TEACHING NOTES

MODERN PHYSICS

Syllabus in IIT JEE :

Modern physics : Atomic nucleus; Alpha, beta and gamma radiations; Law of radioactive decay;
Decay constant; Half-life and mean life; Binding energyand its calculation; Fission and fusion processes;
Energy calculation in these processes. Photoelectric effect; Bohr’s theory of hydrogen-like atoms;
Characteristic and continuous X-rays, Moseley’s law; de Broglie wavelength of matter waves.

PHOTON
Max plank suggested that black body emits light in quantised fashion not in continuous spectrum. Energy
of one quanta is E = h, h is planks constant.
These quanta of light are called photons.

* Photon is quanta of light.

* In all the inertial reference frames, velocity of photon is ‘c’. Where ‘c’ is ‘speed of light’
Speed of light is independent of reference frame.
hc
* Energy of Photon E = h = .

* ‘Rest mass’of photon is zero.Any particle that travels with speed of light ‘c’has rest mass ‘zero’.

E2 = (m0c)2 + (p.c)2 where m0  rest mass of particle.

p  momentum of particle.
If an object is stationary in anyreference frame, then energycorresponding to its (mass + momentum) is
given by above equation).
* For Photon E = p.c, so momentum of photon.
E
p=
c
If any statement like ‘mass of Photon’, like ‘Total mass of photon’is stated, then it is actually ‘ mass
equivalent’ of the Photon. It is just a numerical concept.
* Wave nature of light describes about continuous energy transfer while quantum nature tells that energy is
not flowing continuouslybut in packets.
* All Photons are identical.
* If we consider, ‘I’ to be ‘Intensity’i.e. Energy per second per unit area,

P
I=
4R 2

I
No. of photons per unit area per second at distance r from point source = (Photon flux).
hc / 

Page # 1
 To find ‘Photon Density’(No. of photons per unit volume) at distance r from a point source.

(1) FOR SPHERICAL SOURCE

Let n be their ‘Photon density’
(4r2 dr) × n = dN
Where dN is number of photons lying in shell.
dr dN
 4r2 × ×n=
dt dt
dN dr
Where is number of photons per second and is rate of change of radial distance. or ‘c’.
dt dt
dN
 4r2 c × n =
dt
1 p
 n= ·
4r c hc / 
2

(2) FOR LINEAR SOURCE

(2rl.dr) × n = dN

dr dN l
 (2rl. )×n=
dt dt

p
 (2rl . c × n =
hc / 
1 p
n= · (where ‘p’ is total power of length ‘l’)
2rl hc / 

(3) FOR PARALLEL BEAMS

n Photons are present / m3

nAdx = dN
dx dN IA
nA = =
dt dt hc / 
A I IA
n = ·
I Ac hc / 
I I
dx n= ·
c hc / 

RADIATION PRESSURE :

When Photons collide with the surface, they exert a pressure. It is called ‘Radiation Pressure’. Change
in momentum per second on unit area is known as ‘Radiation Pressure’.
Suppose, there is a rectangular surface, on which parallel beams of intensity are coming. There are three
possible cases :
Page # 2
Case I : Perfect Absorption (Black Body)
If photons are being absorbed perfectly, final momentum of photons is zero. The force exerted, works in
the direction of incident beams.
E IA dP I
  Radiation pressure P =
c c dt c
Case II : Perfect Reflection
dP 2IA 2I
 Radiation pressure P =
dt c c

Case III : Partial Reflection

Let fraction of photons reflected. i.e. Reflection coefficient be . Then fraction of photons absorbed is
(1– ) .
2I (1  ) I
P 
c c
* Suppose, beams are incidenting at an angle. Let surface area be A. Point to remember is that surface
area and beam area are true different terms.


‘A’ surface
area

dP  IA cos  
 2  cos 
dt  c 

2I cos 2 
P= P
c
Ex.1 Suppose the surface of cart is perfect absorber. Light is not coming on shaded area. find total change in
momentum ?


 dP  Iab 
 cos   sin 
dt x  c 
b

a



dP I  hb
 sin  sin 
dt c

Page # 3
 dP Ibl cos 
 sin 
dt x c
Total change in momentum
Iab sin  cos  Ihb sin 2  Ibl sin  cos 
=  
c c c
I
= b sin (a cos   h sin   l cos )
c

Ex.2 If surface area is given, take component along beam area.


Rd
d
 


Intensity of the parallel beams is I. The ball is perfectly reflecting. What is the force due to radiation
pressure ?

SurfaceArea = (2pR sin) Rd

A = 2pR2 sin d

Beam area = cos component of surface area

AB = (2R2 sin  d) · cos
I  2R 2 sin  cos d
Fx =2× cos . cos 
c
/2
I  2R 2 sin  cos3 d
= 2  c
0

/2
4IR 2
 sin . cos  d
2
= c (* R2  Projected Area)
0

4IR 2 IR 2
= 
4c c
IR 2
 Force due to Radiation Pressure =
c
Ex.3 In the above problem, if partial reflection is taking place then what is the force due to radiation pressure?
IR 2
c
I
Short cut : Even for partial reflection F   R
2
c
Caution :Applicable only if beams has constant intensity i.e. parallel beams.

Page # 4
Ex.4 If mass of body is m, what intensity of beam is required to just start the motion ?


b
c

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
‘Interference’, ‘Diffraction’ and ‘Polarisation’ show wave nature of light while “Photoelectric effect”
shows particle nature of light.
Experimental setup for P.E.E.

Cathode Anode
(emitter) (Collector) E

–e (v×B)
A

Discharge tube
Variable (evacuated) –eE
B
voltage

E = E0sin (t – kx)

B = B0sin (t – kx)
# Incident light emparts additional velocityto free electron. The force exerted due to this, is experienced
as ‘Radiation Pressure’
# Existence of Photon and Wave nature is simultaneous.

* WORK FUNCTION :
Minimum energyrequired to liberate an electron from a metallic surface is its.
Electrons are free to move in bounded space. They have not sufficient energy to go out.

Free ‘e’
e
++++++
++++++
# Photon can travel inside the material also. Some electrons are less bound and some more bound.
# When a photon incidents then collision between one photon and one electron occurs. Photon is either
completely absorbed or rejected by electron. No intermediate phenomena exists.
# Emission of electron is instantaneous, no time lag between incidence of light and emission of electron.
(Actually 10–9 second gap but neglected.)
# Potential in direction of electric field decreases. If any electron is released near negative plate. then it will
be attracted towards positive plate.
+
E
e
eE
Change in Kinetic Energy,  K.E. = e V
Page # 5
# Due to retarding potential velocity decreases. TakingAnode as +ve and cathode as –ve. if we put an
electron between, then accelerating potential generates and energy is gained.
+
+ v

Retarding
Potential
# When collector (Anode) Voltage is ‘zero’. Still a current is registered and by increasing voltage, increase
in current is observed. It shows that electrons are emitted with a range of Kinetic Energy. (Initially
collector is at zero potential.)
i

is
saturation
current

# Suppose we start to give positive potential, then repelling of electrons is started; due to this kinetic
energy decreases. When the ‘e’ with maximum kinetic energy is repelled, then i = 0.
i

is

Vs V
stopping
potential

IMPORTANT POINTS ABOUT SETUP

1. h = W + Kmax. where h  Planck’s constant

W  work function
KEmax. = E × Vs
h = W + E × Vs
h0 = W
 > 0 condition for emission of electron where 0 is ‘Threshold frequency’.
2. h  = h 0 + E × V s
Solely, stopping potential is frequency dependent i.e. independent of intensity.

3. Kinetic energy of electron is with respect to surface from which it is emitted.

r
VE/S

r
VE/S

Page # 6
 r r r
VE / g  Vs / g  VE / s
r r r r r
VE / g  Vs / g  Vs / g  Vs / g  VE / s
r r r
VE / g  VE / s  Vs / g
4. Energy per second = IA no. of photons per second
IA
N
h
5. There are two factors governing ‘ I’  ‘Frequency’ and ‘No. of photons’.

