas are shorter (im.
57, according to De la Vaulx, Cotnpt. rend. Soc. Geogr., Paris, 1898,
p. 99),and brachycephalic, to judge from the measurements of Ten Kate
[Rev. Mus. La Plata, vol. iv., p. 209), who finds the mean cephalic index
of 53 skulls to be 83.92 in a series in which, however, several skulls of the
Palso-American type are met with.
1;
which they inhabit, have preserved better than the Araucans of the
Pampas their physical type but they have adopted for the most part, like
;
the latter, the manners and customs of the Indians of the Pampas and the
Gaiichos Euro-Indian half-breeds, similar to the Cow-boys of the western
parts of the United States. They live as nomadic shepherds in tents of
guanaco skins, and wear garments of tanned skin, after the manner of the
Gauchos they have no pottery, subsist almost exclusively on meat, etc.
;
Excellent horsemen, they hunt the guanaco with bolas, exactly like the
Patagonians and the Gauchos.
The Archipelagoes of Chiloe and Chonos, which lie off the Chilian
''
' For the philology of the Caribs and the Arawaks, see L. Adam,
"Trois fam. linguist. de I'Amazone, de I'Orenoque, etc.," Congres
. . .
54 trib. Guyane," Bull. Soc. Geogr., Paris, i8gi, and "Dix ansde Guyane,"
ibiil., p. 447, map E. Im Tliurn, Among the Indians of Guiana, London,
;
Fig. 168. — .Same sulijcct as Fig. 167, in profile. [Coll. Mils. Xal.
Hist., Paris.)
^
Tliese figures are gi\'cn from the measurements of Manouvrier and
Deniker {Bull. Soc. Anthrop., Paris, 1S93), of Mauiel (JAv//. .Soc.
Anthrop., Paris, 2nd scr. vol. ii.
, 1S75-S5), Ten Kate (Kdv. ifAiithr.,
,
Manaos and the Aruacos of the Rio Negro the Yumanas and ;
' See, for example, the summary of the data of ancient authors in
J.
Ballet's La CtiaJeloupe, vol. i., 2nd pt., p. 220, Basse-Terre, 1894.
'^
O. Ordinaire, " Les Sauvages du Perou," Rev. Eihnog^:, 1887,
p. 264.
,
' This traveller also mentions a tribe very different from the Goajires,
inhabiting the mountains of the north, now completely unknown. These
Indians call themselves Piecer (?). They might possibly have some slight
relation with the Arawaks inhabiting the upper valleys of Sierra Nevada.
De Brette, loc. cit.; H. Candelier, Rio Hacha et les . Goajires,
. .
Paris, 1893.
^ Particulars concerning the arch^ological and osteological remains of
the aborigines of the Greater Antilles will be found in J. Duerden's
" Aborig. Ind. Remains in Jamaica," Jotirn. of the Instit. of Jamaica
(with "note on the craniology," by Haddon), Kingston, 1897, vol. ii.,
No. 4; and in Brinton's " The Archaeology of Cuba," Amer. Archaologist
vol. ii., No. 10, Columbus, 1898.
)
the north and those of the south is thus more pronounced among
the Arawaks than among the Caribs, The Ciboneys, to judge
from the skulls found in Cuba and Jamaica, were hyper-brachy-
cephalic in consequence of deformations (Haddon). The
occurrence of individuals with wa\y or frizzy hair is also as
RACES AND PEOPLES OF AMERICA. 559
FlG. 170. — Same subject as Fig 169, seen full face. [Phot.
Crtvaux^ Coll. .Soc. A}ithr. Paris.)
Rome, 1883.
36
562 THE RACES OF MAN.
habit of inserting wooden plugs into lobe of the ear, a
tlie
peoples.
III. Tlu Indians of East Brazil and the Ceni?-al Region of
Fig, 171. — Bakaiii, Carib tribe of upper Xingu. {Phot. Elu tin dh.)
^ Both these authors prefer the term " Ges" to that of Tapuyas, by which
the aborigines in question are known In fact, the word
to the Brazilians.
"Tapuya," which in the Tiipi tongue means "barbarian," is not only
applied to the Ges, but also to a host of other backward tribes, as, for
instance, the Puris (p. 565).
^ Probably on account of the numerous cataracts on the rivers.
' Maxim Fr. von Wied Newied, Reise nach Brasil., Frankfort-a-M,,
1820, 2 vols.; Martius, Beilr. ziir Ethnogr. Ajiierikas, Erlangen-
. . .
