Isbn 978-93-84648-71-8 PDF

Proceedings of the Two-Day UGC
National Seminar on
“Recent Advances in Plant Sciences”
Organized by
Department of Botany
Singareni Collieries Women’s Degree College,
Kothagudem
Re-Accreditated with ‘A’ grade by NAAC
Edited by
Dr.V.V.Ramana, HOD, Botany & Dr.M.Kamala Rani, Principal
International E – Publication
www.isca.me , www.isca.co.in
Proceedings of the Two-Day UGC
National Seminar on
“Recent Advances in Plant Sciences”
Organized by
Department of Botany
Singareni Collieries Women’s Degree College,
Kothagudem
Edited by
Dr.V.V. Ramana, HOD, Botany & Dr. M. Kamala Rani, Pricipal
Singareni Collieries Women’s Degree College, Kothagudem
2015
International E - Publication
www.isca.me , www.isca.co.in
International E - Publication
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E-mail: [email protected] , Website: www.isca.me , www.isca.co.in
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2015
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photocopying, reordering or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher.
ISBN: 978-93-84648-71-8
International Science Congress Association
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Foreword
A Two- Day National Seminar on “Recent Advances in Plant Sciences” sponsored by
UGC was organized by the department of Botany of this college on 29th and 30th October 2014.
The seminar was organized with a view to inculcate scientific temper, promote botanical
research and the need for conservation of diversified plants across the globe in the minds of
budding botanists. It provided the faculty and the students of the college an opportunity to
interact with eminent Botanists and Researchers from different parts of the country.
The subject chosen for the seminar is most apt for present conditions. In view of
increasing population and escalating energy demand, there is a need to integrate scientific
research to the land conditions and increase productivity. I am sure that the deliberation of the
seminar on various aspects of botanical research is a success in this direction. Interaction among
the scientists, researchers, academicians and students has highlighted the need to grapple with
present problems and bring out a concrete message for sustainable development in future.
The proceedings of the seminar in the form of this volume is the result of the diligence
and perseverance of Dr. V.V. Ramana, HOD Botany, the Organizing Secretary and members of
the Botany Department. I acknowledge and appreciate the work done by them.
I am sure that this book will serve as good material for researchers in the field of plant
sciences.
Dr. M. Kamala Rani
Principal,
S.C.W.D. College
March 2015
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Proceedings of National Seminar on “Recent Advances in Plant Sciences”
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PREFACE
Human life is intrinsically related to plants. The economy of a Nation, the health and wellbeing of its
people are all dependent on the plants. Plants are one of the most fascinating and important group of
organisms living on Earth. They serve as the reservoir of energy into the biosphere, provide food, and
shape our environment. Green plants have the unique capacity to trap the solar energy which is
essentially the only mechanism of energy input into the living world. Plant science deals with the study
of plants from many points of view. This science investigates the basic and applied aspects of plants their
adaptation to varying conditions of environment there distribution in space and time. The laws involved
in their evolution, the laws of hereditary, the diverse uses of plants and lastly the different methods that
can be adopted to improve plants for better use by mankind.
Plants sustain human life by providing basic raw materials needed for food, clothing, shelter, medicines,
energy, raw material for several industries etc. in addition to rendering various ecosystem services.
Green Plants are not just there to feed our needs or to decorate the landscape, they are the organisms that
make life in our biosphere possible: they make the otherwise lifeless environment habitable, arable and
with ability to photosynthesize, provide clean air and regulate water cycles of the planet. As a matter of
fact the existence of the man would not be impossible and unthinkable without plants. With advance in
knowledge man has tried to tap all sources for his comforts and varied uses. Thus a host of other useful
products have been obtained from the plant world, through his knowledge and the proper application of
it.
Food production is not the only way whereby plants contribute to human welfare. Coal, oil, and
Gasoline all, either directly or indirectly, trace their beginnings to plants of long ago. Thus, much of our
machinery actually runs on plant products. Paper and books are products of plants, also spices, tea,
stimulants, sedatives, pain killers, oils, waxes, gums, alcohol, linen, brooms etc. Plants have been used at
varying times and in varying cultures to create visions, dispose demons, incur blessings, and improve
fertility. Trees have played an important role in the economy of the state and are an asset to the nation.
Today, by inserting one or more genes into a plant, scientists are able to produce a plant with new,
advantageous characteristics. The new gene splicing techniques are being used to achieve many of the
same goals and improvements that plant breeders historically have sought through conventional methods.
They give scientists the ability to isolate genes and introduce new traits into foods without
simultaneously introducing Undesirable traits. This is an important improvement over traditional
breeding. Because of the increased precision offered by the bioengineered methods, the risk of
introducing detrimental traits is actually likely to be reduced.
If we want to make headway in understanding how these essential organisms function and build the
foundation for a more sustainable future, then we need to apply the most advanced technologies available
to the study of plant life. Recent advances in Plant sciences have provided strong basis for initiating
comprehensive research on various branches of Botany for human welfare. Plant biotechnology has
emerged as an area having tremendous impact in the fields of health, agriculture, industry and
environmental protection.
In the field of plant sciences very rapid progress has been made on a number of fronts in recent years
through developments in basic biology, instrumentation, microscopy, computational analysis,
cytochemistryand biochemistry. Besides fundamental uses in unraveling the mysteries of nature & global
climate change, Genome biodiversity assessment also has far reaching implications in the well being of
mankind. The advent of genomics-based technologies has provided the ability to address biological
questions or altered phenotypes in ways not previously imagined. In the past decade, we have obtained
reference genomes for a number of plant species which can now serve as the basis for comparative
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studies within or among species and as a framework for a wide variety of functional genomics
approaches.
Over the past few decades rapid developments in genomic and other molecular research technologies
and developments in bioinformation technologies have combined to produce a tremendous amount of
information related to molecular biology. From fish to fungus, trees to turnip, potato to paper,
nanobiotechnology is about more than pesticides and genetic engineering. In view of these, a national
seminar on “Recent Advances in Plant Sciences” was organized to acquire stock of the current
knowledge which will help us to understand the depth of nature easily. The seminar comprised of Key
note, lead lectures, oral and poster presentations on the following sub themes
1. Taxonomy, Ethnobotany and Pharmaceuticals.
2. Ecology, Climate change and Plant Adaptation.
3. Bio-informatics, Nanotechnology and its application in Modern plant biology.
4. Agro- biodiversity, Traditional agriculture and Modern agriculture.
5. Plant Biotechnology, Plant Biochemistry and Physiology.
6. Molecular Biology and Cytogenetics.
Challenges world wide i.e. ever increasing population, food & oil crisis and escalating energy demand
show a clear need to develop a new breed of professionals and officials who can effectively combine
their individual expertise to tackle these challenges by evolving innovative strategies and implementing
holistic solutions. The fruits of the scientific research should reach the common man.
Many advances made in the past and also in recent times in plant sciences have shown promising
solutions to global problems and in future also it is likely to make many more contributions to the
welfare of human beings. Hence an attempt was made through the present seminar on “Recent Advances
in Plant sciences- to provide a platform for sharing the knowledge and to help in arriving fruitful
solutions for better environment to live in and to sensitize the researchers and the students the young
budding botanists to promote lab to land technology.
The National seminar focused on 6 subthemes and is divided into 6 sessions. We are fortunate that
resource persons of very high caliber from reputed institutions like NIT Warangal, Central university of
Hyd., R&D centre Tea Stanes & CO. Ltd, Coimbatore, SKU, Ananthpuram, JNTU(H), RARS,
wgl.,ITDA, Garemellapadu, O.U and from the parent University of K.U.have responded enthusiastically
to our invitation in this academic activity. In addition to the 12 lead lectures we received 77 contributory
papers (Abstracts) from SKU, Yogivemmana Univ., Telangana univ, Sathavahana Univ, O.U, K.U.and
from different colleges.41 student abstracts for poster presentations.
In the inaugural address delivered by sri. Jalagam Venkat Rao, honorable MLA, Kothagudem
constituency stressed that India is an agricultural country and the need of the hour is to increase the
productivity by promoting lab to land technology.
Key note was delivered by Prof. B. Ravi Prasada Rao, Professor of Botany, Member, Indian sub
continent plant specialist group- IUCN, on modern approaches for Biodiversity conservation. In his lucid
lecture with beautiful illustrations spoke about conservation and management strategies that maintain and
restore biodiversity which include the use of Biotechnology, Species modeling and Satellite technology.
Session I- Taxonomy, Ethnobotany & Pharmacueticals was chaired by Prof. MA. Singaracharya,
Kakatiya Univeristy, Dean CDC and Co- Chaired by Md. Mustafa, KU.
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One lead lecture was presented by Dr. J.Usha Kumari, Reader in Botany (Retd), SCWDC on
Ethnobotany in general and review of family Moraceae.
Session II- Ecology, Climate change and Plant adaptations was chaired by Prof. Ch. Sasikala, Head
department of Env, JNTUH, Hyderabad.
Prof. MA. Singarachray, Department of Microbiology, KU has deliverd a lucid lead lecture on Green
plants in carbon capture and storage (CCS)- he emphasized on the fact i.e. “Green Cleans” and also
spoke about carbon foot prints and carbon credits.
Session III- Bio- informatics and Nanotechnology and its applications in modern plant biology was
chaired by Prof. D. Ravinder Gupta, Department of Physics, OU, he spoke about applications of nano
particles in medical world like gene therapy, cancer therapy, drug delivery etc. in plant world in
taxonomic view, this modern tool is useful for the synthesis of eco friendly, non toxic, non expensive
nano particles which help us to open a new vista for the classification of Angiosperms and detection of
their phylogenetic relationship.
Lead lecture was delivered by Dr. R. Sateesh Babu, Associate Professor, NIT, Warangal on the “Role of
bioinformatics in plant sciences and how it plays a key role in today’s Botanical research as tool in
database management, visualization, integration, analysis, modeling and prediction”.
Day two i.e. 30.10.2014 began with
Session IV- Agro biodiversity, Traditional and Modern Agriculture chaired by Dr.C.Cheralu, Asst
Director RARS, Warangal.stressed the need to conserve germplasm of the wild varieties and also the
need for construction of some natural biodiversity farms and spoken on “Sustainable, low input
ecofarming”.
TWO LEAD LECTURES were presented one by R. Ramakrishna, Horticulturist on “New Technologies
in Horticulture to increase productivity to get higher yield per unit area”.
Second lecture was by Prof. Shahera Nasreen from Aurangabadh. I am very happy to state that she is a
proud product of our college. Spoke about “Modern agriculture- a challenge to researchers”.
Session V- Plant Biotechnology, Physiology and Biochemistry was chaired by Prof. B. Digamber rao,
Chairman BOS in Botany, KU and has delivered a very interesting lecture on Algal Biotechnology with
special reference to “Spirulina serves as nutrient for mall nutrition cases in under developed countries
and in rich countries for beautification as cosmetics”
Second lead lecture was delivered by Prof .N. Ramaswamy, Principal University College, KU on “Role
of Plant Biotechnology in Human Welfare and some of the Highlights of their research”.
The last Session VI- Molecular Biology and Cytogenetics was chaired by Dr. V. Krishna Reddy, HOD
Botany, KU.
Prof. S. Ram Reddy, Dept of Microbiology, KU has given lecture on “Cell cycle regulation with special
reference to cancer”
The session concluded with a lecture by Dr.S. Karunakar Reddy, OU, Hyd on “DNA and its
replication”.
This book is a collection of the lectures and papers presented by academicians in the two
day National Seminar on “Recent Advances in Plant Sciences” organized by department of Botany
Singareni Collieries Women’s Degree College, Kothagudem during 29th& 30th October 2014.The
Editors would like to add that the rights of the paper contributors have been respected and no
changes are made in the text submitted by them except for the purpose of formatting to publish.
Kothagudem March 2015 Dr.V.V.Ramana, Organizing Secretary