6. For a given frequency of light, I  N of electromagnetic radiations.

7. If we take  constant.
i3 > i2 > i1  N3 > N2 > N1

i
i3
i2
i1

vs v
8. Intensity depends upon distance i.e. we can change intensity by changing distance of source i.e. for a
point source.
P 1
I= I
4r 2 r2
and iI
i1 r22
 i 2 = r12

9. No. of electrons per unit volume decrease on applying accelerating potential.

is

(no. of ‘e’)

10. (no. of ‘e’) h = h0 + eVs

K.E.
KEmax.

Page # 7
 vs

tan  = h/e
 
11.

* When does P.E.E. stop?

Till potential of surface is equal to stopping potential electron comes out to surface and it is reabsorbed.

Example 42.3 HCV

P = 1 mW r = 5m R = 1×10–9 m
P dE
 R 2 
r = 5m 4r 2 dt
P
 R 2 t  2eV
4r 2

2eV  4r 2
t=  8.8 hours
R 2 P

SOME IMPORTANT POINTS

(1) Time lag problem - Even for a week intensity, emission of electron is instantaneous.
(2) Existense of threshold Frequency - Threshold frequency exists and is represented by v0.
(3) Independence of KEmax from Intensity of light.

** De-Broglie Wavelength - Wavelength associated with a moving particle is its De-broglie wavelength.
h

p
* De-broglie wavelength is detectable for small particles.
* Heavier particles have lesser momentum than smaller particles, therefore these (heavier) are of definite
shapes.
* Stream of particles behaves like wave.
* Higher the momentum, smaller the wavelength
for a charged particle.
h

2mqV
k = qV
h
e.g. (i) electron = 2mqV

Page # 8
 h
(ii) for gas molecules,  g 
3 
2m kT 
2 
Example - m = 0.1 kg, v = 10 m/s


h h 6.63 1034
= = = 6.63×10–23 Å
p mv 10 10
–2

** From this example, we can extract following discussions -

* Order of any object and wavelength must be same to detect it.
* Magnification of ‘Electron Microscope’ is more than other types of microscopes.

parallel beams
Object
shadow of
the object

* If accelerating potential is applied, wavelength decreases and magnification increases according to,
h

2meV
* If there is no shadow, there is no diffraction. (diffraction is the phenomena in which a light beam bends
after passing through an obstacle.)
* ‘e-beam’ can collide with smaller objects.
* A small size object is visible when wavelength of light incident on it is of the order size. Diffraction
phenomenon is then effective.
* Is interference possible from Electron beams ?
Yes

D
=
d

If v is ,  , 

Ex. Monochromatic radiation of wavelength 1 = 3000 Å rolls on a photocell. The corresponding spectral
sensitivity of photocell is J = 4.8 mA/w. When another monochromatic radiation of wavelength 2 =
1650 Å & power 5 mw is incident it is round that max. vel. of photo electrons increases to 2 times.
Assuming efficiencyto be same find.
(i) Threshold wavelength for the cell
(ii) Saturation current in second case
h = 6.6 × 10–34 Js, C = 3 × 108 ms–1 & P = 1.6 × 10–19 cal.

1 hc 2  hc 
[Sol. meu12 =  –  | u1 =    
2 1 m e  1 

1 hc 2  hc 
meu22 =  –  | u2 =    
2 2 me   2 
u2 = 2u1
Page # 9
 hc 4hc
2 –  = 1 – 4

4 1 
3 = hc    
 1 2 

 = 3 eVV
0 = 4125 Å
Calculation of efficiency
1 
No. of photons in one Joule N = =
hc /  hc
4.8  10 3
J means e¯ are emitted by one joule
1.6  10 19

4.8  103
19
 = 1.6  10 = 0.0198
 / hc
N2 = No. of photons striking per. sec.
5  10 3
N2 =
(hc /  2 )
i2 = N2
= 13.2 × 10–6 Amp. ]

Ex. Up to what maximum potential will a copper ball, remote from all other bodies, be charged when
irradiated by electromagnetic radiation of wavelength  = 140 nm?
[Ans. max = 4.4 V ]
[Sol. When light of sufficiently short wavelength falls on the ball, photoelectrons are ejected and the copper
ball gains positive change. The charged ball tends to resist further emission of electrons by attracting
them. When the copper ball has enough charge even the most energetic electrons are unable to leave it.
We can calculate this final maximum potential of the copper ball. It is obviously equal in magnitude (in
volt) to the maximum K.E. of electrons (in electron volts) initially emitted. Hence
2hc
max = – ACu = 8.86 – 4.47 = 4.39 volts
e
(ACu is the work function of copper) ]

Page # 10
 Atomic Physics
MODELS OF ATOM
Thomson's Model :
Putting together all the facts known at that time, Thomson assumed that an atom is a sphere of positive
charges uniformly distributed, with the electrons scattered 25 points throughout the sphere. This was
known aspudding model at that time. However thisideawasdropped dueto thesuccess of -scattering
experiments studied by Rutherford and Mardson.

Rutherford's Model
Rutherford studied the scattering of a particles (doublyionized Helium atom) by the thin metallic foils (of
gold, platinum etc.) A narrow pencil beam of fast moving a particles were struck on a thin metal foil
(– 104 atoms thick). The angular deflections of scattered a particles were studied with the help of a
moving microscope. He concluded :
The atom is hollow and the entire positive charge and almost whole of mass of the atom is concentrated
in a tiny place called as the nucleus.
The electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular orbits :

BOHR’S POSTULATES :
(1) Electrons revolve in stationary circular orbits and massive nucleus (fixed).
(2) According to ‘Maxwell’s theory’an accelerated charge is source of electromagnetic radiations. Orbits,
in which electrons exist as standing wave without losing energy are called ‘Stationary orbits’.
(3) Bohr’s Quantization Rule - In stationaryorbits, angular momentum of the election is quantized or integral
h
multiple of .
2
h
2 rn = n = n ×
pn
nh
 rn × pn =
2
nh
 m × vn × rn =
2
nh
 = m × vn × rn =
2

4. Energy of each orbit is quantized.

Eupper level – ELower level = h
Einstein – Planck Equation
Ev
h (emission)

EL
+Ze (EnergyTransition)

Page # 11
** Energy ofAtom
( Ze)e mv2n
 ....(1)
40 rn2 rn

nh
mvnrn = ....(2)
2
Solving equation (1) and (2)
Z e2
  vn
n 2 0 h
c Z
vn   (Where c is speed of light and Z is atomic number)
137 n

r0 n 2 m' 
mass of revolving particle
rn 
m' Z mass of electron

E 0 m' Z 2
En   (where r0 and E0 are the values for first orbit of M-atom.)
n2
r0 = 0.53 Å
E0 = 13.6 eV
E0 = Rhc = 13.6 eV (Where R is ‘Rydberg’s constant’and has value equal to 1.09737×107 m–1).
(Rhc) m' Z 2
En =
n2
1 1  hc
EU–EL = RhcZ  2
 2
2  = h =
 n l n v  

q1q 2
Potential Energy = 4 r
0
Reference : at infinity, potential energy is zero.
Ze 2
Potential Energy = 
4 0 r

1 Ze 2
Kinetic Energy = mv 2

2 4 0 r
| P. E. | = 2 K.E. = 2 | E |
en
in = eVn =
2
r
| M |  i n (rn2 )

Page # 12
ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAM
n= E5= –0.54 eV
n=5 E4= 0.8 eV
n=3 E3= –1.5 eV (Second excited state)
n=2 E2= –3.4 eV (First excited state)

n=1 E1= –13.6 eV (Ground state)

Ex. If potential energy in first existed state is assumed to be zero, then energy of electron in ground state and
second transition (excited) state is.......

From Energylevel Diagram,

Energy of first excited state = 3.4 eV
| P. E. | = 2 × 3.4 = 6.8 eV
 P. E. = – 6.8 eV
 E1 = – 13.6 + 6.8 = – 6.8 eV
E2 = – 1.51 + 6.8 = + 5.29 eV
On changing reference, there is no change in Difference.

# Photon, coming from outside must have 10.2 eV (E2–E1) energy. Energy levels are quantized. There is
no phenomena of intermediate Energy levels.

ATOMIC COLLISIONS
We should remember about a simple collision - mechanics problem before discussing about Atomic
collisions.
v0 k
m2 m1

vC vC=vCM
m2 m1
Blocks are stationary in C.M. frame.