Leipzig, 1863-67; Lacerda and Peixolo, " Contrib. estudo, Anthrop. das
racas Indig. do Brazil," Archiv. de Mus. Nacion., Rio de Janeiro, vol. i.,
1876, p. 47Ph. Rey, Etud. Antlirof. sur les Botocudos, Paris, 1880
;
' Castelnau, Expeditiott parties Ceiilr. Am. du Sud. Hist, des vog.,
Paris, 1852-57, 6 vols. ; Martius, loc. cit.; Ehrenreich, loc. cit. (Pelerin.
Mitt.).
RACES AND PEOPLES Of AMERICA. S^S
that they have a special language for the women, which appears
to be the ancient form of the present language of the men.
They are fairly tall (rm. 69) and dolichocephalic (ceph. ind. 73),
their nose is convex, and their hair sometimes curly.
1 See the works of Castelnau, Von den Steinen, and Ehrenreich, already
quoted.
566 THE RACES OF MAN.
The Trumai
of the sources of the Xingu are, on the contrary,
short (im. 59) and mesocephalic (ceph. ind. 8r.i), and they
have convex noses and retreating foreheads.
(Fig. 173), scattered from the upper Paraguay
The Bororos
to the upper Parana, are hunters; they have great bows and
arrows of bamboo or bone. Polygamy exists among them,
and there are also cases of polyandry. They are tall (im. 74)
and mesocephalic (ceph. ind. 81.5).!
1
J. Koslowsk)', "Algun. dato.s sobre bi^ Bororos,' Bo/. Inst. GeoT.
Argent., vol. 1895; Ehrenrcich,
vi., loc. cil. [An/hr. Unler.).
^ See on Ihis point the suggestive monograph of IL Meyer, " Bows and
Arrows in Centr. Brazd," Smiths. Rep. for iSg6, p. 549, pb, Washin<rton
1S98.
RACES AND PEOPLES OF AMERICA. 567
around the trunk, then enlarge them they touch, and so form a con-
till
remove the portions of wood between the notches, making use of the same
stone hatchet like a wedge. (Ehrenreich, " Mittheil . Xingu Exped.,"
. .
who have kept intact their type and manners. Arnong the
more interesting of these we must note the Cainguas or
RACES AND PEOPLES OF AMERICA. 569
Physically, the Tupis differ, but little from the Caribs; those
of the north, the Mauhes and the Mundurukus for example,
studied by Barboza Rodriguez, are im. 58 and ira. 60 in
stature, whilst the Kamayuras and the Anefd of the upper
Xingu are taller (im. 62 on an average); the cephalic index
of the latter 79 (Ehrenreich).
is The Guarani should be,
according to D'Orbigny, more than im. 66 in height.^ But the
anthropological study of the Tupis is still to be made.
grafia del Alto Paraguay," Bol. Inst. Geog. Arg., vol. xviii., 1897, p. 613,
ethn. chart. According to Brinton (" Ling. Cartogr. of Chaco," Proc. Am.
Phil. Soc, vol. 37, p. 178, Philad., 1898), the dialect of the Samucos
should belong to the Arawak family.
^ Koslowsky, -"Tres semanas entre . . Guatos,'' Bol. Inst. Geog.
40; cei'li iii.l ,70.7. (/'//i>.-'. Cil',- \"aulx-, C. R. .Soc. Geoi'. raris.
Horn Sclent. Mission. iSoS
,.
^ Ch. Musters, Al Home loif/t tJie Pa^agonians, London, 1871, an " The 1
Ayres, 1SS3. As regards the Onas, see U. Li^ta, " La Tierra del Fuego,"
Bol. Inst. Ceog. Arg., V(.l. ii., 1S81, and Viage at pais Ona, .
somatic characters (pp. 89, 108, etc.) and the ethnic ones
etc.) of the Fuegians.^ Let
(p. 146, note 2, pp. 181, 189, 214,
me further add that the predominant type among them is that
^ For
measurements see the Appendices. The bibliography of the
Fuegians will be found in the work of Hyades and Deniker already quoted.
To these must be added the following selection from important works
omitted or recently published: L. Darapski, " Fuegians," Bol. Inst. Geog.
Arg.. vol. >.., 1889, p. 276; Bridges, "La Tierra del Fuego, etc.," Bol.
Inst. Geog. Arg., vol. xiv., 1S93; and O. Nordenskjold, " Das Feuerland,"
Geog. Zeitsch., vol. ii., p. 663, Leipzig, i8g6.
APPENDIX I.
Number of
Subjects.
578 APPENDIX.
APPENDIX. 579
Number of
Subjects.
S8o APPENDIX.
Number of
ETHNIC GROUPS.
Subjects.
Americans.
90 Salishans (Harrison Lake, British Columbia)
30 Salishans of the Frazer River delta (British Col.) -
Africans.
Oceanians.
APPENDIX. S8i
Eurofeans.