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Acknowledgements
As the Organizing secretary of the National Seminar and editor of this volume, I would like to record my
gratitude and appreciation to the following persons and organizations.
• University Grants Commission (SERO, HYD) for the financial assistance provided to organize
the two day National Seminar on “ Recent Advances In Plant Sciences “and also for the
publication of the proceedings , which gave shape to this book.
• Our Collaborating partner, Environment cell, SCCL, Kothagudem represented by Sri. M.Vasanth
Kumar, G.M. Environment, Singareni Collieries Company Ltd. For continuous cooperation.
• The management of Singareni Collieries Womens Degree College, in particular to Dr.M.Kamala
Rani, Principal and Sri C.V.Reddy G.M. Education, SCCL for their logistic support and
encouragement.
• Prof. B. Ravi Prasad Rao, Prof. of Botany, SKU, Ananthpur for his lucid Key note address.
• Prof. M.A.Singaracharya, Prof. of Microbiologyand Dean CDC, K.U., Prof. N.Ramaswamy, prof
of Biotechnology and Principal, K.U., Science College, Prof. B.Digamber Rao, Chairman BOS in
Botany, K.U, Dr.V. Krishna Reddy, Head department of Botany, K.U for being the guests of
honour for the Inaugural and Valedictory sessions and for their inspiring messages.
• All the resource persons for making the technical sessions not only useful and interesting but also
for motivating students with very relevant and thought provoking lectures.
• The participants from various places for their enthusiastic involvement and knowledge sharing,
which is crucial for the success of the seminar.
• The Faculty members of the Botany department & from all other departments and the non
teaching staff of the college for the assistance extended to make the seminar a grand success.
• Sri S.K.Moulana of Thahergraphics and printers, Kothagudem for his timely help in printing the
proceedings
Dr.V.V.Ramana
Head, Department of Botany
SCWDC Kothagudem
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Table of Contents
S. No Title of The Paper Authors Page number
1. Green Plants in Carbon M.A. Singara Charya 1
Capture and Storage (CCS)
2. Role of Plant Srikanth Kagtihoju, Vikram 16
biotechnology in human Godishala, Mahitha Banala,
welfare – a Review
Mohammad Hadi Ebrahimzadeh,
Fatemeh Soghra Younesikelaki,
Madhusudhan Kairamkonda,
Rajinikanth Marka and Nanna Rama
Swamy*
3. Biogenic Synthesis of Silver Gudikandula Krishna1, Metuku Ram 31
Nanoparticles Using
Prasad1, Pabba Shivakrishna1, Svssl
Daedaleopsis flavidaand
evaluation of their antibacterial Hima Bindu N1, Burra Samatha1,
activity
Vadapally Pranitha2 and M.A.
Singara Charya1
4. Synthesis and characterization M.V.Ramana 1 P.S.Lakshmi2, and P. 42
of Gd3+doped Zinc Oxide Suneetha3
nanocrystals
5. POTENTIALS OF A.A.Haleem Khan, Prof. Naseem*, 47

HYDROGEN PEROXIDE Prof. B. Vidya Vardhini
AND ANTIOXIDANT
ENZYMES IN PLANT
HEALTH MANAGEMENT
6. A STUDY ON Bunga.Thirupathi, S. Gangadhar 62
ANTIOXIDANT Rao
METABOLITES AND
ENZYME ASSAYS IN
PHYSALIS MINIMA
7. A Study On Dominated Air N.V.Madhav1, E.N.Murthy2, 70
Borne Pollengrains at N.Gangadhr3 and N.Thirumala
University College Of Science chary4,Arjun.M5
Campus, Satavahana
University, Karimnagar,
Telangana State
8. ANTIBACTERIAL Yahya Khan and Sahera Nasreen 74
ACTIVITY OF
METHANOLIC EXTRACT
OF LEAVES OF MADHUCA
INDICA, L
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9. ETHNOBOTANY IN Dr.J.UshaKumari 79
GENERAL WITH A
REVIEW OF THE FAMILY
MORACEAE
10. EXPRESSION OF FLOWER S.K.Reddy. 88
COLOUR IN MIRABILIS
JALAPA PLANTS IS
INFLUENCED BY
TRANSPOSABLE
ELEMENTS
11. Bio-delignification: Issues and Vijaya, Ch., Vidya Sagar Reddy, G. 92
Prospects and Vinusha. B
12. Green synthesis of silver 120
nanoparticles from Cuscuta P. Anitha1 , G. Anuradha.2,
Pentagona leaf root extract P.Suneetha3and M.V.Ramana4
13. Ethnobotanical study of Folk Md. Ghani1, V. Suresh1, K. 126

Medicinal plants used by Thirupathi1, and Dr. Md. Mustafa2*
Tribals (Adivasi) of
Bhadrachalam and Cherla
areas of Khammam District,
Telangana State.
14. Traditional use of Medicinal Dr.S.Rama Mohana Rao, Dr. Ch. 134
plants in pediatric & maternal Ramesh Babu, G.Ravi, Ch.Saidi
care practiced by Reddy, SK.Shareefa
the Ethnic groups of
Khammam District, Telangana
State, India.
15. Spider webs: A source of Allam Vijaya Bhasker Reddy 141
Allergenic Spore and Pollen
16. IN VITRO ANTIMICROBIAL Sahera Nasreen Yahya Khan , 147
ACTIVITIES ON Shital Yadav, Lata Tupe, Priyanka
DIFFERENT PLANT Tupe, Kavita Pohalkar, Priyanka
EXTRACTS Velhal, and Abhay Salve.
17. MICROBIAL CONSORTIA B.Aruna, L.Rathna silviya, 154

FOR EFFECTIVE Dr.D.Vijaya Lakshmi and
DECOLORIZATION AND Dr.D.Vijaya Raghava Prasad
BIO DEGRADATION OF
ANTHRAQUINONE DYES
18. Bio-Synthesis and G. Anuradha.1 , V. Srinivasa Rao2, 162
characterization of silver M.C.Rao3and M.V.Ramana4
nanoparticles from Artocarpus
heterophyllus leaf and root
extracts
19. Medicinal plants used by the G.Ravi, Ch.Saidi Reddy, 170

Tribals of Khammam District, S.K.Shareefa, Dr.S.Rama Mohana
Telangana State, India. Rao
20. Candida sps colonization in L.Rathna silviya, B.Aruna, 186
oral Infections of Diabetic Dr.D.Vijaya Lakshmi *and
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Patients and their susceptibility Dr.D.Vijaya Raghava Prasad *
to specific antifungal agents
21. Phytochemical Analysis of B.Karunakar*,G.Nagaraju.T.Rajesh 204

Medicinal Plants Occurring in
Local Area Bhadrachalam
22. ASSESSMENT OF WATER B.RAMESH & M.ARUNA * 211
QUALITY OF RIVER MANJIRA
FROM HASGUL TO
KANDAKURTHI
23. STYDIES ON Ramana V.V. and 220
ETHNOMEDICINAL K.Rajyalaxmi
AQUATIC MACROPHYTES
FROM
ANNAPUREDDYPALLI ,
KHAMMAM DISTRICT IN
TELANGANA, INDIA
24. Synthesis and characterization V. Srinivasa Rao1 and 227
of Zinc nanorods from Aloe M.V.Ramana2
barbadensis leaf extract
25. Medicinal plants used to cure Dr. Ratna Manjula, R. 232

fractured bones in Khammam
District of Telangana, India
26. EBOLA VIRAL DISEASE Gajula.Nagaraju, 237
(EVD) Dr.Chitturi.Dayakar,
Badugu.Karunakar, Edunuri. Rajesh,
Bommidi. Manoj, Guguloth.Bhaskar
27. FRESHWATER ALGAE K. RAJYALAXMI & M.ARUNA * 243
FROM KINNERASANI OF
KHAMMAM DISTRICT IN
TELANGANA
28. Ethno- Medicinal Plants Dr.S.Rama Mohana Rao, 248
in Bhadrachalam Forest- G.Ravi, Ch.Saidi Reddy,
Khammam District of S.K.Shareefa SR & BGNR
Telangana State.
29. PLANT-MADE G.Sailaja 259

PHARMACEUTICALS
30. STYDIES ON M.Pushpalatha, **Ch. Pavani 262
ETHNOMEDICINAL
PLANTS IN SCWDC
CAMPUS, KOTHAGUDEM,
KHAMMAM DIST.
TELANGANA.
31. Agriculture- CH.Sumalatha 267
Yesterday,Today,Tomorrow
32. A Study of Algal Diversity B. Saroja 270

from Dhanbhad Lake,
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Kothagudem
33. PLANT ADAPTATIONS TO G.MANJULA 274

CLIMATE Change
34. CHANGES IN Ch. Vimala 278
TRADITIONAL AND P. Swapna
MODERN AGRICULTURE
35. Nano Fertilzers K. Srilatha 285
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Green Plants in Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)

M.A. Singara Charya
Department of Microbiology, Kakatiya University, Warangal 506 009.
1.1 Origin of the Green Plants:

In the Ordovician period, around 450 million years ago, the first land plants
appeared.These began to diversify in the late Silurian Period, around 420 million years ago,
and the results of their diversification are displayed in remarkable detail in an
early Devonian fossil assemblage. By the middle of the Devonian Period, most of the features
recognized in plants today are present, including roots, leaves and secondary wood. By late
Devonian times, seeds had evolved.Evolutionary innovation continued into the Carboniferous
period and is still ongoing today. This may have set the scene for the appearance of the
flowering plants in the Triassic (~200 million years ago), and their later diversification in the
Cretaceous and Paleocene
The latest major group of plants to evolve was the grasses, which became important in the
mid-Paleocene, from around 40 million years ago. The grasses, as well as many other groups,
evolved new mechanisms of metabolism to survive the low CO2 and warm, dry conditions of
the tropics over the last 10 million years.
Eukaryotic microbes appear Plants and

animals
appear
Prokaryotes appear Cyanobacteria
introduce significant
amount of O2 in the
Earth’s crust cools atmosphere
Billion years
Proceedings of National Seminar on “Recent Advances in Plant Sciences” 1

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1.2 Importance of plants in environment:
Plants bring manifold benefits to the human beings, and also to the environment we
live in. The effect of plants (vegetation) on pollution is considerable. Carbon-dioxide cycle
in the atmosphere is the most important for the very existence of mankind and living
organisms. Plants are beneficial in conservation of soil and water and a perennial source of a
large variety of raw-materials. Trees and shrubs help clean the air. They absorb carbon
dioxide, release oxygen and provide surfaces for the deposition of airborne particles and
unhealthful gases such as ozone. Also, water evaporating from tree leaves cools the air and
shade from trees cuts energy consumption, reducing the need for air-polluting energy
generation. Trees provide many benefits to a community. They create the oxygen we
breathe; reduce air and water pollution; reduce storm water runoff; provide shade; reduce
energy costs; reduce the urban heat island effect; act as wind breaks, sound barriers, and
visual screens. They improve our quality of life in enormous ways.
1.3 Photosynthesis:

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Photosynthesis is the only significant solar energy storage process on Earth and is the
source of all of our food and most of our energy resources. An understanding of the origin and
evolution of photosynthesis is therefore of substantial interest, as it may help to explain
inefficiencies in the process and point the way to attempts to improve various aspects for
agricultural and energy applications.
Photosynthesis is not quite as simple as adding water to CO2 to produce sugars and
oxygen. A complex chemical pathway is involved, facilitated along the way by a range
of enzymes and co-enzymes. The enzyme RuBisCO is responsible for "fixing" CO2 – that is,
it attaches it to a carbon-based molecule to form a sugar, which can be used by the plant,
releasing an oxygen molecule along the way. However, the enzyme is notoriously inefficient,
and just as effectively will also fix oxygen instead of CO2 in a process
called photorespiration. This is energetically costly as the plant has to use energy to turn the
products of photorespiration back into a form that can react with CO2.
6 CO2 + 12 H20 ---------------- C6H1206 + 6 O2 + 6 H20
1.4 Dynamics of Radiation:

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Direct reflection from clouds

52,000 x 1012 W (30%)
Absorbed by Land, Oceans,

Atmosphere and converted to heat
Solar Radiation 81,000 x 1012 W (50%)
1,73,000 x 1012 W
Energy stored in clouds(

Evaporation)
40,000 x 1012 W (20%)
Photosynthesis
40 x 1012 W (0.02%)
In the total solar amount of radiation only very meager portion ( 40 x 1012 )(0.02%) is
utilized by green plants existing in terrestrial and aquatic habitats towards photosynthesis.
The remaining major portion of the radiation is reflected (30%) and stored (20%) from the
clouds and absorbed by land, oceans, and atmosphere and converted to heat (50%).
Lindeman concept of community dynamics
Radiant energy λ4 R4
from sun
λ0 λ4 (λ’3=λ4 R2)
λ3 R3
λ3 (λ’2=λ3+ R2)
λ2 R2
Absorbedr λ1
adiation λ2 (λ’1=λ2+ R1)
λ1 R1
Radiation to
outer space
Respiratory heat loss to
Heat losses other than outer space
respiratory