1 2
K.E. = 0 P.E. = kx
2
K.E.total = K.E. S/CM + K.E. CM/g
1 2 1
in C.M. Frame K.E.total = µv rel  M total v CM
2
2 2
1 2 1
Maximum compression , µv rel  kx 2max .
2 2
# If collision is being performed between two particle system, then loss of kinetic energy is maximum.
# When particle stick in perfectly inelastic collision, then in C.M. frame, Kinetic energy change in another
form.
* Now we will discuss aboutAtomic collisions. Suppose H atom to be in rest initially.
neutron
n H
m v
m
1 m.m 2
 v 0  E min  10.2 eV
2 ( m  m)

Page # 13
# If value is less than 10.2 eV, then no energy transfer.
1. Elastic collision  Conservation of K.E.
2. Inelastic collision  Loss of K.E.
1
mv 02  20.4 eV
2
K.E.min required for collision to be inelastic = 20.4 eV

# If both are moving, then less energy will be required.

v0
e H
me mH
me<< mH

1
m e v 02  10.2 eV
2
# Lighter the particle, more effective will be the collision.
* Now we shall discuss about another collision concept of Mechanics.
(i) In ground frame.
(before collision)
m v m
(after elastic collision)
m v
# Velocity is exchanged in ground frame.
(ii) In C. M. frame before collision
v v/2 v/2
v cm  Forward moving particle
2 m m
v/2 v/2
After Elastic Collision,
m m
If there is elastic collision, then no. K.E.Loss in any frame.
i.e. KEloss is same in C.M. frame as well as in ground frame.
# Loss of kinetic Energy emplies that collision is inelastic.
K.E.system = K.E.system/CM+ K.E. CM
# If there is no external force, K.E.CM is not exchanged due to collision.
1
K.E.CM = (m  M ) v CM 2
 cons tant ; Fext.  0
2
# Relative velocity of any particle / object is same in any frame.
# For an inelastic collision,
(vrel.)after = – e(vrel.) before
1 2
K.E.Loss = µv rel (1  e 2 )
2
# Net Momentum of system is zero in C.M. frame.
m1v1 = – m2v2
# If e = 1, collision is elastic.
 K.E.Loss = 0
If e =0, bodies stick.
1 2
( K.E.Loss)max. = µv rel (For two particle collision)
2

Page # 14
* Now some discussion about atomic collisions.

1. When there is inelastic collision between Neutron and H-atom, due to this kinetic energy is shared and
this energy is used in excitation.
# All collisions are not effective 100% ; In some cases more loss or less loss of kinetic energy is also
observed.

m v0 H atom
m

1 2
(( K.E.)loss)max.= µv rel
2
1  mm  2
=    v rel  E1  10.2 eV
2mm
1
mv 02 = 20.4 eV
2
# If kinetic Energy of Neutron is 20.4 eV. H atom may get excited to first excited state and this collision is
Inelastic.
# If K.E.neutron < 20.4 eV, Elastic collision

e
2. me v0 H atom (Nucleus is much heavier.)
mH

me << mH
me  mH 1 1
 m e v 02  10.2eV
me · mH me 2
# If kinetic energy of electron is 10.2 eV, H atom may get excited to first excited state.

He H atom
v0 mH
3. He
2
4

4m

1 4m 2
 v 0  10.2 eV
2 5
1
(4m) v 02  51.0 eV
2
# Heavier the particle, more the energy will be given.

Ex. Which of the following is most effective i.e. 100% transfer of energy ?
(A*) Photon (B) electron (C)  - particle (D) neutron

Page # 15
 v0
H atom
v0 m
4.
neutron
m

1 m
  (2 v 02 )  10.2 eV
2 2
1
mv 02  5.1 eV
2

ENDOERGIC PROCESS :
Reactions, that require certain threshold energy to begin, are named as Endoergic Process i.e. Atomic
collisions that require, threshold kinetic energyof incident particle.

Q.1 Determine correction to the wavelength of an emitted photon when recoil energy of H-atom is taken in
account ?
[Sol. Any excited state lasts for 10–9 seconds, after which electron returns to ground state.
hv
m Hv c
(recoil)
r
Pphoton = PH

h hv
= = mH × v ......(i)
 c
hc 1 2
EU = EL + + m H v  new term ......(ii)
 2
hc
But EU – EL = 
0

hc hc 1
 2
 0  = 2 mHv ......(iii)

Solving (i) and (ii)

   0  1 h
  =
  0  2 cm H 
2

c
Fractional change
in wavelength

Page # 16
EMISSION AND ABSORPTION SPECTRA

n=3
n=2 e n=4
n=1 n=3
deexcitation
hv +Ze
n=2

n=1
 De-excitation is random.
 In de-excitation process, obtained photon may be of same energy or of less energy of more energy. If a
photon of more energy is obtained, it implies that in starting it was in excited state.

n=6
n=5 Pfund
n=4 Brackett series
n=3 series – Rhc
Paschon 32
series
n=2 – Rhc
Balmer series 22

– Rhc
n=1 12
Iyman series

1  1 1  1
 R 2  2  Wave Number
  n L n U  
 First transition is of lowest energy
hc
Emin. = 
max .

hc 1 
Emax. =  = Rhc  2  0
min . 2 

SPECTRUM AND SPECTROMETER

‘Collection of wavelengths’is ‘spectrum spectrometer’is the device which orderises different wave
lengths incidenting on its screen. spectrum line on ‘spectrometer’corresponds a particular emission.

Page # 17
ABSORPTION SPECTRUM

1 1
2
Gas 2 is absorbed.
3 3

1 2  3 i.e. different wavelengths

 Absorption spectrum may include same wavelength, smaller and larger.
 Emission of radiations takes place in every direction due to Re-excitation.
 Absorbed wavelength can reobtain after time lag.
On spectrometer,

1 2 3 2
(before passing (absorbed wavelength
through gas) after passing through gas)

Q. At normal temperature, electron of H atom belongs to n = 1 state. If we take sample of H-atom on earth.
Then which lines will be visible on absorption spectrum ?

[Sol. In Absorption spectrum, Lyman series will be obtained on spectrometer.

 For sum or high energy stars, temperature is high, so that electron of H-atom are in n = 2 or in higher
state there fore Balmer series is also visible.

Chromosphere

Sun Photosphere

Helium excitation
& absorption

 The spectrum coming on earth, some wavelengths are absent in it, therefore we can see Balmer/ Paschen/
Brackett/Pfund or higher series.

# S.No. Series Part of spectrum

1. Lyman Ultraviolet
2. Balmer Visible Light
Paschen
Brockett
3. Infrared
M
M

EU  EL
 Excitation Potential :-
e
 Excitation Energy :- EU – EL
 Ionization Potential :- If energy is represented in ‘volts’, it is Ionizations potential
Page # 18
 Binding Energy :- If an electron assembles from n = to n = 1, 13.6 ev. energy is released, it is its
Binding energy
 Ionization Energy :- If we have to return the electron, then required energy is its ionizations energy.

Ex. A hydrogen atom in a state of binding energy 0.85 eV makes a transition to a state of excitation energy
of 10.2 eV. Find the energy and wavelength of photon emitted.
[Sol. Let electron is in energy level n2. The binding energy is always negative, hence
En = –0.85 eV
Binding energy = En = –13.6 Z2/n2
 –0.85 eV = –13.6 (1)2 /n22  n2 = 4
Let the electron now goes to an energy level n whose excitation energy is 10.2 eV. The excitation energy
is defined with respect to ground state.
 1 1 
we have E = 13.6 Z2  2  2  eV where E = exciation energy
 n1 n 2 
1 1 
 10.2 = 13.6 × 12  2  2 
1 n 
 n=2
So the electron makes a transition from energy level n = 4 to n = 2
Find E using the above relation and then find the corresponding wavelength using :
 = (hc)/E   = 4874.5 Å ]