60 Slovens
200 Ukrainians or Little Russians of Kief
200 Ruthenes of the Bukovine (soldiers)
200 Rumanians of the Bukovine (soldiers)
28 Lesgians (Avars and Kazi Kumyks)
22,979 Karelians of Finland
458 Ossets
1,220 Swedes of the province of Kalmar (conscripts)
80 Tavastians or Western Finns
44 Kabards (Cherkesses) of the Caucasus -
9,345 Dutch (conscripts)
3,000 Danes
4,964 Sleswickians (soldiers)
89,021 German emigrants to the United States
741 Inhabitants of VVales
41 Gypsies of Bosnia v
176 Tatar (Kabard) highlanders (Caucasus)
582 APPENDIX.
APPENDIX. S8i
Number of
Subjects.
584 APPENDIX.
Number of
Subjects.
APPENDIX II.
NUMBER.
586 APPENDIX.
NUMBEE.
)
APPENDIX. S87
Americans,
Karayas (Amazon Basin)
76 Hurons
31 Eskimo of Greenland
152 do. E. America
16 do. W. America
.33 CS.) Botocudos -
Europeans.
417 Portuguese
Corsicans
Spaniards of Valencia
Ladaki
Inhabitants of Nagar, Hunaza, and
Yasin
Chinese of the North
Kurumbas (to the E. of the Nil-
giris) - -
Living
Africans.
SO M'Zabits of Algeria
56 Western Zandeh (Mandja, etc.)
14 Bushmen
139 Negroes of Fernand-Vaz
13 Hausas
Americans.
62 Half-caste Algonquians
315 Natives of Santa Barbara Archip.
14 Arawaks of the Rio Xingu
(Mehinaku, etc.)
31 Indians of Arizona
419 Pimas of New Mexico -
123 Ute Indians
28 Tupis of the Xingu (Kamayuras
and Anetos)
114 37 Eskimo of Alaska
103 Indians of the Californian coast -
/i35 Iroquoians
26 27 Yahgan Fuegians
570 42 Indians : Algonquians, Abenaki,
Cree, etc. - . , .
Oceanians.
1^3 Natives of Solomon Islands
12 (S.) Morioris of the Chatham Islands
30 Natives of the Marquesas Islands -
22 (S.) 22 (S.) Natives of the Gilbert Islands
(Kingsmill)
59 Various Polynesians
Europeans.
122 Catalans of the Balearic Islands
6,579 Sardinians
1,410 Castillians -
NUMBEB.
S90 APPENDIX.
NUMBER.
APPENDIX. 591
NUMBER.
592 APPENDIX.
168
416
1. 355
90
17
187
15.914
170
165
20
19
6,800
53.020
226 40 (S.)
78
200
52
44
52,410
53
APPENDIX III.
Number
APPENDIX. 595
Numbev
of
596 APPENDIX.
Number
INDEX OF AUTHORS.