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The Lindeman concept of community dynamics explains how the major portion of
radiant energy from the sun is absorbed and how it is distributed and captured by the
autotrophs in different ecosystems. After entry in to the ecosystem, the energy is traversed
through producers , herbivores, carnivores and gradually decreased, hence called it as
unidirectional flow of energy. Around 10% of energy is generally transporter to other trophic
level, hence it it is called as 10% law. From each trophic level the energy (R1 to R4)
liberated as respiratory heat loss to outer space.
1.5 Chlorophylls:
Chlorophylls are essential pigments for all phototrophic organisms. Chlorophylls are
themselves the product of a long evolutionary development, and can possibly be used to help
understand the evolution of other aspects of photosynthesis. The early part of the pathway is
identical to heme biosynthesis in almost all steps and has clearly been recruited from that
older pathway. The later steps include the insertion of magnesium and the elaboration of the
ring system and its substituent. The earliest version of the pathway (and that used by most
modern anoxygenic photosynthetic organisms) almost certainly was anaerobic, both not
requiring and not tolerating the presence of O2.
The forests and trees play an important role in amelioration of environment due to
their tremendous potential to act as:

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1. Dust Collector due to their dust trapping ability,
2. Effective carbon sink,
3. Green lungs of the city,
4. Supplier of much needed vital oxygen,
5. Nature’s air conditioners as well as purifier of air,
6. Soil and water conserver,
7. Potential areas for conservation of bio-diversity.
1.6 Green plants in pollution control:
Plants play an important role in reducing the environmental pollution load as well as
serve as pollution indicator. Vegetal cover is, therefore, a pollution scavenger as it absorbs
gases and gathers particulate matter through leaves having large surface areas. The green
portions of the trees and plants have the capacity to filter dust, smoke and other pollutants in
the air. Some species like Ficus, Mango, Neem etc. also act as good dust collectors.
The plants absorb large amounts of carbon dioxide and other pollutants giving us clean
air to breathe. Their shade prevents too much exposure to the sun. They reduce soil erosion,
polluted storm water run-off and thus save contributing to expensive mechanical water
control. The contribution of trees could be substantially increased if we strategically plant a
large number of trees and provide long-term stewardship to maximize their health and
longevity. This will maximize their benefit potential and provide us with future energy
savings and improved air quality.
Plants help in absorbing the gaseous pollutants through leaf stomata during the normal
exchange of gases. Plants are useful in binding or dissolving water soluble pollutants on to
moist leaf surfaces. They used in intercepting and storing larger particulates on outer leaf
surfaces, the epidermis, which may be waxy, resinous, hairy, or scaly. Trees are used in
capturing and storing particulates on the uneven, rough branch and bark surfaces. The role of
plants in sequestering CO2 aboveground in woody tissue and below ground in the roots is
well established. Further, trees are helpful in lowering local air and building temperatures
through transpiration, shading, and reducing winter wind infiltration, thus lessening the
demand for cooling and heating and the formation of ozone.
1.7 Green plants in carbon dioxide reduction:
Community trees reduce atmospheric CO2 by storing it or by reducing demand for

heating and cooling. On the other hand, vehicles, chain saws, chippers, and other equipment
release CO2 during the process of planting and maintaining trees. And eventually, all trees die
and most of the CO2 that has accumulated in their woody biomass is released into the

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atmosphere through decomposition. CO2is a greenhouse gas that traps theearth’s heat and
contributes to globalwarming. Human activities add greenhousegases to the atmosphere at a
rateof about 3 percent of annual naturalemissions — enough to tip the balanceand overwhelm
the environment.

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• Atmospheric concentration of carbon-dioxide crossed 380 ppm and is adding 2 ppm every year.
This level of carbon-dioxide this planet has not witnessed for at least 6,50,000 years - IPCC .The
carbon dioxide levels in India are 365 ppm and expected to rise by 600-700 ppm by 2100, if the
burning of fossil fuel continue in this manner.
The Tree Factor – “Green cleans”
1. Trees absorb, bind, intercept, and sequester pollutants.

2. They also reduce air temperature, provide shade, and reduce winter wind to curb
energy.
Despite these "sinks" for our greatly increased CO2 production, the concentration
of atmospheric CO2 continues to rise. Carbon dioxide is transparent to light but rather opaque
to heat rays. Therefore, CO2 in the atmosphere retards the radiation of heat from the earth
back into space — the "greenhouse effect".
1.8 Carbon sequestration:

Carbon is the fourth most abundant element in the universe. It is a building block for all
living things, and is present in the air, soil, and water. CO2 is a naturally occurring gas that makes up
almost 0.04% of our atmosphere. As part of the Earth’s carbon cycle, CO2 is released by animals
during respiration, and absorbed by plants during photosynthesis. Greenhouse gases are responsible
for keeping the planet within hospitable temperatures, known as the greenhouse effect. Most
scientists agree that an excess of greenhouse gases, primarily resulting from human activities, is
contributing to global climate change.

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Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is a means of mitigating the contribution of fossil fuel
emissions to global warming, based on capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) from large point
sources such as fossil fuel power plants, and store it away from atmosphere by different
means. It can also be used to describe the scrubbing of CO2 from ambient air as a geo-
engineering technique.
An ability to understand, predict, assess, measure, and implement substantially

increased sequestration of carbon in soil and vegetation systems.Carbon sequestration is to
optimize net ecosystem exchange and ensure that the increased carbon is stored in long lived
vegetation and Soil or products. Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum, has initiated to
undertake activities that capture CO2 – planting trees or conserving forests, mostly in poor
developing countries.Terrestrial vegetation and soil currently absorb about 40% of global
carbon dioxide emissions, from human activities. The terrestrial biosphere acts as an overall
carbon sink until about 2050, but turns in to a source thereafter.
Carbon sequestration is accomplished by , 1) increasing photosynthetic carbon fixation

, 2) decomposition of organic matter, 3) reversing land use changes that contribute to global
emissions .Carbon sequestration in the terrestrial ecosystems will be enhanced by increasing
the amounts of carbon stored in living plant matter, roots and soil carbon (inorganic and
organic) and long lived materials that contain woody matter, or by processing wood in to
long- lived carbon products.
Increasing the storage of carbon in vegetation and soils could offer significant
benefits, such as, Improved soil and water quality, decreased nutrient loss, reduced soil
erosion, better wild life habitats, increased water conservation, more biomass products .
Road map for carbon sequestration: a) Increase below ground carbon (soil carbon), b)
Increase above ground carbon (plant biomass), c) Optimize land area for sequestration of
carbon.
Management strategies for carbon sequestration:
• Higher soil organic matter through reduced tillage and no tillage practices
• To restore soil organic matter levels in carbon degraded soils
• Enlarging soil organic matter pools by improving soil fertility.
There are two fundamental approaches to sequester carbon in terrestrial ecosystems:
1) Protection of ecosystems that store carbon so that sequestration can be maintained

or increased.
2) Manipulation of ecosystems to increase carbon sequestration beyond current

conditions.

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Particle pollution consists of microscopic solids or liquid droplets so small that they can
be inhaled deep into our lungs, causing serious health problems. Most of them start as smoke
and diesel soot and form in the air from NOx and sulfur oxides (SOx), even obscuring our
visibility. Millions of us live in areas where air pollution can cause serious health problems.
Ground-level ozone and airborne particles are two pollutants that pose the greatest threat to
human health.
• Carbon-dioxide (CO2), once thought to be the product of perfect combustion, is

also now considered a pollution concern. Fortunately, trees play an important role in cleaning
the air and making our communities healthier places to live. The use of plants as biological
monitors can be successfully applied in predicting the impact of air-borne pollutants, because
they provide simple, quick, and cheap methods for evaluating the effects of pollutants on
living systems. Measurements of air pollution removal rates by vegetation indicate that the
plants are effective pollution sinks. Plants react differently to air pollutants and classified in to
sensitive and tolerant plants. Some higher plants are very sensitive to air pollutants and the
resulting effect on morphology, physiology, bio-chemistry, and growth show more or less
specific, cleanly visible and measurable effects. Plants accumulate polluting compounds after
changing their chemical nature during metabolism and analysis of such compounds also be
used for monitoring pollution loads in different areas.
Genetic engineering for carbon sequestration: There is a need to discover genes in

perennial plants that allocate more carbon to below ground components, that code for higher
content of extractives ( components desired from the plant) or that provide resistance to
microbial degradation
1.9 Plants as bio-indicators:
A bio-indicator is defined as a plant which reveals the presence of a substance in its

vicinity by showing some typical symptoms which can be distinguished from the effects of
other natural anthropogenic stress.Good bio-indicator is one which shows the earliest
response to the pollutant enabling to indicate the presence and predict the consequences of
undesirable anthropogenic effects. It is generally accepted that plant communities serve as
better, effective and more reliable indicators compared to a single species.
The advantages in using plants as bio-indicators:
1. Inexpensive device to serve as indicators of environmental quality on as semi-

quantification scale as sensitive species can serve as warning signals for environmental
hazards.
2. Mineral accumulation by plants is used as a tool in geo-botanical prospecting.
3. Waste water treatment with the proven bio-accumulators serving as bio-scavengers
and waste land restoration with plants of proven indicator-cum-accumulator value
for respective metals.

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Plants are proved to be effective as natural pollutant sink by reducing CO2, CO and
other gaseous pollutants as well as by filtering out dust, soot and fly ash from
atmosphere.Lichens, Algae, Ficus, Gingo, Carrot, Coleous, Legumes (beans), Astralagous,
and Nausturitiumare found to be capable of fixing CO as well as absorbing nucleids. Plants
function as sinks of air pollutants because the large surface area of their leaves absorb
pollutants through numerous stomata operations. They are the best dust collectors (1.44-5.35
g/cm2) on the leaf surface.Plants control air pollution by taking in carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere and releasing oxygen. A peepal tree (Ficus religiosa) with a crown spread of 162
sq km releases 1,712 kg of oxygen and absorbs 2,252 kg of CO2 per hour. Trees not only
mechanically stop smoke and dust from reaching us, but also act as sinks of many noxious
gases, thus purifying the air.A 500 meter wide green area can reduce the concentration of SO2
by 70% and that of NO2 by 67%. A fully grown tree can absorb the pollution generated by a
car running for 25,000 km. If an air mass containing 150 ppm of ozone were to be suspended
over a forest area for eight hours, the vegetation would absorb 80% of the ozone.
1.10 Tree species as indicators of air pollution
Adina cordifolia(Haldu)
Bauhinia racemosa (Kachanal)
Diospyros cordifolia Bans)
Juniperus species (Juniperers)
Thuja occidentalis (Morpankhi) SO2 pollution
Populus delteoides (Poplar)
Quercus species (Oak)
Tamarindus indicus (Imli)
Pinus roxburghii (Chir)
Mangifera indica (Mango)
Cassia fistula (Amal tas)

Dalbergia sissoo (Shisham)
Picea glauca (White spouce)
Juniperus species (Juniperes) Hydrogen fluoride
Olea cuspidata (Olive) pollution
Prunus persica (Aru)
Prunus cerasoides (Himalayan cherry)
Salix species (Willow)
Ulmus species (Elm)
Pinus roxburghii (Chir)
Juglans nigra (Black walnut)

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Quercus species (Oak) Ozone Pollution
Picea species (Sprouces)
Juniperus species (Junipers)
Azadirachta indica (Neem) Dust and smoke
Mangifera indica (Mango)
When we plant one tree, look at the return we get on our investment:Over the course
of 50 years, a single tree can generate $31,250 of oxygen, provide $62,000 worth of air
pollution control, recycle $37,500 worth of water, and control $31,500 worth of soil erosion.
The selection of species has to be judicious for which a number of indicators have been short-
listed:
• Location of plantation site,
• Site conditions like, soil, ground water table,
• Climatic conditions like rainfall, temperature,
• Ornamental and aesthetic requirement,
• Environmental considerations like pollution abatement.
1.11 Phytoremediation:
• Phyto-remediation is a process of bioremediation which employs various types of plants

to mine, transfer, stabilize, wipe out contaminants in the soil and further below the soil zone
as well.The main processes involved in the technology are as follows: Phyto-stabilization:
The procedure where, chemical compounds produced by the plant immobilize contaminants.
• Phyto-accretion: (also called phyto mining).
In this process, plant roots soak up the contaminants along with other nutrients and water.
The contaminant accumulation is not removed but ends up in the plant shoots and leaves.
This technique is used first and foremost for wastes containing metals. The metals are
stored in the plant’s above ground shoots, which are harvested or are disposed of as a
perilous waste.
• Hydraulic Control:

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This process essentially involves trees which indirectly remediate by controlling groundwater
movement. Trees perform as natural pumps while their roots reach down towards the water
table and institute a dense root bunch that take up huge quantities of water.
• Root zone biodegradation: The plants release biochemical substances by way of its
roots, supplying nutrients to microorganisms in the soil.
• Phyto-degradation: In this case, plants actually metabolize and destroy contaminants

within plant tissues.
• Root zone filtration: This is similar to phyto-accumulation, but here plants used for
cleanup are raised in controlled atmosphere chambers with their roots in contact with water.
The process involves pumping of ground water to the surface to irrigate these plants.
• Phyto-volatilization : This is a process by which plants take up water containing organic

contaminants and release the contaminants into the air through their leaves.
• Phytoremediation is often viewed as being too slow to be of practical use.
Many sites are abandoned rather than cleaned up because of the cost of effective cleanup. It
is for this reason that we became interested in enhancing phyto-remediation using
transgenic technologies.
1.12 Ecological advantages of lignin:
Huge amounts of free carbon-dioxide is sequestered and immobilized in the form of

lignin, so that the quantity of green house gas is reduce. Slow degradation of lignin in the soil
isbeneficial because of the release of carbon-dioxide very slowly in to the atmosphere. Lignin
provides natural resistance to the entire plant. Plant health is related to the quality and
quantity of the lignin.
The plant cell is protected by a cell wall that has a structure analogous to reinforced
concrete. The cellulose fibrils play the role of steel reinforcing rods, while concrete is
represented by lignin. Lignin determines the rigidity, strength and resistance of a plant
structure.
1.13 Industrial applications of Lignin:
Lignin can be used as an emulsifying, sequestering, binding or dispersal agent. First

commercial use of lignin by Marathan corporation in Rothschild, Wisconcin, USA in 1927 as
leather tanning agent. The company was modified to Ligno Tech. USA, used as polyurethane
foam. In 1998, a German company, Tecnaro developed a process for turning lignin in to
substance called, Arboform, which behaves identically to plastic for injective molding.
Therefore, it can be used in place of plastic for several applications. When the item is
discarded it can be burned just like wood. (a green alternative to plastics: liquid wood).