Ex. A particle of charge, equals to that of an electron, –e and mass 208 times the mass of electron (called a
mumeson) moves in a circular orbit around a nucleus of charge +3e (take the mass of the nucleus to be
infinite).Assuming that the Bohr model of the atom is applicable to this system :
(a) Derive an expression for the radius of nth Bohr orbit
(b) Find the value of n, for which the radius of orbit is approximately the same as that of first Bohr
orbit for the hydrogen atom
(c) Find the wavelength of radiation emitted when the mu-meson jumps from the third orbit to first
orbit (Rydberg's constant = 1.097 × 107 /m.
[Sol. Let q1 = charge on e– = e q2 = charge on nucleus = 3e
rx = radius of nth Bohr orbit Va = velocity of electron in nth Bohr orbit
m = mass of mu-meson = 208 × mass of electron = 208 me
(a) From 1st postulate of Bohr's theory, coulombic force provides the centripetal force, i.e.
mVn2 Kq1q 2
=
rn rn2

mv 2n Ke(3e)
 = ............ (i)
rn rn2
From IInd postulate of Bohr's theory : l = mvnrn = nh/(2x) ............. (ii)
From (i) and (ii), we get

n 2h 2 n 2h 2
rn = =
122 me 2 K 12 (208m e )e K
2 2

(b) r1(H) = rn (mu-meson)

h2 n 2h 2 n 2h 2
 = 12 2 m K =
42 Km e e 2 e2
122 (208m e )e 2 K
Page # 19
  n2 = 3 × 208 = 624  n = 25
(c) En = KE + PE
1   Kq1q 2  1 3Ke 2 3Ke 2 3 Ke
2
= mVn2 +   = – =
2  rn  2 rn rn 2 rn

 3Ke 2 (12 2e 2 mK ) 18 2e 4 mk 2

 En = =
2n 2 h 2 n 2h 2
Now transition is taking place from n = 3 to n = 1
hc hc
E =  =
 E

18 2 (208m e )e 4 K 2 1 1 2 2 m e e 4 K 2
 E =  2  2  we know that = 2.17 × 10–18
h2  1
n n 2 h 2

8
= 9 × 208 × 2.17 × 10–18   = 3.6 × 10–15 J
9
6.63 1034  3 108
 = = 5.525 × 10–11
3.6 1015
  = 0.552 Å ]

Ex. A single electron orbits around a stationary nucleus of charge +Ze, where Z is a constant and e is the
magnitude of the electronic charge. It requires 47.2 eV to excite the electron from second Bohr orbit to
the thirc Bohr orbit. Find :
(a) the value of Z
(b) the energy required to excited the electron from = n = 3 to n = 4
(c) the wavelength of radiation required to remove electron from first Bohr's Orbit to infinity
(d) the kinetic energy, potential energy and angular momentum of the electron in the first Bohr orbit
and the radius of first Bohr orbit.
[Sol. (a) transition is n1 = 2  n2 = 3 ; E = 47.2 eV
 1 1 
we have E = 13.6 Z2  2  2  eV
 n1 n 2 
 1 1
 47.2 = 13.6 Z2  2  2   Z=5
2 3 
(b) transition is n1 = 3  n2 = 4 ; E = ?
 1 1 
we have E = 13.6 Z2  2  2  eV
 n1 n 2 
1 1 
 E = 13.6 × 52  2  2  = 16.53 eV
3 4 
(c) transition is n1 = 1  n2 =  ; E = ionisation energy = ?
1 1 
 E = 13.6 × 52  2  2  = 340 eV
1  

hc 6.63 1034  3 108

= = = 36.56 × 10–10 = 36.56Å
E 340 1.6 1019
Page # 20
 (d) K.E. = –En = [–13.6 × Z2]/n2
 K.E. (Ist Bohr orbit) = –E1 = –[–13.6 × 52] / 12 = +340 eV
P.E. = 2En = 2E1 = –680eV
angular momentum = n(h/2) = 1 × (6.63 × 10–34 /2) = 1.056 × 10–34 J-s
radius (r) = [0.53 n2/Z] Å = [0.53 12/5] = 0.106 Å ]
Ex. Electrons in hydrogen like atoms (Z = 3) make transitions from fifth to the fourth orbit and from fourth to
third orbit. The resulting radiation are incident normally on a metal plate and eject photoelectrons. The
stopping potential for the photoelectrons ejected byshorter wavelength is 3.95 volts. Calculate the work
function of the metal, and the stopping potential for the photoelectrons ejected by longer wavelength.
[Sol. E (5  4)
 1 1 
E = 13.6Z2  2  2  eV E = energy incident on metal
 n1 n 2 
 1 1
 E = 13.6 × 32  2  2  = 2.754 eV
4 5 
E (4  3)
 1 1 
 E = 13.6 Z2  2  2  eV E = energy incident on metal
 n1 n 2 
1 1 
 E = 13.6 × 32  2  2  = 5.95 eV
3 4 
For shorter wavelength cutoff potential (Ve) = 3.95V
From photoelectric equation, we have
Eincident – W0 = eVe
 5.95 eV – W0 = 3.95 eV
 W0 = 2.0 eV
For longer wavelength cutoff potential (Vc) = ?
 2.754 – 2.0 = eVc
 Vc = 0.754 volts ]

Ex. How many spectral lines are emitted by atomic hydrogen excited to the n-th energy level?
[Ans. N = 1/2 n (n – 1) ]
[Sol. Because of cascading all possible transitions are seen. Thus we look for the number of ways in which we
can select upper and lower levels. The number of ways we can do this is
1
n(n – 1)
2
1
where the factor takes account of the fact that the photon emission always aises from upper  lower
2
transition. ]
Ex. The binding energy of an electron in the ground state of He atom is equal to E0 = 24.6 eV. Find the
energy required to remove both electrons from the atom.
[Ans. E = E0 + 4 h h = 79 eV ]
[Sol. To remove one electron requires 24.6 eV.
The ion that isleft is He+ which in its ground start has a binding energy of 4EH = 4hR.
The complete binding energy of both electrons is then
E = E0 + 4hR
Substitution gives E = 79.1 eV ]
Page # 21
Ex. Taking into account the motion of the nucleus of a hydrogen atom, find the expressions for the electron's
binding energy in the ground state and for the Rydberg constant. How much (in per cent) do the binding
energy and the Rydberg constant, obtained without taking into account the motion of the nucleus, differ
from the more accurate corresponding values of these quantities?
[Ans. Eb = e4 / 2h 2 , R = e4 / 2h 3 , where  is the reduced mass of the system. If the motion of the nucleus
is not taken into account, there values (in the case of a hydrogen atom) are greater by m / M  0.055%,
where m and M are the masses of an electron and a proton ]
[Sol. The total energy of the H-atom in an arbitrary frame is
1 r2 1 r2 e2
E = m V1 + M V2 – r
2 2 (4 0 ) | r1  r2 |
r r r r r r
Here V1  r1 , V2  r2 , r & r2 are the coordinates of the electron and protons.
r mrr1  Mrr2
We define R
Mm
r r r
r  r1  r2
r r
r mV1  MV2
Then V
mM
r r r
V  V1  V2
r r M r
or V1  V  v
mM
r r m r
V2  V  v
mM
2
1 r 1 mM 2 e
and we get E = (m + M) V 2 + v –
2 2 mM 4 0 r
r
In the fram V  0 , this reduces to the energy of a particle of mass
mM
µ=
mM
µ is called the reduced mass,
e 4 e 4
Then Eb = and R =
2h 2 2h 3

m  m
Since µ=  m 1  M 
m  
1
M
m
these values differ by (  0.54%) from the values obtained without considering nuclear motion.
M
(M = 1837m) ]

Ex. For atoms of light and heavy hydrogen (H and D) find the difference
(a) between the binding energies of their electrons in the ground state;
(b) between the wavelengths of first lines of the Lyman series.
[Ans. ED – EH = 3.7 meV, H – D = 33 pm ]
Page # 22
[Sol. The difference between the binding energies is :
DEb – Eb(D) – Eb(H)
m e4 m e4 me4  m 
= + = 2  
1
m 2h 2
1
m 2h 2 2h  2M 
M 2M
Substitution gives Eb = 3.7 meV
2hc 1 1  3
For the first line of the Lyman series = hR    = hR
 1 4  4
8c 8hc
or = = 3E
3R b

8hc  1 1 
Hence H – D =   
3  b
E ( H ) E b ( D ) 
1
8hc  me   m m 
4
8hc m m
1   1  =  1
3  2h 2 
= . . =
 M 2M   me 4  2M 2M
3 2 
 2h 
(where 1 is the wavelength of the first line of Lyman series without considering nuclear motion).
Substitution gives using 1 = 121 nm
 = 33 pm ]

Page # 23
 X - RAYS
v
anode
Glass chamber
filament water
e T
e

Emitter
window Target

x-rays
Coolidge Tube

THERMIONIC EMISSION
Due to temperature, electron comes out; this type of emission is called Thermionic emission.

