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EASA Module 17
EASA Module 17
MODULE 17
FUNDAMENTALS
Rev. 00 17.1
Oct 2006 For Training Purposes Only
Module 17 –PROPELLER
CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
Contents Page
Introduction.............................................................................. 2
Propeller Principles – The Aerofoil .......................................... 4
Propeller Blade Description ..................................................... 6
Propeller Theory.................................................................... 11
Slip ........................................................................................ 19
Forces Acting On Propellers.................................................. 31
Vibration And Critical Range ................................................. 37
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Module 17 –PROPELLER
CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
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Oct 2006 For Training Purposes Only
Module 17 –PROPELLER
CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
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Module 17 –PROPELLER
CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
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Module 17 –PROPELLER
CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
PROPELLER PRINCIPLES – THE AEROFOIL Only the air that passes over the curved and flat surfaces will
exhibit relative changes in velocity and pressure, and the air that
The aerofoil is a particular streamlined shape which, when
is some distance in front of the leading edge will remain
moving through the atmosphere, will produce a force
undisturbed.
approximately at right angles to the direction of movement.
When the aerofoil is the wing of an aircraft, we call the force Since the propeller blade and the wing of an aeroplane are
produced ‘lift’, but when the aerofoil is the blade of a propeller similar in shape, each propeller blade may be considered as a
we call this force ‘thrust’. It is the thrust produced by the rotating wing. It is true that it is a small wing that has been
propeller that moves the aircraft forward and the lift of the wings reduced in length, width and thickness, but it is still a wing in
that support the aircraft in the air. A typical aerofoil is shown in shape. At one end this small wing is shaped into a shank, thus
Figure 17.01. forming a propeller blade.
When an aerofoil moves through the air its special streamlined When the blade starts rotating, air flows around the blade just as
shape causes a particular airflow pattern to develop. Air passing it flows around the wing of an aeroplane, except that the wing,
over the curved aerofoil surface is caused to increase in velocity which is approximately horizontal, is lifted upward, whereas the
relative to the velocity of the air flowing over the flat surface and, blade is ‘lifted’ forward. Figure 17.03 shows the typical aerofoil
as a consequence, the pressure of the air over the curved section of a propeller.
surface is reduced relative to the pressure of the air flowing over
the flat surface. This relative change in pressure creates a
resultant net force as shown in Figure 17.02.
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Module 17 –PROPELLER
CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
Curved or cambered
Top surface
Leading
edge
Trailing
edge
Flat
undersurface
Fig 17.01
Fig 17.03
Fig 17.02
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Module 17 –PROPELLER
CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
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Module 17 –PROPELLER
CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
Fig 17.04
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Module 17 –PROPELLER
CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
Fig 17.05
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Module 17 –PROPELLER
CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
PRODUCING THRUST
The propeller has a number of blades of an aerofoil shape that
will produce thrust when the propeller turns and the blades move
through the air. The low pressure created in front of the blades
attracts more air towards the propeller and this in turn is thrown
rearwards by the movement of the blades until the propeller is
moving a column of air towards the rear (Figure 17.06). The
amount of useful thrust produced by a propeller depends upon
the amount of air that the propeller can move and the increase in
velocity that it can add to the moving air mass.
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Module 17 –PROPELLER
CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
Fig 17.06
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Module 17 –PROPELLER
CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
There are two aspects of the overall theory that explain the
operation of a propeller:
- The momentum theory
- The blade-element theory
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Module 17 –PROPELLER
CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
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CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
PITCH DISTRIBUTION
The pitch distribution (blade twist), as shown in fig Figure 17.07,
and the change in aerofoil shape along the length of the blade is
necessary, because each section moves through the air at a
different velocity, with the slowest speeds near the hub and the
highest speeds near the tip.
To illustrate the difference in the speed of aerofoil sections at a
fixed RPM, consider the 3 blade stations indicated on the
propeller shown in Figure 17.08. If the propeller is rotating at
1800 RPM, the 18-inch station will travel 9.42 feet per revolution
(193 mph), while the 36-inch station will travel 18.84 feet per
revolution or 385 mph. And the 48-inch station will move 25.13
feet per revolution, or 514 mph.
The aerofoil that gives the best lift at 193 mph is inefficient at
514 mph. Thus the aerofoil is changed gradually along the length
of the blade. This progressive change in blade angle ensures
that the angle of attack remains constant along the total length of
the blade.
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Module 17 –PROPELLER
CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
Fig 17.08
Fig 17.07
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CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
BLADE ANGLE
Technically, the blade angle is defined as the angle between the
face or chord of a particular blade section and the plane in which
the propeller blades rotate. Figure 17.09. illustrates a 4-bladed
propeller (only 2 blades are shown for simplicity) indicating the
blade angle, plane of rotation, blade face, longitudinal axis and
the nose of the aeroplane.