597
598 INDEX OF AUTHORS.
Herrera, 511
Key, Axel, 106
Herv^, 96, 310, 313 Kharouzin, 166, 376
Herzenstein, iii
Kidd, 23
Hettner, 120 Kingsley, Miss M., 453
Hiekisch, 374 Kochs, 116
Hirt, 320
1
INDEX OF AUTHORS. 60
Moura, 399 Post, 230, 250, 252
Much, 315 Potanin, 363
Mijller, F., 114, 131, 283 Powell, 254, 519, 521, 524
Muller,Max, 317 Pozdni^ef, 378
Munro, H. R., 16 Prjevalsky, 380, 381
Pruner-Bey, 435
Nachtigal, 444, 445, 446 PulM, 337
Nadaillac, 511 Pypine, 344
Naegeli, 5
Nansen, 520 De, 62, 214, 284, 313,
Qtiatrefages,
Nehring, 309 ^397,454. 483, 505, 512
Neis, 169, 392 Quedenfeld, 432
Niblack, 531 Quevedo, L., 572
Niederle, 344 Quibell, 427
Nillsson, 272
Noetling, 359 Rabentiscli, 55
Nordeck, C. de, 449 Radde, n6
Nordenskiold, 367, 516 Radlof, 363
Ramon y Cajal, 104
Ranke, J., 15, 341
O'Brien, H. O., 122 Ranke, K. E., 517
Oliver, E., 420 Rasch, 122
Oppert, 411 Ratzel, 125
Orozco y Berra, 535 Ray, 494, 497
Read, 72
Fagliani, 106 Reclus, Elie, 411, 416
Pallas, lis, 378 Reclus, Elis^e, 118, 383, 460, 463
Pantiukhof, 116, 353, 358, 422 Regalia, 77
Papillault, 169 Regibus, loi
Parker, L., 478 Reid, 396
Paspati, 425 Rein, J. J., 391
Paulitschke, 436, 438 Reinach, Salomon, 300, 309, 310,
Peacock, 98 31S. 317, 321. 427
Peal, S., 364, 396 Retzius, 348, 516
Pearson, Karl, 75 Reuleaux, 187
Peary, 520 Revoil, 438
Peixoto, 513 Rey, P., 563
Penka, 318 Richthofen, 385
Petersen, 423 Rigges, 53°
Petitot, 520 Rink, 520
Petrie, Flinders, 427, 428, 435 Ripley, 325
Phillips, 262 Risley, 381, 404, 40S, 413
Piette, 137, 308 Rivett-Carnac, 362
Pinabel, 392 Rockhill, 380
Pinart, 546 Roepstorff, 397
Pinto, Serpa, 461 Rojdestvensky, 92
Pleyte, 475, 488 Rosenberg, 119
Ploss, 97, 112, 240, 241 Rosenstadt, 113
Poesche, 318 Rohlfs, 434
Pogge, 461 Romanes, 5
Pogio, 387 Roth, Ling, 255, 482, 490
Poole, S., 435 Roth, W. E., 477
Porcher, 399 Roux, 382
602 INDEX OF AUTHORS.
Royce, C, 527 Stoddard, 552
Ruskikh, 116 Stoipe, H., 202
Strabo, 436
Sachier, 336 Studer, 195
Saint-Hilaire, J. G., 2S2 Stuhlmann, 440, 5, 454
Santelli, 438
Sarasin, 62, 64, 418, 493 Tarentsky, 373
Sarzec, E. de, 420 Tautain, 47s, 500
Sasaki, 107 Taylor, I., 317
Schadenberg, 483 Ten Kate, 62, 64, 68, 96, 450, 4S5,
Schellong, 494 493. 517, 524. 526, 533. 536,
Schinz, 228, 456, 467 547. 555. 569 . „
Schlegel, 149 Terrien de Lacoupene, 382
Schlichter,454 Testut, 95, 96
Schmelz, 226, 254 Thomas, Cyrus, SI4
Schmidt, E., 10, 106, 290, 40' Thomson, J. , 440
416, 435. 514 Thurston, 411
Schrader, 366, 373, 374 Torok, 19
Schramm, 225 Topinard, 10, 18, 48, 64, 72, 73.
Schrenck, 366, 373, 374 76, 91, 92, 97, 98, 99, 177, 280,
Schwalbe, 83, 361 283, 432. 476, 477
Schweinfurth, 429, 441, 446, 454 Tourette, G. de la, 122
Seler, 547 Tourtoulon, 33S
Senart, 404 Turner, Sir W., 16, 62, 64, 84, 8s,
Sergi, 73, 330, 435, 438 95. 103. 400, 477
Serurrier, 450 Tylor, E. B., 13S, 152, 161, 183,
Shortt, 236, 411 184, 199, 210, 214, 217, 219, 220,
Shevyref, 23 23s, 240, 242
Shi'ubsall, 467
Sibiee, 469 Ujfalvy, 416
Siret, H. &J., 314 Uvarof, 361, 363
Sittig, SOS
Smeaton, 39s Veckenstedt, E., 153
Smirnov, 351 Verneau, 84, 431, 450, S13
Smith, E., 248 Vierkandt, 126
Smith, Donaldson, 454 Vierordt, 107, 108
Smith, Worthington, 312 Villot,432
Smith, W. T., 140, 475 Virchow, 64, 435, 436, 490
Smyth, Brough, 223, 226, 475 Vogt, 142
Soren Hansen, 51, 512, 520 Voit, C., 100
Sommier, 351
SpaUkowski, 74 Waddell, 380, 416
Spassovitch, 344 Wallace, A. R., s
Spencer, Baldwin, 477, 478 Wallaschek, 209, 210
Stainier, 427, 428 Wauters, 45S, 461
Stanley, H. M., 4S4 Weber, Max, 493
Staudinger, 446 Weeren, 186
Stearns, 274 Weigand, 339
Steinen, K. von den, 170, 204 Weisbach, 73
Steinmetz, 148, 220 Weiss, 63
Stevenson, J., 526 Westermarck, E., 231, 233, 236,
Stieda, 73 237. 238
Stirling, E , 477 Westermarck, F. 75 ,
INDEX OF AUTHORS. 6oi
Weule, 263 Wolff, 461
Wilhelm, E., 83 Woodthorpe, 215, 396
Wilken, 145, 230, 475 Wright, F., 511
Williams, 508
Wilson, T., 511
Windle, B., 306, 314 Yadrintsef, 367
Windt, De, 242
Wirth, A., 391 Zaborowski, 427
Wissmann, 146, 148, 456 Zintgraff, 458
Wlislocki, H. von, 425 Zograf, 344, 351
;;
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
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