STEPWISE PROCESS
(I) Electrons achieve the target. Due to high kinetic energy, electrons penetrate the target of relatively higher
mass no.
e

e e
e
e e
e e
e
e e e
e
e e e
e +Ze e
e
e e
e e
e
e

Target of higher mass no.

(II) Excitation taken place. By collision electron can knock out another electron. suppose the electron has
not sufficient energyto knock out the electron, then it will come out. If motion of electron is accelerated,
then effect of nucleus is considerable.
(III) According to maxwell, electron loses energy. we had applied ‘ev’potential on going to target. If any
electron looses its total energy, then the energy emitted will be maximum i.e. wavelength is minimum.
hc
eV =  = Emax.
min .
 When this process was observed, it was named breaking x-ray or continuous x-ray or
BREHMSTRAHLUNG X-Ray.
 X-Ray is photon.
Page # 24
(IV) It is also possible that coming electron knocks out an electron of target, then the space is vaccuated. If
is also possible that electron does not go completely outside. Vaccancy may be either permanent or
temporary. If an electron in higher state is present, then it jumps and fills up the vaccancy. This emitted
photon is called.

CHARACTERISTIC X-RAY

 When an incident knocks out one of the binding electron of target atom and corresponding de-excitation
of atoms occurs; then the generated electromagnetic radiations are called characteristic x-rays.’

* Bohr’s theory can be applied on multi electron atoms with some assumptions.

n = 3,Mshell
e
e n = 2,Lshell
e n = 1,Kshell
e
e +Ze e

e
e e e
e

* Incident electron should have energy equal to the Bohr energy of electron of K shell.Again a vacancy is
created first transition is from n = 2 to n = 1.
K : n = 2 to n = 1

hc  1 1 
EU – EL = = Rhcz 2
2
 
  n L n U 2 
Due to ‘shielding effect’ there is some correction needed in this term.
So new formula is,

hc  1 1 
EU – EL = = Rhcz*2  2  2 
  n L n U 
For k series, x-ray. z* = (z – 1)
 Transition from to Jump towards favorable.
K n  2 n 1
L n  3 n 1
K n  4 n 1

hc 1 1 

 K  = Rhc(z – 1) 1 4 
2

1 3 2
 K  = 4 R(z – 1) .
 Similarlyfor Lseries
z* = z – 7.4
z-effective

Page # 25
* When one particle is at rest,
1 mM
v0 2 = E e
2 mM
1 (M  m)
 mv02 = E · +Ze
2 M
(M  m)
 Kincident = E
M
FOR L-SERIES X-RAYS hc
= ev
min.
hc  1 1 
= Rhcz *2 
2
 
  n L n U 2 

 1 1 
= Rhc(z – 7·4)  2
2
 
 n L n U 2 

L   n U  3 to n L  2
L  n U  4 to n L  2

Frequency corresponding to L,
1 1
hv = Rhc(z – 7·4)2   
4 9
5
 vL  = Rc(z  7·4) 2 ......(i)
36
vL = a(z – b) ......(ii)
Moselay’s law
Comparing both the equations,
5
a= RC ; b = 7·4
36
x
X-RAYABSORPTION EDGE

I = I0e–x
Where I0 is incident intensity,
 is absorption coefficient
and x is distance penetrated.

# ‘’depends upon Target atoms as well as energy of x-ray photons.

# X-ray photons interact with atoms of material.

# By increasing the current, Intensity increases.

# Intensity of x-ray is reduced through only two processes-

(i) Photo electric effect (Dominant) (ii)compton effect
# ‘’ decreases till x-ray photon energy just equals the binding energy on one of the care electron.
Page # 26
* At this point, more electrons are likely to be emitted out, thereby reducing the transmitted x-ray intensity,
sharp increase in ‘’ occurs at the binding energies of each of the core electron.
# Measurement of energies of K, L, M absorption edges serve to determine the binding energy of the
corresponding core electron.

Medge
Ledge
Kedge

Photon Energy

Ex.1 A material whose kabsorption edge is 0.15Å, is irradiated with 0.10Å X-rays. What is the maximum
kinetic energy of photoelectron that are emitted from k-shell ?
hc 12.40  103
Binding energy of shell EK =  = = 82.7 kev
1 0.15
hc 12.40  103
Binding energy of L shell EL =  = = 124 kev
2 0.10
K.Emax. = EL – EK = 41.3 kev

Ex.2 In uranium (Z = 92) the Kabsorpion edge is 0.107Å and K line is 0.124Å Determine wavelength of
Labsorpion edge ?
hc 12.40  103
EK = = ev
 0.107
hc 12.40  103
EK =  = ev
K 0.124
EK – EK = 0.709Å

Ex.3 Stopping potentials of 24, 100, 110, 115 kv are measured for photoelectrons emitted a certain element,
when it is irradiated with monochromatic x-rays. If this element is used or target in x-ray tube, what will
be the wavelength of K line ?
hv = EBinding energy + Ekinetic
E B·E L = hv – k2 n=
......(i) n=3
E B·E K = hv – k1 ......(ii) n=2
K
n=1
E B·E L  E B·E K = K = K1  K 2 diagram for previous
question
 K  = 76 Kev

Page # 27
 NUCLEAR PHYSICS
THE NUCLEUS
It exists at the centre of an atom, containing entire positive charge and almost whole of mass. The
electron revolve around the nucleus to form an atom. The nucleus consists of protons (+ve charge) and
neutrons.

A proton has positive charge equal in magnitude to that of an electron (+ 1.6 × 10–19 C) and a mass
equal to 1840 C) and a mass equal to 1840 times that of an electron.

A neutron has no charge and mass is approximately equal to that of proton.

The number of protons in a nucleus of an atom is called as the atomic number (Z) of that atom. The
number of protons plus neutrons (called as Nucleus) in a nucleus of an atom is called as mass number
(A) of that atom.

A particular set of nucleons forming an atom is called as nuclide. It is represented as ZXA.

The nuclides having same number of protons (Z), but different number of nucleons (A) are called as
isotopes.

The nuclide having same number of nucleons (A), but different number of protons (Z) are called as
isobars.

The nuclide having same number of neutrons (A–Z) are called as isotones.

If radius of nucleic is R,
R = R 0· A 1 3 (Where R0 = 1.2 fm = 1.2 × 10–15m)
A = mass number
If nuclear density is T,
T = 2.4 × 1017 kg/m3.
# Nuclear density is independent of mass number.

MASS DEFECT & BINDING ENERGY

The nucleons are bound together in a nucleus and the energy has to be supplied in order to break apart
the constituents into free nucleons. The energywith which nucleons are bounded together in a nucleus is
called as Binding Energy (B.E.). In order to free nucleons from a bounded nucleus this much of energy
(= B.E.) is to be supplied.

It is observed that the mass of a nucleus is always less than the mass of constituent (free) nucleons. This
difference in mass is called as mass defect and is denoted as m.
If mn : mass of a neutron ; mp : mass of a proton
M (Z,A) : mass of bounded nucleus
Then, m = Z · mp + (A – Z) · mn – M(Z, A)
This mass-defect is in form of energyand is responsible for binding the nucleons together. From Einstein's
law of inter-conversion of mass into energy
E = mc2 (c : speed of light ; m : mass)
 binding energy = m . c2
Generally, m is measured in amu units. So let us calculate the energyequivalent to I amu. It is calculated
in eV (electron volts ; 1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 J)

Page # 28
 1  1.67  10 27 (3 108 ) 2
E (= 1 amu) = eV = 931 × 106 eV = 931 MeV
1.6  10 19
 B.E. = m (931) MeV
There is another quantity which is very useful in predicting the stability of a nucleus called as Binding
energy per nucleons.
m (931)
B.E. per nucleons = MeV
A

8.5 MeV

8 o
c
6 Be
B.E./A
(in MeV) 4
2

0 20 60 180 A
mass number

From the plot of B.E. / nucleons Vs mass number (A), we observe that :
B.E. / nucleons increases on an average and reaches a maximum of about 8.7 MeV for A  50 – 80.

For more heavy nuclei, B.E. /m nucleons decreases slowly as A increases. For the heaviest natural
element U238 it drops to about 7.5 MeV.