In order to obtain thrust, the propeller blade must be set at a
certain angle to its plane of rotation, in the same manner that the
wing of an aeroplane is set at an angle to its forward path. While
the propeller is rotating in forward flight, each section of the
blade has a motion that combines the forward movement of the
aeroplane with the circular or rotary movement of the propeller.
Therefore, any section of the blade has a path through the air
that is shaped like a spiral or a corkscrew, as shown in Figure
17.10.
The amount of bite (amount of air) taken by each blade is
determined by its blade angle, as shown in Figure 17.11.
An imaginary point on a section near the tip of the blade traces
the largest spiral, a point on a section midway along the blade
traces a smaller spiral and a point on the section near the shank
of the blade traces the smallest spiral of all. In one turn of the
blade, all sections move forward the same distance, but the
sections near the tip of the blade move a greater circular
distance than the sections near the hub. Four-bladed
Fig 17.09propeller.
Fig 16.29
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Module 17 –PROPELLER
CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
Fig 17.11
Fig 17.10
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Module 17 –PROPELLER
CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
PROPELLER PITCH
If the spiral paths made by various points on sections of the A propeller with a blade angle of 14° at the 42-inch station has a
blades are traced, with the sections at their most effective geometric pitch of 65.9 inches.
angles, then each individual section must be designed and
Geometric Pitch = Tan pitch angle x 2 π r
constructed so that the angles gradually decrease towards the
tip of the blade and increase towards the shank. This gradual
change of blade section angles is called pitch distribution and = Tan 14° x 6.28 x 42
accounts for the pronounced twist of the propeller blade.
= 0.25 x 6.28 x 42
GEOMETRIC PITCH
= 65.9 inches
Since the pitch angle of a propeller blade varies along its length,
a particular blade station must be chosen to specify the pitch of a
blade. This is normally done by specifying the angle and the
blade station, e.g. 14° at the 42-inch station.
EFFECTIVE PITCH
Rather than using blade angles at a reference station, some
propeller manufacturers express pitch in inches at 75% of the The effective pitch is the actual distance the aeroplane moves
radius. This is the geometric pitch, or the distance this particular forward during one revolution (360°) of the propeller in flight.
element would move forward in one revolution along a helix, or ‘Pitch’ is not a synonym for ‘blade angle’ but the two terms are
spiral, equal to its blade angle. commonly used interchangeably because they are so closely
related. Figure 17.12. shows two different pitch positions. The
black aerofoil drawn across the hub of each represents the cross
The geometric pitch is found by the formula: section of the propeller to illustrate the blade setting.
Geometric Pitch = Tan pitch angle x 2 π r When there is a small blade angle, there is a low pitch and the
aeroplane does not move very far forward in one revolution of
Where: Tan pitch angle = the tangent of the pitch angle
the propeller. When there is a large blade angle, there is a high
2π = a constant, 6.28 pitch and the aeroplane moves further forward during a single
revolution of the propeller.
r = radius of the blade element (blade station)
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Module 17 –PROPELLER
CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
Fig 17.12
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CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
SLIP
Slip is defined as the difference between the geometric pitch and
the effective pitch of a propeller (Figure 17.13). It may be
expressed as percentage of the mean geometric pitch or as a
linear dimension.
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CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
Fig 17.13
Fig 17.14
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Fig 17.15
Fig 17.16
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CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
EQUIVALENT SHAFT HORSE POWER In flight, the eshp considers the thrust produced by the propeller,
which is found by multiplying the net thrust in pounds by the
One horsepower is equal to 33,000 foot pounds of work done
speed of the aircraft in mph. Divide this by 375 times the
per minute, which is the same as 550 foot pounds per second or
propeller efficiency, which is considered to be 80%.