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Arboform is used for the manufacture of- toys, loudspeaker boxes, car parts, golf tees,
ballpoint pens etc.The bio-plastic dubbed Arboform, derived from wood pulp based lignin,
can be mixed with hemp, flax or wood fibers and other additives such as wax to create a
strong, non-toxic alternative to petroleum-based plastics. The idea for liquid wood grew from
this realization: “Why not compose material out of the waste of this paper-making?” Liquid
wood, combines the high stability and good acoustical properties of wood with the injection-
molded capabilities of plastic.
Animal feed : Serving as emulsifiers in animal feed and as raw material in the production of
Vanillin (widely used as an ingredient in food flavors, in pharmaceutical and fragrance in
perfumes and odor masking products).
Lignin as adhesive: Lignin’s use as a very effective and economical adhesive, acting as a
binding agent or ‘glue’ in pellets or compressed materials. The binding properties of lignin
also make the product a useful component of the making of charcoal briquettes, ceramics,
linoleum paste, plywood and particle boards.
Ligno-sulfonates:
Ligno-sulfonates are used on unimproved road surfaces as a soil stabilization and

dust control agent. There is no negative impact on environment or human health. It is used as
fertilizer and it is biodegradable.
The potential uses of modified commercial lignins are, specialty polymers for the
paper industry, enzyme protection, neutralization of biocides, precious metal recovery aids
and wood preservation.
1.14 Conclusions:

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A better solution for the problem could be afforestation, growing more trees, coupled
with the proper management and conservation of the fast depleting rain forests, can solve the
problem of carbon storage.
Cutting of rain forests, legally or illegally, must be stopped immediately. Logging rain
forests for producing bio-fuels such as corn, maize and palm must be stopped.
Trees take up carbon dioxide at a much faster rate than oceans, if the scientists are
willing conduct pilot projects for deep sea carbon storage they must also consider studying the
efficiency of ‘localized carbon removal’ by tree cover around polluting industries.
India and 21 other countries under the banner of Carbon Sequestration Leadership
Forum adopted a draft strategic plan, which chalks out a roadmap till 2015 for developing
technologies to capture and store carbon dioxide so as to reduce pollution from thermal power
plants.
In this way, the green plants are acting as effective tools in capturing, storing the CO2
and maintaining the quality of the environment.

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Role of Plant biotechnology in human welfare – a Review
Srikanth Kagtihoju, Vikram Godishala, Mahitha Banala, Mohammad Hadi

Ebrahimzadeh, Fatemeh Soghra Younesikelaki, Madhusudhan Kairamkonda,
Rajinikanth Marka and Nanna Rama Swamy*
Department of Biotechnology,
Kakatiya University, Warangal-506009, (TS), India
*[email protected]
Abstract
Plant biotechnology is a key technology for the new millennium. Advances in science
especially in plant biotechnology, offered opportunities for revolutionizing the human welfare
activities chiefly through improving the quality and quantity of agriculture and healthcare
products which in turn helped in the field of health, food/agriculture and environmental
protection. Plant tissue culture offered possibility to multiply rapidly, conserve and to produce
desirable characters containing new varieties, production of valuable plant secondary
metabolites, regeneration of elite genetic transformed clones etc. Similarly, genetic engineering
and metabolic engineering offered possibilities to generate various disease, insect, pest, drought
and stress resistant cultivars and also plants with improved nutritional qualities and converted
plants as living bioreactors. Still lot of research is needed to eradicate hunger, healthcare
problems and also to solve environmental issues especially in 3rd World Countries to satisfy the
increasing population.
Key words: Plant biotechnology, plant tissue culture, genetic engineering, metabolic
engineering, crop improvement, plant secondary metabolites, bioreactors.

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Introduction
World population is expected to increase by 25% from 6.05 billion in the coming years of
period by 2020. To feed the increasing population, global food production should increase by
50% as the current food production will not be enough to feed this population. To combat this, a
new approach is now being taken by the global development players to provide “mini” and
localized revolutions by adopting Biotechnology to increase food production and agricultural
productivity (The Rockefeller Foundation, 2006).
Biotechnology is a collective term for a group of technologies that use biological matter
or processes to generate new and useful products and processes. As such, it ranges in complexity
and maturity from ancient brewing and bread-making techniques to genetic modification through
hybridization and interbreeding of plants and animals, as well as the manipulation of individual
genes in humans, animals, plants and micro-organisms. Biotechnology is a key technology for
the new millennium. It has an immense range of applications in agriculture, medicine, food
processing, environmental protection, mining, and even nano-electronics.
Advances in science especially in plant biotechnology, offered opportunities for
revolutionizing the human welfare activities chiefly through improving the quality and quantity
of agriculture and healthcare products which in turn helped in the field of health, food/agriculture
and environmental protection.
Some of the key contributions of plant biotechnology to the human welfare are rapid
clonal multiplication through meristem culture, molecular marker assisted selections, germplasm
conservation, production of transgenic plants through genetic engineering and rapid production
and isolation of plant secondary metabolites (PSMs) which play critical role in a wide variety of
processes and fields like pharmaceuticals (as drugs or their precursors), agrochemicals (as
fungicides, bactericides, insecticides), nutrition (flavoring agents, coloring foods),
cosmetics(fragrances, oils) and industrial products (alkaloids, phenols, paper, resins, gums,
terpenoids, latex, oils, dyes, pigments, plastics) etc. Due to presence of such PSMs plants are
often considered as bioreactors.
Agricultural resources are getting limited because of deforestation, land conversion and
several other biotic and abiotic factors. Similarly, occurrence of valuable metabolites in plants

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has stimulated immense interest on the part of industry in the field of pharmaceuticals,
agrochemicals, cosmetics, nutrition and industrial products, for which PSMs are collected from
plants growing in wild or from field cultivated sources. These compounds may be unstable and
present as part of a complex mixture. The availability of PSMs also depends on number of
factors which may be either biotic or abiotic like seasonal period of growth, age or maturity,
climatic conditions, disease, insect predation and high costs for labor and machinery during
harvesting and even political situation. On the other hand, total chemical synthesis of several
compounds is also possible, but economically not feasible and is not eco-friendly. Moreover, in
most cases, for isolation of PSMs whole plant is to be destroyed, as different PSMs are
distributed throughout the plant or in parts of a plant (bark, leaves, flowers, roots, fruits, seeds
etc.) which leads to the loss of germplasm and loss of availability in near future (Gordon and
David, 2001).
Therefore, when environmental conditions are not suitable, plant material is not available
throughout the year, chemical synthesis is not possible, particularly for large complex molecules,
rapid production of desirable characters containing plants is not possible; an alternative,
economically feasible and eco-friendly production process is of great interest. Hence, plant
biotechnological applications would come into rescue for conservation, multiplication and
genetic enhancement of commercially and/or economically important forest trees or crop plants.
Plant biotechnological tools are important which include cell, tissue (i.e. dedifferentiated
cultures), organ cultures (i.e. differentiated cultures); genetic transformation methods, metabolic
engineering, cryopreservation etc.
Advances in plant biotechnology, particularly in methods for plant tissue cultures, genetic
engineering, metabolic engineering, germplasm conservation provides new means for the
commercial processing of even rare and endangered plants and chemicals given by them. These
new technologies will extend and enhance the usefulness of plants as renewable resources of
valuable compounds.
The field of plant biotechnology can be divided into four broad subjects viz., 1. Plant
Tissue culture – which helps in in vitro micropropagation and conservation of valuable and
endangered plants/crops and propagation of genetically modified plants, 2. Genetic engineering –
which deals with plant molecular biology, isolation of genes and their introduction into other

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plant species to develop desirable genotype, 3. Molecular breeding – which encompasses the
utilization of molecular tools in breeding programmes through linkage maps, map-based gene
cloning, tagging, marker assisted selection and breeding and 4. Genomics – which deals with
structural and functional dimensions of plant genome (Pattnayak and Anand Kumar, 2000).
Plant tissue culture for In vitro conservation and micro propagation
Plant tissue culture refers to growing and multiplication of cells, tissues and organs of
plants in defined liquid or solid media under aseptic and controlled environmental conditions to
produce true-to-type clones of the selected genotype (Thrope, 2007). This tissue culture
technique manipulates cells, anthers, pollen grains, or other tissues in such a way that they live
for extended periods under laboratory/ in vitro conditions or become whole living, growing
organisms; genetically engineered cells may be converted into genetically engineered organisms
(Robert W. Herdt, 2006). In recent years apart from these, tissue culture gained major industrial
importance in the area of disease elimination, plant improvement and production of secondary
metabolites.
Small pieces of tissue (named explants) can be used to produce hundreds and thousands
of plants in a continuous process. A single explant can be multiplied into several
thousand/million/billion plants in relatively short period and limited space under controlled
conditions, irrespective of the season throughout the year (Akin-Idown et al 2009). Hence, Plant
tissue culture offers powerful tool to support and improve conservation and management of
endangered and genetically valuable plants (Withers, 1995).
In most of the forest tree species, the seed germination is affected and delayed by
several biotic and abiotic factors, due to which most of them become endangered, threatened and
even completely disappear (Srikanth, et al., 2013). This can be successfully overcome by in vitro
seed germination, culturing of mature or immature zygotic embryos, clonal propagation, somatic
embryogenesis and callus cultures. Such protocols were, established for several medicinally
important forest tree species like Strychnos potatorum (Srikanth, et al., 2013),(Fig. 1) Wrightia
ticntoria (Madhusudhan, et al., 2013), W. tomentosa (Srinivas, et al., 2012), Givotia
rottlorifomris (Rambabu et al. 2006)and also in several orchids species (Gangaprasad, et al
1999). Tissue culture techniques helped in conservation and propagation of forest plants like
bamboo, teak, sandalwood etc. and economically important plants such as cardamom, banana,

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brassica etc. This method even applied to recover plants obtained from inter-generic crosses that
do not produce fertile seeds (Ahmadi et al 2010). Somatic embryogenesis play an important role
in mass production of forest tree species for forestry (Kriebel, 1995) and for the development of
artificial seeds, making handling and direct planting easier (Carlson and Hartle, 1995). Artificial
seeds are used for mass clonal propagation, breeding of plants producing non-orthodox seeds or
non-seed producing plants and facilitate the storage and transportation of germplasm (Ravi and
Anand, 2012).
In the field of agriculture, tissue culture allows the production and propagation of
genetically homogeneous varieties using anther cultures, disease-free plant material (Chatenet, et
al., 2001). In vitro cell and tissue culture is a useful tool for the induction of somaclonal variation
for crop improvement. Genetic variability induced by tissue culture could be used as a source of
variability to obtain new stable genotypes (Marino and Battistini, 1990).
Plant tissue culture has even contributed a lot in crop improvement after genetic
transformation by developing salt and drought resistant crops (Raj et al. 2005), nitrogen fixing
capacity development (Sharma, et al., 2002), increased photosynthetic efficiency (Ishimaru, et al
1997; Ishimaru, et al., 1998), improving the quality and quantity of storage proteins, more
production of vitamins (Ye, et al., 2000; Goto, et al., 1999) and essential amino acids and
production of high yielding hybrid seeds. Further, it has contributed to crop protection by
development of disease resistant verieties of transgenic plants wchich offer protection against
virus, bacteria, fungi and insects, development of herbicide tolerant plants (Kasuga, et al.
1999).
Genetic engineering
Genetic improvement through recombinant DNA technology/genetic engineering has

become a reality in crop improvement. The powerful combination of genetic engineering and
breeding programs permits to introduce useful traits into commercial and medicinally important
species within an economically viable time frame. There is a great potential for genetic
manipulation of crops and medicinal plants to enhance productivity through increasing resistance
to diseases, pests and environmental stress and by changing the seed quality (Hansen and Wright,
1999).