From above observation, if follows that nuclei in the region of atomic masses 50 – 80 are most stable.

NUCLEAR FORCES
The protons and neutrons are held together by the strong attractive forces inside the nucleus. These
forces are called as nuclear forces.

Nuclear forces are short-ranged. They exist in small region (of diameter 10–15 m = 1fm). The nuclear
force between two nucleons decrease rapidly as the separation between them increases and becomes
negligible at separation more than 10 fm.
Nuclear force are much stronger than electromagnetic force or gravitational attractive forces.
Nuclear force are independent of charge. The nuclear force between two proton is same as that between
two neutrons or between a neutron and proton. This is known as charge independent character of
nuclear forces.

IN ATYPICAL NUCLEAR REACTION :

1. In nuclear reactions, sum of masses before reaction is greater than the sum of masses after the reaction.
The difference in masses appears in form of energy following the Law of inter-conversion of mass &
energy. The energy released in a nuclear reaction is called as Q Value of a reaction and is given as
follows.

If difference in mass before and after the reaction is m amu

(m = mass of reactants minus mass of products)
then Q value = m (931) MeV

Page # 29
2. Law of conservation of momentum is also followed.
3. Total number of protons and neutrons should also remain same on both sides of a nuclear reaction.

NUCLEAR FISSION
The breaking of a heavy nucleus into two or more fragments of comparable mass, with the release of
tremendous energyis called as nuclear fission. The most typical fission reaction occurs when slow moving
neutrons strike 92U235. The following nuclear reaction takes place.
235 + n1  141 + Kr92 + 3 n1 + 200 MeV
92C 0 56Ba 36 0
If more than one of the neutrons produced in the above fission reaction are capable of inducing a fission
reaction (provided U235 is available), then the number of fission taking place at successive stages goes
increasing at a very brisk rate and this generates a series of fission. This is known as chain reaction. The
chain reaction takes place only if the size of the fissionable material (U235) is greater than a certain size
called the critical size.

If the number of fission in a given interval of time goes on increasing continuously, then a condition of
explosion is created. In such cases, the chain reaction is known as uncontrolled chain reaction. This
forms the basis of atomic bomb.
In a chain reaction, the fast moving neutrons are absorbed by certain substances known as moderators
(like heavy water), then the number of fissions can be controlled and the chain reaction is such cases is
known as controlled chain reaction. This forms the basis of a nuclear reaction.

NUCLEAR FUSION
The process in which two or more light nuclei are combined into a single nucleus with the release of
tremendous amount of energy is called as nuclear fusion. Like a fission reaction, the sum of masses
before the fusion (i.e. of bigger nucleus) and this difference appears as the fusion energy. The most
typical fusion reaction is the fusion of two deuterium nuclei into helium.
1H + 1H  2He + 21.6 MeV
2 2 4

For the fusion reaction to occur, the light nuclei are brought closer to each other (with a distance of
10–14 m). This is possible only at very high temperature to counter the repulsive force between nuclei.
Due to this reason, the fusion reaction is very difficult to perform. The inner core of sun is at very high
temperature, and is suitable for fusion. In fact the source of sun's and other star's energy is the nuclear
fusion reaction.

UNIT OFACTIVITY :
The activity is measured in terms of CURIE (Ci). 1 curie is the activity of 1gm of a freshly prepared
sample of radium Ra226 (t1/2 = 1602 yrs.)
1 curie 1Ci = 3.7 × 1010 dps (disintegration per second)
1 dps is also known as 1 bq (Becquerel)  1Ci = 3.7 × 1010 bq

Ex. A neutron breaks into a proton and electron. Calculate the energy produced in this reaction in MeV.
Mass of an electron = 9 × 10–31 kg, Mass of Proton = 1.6725 × 10–27 kg, Mass of neutron = 1.6747
× 10–27 kg. Speed of light = 3 × 108 m/sec.
0n  1H + –1e
[Sol. 1 1 0

Loss in mass (m) = [Mass of neutron – (mass of proton + mass of electron)

= [1.6747 × 10–27 – (1.6725 × 10–27 + 9 × 10–31)]
= 0.0013 × 10–27 kg
 Energy released = mc2
E = (0.0013 × 10–27) × (3 × 108)2 = 1.17 × 10–13 joule
1.17 1013
= = 0.73 × 106 eV = 0.73 MeV ]
1.6 1019 Page # 30
Ex. In a nuclear reactor, fission is produced in 1 gm for U235 (235.0439 a.m.u.) in 24 hours by a slow
neutron (1.0087 a.m.u.). Assuming that 35Kr92 (91.8973 a.m.u.) and 56Ba141 (140.9139 a.m.u.) are
produced in all reactions and no energy is lost, write the complete reaction and calculate the total energy
produced in kilowatt hour. Given 1 a.m.u. = 931 Mev.
[Sol. The nuclear fission reaction is : 92U235 + 0n1  56Ba141 + 36Kr92 + 30n1
The sum of the masses before reaction = 235.0439 + 1.0087 = 236.0526 a.m.u.
The sum of the masses after reaction = 140.9139 + 91.8973 + (1.0087) = 235.8375 a.m.u.
 m = 256.0526 – 235.8373 = 0.2153 a.m.u.
energy released in the fission of U235 nucleus = 0.2153 × 931 = 200 Mev
6.02  10 23
Number of atoms in 1 gm = = 2.56 × 1021
235
Energy released in fission of 1gm of U235 = E = 200 × 2.56 × 102 = 5.12 × 1023 MeV
= (5.12 × 1023) × (1.6 × 10–13) = 8.2 × 1010 joule
8.2 1010
= kWh = 2.28 × 104 kWh ]
3.6 106
Ex. A neutron collides elastically with an initially stationary deuteron. Find the fraction of the kinetic energy
lost by the neutron (a) in a head-on collision; (b) in scattering at right angles.
[Ans. (a)  = 4mM / (m + M)2 = 0.89 ; (b)  = 2m / (m + M) = 2/3. Here m and M are the masses of a neutron
and a deuteron ]
[Sol. (a) In a heat on collision 2mT = pd + pn
p d2 p 2n
T= 
2M 2m
where pd and pn are the momenta of deuteron and neutron after the collision. Squaring
p d2  p 2n  2p d p n  2mT
m 2
p 2n  p d  2mT
M
1 m
or since pd  0 in a head on collision pn = – 1  Pd
2 M
 2
p d2 1  M 1  m    T
Going back to energy conservation
2M  4m  M  
p d2 4mM
So  T
2M (m  M) 2
This is the energy lost by neutron. So the fraction of energy lost is
4mM 8
= 2 =
(m  M) 9
(b) In this case neutron is scattered by 90°. Then we have from the diagram
r
p d  p n ĵ  2mT î
Then byenergy conservation
p 2n  2mT p2
+ n =T
2M 2m

Page # 31
 p 2n  m   m
or 1    T 1  
2m  M   M

p 2n 1  m   m
or   = T 1  
2m  M   M

p 2n 2m
The energy lost by neutron in then T – = T
2m M  m
2m 2
or fraction of energy lost is  = = ]
Mm 3

Ex. The nuclei involved in the nuclear reactionA1 +A2 A3 +A4 have the binding energies E1, E2, E3 and
E4. Find the energy of this reaction.
[Ans. Q = (E3 + E4) – (E1 + E2) ]
[Sol. Suppose M1, M2, M3, M4 are the rest masses of the nuclei A1, A2, A3 and A4 perticipating in the
reaction
A1 + A2  A3 + A4 + Q
Here Q is the energy released. Then by conservation of energy.
Q = c2 (M1 + M2 – M3 – M4)
Now M1c2 = c2 (Z1mH + (A1 – Z) mn) – E1 etc. and
Z1 + Z2 = Z3 + Z4 (conservation of change)
A1 + A2 = A3 + A4 (conservation of heavy particles)
Here Q = (E3 + E4) – (E1 + E2) ]

Ex. Assuming that the splitting of a U235 nucleus liberates the energy of 200 MeV, find:
(a) the energy liberated in the fission of one kilogram of U235 isotope, and the mass of coal with calorific
value of 30 kJ/g which is equivalent to that for one kg of U235
(b) the mass of U235 isotope split during the explosion of the atomic bomb with 30 kt trotyl equivalent if
the calorific value of trotyl is 4.t kJ/g.
[Ans. (a) 8.2 × 1010 kJ , 2.7 × 106 kg ; (b) 1.5 kg ]
[Sol.(a) the energy liberated in the fission of 1kg of U235 is
1000
× 6.023 × 1023 × 200 MeV = 8.21 × 1010 kJ
235
The mass of coal with equivalent calorific value is
8.21  1010
kg = 2.74 × 106 kg
30000
(b) The required mass is
30  109  4.1  103 235
13 23 × kg = 1.49 kg ]
200  1.602  10  6.023  10 1000

Page # 32
 Ec
Eb
Ea
Ex.

x yz

Discuss about either the energy is absorbed or released ?