375 mile pounds per hour. Shaft horsepower (shp), is the
horsepower delivered to the propeller shaft and can be
calculated using the formula: Fn x v
eshp (flight) = shp +
shp = actual propeller rpm x torque x K 375 x η
Where K is the torque-meter constant (K = 2 π ÷ 33,000) where: v = aircraft speed (mph)
With a turboprop engine, some jet velocity is left at the jet nozzle
η = propeller efficiency; an industry standard of 80%
(net thrust developed at the engine exhaust) after the turbines
have extracted the required energy for driving the compressor, 375 = a constant; mile pounds per hour for one horsepower
reduction gear and accessories etc. This velocity can be Example: Find the equivalent shaft horsepower produced by a
calculated as net thrust (Fn), that also aids in propelling the turboprop aircraft that has the following specifications:
aircraft. If shaft horsepower and net thrust are added together, a
new term, ‘equivalent shaft horsepower’ (eshp) results. However Airspeed = 260 mph
the net thrust must be converted to equivalent horsepower. Shaft horsepower indicated on the cockpit gauge = 525 shp
Under static conditions, one shp is approx. equal to 2.5 lbs of
thrust. Net thrust = 195 lbs
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CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
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CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
PROPELLER EFFICIENCY The efficiency of the propeller is the ratio of the thrust
horsepower to the shaft horsepower:
The thrust horsepower is the actual amount of horsepower that
an engine-propeller unit transforms into thrust. This is less than Thrust horsepower
the shaft horsepower developed by the engine, since the
Propeller efficiency = X 100
propellers are never 100% efficient. Propeller efficiency varies
shaft horsepower
from approx. 50% to 90% depending on how much the propeller
‘slips’. Example: The drag on an aircraft travelling at 200 mph is
1125 lbs. The engine produces 750 shp. Calculate the propeller
Some of the work performed by the engine is lost in the
efficiency (one hp = 375 mile pounds per hour).
production of noise. Normally, about half of the noise made by
the propeller-driven engine is made by the propeller itself. When In level flight, drag is equal to thrust
the propeller blade tips approach the speed of sound, vibrations
are produced that cause the noise. When the blades operate in
the transonic range, they not only produce noise, but the drag
becomes excessive and the efficiency drops off dramatically. For
the propeller disc to be as large as possible while keeping the
tips below the speed of sound, most high-powered engines are
geared so the propeller turns slower than the engine driveshaft.
The maximum propeller efficiency that has been obtained in
practice under the most ideal conditions, using conventional
engines and propellers, has been only about 92%. And, in order
to obtain this efficiency, it has been necessary to use thin
aerofoil sections near the tips of the blades and very sharp
leading and trailing edges.
Since the efficiency of any machine is the ratio of the useful
power output to the power input, propulsive efficiency is the ratio
of thrust horsepower [work done by propeller] to shaft
horsepower [work done by engine]. The usual symbol for
propulsive efficiency is the Greek letter η (eta).
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Module 17 –PROPELLER
CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
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CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
POWER ABSORPTION
When engine power is changed into thrust by the propeller, the
drag or torque created by the propeller being forced through the
air limits the engine speed. For maximum efficiency, the
propeller must be able to absorb all the engine power available.
Power can be absorbed by propeller design but each method
used has its limitations and a compromise has to be made for
the final propeller design.
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CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
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CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
NUMBER OF BLADES
The number of blades has been an option for propeller
engineers. The logical choice for fixed pitch wood and forged-
metal propellers is two blades, that have the advantage of ease
of construction and balancing, low manufacturing cost and
efficient operation.
When more thrust is needed the blade area can be increased by
lengthening the blades, but only to a point at which the tip
speeds approach the speed of sound, or if tip clearance from the
structure or ground is a factor. To keep the blades short, more
blades can be used. Three and four-bladed fixed pitch propellers
have been constructed, but usually, propellers with more than 2
blades are made so their pitch can be adjusted. Some modern
propellers have 4, 5 or 6 blades; and Propfan and Unducted Fan
propellers have as many as 12.
SOLIDITY
Solidity is calculated at the blade master station which is about
0.7 of the blade length from root to tip.
The greater the solidity, the greater the power which can be
absorbed by the propeller. Figure 17.17 shows the disc area
swept by the propeller.
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Module 17 –PROPELLER
CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
Fig 17.17
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CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
Centrifugal force puts the greatest stress on a propeller as it tries
to pull the blades out of the hub (Figure 17.18). It is not
uncommon for the centrifugal force to be several thousand times
the weight of the blade. For example, a 25 pound propeller blade
turning at 2700 RPM may exert a force of 50 tons (100,000
pounds) on the blade root.
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CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
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Fig 17.21
Fig 17.20
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Fig 17.22
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CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
GYROSCOPIC EFFECT
A rotating propeller has the properties of a gyro. If the plane of
rotation is changed, a moment will be produced at right angles to
the applied moment. For example, if an aircraft with a right
handed propeller (clockwise rotation viewed from rear) is yawed
to the right, it will experience a nose down pitching moment due
to the gyroscopic effect of the propeller. Similarly, if the aircraft is
pitched nose up it will experience a yaw to the right. On most
aircraft the gyroscope effects are small and easily controlled.
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CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
Fig 17.23a
Fig 17.23b
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CATEGORY B1– MECHANICAL Sub Module 17.1 – FUNDAMENTALS
Student Notes
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