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Fig. 1. In vitro conservation using zygotic embryo culture and synthetic seed preparation in
medicinally important endangered forest tree species S. potatorum.(a-f). In vitro zygotic embryo
on different strengths of MS medium, (g-i) Acclimatization of plant in vermiculite and
earthenware pot containing garden soil, (j). Preparation of synthetic seed using immobilized
zygotic embryos. (Adopted from Srikanth, et al., 2013).
Genetic transformation in plants can be achieved by either vector-mediated (indirect gene

transfer) or vector less (direct gene transfer) methods (Sasson, 1993). Among vector dependant
gene transfer methods, Agrobacterium-mediated genetic transformation is most widely used for
transfer of foreign genes in to plant cells. Transgenics have been produced in a number of
including the major economic crops, vegetables, ornamental, medicinal, fruit, tree and pasture
plants, using Agrobacterium mediated or direct transformation methods (Birch, 1997).
Agrobacterium-mediated transformation provides a natural gene transfer mechanism which
offers several advantages over direct gene transfer methodologies (particle bombardment,
electroporation, etc), such as the possibility to transfer only one or few copies of DNA fragments
carrying the genes of interest at higher efficiencies with lower cost and the transfer of very large
DNA fragments with minimal rearrangement (Gheysen, et al 1998; Hansen and Wright, 1999;
Shiba and Liu, 2000).Recently researchers succeeded in developing transgenic plants of cotton

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resistant to insects, salt and drought tolerant tomato (Fig. 2) (Praveen, 2006; Upender, et al
2013), heat tolerant tobacco, maiz (Lipping, et al., 2012). Genes conferring resistance to insects
have been inserted into a wide array of crop plants including maize, cotton, potato, tobacco, rice,
broccoli, lettuce, walnuts, apples, alfalfa, and soybean (McLaren, 1998). A number of transgenic
crops have now been released for on-farm production or field-testing (Dunwell, 2000).
Genetic engineering would be a powerful tool for enhancing the productivity of novel
PSMs of limited yield which play a major role in medical and pharmaceutical feilds. Hairy roots,
transformed with A. rhizogenes, have been found to be suitable for the production of PSMs
because of their stable and high productivity in hormone-free culture conditions. A number of
plant species including many medicinal plants have been successfully transformed with A.
rhizogenes. The hairy root culture system of the medicinal plant Artemisia annua was established
by infection with A. rhizogenes and the optimum concentration 4.8 mg/L of artimisin was found
(Cai et 4al., 1995). Hairy roots development in Aconitum heterophyllum using A. rhizogene was
established (Giri, et al., 1997). Pradel et al. (1997) developed a system for producing hairy roots
from transformed plants of Digitalis lanata.

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Fig. 2. Transgenic tomato plants produced by Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated genetic

transformation conferring tolerance to high-temperature stress produced by over expression of
small HSP24.4 gene. (a) CR gel picture showing the 660-bp amplified products of T0, T1 and T2
representing different transgenic lines of tomato cv. PKM1 for MasHSP24.4 gene; M marker, P
PCR positive control, N negative control. (b). Field trials of wild type (WT) and transgenic T0
tomato plants after 8 days of assay. (c). Field trials of WT and T0 tomato plants after 15 days of
assay (Adopted from Upender, et al., 2013).
Molecular breeding
Recombinant DNA technology apart from transferring desirable genes from one
organism to another and is also helpful in gene sequencing and identification of chromosomal
regions carrying those genes or traits which are of economic interest (Karp, et al., 1997) or
associated with them, which in turn acts as marker system to identify desirable marker genes.
Such markers are considered as molecular markers.
Conventional breeding is time consuming and is dependent on environmental conditions.
Breeding a new variety generally takes eight to twelve years and even then the release of an
improved variety cannot be guaranteed. Hence, breeders are interested in new methods that can
make this procedure more easy and economic. Molecular marker assisted selection and breeding
offers such a possibility to improving the plant/ crop veriety.
Recently different kinds of markers have been developed for sequencing, mapping and
breeding purposes. Depending on the technique used for their generation, detection and
amplification of markers can be of different. They are: Restriction fragment length
polymorphism (RFLP). Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), Sequence characterized
amplified region (SCAR) Sequence tagged sites (STS) and Amplified fragment length
polymorphism (AFLP). Cleaved amplified polymorphic sequence (CAPS) and Amplified
fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) are based on both restriction site changes and mutation at
primer annealing site in the target DNA. Additionally, there are Simple sequence repeats (SSR),
Inter simple sequence repeats (ISSR) and Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers.
Highly specialized techniques are required to detect SNP’s.
By using these markers, genetic mapping was established in different crop plants like
maize (Gardiner et al. 1993), rice (McCouch et al. 1988), Arabidopsis (Nam et al. 1989), potato,
barley, banana. Members of Brassicaceae have been constructed (Winter and Kahl 1995) and

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also in medicinal plants like Ocimum, Withamnia etc. Once mapped, these markers can be
efficiently used in tagging several individual traits that are extremely important for a breeding
programs like yield, disease resistance, stress tolerance, seed quality, production of secondary
metabolites etc (Fig. 3) (Gary, et al., 2003).
Fig. 3: Marker assisted selection of Angke rice containing bacterial blight resistance developed
at the Research Institute for Rice, Sukamandi, West Java, Indonesia (Adopted from Gray, et al.,
2003).
Plants as bioreactors
Once high yielding and desirable characters containing crop and medicinal plant verities
are identified, they can be further manipulated to produce desirable compounds (PSMs)
continuously in large quantities. In such cases plants can be considered as bioreactors (Fig. 4).
This can be achieved by using combined techniques of tissue culture, genetic engineering,
metabolic engineering, biotransformation, elicitations etc. The main goals of these techniques in
industry or agriculture are the stimulation of the production of secondary metabolite end-
products, biosynthetic precursors, polymers, vaccines, proteins and vitamins that have plant
origin.
With the combinations of such techniques, several vaccines can be produced in plants
(Anderson, 1996). For this, an antigenic gene of human pathogens is cloned and transferred the
plants, and when these are used for feeding or injection into target organism they produces
concern antibodies (Tacker, et al., 1998; Arakawa, et al 1998). Vaccines against infectious
diseases of gastro-intestinal tract have been produced in potatoes and bananas (Moffat, 1995;

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Thanavala, et al., 1995; Artsaenko, et al., 1998). Anti-cancer antibodies expressed in rice and
wheat could be useful in diagnosis and treatment of this disease (Stoger, et al., 2000). Molecular
biologists have been doing lot research on production of edible vaccines, therapeutically
important proteins, heterogonous proteins and other pharmaceutically important compounds
which are beneficial to human beings including the production of antibodies in plants
(plantibodies).
Fig. 4: Plants as Bioreactors - Transgenic tobacco plant producing potential plant-derived

parenteral and oral vaccines for immunization against Hepatitis B Virus (Adopted from Pniewski
and Tomasz, 2013).
Conclusion
By considering the above literature, plant biotechnology can be considered as

powerful tool that can directly or indirectly enable propagation, conservation and genetic
improvement of elite clones of medicinal and crop plants to fulfill the demand of public
food and health care systems and industries. This is true in those countries or areas
which are rich in biodiversity and where there is an urgent need for conservation of
germplasm for future generations.
Thus, plant biotechnology has contributed to the welfare of humanity in many and varied
ways. Biotechnology has become an important and integral part of any life science today. Hence,

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there is a great scope for career in biotechnology in India as well as abroad. Career in
Biotechnology offers various employment opportunities in research, marketing and
production in the fields like medicine and healthcare, animal husbandry, agriculture and
environment industry.
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Biogenic Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Using Daedaleopsis flavidaand

evaluation of their antibacterial activity
Gudikandula Krishna1, Metuku Ram Prasad1, Pabba Shivakrishna1, Svssl Hima Bindu N1, Burra
Samatha1, Vadapally Pranitha2 and M.A. Singara Charya1
Affiliation: 1Department of Microbiology,Kakatiya University, Warangal- 506 009.
2
University Arts & Science College, Kakatiya University, Warangal- 506 009.
Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
The development of appropriate processes for the synthesis of nanoparticles is an important
aspect of nanotechnology. In the present study the extracellular biosynthesis of silver
nanoparticles using Daedaleopsis flavidawas undertaken and their antimicrobial studies were
reported. The extracellular mechanism of silver nanoparticle formation was investigated by UV-
VIS spectrophotometer. The size and shape formation of silver nanoparticles were investigated
using SEM studies. The silver nanoparticles were tested for the antimicrobial action and showed
good results against the Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria.
Key words: Daedaleopsis flavida, Extracellular biosynthesis,Silver Nanoparticles,Anti bacterial
activity.
Introduction
Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have gained significant attention in recent years. There are several
physical and chemical methods for synthesis of metallic nanoparticles, to reach the target of
achieving simple and eco-friendly technology researchers in this field have turned to biological
systems. The problems with the physical and chemical methods used for the synthesis of

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nanoparticles such as: short time stability and safety problem can be understandable by the use of
other biologically synthesized methods such as the use of microbes. Many organisms can
produce either extracellular or intracellular inorganic substances [1].Biologically synthesized
silver nanoparticles have immense number of applications such as in spectrally selective coating
for solar energy absorption non-linear optics, biolabelling, intercalation materials for electrical
batteries, as optical receptors, and acts as catalyst in chemical reactions and as antibacterial
capacities [2]. Nanoparticles are used currently over a wide range in different forms of
applications such as the use of metallic nanoparticles mainly, silver nanoparticles as potential
antimicrobials. This antimicrobial property of metal nanoparticles can be used in many
applications such as in water treatment, food processing, and textiles industry and in medicine.
Nanoparticles are biologically synthesised when the microorganisms clutch target ions from their
environment and then turn the metal ions into the element metal through enzymes generated by
the cell activities. It can be distinguished into intracellular and extracellular synthesis according
to the position where nanoparticles are formed [3, 4]. The intracellular procedure consists of
transporting ions into the microbial cell to form nanoparticles in the presence of enzymes. The
extracellular synthesis of nanoparticles includes trapping the metal ions on the surface of the
cells and reducing ions in the existance of enzymes [5]. Synthesis of nanoparticles outside the
cell, extracellularly, has many applications as it is ineffective of unnecessary adjoining cellular
components from the cell. Mostly, fungi are considered as the organisms that produce
nanoparticles extracellularly because of their broad secretory components that implicate in the
reduction and capping of nanoparticles[6].Manymicroorganisms such as bacteria, actinomyetes
and fungi play a crucial role in remediation of toxic metal through reduction of metal ions and
are known as potential nanofactories. Fungi are ideal sources in the synthesis of metal

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nanoparticles, because of their ability to secrete huge amount of enzymes [7]. Fungi are more
beneficial compared to other microorganisms in many ways. Fungal mycelial mesh can
withstand flow pressure and agitation and other conditions in bioreactors or other chambers
compared to plant materials and bacteria. In both forms silver exhibits, as a metal and in ionic
form, strong cytotoxicity towards a wide range of microorganisms, and its use as an antibacterial
agent is well known[8, 9].The present work has been focused on the extracellular biosynthesis of
Ag-NPs using culture supernatant of Dedelopsis flavida, its characterization and evaluation of
antimicrobial activity.
Material methods
Chemicals
Silver nitrate received from Merck (Mumbai, India), glucose from Himedia (Mumbai, India) and
Malt extract from Himedia (Mumbai, India).
Source of microorganism
Fungi in the form of fruit body were collected from the Guduru forest of Warangal District,
Telangana, India. The fruit body was sterilized with ethyl alcohol disinfectants and
approximately 3 x 3 mm was placed on Malt Extract Agar medium in slants. When the mycelium
had grown on the slants medium in the region of the tissues, the sample was transfered to fresh
agar media slants (Fig 1). This was repeatedly carried out until pure culture was obtained.
Molecular identification on ribotyping of 18S rRNA was carried at the Scigenome Cochin,
Kerala, India
Synthesis of silver nanoparticles
To prepare the biomass for biosynthesis studies the fungus was grown aerobically in liquid broth
containing (g/L) glucose – 10. Malt – 5.The culture flask was incubated in an orbital shaker at