Given : x + y = z

(xEa + yEb) and zEc

Case-I : if (xEa + yEb) > zEc
Energy is absorbed.
————————
Case-II : if (xEa + yEb) < zEc
Energy is released.

* If we split a heavy nucleus into two medium sized nuclei and total binding energyof new nuclei is greater
then parent nuclei, then energy is released.

* If two nuclei of small mass number combine to form a single heavy nuclei for which binding energy is
greater than the constituent nuclei, then is released.
Lighter nuclei combine : Fusion
Heavy nuclei break up : Fission

# Experimental observations show that binding energyis proportional to mass number, i.e. total number of
nucleons.

Page # 33
 RADIOACTIVITY
The phenomenon of self emission of radiation (in form of energy) is called radioactivity. The substances
which emit these radiations are called as radioactive substances. It was discovered by Henry Becquerel
for atoms of Uranium. Later it was discovered that manynaturallyoccurring compounds of heavyelements
like radium, thorium etc also emit radiations.
At present, it is known that all the naturally occurring elements having atomic number greater than 82 are
radioactive. For example some of them are ; radium, polonium, thorium, actinium, uranium, radon etc.
Later on Rutherford found that emission of radiation always accompanied by transformation of one
element (transmutation) into another. In actual radioactivity is the result of disintegration of an unable
nucleus. Rutherford studied the nature of these radiations and found that these mainly consist of , , 
particles (rays).
-Particles : (2He4)
These carry a charge of +2e and mass equal to 4mp. These are nuclei of helium atoms. The energies of
-particles very from 5 MeV to 9 MeV ; their velocities vary from 0.01 – 0.1 times of c (velocity of
light). They can be deflected by electric and magnetic field and have lower penetrating power but high
ionising power.
-Particles : (–1e0)
These are fast moving electrons having charge equal to e and mass me = 9.1 × 10–31 kg. Their velocities
very from 1% to 99% of the velocity of light (c). They can also be deflected by electric and magnetic
fields. They have low ionising power but high penetrating power.
-Radiations : (00)
These are electro-magnetic waves of nuclear origin and of very short wavelength. They have no mass.
They have maximum penetrating power and minimum ionising power. The energy released in a nuclear
reaction is mainly emitted in from these -radiations.

SPONTANEOUS DECAYS
1. -decay A
2 He 4  z z Y A 4 # Nuclear mass is different from atomic mass.

zX
 
m  M 2 He 4  M   z2 Y
A4
 M X 
z
A

Nucleus is without electrons. * Released energy converts into kinetic energy

M 2 He 4  2Me  Atomic Mass
1
424 3
Nuclear The assumption is taken for numericals.
Mass

A
z X44  2 He 4  z  2 Y A  4  zMe
 zMe 
1 44444 244444443
Equation for atomic mass
Assumptions taken : In nucleus,Atomic energy is 13.6 e.v. small atomic binding energy has been
neglected.

m = M * 2 He 4  M *   z2 Y
A4
 M  X 
z
A

# Released energy is shared as kinetic energy by products and outgoing particles.

4
2He
recoil
Page # 34
 Momentum of particle + momentum of daughter nuclei = 0
r r
( m · v ) (p D )
r r
p   p D = 0 assuming parent nuclei to be at rest initially
r r
p = pD
ka + kD = Q Q i.e. Released energy or Q value of rean.
pD2
 k  =Q
2m D

p 2
 k  =Q
2m D

p 2
but k  
2m 

2k  · m 
 k 
2m D = Q

 m 
 k  1    = Q
 mD 
mD  Q
k = m  m
D 

(A  4)mQ A  4
k = k =  Q
4m  (A  4)m  A 

2.  – Decay (Negative -Decay)

r
n p + e + v Antineutrino
# Neutron ................... into electron inside the nucleus.
r
zX  z 1 Y A  e  v energy released.
A

# Every fundamental particle has spin.

 
m = M z X A  M z 1 Y A  Me  
Equation corresponding to nuclear mass
Equation corresponding to atomic mass

m = M * z X A  M *  z 1 Y
A

3.  + decay (positive -decay)

# Positron is anti-particle of electron. It is short-lagged and highly reactive.

P n + e+ + v neutrino
Positron

zX
A
z 1 Y A  e   v

 
m = M z A x  M z 1 Y
A
 Me
m = M  A  M
*
z
x *
z 1Y
A
 2Me 
Page # 35
NEUTRINO AND ANTI-NEUTRINO
1. It has zero electric charge, hence shows no electromagnetic interaction.
 7 
2. Rest mass is possibly zero. Recent experiments show that mass of neutrino is less than  2 ev  .
c 
3. It travles with speed of light.

4. It has spin quantum number 1 2 .Aspin of 1 2 satisfies the law of conservation of angular momentum
when applied to -decay.

5. It shows very weak interactions with matter.

6. Experiments show that b-particles are emitted with continuous range of kinetic energy. If there were only
two products in b-decay. electrons would have been monoenergetic.

Intensity of
 particles

K.E.
4. ELECTRON CAPTURE

This process involves the absorption of orbital electrons by nucleus. The resulting daughter nuclei is
same as would have been produced by position decay.An electron in k shall is absorbed and process is
referred as ‘k-capture’.

The process is observed from the emission of the characteristic X-rays produced, when an orbiting
electron from an outer shell makes a downward transition into a k shall vacancy. The x-rays are
characteristic of daughter nuclei not of the parent because x-ray emission taken place ‘k-capture’

e
very close to nucleus.
+Ze

1 e
0
 4 Be7 
3 Li7  v Asimple k-copture equation

5. R - DECAY
12
5 B

6 C12 13.4 Mev

e 4.4Mev

Page # 36
 LAWS OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY
1. RUTHERFORD-SODDY LAWS (STATISTICAL LAWS)
The disintegration of a radioactive substance is random and spontaneous.
Radioactive decay is purely a nuclear phenomenon and is independent of any physical and chemical
conditions.
The radioactive decay follows first order kinetics, i.e., the rate of decay is proportional to then number
of undecayed atoms in a radioactive substance at any time t. If dN be the number of atoms (nuclei)
disintegrating in time dt, the rate of decay is given as dN/dt. From first order kinetic rate law :
dN
= – N
dt
where  is called as decay or disintegration constant.
Let N 0 be the number of nuclei at time t = 0 and Nt be the number of nuclei after time t, then according
to integrated first order rate law, we have :
Nt = N0 e–t
N0 N0
 t = ln N = 2.303 log N
t t
The half life (t1/2) period of a radioacitve substance is defined as the time in which one-half of the
radioactive substance is disintegrated. If N0 be the number of nuclei at t = 0, then in ha half life T, the
number of nuclei decayed will be N0/2
Nt = N0e–t ... (i)
N0
 = N0e–T ... (ii)
2
t/T n
Nt 1 1
from (i) & (ii) N =   =   n : number of half lives
0 2 2
0.693
The half life (T) and decay constant () are related as : T=

The mean life (Tm) of a radioactive substance is equal to the sum of life times of all atoms divided by the
number of all atoms and is given follows
1
Tm =

2. SODDY FAJANLAWY(GROUP-DISPLACEMENT LAWS)
(i) When a nuclide emits one -particle (2He4), its mass number (A) decreases by 4 units and atomic
number (Z) decreases by two units.
zX  Z2Y
A A-4 + He4 + Energy
2
(ii) When a nuclide emits a -particle, its mass number remains unchanged but atomic number increases by
one unit.
zX  z+1Y + –1e + v + Energy
A A 0
v is antineutrino
In the nucleus, due to conversion of neutron into proton, antineutrino is produced. It has no charge or
mass, but possess momentum. When a proton is converted to a neutron, a neutrino and a +ve -particle
is produced, which is called is position.
0n  1H + –1e + v (antineutrino)
1 1 0