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32oC and agitated at 160rpm and the biomass was harvested. After 48 h of growth the mycelium
was separated by filtration and supernatant was challenged with equal amount of 1Mm silver
nitrate solution (prepared in deionized water). Parallely, a positive control of silver nitrate
solution and deionized water and a negative control containing only silver nitrate solution were
maintained under same circumstances.
Characterization of silver nanoparticles
The localized surface plasmon resonance of silver nanoparticleswas characterized by using UV–
Vis spectrophotometer (ELICO SL-159 Spectrophotometer in the range 350 - 470 nm.). Samples
for SEM wasprepared by drop coating silver nanoparticles solution onto thecarbon coated copper
grid and its size and morphology were characterizedby SEM (JOEL- Model 6390).
Antibacterial activity
AgNpssynthesized by Daedaleopsis flavida were tested for anti microbial activity by agar well
diffusion method against the pathogenic bacteria Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae (Gram
negative) Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis(Gram positive). Twenty ml of nutrient
agar medium was spewed into sterilized petri dishes. The pathogenic bacterial strains were
grown in nutrient broth for 24 h. To prepare the bacterial lawns 100 μl nutrient broth culture of
each bacterial organism (1 × 105 CFU/ml) was used. Sizes of 8 mm diameter agar wells were
prepared with the help of a sterilized stainless steel cork borer. The wells were filled with 60 μl
of Ag nanoparticles solution synthesized from Daedaleopsis flavida and 60 μl of 1 mM silver
nitrate, along with 60 μl of 30 μg/ml of streptomycin served as a positive control. The plates
were incubated at a temperature of 37oC for 24 h and then were examined for the existence of

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zones of inhibition. The diameter of such zones of inhibition was measured and the mean value
for each organism was recorded and expressed in millimeter unit.
Results and Discussion
The study on extracellular biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles by Daedaleopsis flavida cell
culture filtrate and investigation of antibacterial activity of synthesized silver nanoparticles was
carried out in this work.Thegene sequencing of 18S rRNAanalysis of the isolate yielded 1,112
base pairs, and NCBI BLAST search results based on the topology of phylogenetic analysis
showed that the sequence was 99% same with Daedaleopsis flavida.The cell culture filtrate was
challenged with 1mM of AgNO3 and incubated in shaker (160 rpm) at 300C under dark. The
colour of the solution was turned yellow in 24 h and attained maximum intensity after 48 h with
dark brown colour(Fig-2). The reduction of silver was monitored by using the UV–vis spectral
analysis. The UV–vis spectrum of this solution was recorded in a (ELICO SL-159
Spectrophotometer in the range 350 - 470 nm.). The brown color appearance of the medium was
caused due to the excitation of surface Plasmon vibrations which is the specific characteristic of
silver nanoparticle [10]. In our experiment the maximum peak was noticed at 420 nm
designating that the bioreduction of silver nitrate has taken place following incubation of silver
nitrate solution in the presence of the culture filtrate extract(Fig 3). Scanning electron
microscopy has confirmed further insight in to morphology and size details of the synthesized
nano particle [11].Based on Particle size examination it revealed that the silver nanoparticles are
in the size range of 10-40 nm with a mean diameter of 14.5 nm suggesting the formation of
different-sized nanoparticles(Fig 4). It is familiar that Ag ions and Ag-based products have
strong antimicrobial effects [12].The antimicrobial effects of silver nano particles against four
pathogenic microorganisms were evaluated by agar well diffusion method(Fig 5). The

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pathogenic bacteria,E.coli, K. pneumoniae (Gram negative) S.aureaus and B. subtilis(Gram
positive) were effectively controlled by silver nano particles (Fig 6). The inhibitory effect of Ag
nanoparticles was more in S. aureus and E.coli as compared with other bacteria(Table 1) and
these results suggest that the antimicrobial effects of Ag nanoparticles are bacterial specific. In
conclusion, Ag nanoparticles prepared by the cell culture filtrate of Daedaleopsis flavida have
great promise as antimicrobial agents. Applications of Ag nanoparticles based on these findings
may lead to valuable discoveries in various fields such as antimicrobial systems and
pharmaceutical applications.
Fig: 1 Fruit body of Daedaleopsis flavidaand pure culture slant

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Fig.2 Solutions of silver nitrate (1 mM) before (left) and after (right) exposure to the culture
supernatant of Daedaleopsis flavida
Fig. 3 UV–Visible absorption spectra of silver nano particles after 48 h of incubation.

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Figure 4. Shows SEM Micrographs of silver nanoparticles synthesized from fungal extracts.
Figure: 5. Antibacterial activity of silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) against bacteria

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Microorganism Zone of inhibition ( mm)
Silver nano particle

a b
Streptomycin AgNo3 sol sol c
Bacillus subtilus 28 18 24
Klebsilla pneumonia 25 15 21
Staphylococcus aureus 26 15 26
E. coli 25 16 26
Zone of
inhibition (
Zone of inhibition in (mm)
30
mm)
25 Streptomycin
20 Zone of
15 inhibition (
mm) AgNo3
10 solution
5
Zone of
0 inhibition (
mm) Silver
B.subtilus K. Pneumonia S. aureus E.coli nano particle
solution
Figure: 6 Representing the zone of inhibition against the test bacteria
a* Zone of growth inhibition diameter of streptomycin (positive control)
b* Zone of growth inhibition diameter with silver nitrate solution
c* Zone of growth inhibition diameter with silver nanoparticles
Table1: Antibacterial activity of silver nanoparticles produced by Dadelopssis flavida

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References
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Synthesis and characterization of Gd3+doped Zinc Oxide nanocrystals

M.V.Ramana 1 P.S.Lakshmi2, and P. Suneetha3
1
Department of Physics, S.R & B.G.N.R. Govt. Arts & Science College, Khammam, Telangana,
India
2
Department of Physics, Swarna Bhratathi Institute of Technology, Khammam, Telangana, India
3
Department of Physics, Singareni Women’s college, Kothagudem, Telangana, India
Abstract
One-step aqueous solution method was used to synthesise the ZnO and Gd-doped ZnO
nanocrystals. X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy(SEM), Transmission
Electron Microscopy (TEM) and Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis have been used to
characterize these nanocrystals. The XRD studies revealed that the ZnO and Gd-doped ZnO had
wurtzite structure. The analysis of composition by EDX confirmed the presence of Gd in these
nanocrystals. The quality of the syntheised ZnO and Gd-doped ZnO nanocrystals was good. At
room temperature, these ZnO and Gd-doped ZnO nanocrystals show diamagnetism. Pure and
Gd-doped ZnO nanocrystals were prepared from the mixture of zinc acetate, Gadolonium
carbonate and potassium hydroxide aqueous solutions. The dopant is substituted onto zinc sites
in the wurtzite lattice uniformly, with no detectable phase impurities or clustering. Gd- doped
Zinc Oxide nanocrystals display diamagnetism at room temperature, which is in contrast with the
earlier reported data on Rare-earth doped nanocrystals.
Keywords: Nanocrystals, Zinc oxide, SEM, TEM, EDX, Rare-earths
1. Introduction
The study of nanostructures is an important aspect for developing materials with novel properties
[1, 2]. Zinc oxide (ZnO), is a versatile semiconductor with direct band gap of gap of 3.37 eV [3]
and a large exciton binding energy of 60 meV [4] at room temperature (RT) is a
promisingcandidate for functional components of devices and materials in photonic crystals [5],
light emitting diodes [7], solar cells [8, 9and others [10,11]. In the present work, we report the
structural, optical and magnetic properties of ZnO and Gd-doped ZnO nanocrystals prepared by
aqueous solution method.
2. Experimental
Zinc oxide nanocrystals under study have been synthesized in aqueous solutions by using zinc
acetate (Zn (CH3COO)2 · 2H2O), gadolinium acetate Gd(CH3COO)3.4H2O and potassium
hydroxide (KOH) as the starting materials, with slight modification to the method described for
Mn-doped ZnO nanocrystals by R.K.Sharma et.al [6]. 1.98g of Zn(CH3COO)2 · 2H2O and
0.16g of Gd(CH3COO)3.4H2O · 2H2O were dissolved in100ml of double distilled water. 0.28g
of KOH was dissolved in10ml of pure water. Aqueous solution of zinc acetate and gadolinium
acetate at room temperature was stirred for about 60 min using a magnetic stirrer. Then the KOH
solution was added slowly drop wise up to aqueous solution of zinc acetate and gadolinium

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acetate at 80–85 C under constant stirring. After 4h of reaction, the white precipitate deposited in
the bottom of the flask was collected and washed with ethanol and deionized water. The
precipitate was centrifuged with spinning speed of 3000 rpm and dried over 50 C for 6h in order
to remove water molecules to obtain ZnO nanocrystal in powder form. The samples were stored
at room temperature for further study.
The nanocrystals under study were characterized by a powder x-ray diffractometer with CuKa x-
ray radiation (0.15496 nm). The crystalline nature of ZnO samples is confirmed by sharp intense
peaks. The surface morphology of the sample is observed by a scanning electron microscopy .
The composition of elements like Zn, O and Gd is confirmed by energy dispersive x-ray (EDX)
spectra. The magnetization behavior of the Gd-doped ZnO nanocrystals was also investigated
using a vibrating sample magnetometer.
3. Results and discussion

XRD patterns of undopedand Gd-doped ZnO nanocrystalline powder show sharp intense peaks
of ZnO confirms the good crystalline nature of ZnO and the diffraction peaks can be indexed to a
hexagonal wurtzite structured ZnO, whereas the centers of all diffraction peaks have a slight shift
compared with undoped NC samples. As for Gd-doped NCs, the lattice parameter c calculated
from the (002) peaks of the samples is 5.184Å, and that for the undoped ones is 5.210Å. The
decrease of the lattice parameter indicates that Gd is introduced into the ZnO crystal lattice and
substitutes for the Zn2+ site. It is well known that Gd takes Gd3+ form more generally. This
state of Gd3+ has to be confirmed with further studies. Furthermore, compared with the undoped
ZnO, introduced Gadolonium ions shift the diffraction peaks to higher angles. Such changes are
generally unexpected as the Gd ions replace Zn ions in the lattice, and as the Gd ions have larger
ionic radii (0.94Å) than Zn ions(0.74Å). The shift degrees indicate decrease of lattice
parameters., where as the general expectation is the increase of lattice parameters [8].
The XRD result confirms the synthesis of Gd-doped ZnO nanocrystals without any phase-
segregation. Figure.1.show the SEM imageof Gd-doped ZnO nanocrystals prepared by aqueous
solutions method. The figure clearly indicates the morphology of the nanocrystals to be
hexagonal with homogeneous uniform particle size distribution. EDX spectra displayed in
figures 2(a) and (b) provided precise composition of the elements. The EDX spectra in figure.2
clearly show peaks corresponding to elements Zn, Gd and O.

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Fig.1.SEM images of Gd-doped ZnO nanocrystals

Figure 3 shows the magnetization curves of ZnO and Gd-doped ZnO nanocrystals at room
temperature. The origin of magnetism in doped ZnO samples is still undetermined. A number of
studies indicate that the FM in ZnO may come from the precipitation of magnetic clusters or
from the secondary magnetic phases[12]. In addition, several groups have found that the point
defects play crucial roles in the FM of ZnO-based dilute magnetic semiconductors[13].
Fig.2. EDX spectra of ZnO:Gd nanocrystals.

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Zhuge et al [14]have found that the magnetization in their Cr-doped ZnO films is correlated to
the V Zn. Hong et al [15] ascribed the FM in Cr-doped ZnO films to the V O. Both pure and Gd-
doped ZnO nanocrystals exhibit diamagnetism as shown in figures 5(a) and (b). Gd-doped ZnO
nanocrystalline powder exhibited ferromagnetic behaviour a studied by Dakhel and Hilo [8]. In
contrast, diamagnetic behaviour was exhibited by the Gd containing ZnO nanocrystals in the
present work. More detailed work is essential in order to establish the magnetic behavior of these
materials.
4. Conclusion
Pure and Gd-doped ZnO nanocrystals were prepared from the mixture of zinc acetate,
gadolinium acetate and potassium hydroxide aqueous solutions method. The dopant is
substituted onto zinc sites in the wurtzite lattice uniformly, with no detectable phase impurities
or clustering. Gd-doped nanocrystals display diamagnetism at room temperature. This is in
contrast to the earlier reported work. More systematic study has to be made to sort out this and
confirm the origin of magnetism in these samples.
5.Acknowledgments
One of the authors (MVR) would like to thank University Grants Commission, New Delhi for
the financial assistance provided through the Major Research Project. F.39-464/2010(SR).
6. References
[1] Pan. Z.W, Dai.Z.R and Wang. Z.L 2001 Science 291 1947
[2] Huang. M.H, Mao.S, Feick H, Yan. H, Wu. Y, Kind H, Weber. E, Russo, R and Yang. P,
2001 Science 292 1897
[3] Meyer.B.K. et al 2004 Physica Status Solidi B241 231
[4] Madelung.O (ed) 1992 Data in Science and Technology: Semiconductors (Berlin: Springer)
[5] Chen Y, Bagnall D and Yao T, 2000 Mater. Sci. Eng. B 75 190
[6] Sharma.R.K, Sandeep Patel and Pargaien.K.C Adv. Nat. Sci. 3(2012)

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[7] Saito.N, Haneda.H, Sekiguchi.T, Ohashi.N, Sakaguchi.L and Koumoto,K 2002Adv. Mater.
14 418
[8] Dakhel.A.A, and El-Hilo.M , J.Appl. Phys 107, (2010) 123905
[9] Salam.S, Islam.M, Alam.M, Akram.A, Ikram.M, Mahmood.A, Khan.M and Mujahid.M 2011
Adv. Nature Sci.: Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 2045001
[10] Hung.N.T, Quang.N.D and Bernik.S 2001 Mater. Res. 16 2817
[11] Chieng.D.T, Long.P.D, Lam.N.H and Hoi.P.V 2010 Adv. Nature Sci.: Nanosci.
Nanotechnol. 1 035010
[12] Dong.L.F, Cui.L.Z and Zhang.Z.K 1997 Nanostruct. Mater. 8815
[13] Ramachandran, Ashutosh.T and Narayan.J 2004 Appl. Phys. Lett. 84 5255
[14] Xing.G.Z et al 2008 Adv. Mater. 20 3521
[15] Zhuge.L. J, Wu.X.M, Wu.Z.F, Chen.X.M and Meng.Y.D 2009 Scr. Mater. 60 214
[16] Hong.N.H, Sakai.J, Huong.N.T, Poirot.N and Ruyter.A 2005 Phys. Rev. B72 045336

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POTENTIALS OF HYDROGEN PEROXIDE AND ANTIOXIDANT

ENZYMES IN PLANT HEALTH MANAGEMENT
A.A.Haleem Khan, Prof. Naseem*, Prof. B. Vidya Vardhini
Dept of Botany, University College, Telangana University, Nizamabad
*Dept of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University College, Telangana University, Nizamabad
E mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
Plants that inhabit the arid and semi-arid regions are at risk of adverse environmental
exposure such as drought, high salinity of substratum. The adverse conditions lead to stress in
plants that affects the productivity and growth due excessive cations and anions. The stress
conditions activate the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in plants. ROS are
responsible for various stress induced damage to cellular structures in plants. The plants protect
themselves from ROS by scavenging with Ascorbate peroxidase, APX (EC. 1.11.1.7), Catalase,
CAT (EC. 1.11.1.6), polyphenol oxidase, PPO (EC.1.10.3.1), superoxide dismutases, SOD, (EC.
1.15.1.1), glutathione reductase, GR (EC.1.6.4.2) and peroxidase, POD (EC. 1.11.1.7)
antioxidant enzymes.
In the present discussion here we present the status on role on hydrogen peroxide and
antioxidant enzymes studied in different plants.
Keywords: ROS, ABA, SA, NO, CAT, SOD, APX, POD,H2O2
Introduction
The molecular oxygen (O2) is required by aerobic organisms to gain energy in respiration
process by using it as terminal oxidant. The partially reduced oxygen species/ reactive oxygen
species (ROS) and free radicals are produced due to normal or anomalous metabolic processes
by direct electron transfer involving metal cations or as a consequence of metal mediated
inhibition of metabolic reactions, as well as exposure with variety of oxidative stresses such as
illumination, radiation, salinity, drought, low/high temperature and several chemicals i.e. heavy
metals, air pollutants and herbicides. The toxic effects of ROS such as superoxide (O2-), singlet
oxygen, hydroxyl radicals (OH-), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) result plants to undergo oxidative
stress. These ROS are necessary for intercellular/intracellular signaling in normal metabolism.
The generation and scavenging of ROS remain balance under normal conditions that do not lead
to damage. ROS induce cellular damage by degradation of proteins, inactivation of enzymes,
alterations in the gene, and interfere in various pathways of metabolic importance. The ROS are
scavenge in plants by antioxidant enzymes, including superoxide dismutase, ascorbate
peroxidase, guaiacol peroxidase, catalase, glutathione reductase, dehydroascorbate reductase,
and monodehydroascorbate reductase, and antioxidants such a reduced glutathione and
ascorbate.
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) molecule is by-product of normal metabolic pathways
occurring in the chloroplasts, mitochondria, peroxisomes and cytoplasm at cellular level in
plants. H2O2 plays different roles in plant resistance mechanisms. The direct toxicity to
pathogens and herbivores, and to prevent the invasion of pathogens in plants through wound
sites. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) functions as a signal molecule in plants under abiotic and biotic
stresses. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in minute quantity serves as a signaling molecule. It acts as
secondary messenger involved in signal transduction through inducing expression of defense
genes i.e. proteinase inhibitors (PIs) after exposure to wounding, systemin and methyl jasmonate
in tomato plants, 175 genes in Arabidopsis are up-regulated and down-regulated. In several

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biotic and abiotic stress responses abscisic acid (ABA) is involved in induction of stomatal
closing at leaf level by production of ROS such as O2- and H2O2 (Aroca 2006).
Osmotic stress
To determine the possible involvement of oxidative stress in somatic embryogenesis of

banana (Musa spp.), and provide a means to overcome the recalcitrance in embryogenesis,
changes in histology, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) content and antioxidant enzyme activities during
banana somatic embryogenesis were investigated. From embryogenic cells (ECs) to early
globular embryos, nearly all cells showed typical meristematic characteristics with a high
nucleus/cytoplasm ratio. Cells started to lose their meristematic characteristic during later
globular stage. Starch granules in cells showed spatial and temporal changes during somatic
embryogenesis. POD (E.C.1.11.1.7) activity decreased significantly after transfer of ECs to the
embryo regeneration medium which was followed by a significant increase and peaked at the late
stages of embryogenesis. CAT (E.C.1.11.1.6) activity showed similar pattern, however its
highest activity appeared in the ECs instead of the later embryos. On the contrary, a gradual
increase in SOD (E.C.1.15.1.1) activity was observed after inoculation of ECs on embryo
regeneration medium until the globular stage. Similarly to SOD activity, the hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2) content also increased after inoculation of ECs on embryo regeneration medium and it
peaked in proembryos, followed by a significant decrease in later embryogenic stages. The H2O2
content as well as activities of all tested antioxidant enzymes were significantly higher in ECs
than in non-embryogenic cells. The results suggested that high levels of antioxidant enzyme
activity and high H2O2 content were necessary for embryogenic competence of ECs while high
H2O2 content played an important role in early development of somatic embryogenesis of banana
(Ma et al. 2012).
Liu et al. (2010) reported that pretreatment of two cucumber varieties with H2O2
improved osmotic stress resistance by activating antioxidant system. There is information
available on the effects of H2O2 pretreatment on metabolite levels including soluble sugars,
proline, and polyamines and ABA content in plants under osmotic stress.
Leaves of detached maize (Zea mays L.) seedlings were used to study the function of
H2O2 pretreatment in osmotic stress resistance. Low H2O2 concentration (10 mM) which did not
cause a visual symptom of water deficit (leaf rolling) was applied to the seedlings. Exogenous
H2O2 alone increased leaf water potential, endogenous H2O2 content, abscisic acid (ABA)
concentration, and metabolite levels including soluble sugars, proline, and polyamines while it
decreased lipid peroxidation and stomatal conductance. Osmotic stress induced by polyethylene
glycol (PEG 6000) decreased leaf water potential and stomatal conductance but enhanced lipid
peroxidation, endogenous H2O2 content, the metabolite levels, and ABA content. H2O2
pretreatment also induced the metabolite accumulation and improved water status, stomatal
conductance, lipid peroxidation, ABA, and H2O2 levels under osmotic stress. The results
indicated that H2O2 pretreatment may alleviate water loss and induce osmotic stress resistance by
increasing the levels of soluble sugars, proline, and polyamines thus ABA and H2O2 production
slightly decrease in maize seedlings under osmotic stress (Terzi et al. 2014).
Salvinia natans L. response to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) induced oxidative stress
through physiological activities was evaluated. The plants were incubated with varying
concentrations (0, 50, 100 µM) of H2O2 and 100 µM of H2O2 supplemented with 1 mM
putrescine (Put) in hydroponic culture. It was observed that with the decline in proline content
and its biosynthetic enzymes viz. γ-glutamyl kinase and γ-glutamyl phosphate reductase activity.

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Protein carbamylated derivative by protein oxidation was another trait for oxidative damages by
H2O2. The antioxidative enzymes like guaiacol peroxidase (GPX), glutathione reductase (GR),
and catalase (CAT) recorded to express through in-gel staining with the H2O2 exposure. On
nuclear level, plants were sensitive to H2O2 where the DNA disintegration was studied with
comet assay and maximum comet tail observed at 100 µM H2O2 treatment. Application of Put
reduced the generation of protein oxidation and comet tail length as well as moderated the
enzyme activity as revealed through in-gel staining (Mandal et al. 2014).
Copper stress and Brassinolide
Fariduddin et al. (2014) explored and elaborated the plants subjected to abiotic stress, the
surface sterilized seeds of mung bean (Vigna radiata) were sown in earthen pots filled with soil
and manure enriched with different levels of Cu2+ (50 or 100 mg kg−1 of soil) and allowed to
grow under natural environmental conditions. At 15 and 20 days stage, the plants were sprayed
with H2O2 (2.5 mM) and/or 28-homobrassinolide (HBL, 10−5 mM), respectively. At 45 days
stage, the analysis of the plants revealed that the presence of copper in the soil caused a
significant decrease in growth characteristics, activity of carbonic anhydrase and nitrate
reductase, relative water content, chlorophyll content and the rate of photosynthesis whereas, the
activity of antioxidant enzymes (catalase, peroxidase and superoxide dismutase) and the proline
accumulation in leaves increased in Cu stressed plants. However, the exogenously applied HBL
and/or H2O2, in the absence of Cu-stress strongly favoured the growth, photosynthetic
parameters and also improved the activity of antioxidant enzymes and the proline content.
Furthermore, the combined application of HBL and H2O2 to the foliage of the stressed plants
neutralized the toxic impact of all copper regimes (Fariduddin et al. 2014).
Copper stress and metallothionein
Both H2O2 and NO are involved in multiple physiological responses in plants.
Metallothionein (MT) can bind heavy metal ions and reduce metal toxicity. Copper toxicity has
become a major problem with increase in agricultural and environmental pollution. The possible
roles of ROS, NO and metallothionein were investigated in tomato plant responses to copper
toxicity. It was found that Cu2+ stress caused the rapid release of H2O2 and chlorotic leaves, and
it stunted root growth and development. Cu treatment also caused an increase in NOS enzyme
activity and NO release in roots and leaves. Application of the NO donor SNP efficiently
alleviated the copper toxicity effect, as shown by increases in chlorophyll content and the
biomass of fresh/dry leaves. SNP treatment also induced the transcription and increased activities
of anti-oxidant enzymes, including catalase, peroxidase, superoxide dismutase and ascorbate
peroxidase, and led to reduced H2O2 accumulation in the leaves. Special inhibitors or scavengers
of NO synthesis diminished the ameliorating effect of NO on copper toxicity. NO application
induced MT transcription and accumulation in leaves. In addition, the antisense-MT transgenic
tomato was more sensitive to copper stress, and this effect could not be efficiently reversed by
NO treatment. It was proposed that NO induces tomato tolerance to copper toxicity through
antioxidant enzyme activity and metallothionein accumulation, and that metallothionein acts
downstream of NO signaling (Wang et al. 2010).
Excess copper
The effects of excess copper (Cu) on the accumulation of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and
antioxidant enzyme activities in roots of the Cu accumulator Elsholtzia haichowensis Sun were
investigated. Copper at 100 and 300 μM significantly increased the concentrations of
malondialdehyde and H2O2, and the activities of catalase (E.C. 1.11.1.6), ascorbate peroxidase
(E.C. 1.11.1.11), guaiacol peroxidase (GPOD, E.C. 1.11.1.7) and superoxide dismutase (SOD,