1H  0n + +1e (position) + v (neutrino)

1 1 0

(iii) When a  particle is produced, both atomic and mass number remain constant.
Page # 37
ACTIVITY OFARADIOACTIVE ISOTOPE
The activity of a radioactive substance (or radioisotope) means the rate of decay per second or the
number of nuclei disintegrating per second. It is generally denoted byA.
dN
 A=
dt
If at time t = 0, the activity of a radioactive substance be A0 and afte time t = t sec, activity be A0 then :
 dN 
A0 =   = – N0
 dt  t 0

 dN 
At =   = – N1
 dt  t  t
 At = A0–t

Ex. The mean lives of an radio active substance are 1620 and 405 years for -emission and -emission
respectively. Find out the time during which three fourth of a sample will decayif it is decaying both by -
emission and -emission simultaneously.
[Sol. When a substance decarys by  and  emission simultaneously, the average rate of disintegration av is
given by:
av =  +
where  = disintegration constant for -emission only
 = disintegration constant for -emission only
Mean life is given by : Tm = 1/
1 1 1 1 1
 av =  +  = T = T + T = + = 308 × 10–3
m   1620 405
N0
avt = 2.303 log N
t

100
 (3.08 × 10–3) t = 2.303 log
25
1
 t = 2.303 × log 4 = 449.24 years ]
3.08 103

Ex. A count rate-meter is used to measure the activity of a given sample. At one instant the meter shows
4750 counts per minutes. Five minutes later it shows 2700 counts per minutes. Find :
(a) decay constant
(b) the half lift of the sample
[Sol. Initial activity = A0 = dN/dt at t = 0
Final activity = At = dN/dt at t = t
dN dN
 N 0 and  N t
dt t 0 dt t 5

4750 N0
 = N
2700 t

N0
Using t = 2.303 log N
t
Page # 38
 4750 2.303 4750
 (5) = 2.303 log  = log = 0.1129 min–1
2700 5 2700
0.693
 t1/2 = = 6.14 min ]
0.1129

Ex. A dose of 5mCi of P32 (t1/2 = 14 days) is a administered intravenously to a patient whose blood volume
is 3.5 lts.At the end of 1 hour, it is assumed that the phosphorous is uniformly distributed. What would
be the count rate/ml of the withdrawn blood if the counter measuring the activity had an efficiency of
10%:
(a) 1 hour after injection
(b) 28 days after injection
[Sol. LetA0 = initial activity A10 = initial activity
5 105 0.693
 A0 = 3 = 0.143 × 10 Ci/ml and  =
–5 = 2.06 × 10–3 /Hr
35 10 14  24
A0
t = 2.303 log A
t

2.06  10 3  1 0.143  10 5
After 1.0 Hr : = log
2.303 At
 At = 1.42 × 10–6 Ci/ml
Count rate = 10/100 × (1.42 × 10–6) × 3.7 × 1010 dps = 5280 dps
After 28 days, i.e., after two half lives (t1/2 = of P32 = 14 days) ;
 At = A0 / 4 = 1.42 × 10–6 /4
Count rate = 10/100 × (1.42 × 10–6 /4) × 3.7 × 1010 dps = 1322.75 dps ]
Ex. In the chemical analysis of a rock, the mass ratio of two radioactive isotopes is found to be 100 : 1. The
mean lives of the two isotopes are 4 × 109 and 2 × 109 years respectively. If it is assumed that at the time
of formation the atoms of both the two isotopes were in equal proportion, calculate the age of the rock.
Ratio of the atomic weights of two isotopes is 1.02 : 1.
[Sol. Let two isotopes are A and B
mA AA 1.02
mB = 100 ; AB =
1
9
TA = 4 × 10 years TB = 2 × 109 years [Also  = 1/T]
Let ratio of nuclei of two isotops be :
NA0 N At
N B0 at t = 0 and N Bt at t = 1
For isotope A :
NA0
At = 2.303 log N
At
On subtracting :
N A 0 / N B0 initial ratio
(A – B) t = 2.303 log N / N  (A – B)t = 2.303 log final ratio
At Bt

Page # 39
HERE IN THE GIVEN QUESTIONS :
 1 1  1
   9  t = 2.303 log
 4  10 2  10 
9
100 / 1.02
 age = t = 1.83 ×1010 years ]

Ex. Knowing the decay constant , of a nucleus, find:

(a) the probability of decay of the nucleus during the time from 0 to t;
(b) the mean lifetime  of the nucleus.
[Ans. (a) P = 1 – exp ( – t) ; (b)  = 1/ . ]
[Sol.(a) The probability of suravival (i.e. not decaying) in time t is e–t. Hence the probability of decay is
1 – e–t.
(b) The probability that the particle decays in time dt around time t is the difference
e–t – e–(t + dt) = e–t [1 – e–edt] = e–t dt
Therefore the mean life time is
   
1 1
T =  te dt  e dt   xe dx e
 t t x x
dx  ]
0 0
 0 0


Ex. Asmall amount of solution containing Na24 radionuclide with activityA= 2.0. × 103 disintegrations per
second was injected in the bloodstream of a man. The activity of 1 cm3 of blood sample taken 1= 5.0
hours later turned out to beA' = 16 disintegrations per minute per cm3. The half-life of the radionuclide
is T = 15 hours. Find the volume of the man's blood.
[Ans. V = (A/A) exp (–  ln 2 / T) = 61 ]
[Sol. Let V = volume of blood in the body of the human being. Then the total activity of the blood is AV.
Assuming all this activity is due to the injected Na24 and taking account of the decayof this radionuclide,
we get
VA = Ae–t
ln 2
Now = per hour, t = 5 hour
15
A –ln 2/3 2.0  10 –ln 2/3
3
Thus V= e = e cc = 5.95 litre ]
A (16 / 60)

Ex. A P32 radionuclide with half-life T = 14.3 days is produced in a reactor at a constant rate q = 2.7 × 109
nuclei per second. How soon after the beginning of production of that radionuclide will its activity be
equal to A = 1.0 × 109 dis/s?
[Ans. t = – (T / ln 2) ln (1 – A/q) = 9.5 days ]
[Sol. Production of the nucleus is governed by the equation
dN
= g  N (decay)
dt 
supply
g
we see that N will approach a constant value . This can also be proved directly. Multiply by et and

write.
dN t
e + et N = get
dt
d
Then (N et) = get
dt
g
or Net = et + const.

 At t = 0 when the production is starteed, N = 0
g
0 = + constant

g
Hence N= (1 – e–t)

Now the activity is
A = N = g (1 – e–t)
From the problem
1
–t
2·7 = 1 – e
This gives t = 0.463
0.463 0.463  T
so t= = = 9.5 days.
 0.693
T  A
Algebraically t = – ln 2 ln 1   ]
 g

Ex. A radionuclide A1 with decay constant 1 transforms into a radionuclide A2 with decay constant 2.
Assuming that at the initial moment the preparation contained only the radionuclideA1, find:
(a) the equation describing accumulation of the radionuclideA2 with time;
(b) the time interval after which the activityof radionuclideA2 reaches the maximum value.
1 ln (1 /  2 )
2
 1

[Ans. (a) N2 (t) = N10    e  1t e 2 t ; (b) tm =   
1 2
]
[Sol.(a) Suppose N1 and N2 are the number of two radionuclides A1, A2 at time t. Then
dN1
= – 1N1 ... (1)
dt
dN 2
= 1N1 – 2N2 ... (2)
dt
From (1) N1 = N10e1t
where N10 is the initial number of nuclides A1 at time t = 0
From (2)
 dN 2 
   2 N 2  e  2 t =  N e ( 1  2 ) t
 dt  1 10

1N10  (1  2 ) t
or ( N 2 e  2 t ) = constant    e
1 2
since N2 = 0 at t = 0
1 N10
constant N2 =   
1 2
1 N10
Thus =    (e   2 t  e  1t )
1 2
(b) The activity of nuclide A2 is 2N2. This is maximum when N2 is maximum. That happens when
d N2
=0
dt
This requires 2 e   2t m  1e  1t m
ln (1 /  2 )
or tm = 1   2 ]
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