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E.C. 1.15.1.1). Isoenzyme pattern and inhibitor studies showed that, among SOD isoforms, only
copper–zinc superoxide dismutase (CuZn–SOD) increased. Excess Cu greatly increased the
accumulation of superoxide anion (O2·−) and H2O2 in E. haichowensis roots. The study also
provides the first cytochemical evidence of an accumulation of H2O2 in the root cell walls as a
consequence of Cu treatments. Experiments with diphenyleneiodonium as an inhibitor of
NADPH oxidase, 1,2-dihydroxybenzene-3,5-disulphonic acid as an O2·− scavenger, and N-N-
diethyldithiocarbamate as an inhibitor of SOD showed that the source of H2O2 in the cell walls
could partially be NADPH oxidase. The enzyme can use cytosolic NADPH to produce O2·−,
which rapidly dismutates to H2O2 by SOD. Apoplastic GPOD and CuZn–SOD activities were
induced in roots of E. haichowensis with 100 μM Cu suggesting that these two antioxidant
enzymes may be responsible for H2O2 accumulation in the root apoplast (Zhang et al. 2008).
The regulatory role of hydrogen peroxide (scavenged by dithiothreitol, DTT) and nitric
oxide (scavenged by 2-phenyl-4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-imidazoline-1-oxyl-3-oxide, PTIO) was tested
using chamomile roots exposed to Cu for 24 h. The application of DTT and PTIO led to a
compensatory increase in NO and H2O2, respectively. DTT prevented Cu-induced lignin
accumulation concomitant with a decrease in H2O2 content and the activities of guaiacol- and
ascorbate peroxidases. Cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase (CAD) and polyphenol oxidase (PPO)
also decreased. DTT stimulated accumulation of total soluble phenols and phenolic acids in all
three fractions investigated. The opposite trend was recorded in PTIO-treated roots. Within the
free amino acids, proline and phenylalanine increased in response to DTT application. In a
subsequent experiment an NO donor (sodium nitroprusside) stimulated the accumulation of
phenols and PAL activity as well as prevented a Cu-induced decrease in proteins. It was revealed
that an increase in total soluble phenols and phenolic acids, including lignin precursors, in DTT-
treated roots could be by enhancement of PAL activity (stimulated by an increase in NO) and at
the same time, by a reduced lignin accumulation (owing to a decrease in ROS level). It was also
showed that a compensatory increase in either ROS or NO (depending on which scavenger is
used) may sustain PAL activity for antioxidative protection, but that H2O2 is essential for
complete lignin deposition during Cu excess (Kovacik et al. 2010).
Cadmium stress and salicylic acid (SA)
Belkadhi et al. (2014) investigated the impacts of exogenous salicylic acid (SA)
pretreatments on hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) accumulation, protein oxidation, and H2O2-
scavenging enzymes in leaves of Cd-treated flax seedlings. Cd-enhanced H2O2 levels were
related to increased activities of guaiacol peroxidase (POX, EC 1.11.1.7) and ascorbate
peroxidase (APX, EC 1.11.1.11), and were independent of changes in catalase (CAT, EC
1.11.1.6) and superoxide dismutase (SOD, EC 1.15.1.1) activities. In control flax seedlings,
exogenous SA pretreatments inhibited the activity of CAT, resulted in an enhanced production of
H2O2 suggests that SA requires H2O2 to initiate an oxidative stress. The leaves of Cd-free flax
seedlings pretreated with SA accumulated in vivo H2O2 by 1.2-fold compared with leaves of Cd-
only exposed ones; the damage to growth and proteins after the exposure to Cd was significantly
less, indicate that SA can regulate the Cd-induced oxidative stress. The Cd-treated seedlings with
SA exhibited a higher level of total antioxidant capacities and increased activities of H2O2-
detoxifying enzymes.
The physiological responses of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) to oxidative stress
induced by cadmium were examined with respect to reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation,
antioxidant enzymes activities, and cell death appearance in wild-type SR1 and catalase-deficient
CAT1AS plants. Leaf disks treated with 100 or 500 µM CdCl2 increased Evans blue staining and

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leakage of electrolytes in SR1 or CAT1AS plants, more pronouncedly in the transgenic cultivar,
but without evidence of lipid peroxidation in any of the cultivars compared to controls. Cadmium
significantly reduced the NADPH oxidase-dependent O2−formation in a dose dependent manner
in SR1 very strongly at 500 µM (to 5% of the activity in the non-treated SR1 leaf disks). In
CAT1AS, the NADPH oxidase activity was constitutively reduced at 50% with respect to that of
SR1, but the magnitude of the decay was less prominent in this cultivar, reaching an average of
64% of the C at 21 h, for both Cd concentrations. Hydrogen peroxide formation was only slightly
increased in SR1 or CAT1AS leaf disks at 21 h of exposure compared to the respective controls.
Cd increased superoxide dismutase activity more than six times at 21 h in CAT1AS, but not in
SR1 and reduced catalase activity by 59% at 21 h of treatment only in SR1 plants. Despite that
catalase expression was constitutively lower in CATAS1 compared to SR1 nontreated leaf disks,
500 µM CdCl2 almost doubled it only in CAT1AS at 21 h. The mechanisms underlying Cd-
induced cell death were possibly not related exclusively to ROS formation or detoxification in
tobacco SR1 or CAT1AS plants (Iannone et al. 2010).
Chromium toxicity
The ameliorating effects of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2, 200 μM) on hexavalent chromium
[Cr(VI)] toxicity was evaluated in canola (Brassicanapus L.), the focus was on plant growth,
chlorophyll content, thiol contents, lipid peroxidation, antioxidant enzymes, and the expression
of metallothionein protein (BnMP1) mRNA. Cr(VI) at 50 μM significantly decreased the plant
growth (fresh and dry weights). The decrease in growth was accompanied by increased lipid
peroxidation and decreased chlorophyll content in leaves. Hydrogen peroxide pretreatment,
enhanced plant growth parameters found to lead the reduced levels of lipid peroxidation and
higher levels of pigment. In addition, H2O2 pretreatment increased Cr accumulation in aerial
parts of seedlings. The tendency of increase in thiol content under Cr(VI) stress was further
increased with H2O2 pretreatment. The activities of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide
dismutase (SOD), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), guaiacol peroxidase (POD) and catalase (CAT)
were differentially altered. SOD and POD activities increased under Cr(VI) stress, whereas APX
and CAT activities decreased. The SOD and CAT activities remained unaffected in both
durations due to H2O2 pretreatment, but activities of APX and POD were promoted in the
Cr(VI)-stressed seedlings. Metallothioneins are a family of low-molecular-weight Cys-rich
proteins and are thought to play a possible role in metal metabolism or detoxification. In real-
time quantitative PCR analysis, the expression level of BnMP1mRNA was increased at 1 day
after treatment (DAT), whereas it was decreased at 7 DAT in Cr(VI)-stressed seedlings. At
1 DAT, pretreatment of H2O2 before Cr(VI) stress reduced the expression of BnMP1mRNA as
compared to Cr(VI) stress alone, but this effect was not significant. At 7 DAT, H2O2
pretreatment alleviated the Cr(VI) stress-mediated decrease in the expression of BnMP1mRNA.
The results suggested that H2O2 may act as a signal that triggers defense mechanisms which in
turn protects canola seedlings from Cr(VI)-induced oxidative damage (Yildiz et al. 2013).
Antioxidativeenzymes and H2O2
The effects of H2O2 leaf spraying pretreatment on plant growth and the antioxidative
mechanisms involved in the response of maize plants to salt stress was evaluated. It was found
that salinity reduced maize seedling growth when compared to control conditions, and H2O2
foliar spraying was effective to minimize the effect. Analysis of the antioxidative enzymes
catalase (EC 1.11.1.6), guaiacol peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.7), ascorbate peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.1)
and superoxide dismutase (EC 1.15.1.1) revealed that H2O2 spraying increased antioxidant

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enzyme activities. Catalase (CAT) was the most responsive of these enzymes to H2O2, with
higher activity early (48 h) in the treatment, while guaiacol peroxidase (GPX) and ascorbate
peroxidase (APX) were responsive only at later stages (240 h) of treatment. Increased CAT
activity appears linked to gene expression regulation. Lower malondialdehyde levels were
detected in plants with higher CAT activity, which may result from the protective function of this
enzyme. The pretreatment with H2O2 leaf spraying was able to reduce the deleterious effects of
salinity on seedling growth and lipid peroxidation. The above responses could be attributed to
the ability of H2O2 to induce antioxidant defenses, especially CAT activity (Gondim et al. 2012).
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) function as the signaling
molecules in plants responding to salt stresses. The signaling network involving H2S and H2O2 in
salt resistance pathway of the Arabidopsis root was evaluated. Arabidopsis roots were sensitive
to 100 mM NaCl treatment, which displayed a great increase in electrolyte leakage (EL) and
Na+/K+ ratio under salt stress. The treatment of H2S donors sodium hydrosulfide (NaHS)
enhanced the salt tolerance by maintaining a lower Na+/K+ ratio. In addition, the inhibition of
root growth under salt stress was removed by H2S. The above study indicated that H2O2 was
involved in H2S-induced salt tolerance pathway. H2S induced the production of the endogenous
H2O2 via regulating the activities of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH) and plasma
membrane (PM) NADPH oxidase, with the treatment with dimethylthiourea (DMTU, an ROS
scavenger), diphenylene iodonium (DPI, a PM NADPH oxidase inhibitor), or glycerol (G6PDH
inhibitor) removing the effect of H2S. Treatment with amiloride (an inhibitor of PM Na+/H+
antiporter) and vanadate (an inhibitor of PM H+-ATPase) also inhibited the activity of H2S on
Na+/K+ ratio. Through an analysis of quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and
Western blot, it was found that H2S promoted the genes expression and the phosphorylation level
of PM H+-ATPase and Na+/H+ antiporter protein level. However, when the endogenous H2O2
level was inhibited by DPI or DMTU, the effect of H2S on the PM Na+/H+ antiporter system was
removed. Taken together, H2S maintains ion homeostasis in the H2O2-dependent manner in salt-
stress Arabidopsis root (Li et al. 2014).
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) generation, the character of a fungal catalase SNOG_03173.1
gene expression, and the catalase activity in wheat plants, infected with Septoria nodorum Berk.
strains differing in their aggressiveness was evaluated. The decreased intensity of H2O2
accumulation in infected tissues, influenced by an aggressive S. nodorum strain and caused by
the enhanced transcriptional activity of the fungal catalase gene and the heightened synthesis of
its product, has been revealed to be more expressed compared to a similar decrease influenced by
a less aggressive strain. An assumption was made that the transcriptional activity of the fungi
catalase gene and, therefore, the activity of catalase involved in the regulation of the H2O2
content in the infected zone of wheat plants represent important factors providing high
aggressiveness and pathogenicity of S. nodorum (Maksimov et al. 2013).
The response of tobacco (Nicotiana tabaccum L.) wild-type SR1 and transgenic CAT1AS
plants (with a basal reduced CAT activity) was evaluated after exposure to the herbicide paraquat
(PQ). Superoxide anion (O2.−) formation was inhibited at 3 or 21 h of exposure, but H2O2
production and ion leakage increased significantly, both in SR1 or CAT1AS leaf discs. NADPH
oxidase activity was constitutively 57% lower in non-treated transgenic leaves than in SR1
leaves and was greatly reduced both at 3 or 21 h of PQ treatment. Superoxide dismutase (SOD)
activity was significantly reduced by PQ after 21 h, showing a decrease from 70% to 55%,
whereas catalase (CAT) activity decreased an average of 50% after 3 h of treatment, and of 90%
after 21 h, in SR1 and CAT1AS, respectively. Concomitantly, total CAT protein content was

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shown to be reduced in non-treated CAT1AS plants compared to control SR1 leaf discs at both
exposure times. PQ decreased CAT expression in SR1 or CAT1AS plants at 3 and 21 h of
treatment. The mechanisms underlying PQ-induced cell death were possibly not related
exclusively to ROS formation and oxidative stress in tobacco wild-type or transgenic plants
(Iannone et al. 2012).
In response to Clostera anachoreta larvae attack, poplar (Populus
simonii × P. pyramidalis ‘Opera 8277’) leaves produced a high level of hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2). Histochemical localization revealed that H2O2 was mainly localized in herbivore-
wounded zones and might spread through the veins. The activities of three H2O2-
scavenging enzymes, i.e., peroxidase (POD), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), and catalase
(CAT), were also enhanced in herbivore-wounded leaves, and exhibited an opposite pattern
to the accumulation of H2O2. It was found that diphenylene iodonium chloride (DPI, a
special inhibitor of NADPH oxidase) treatment significantly inhibited the accumulation of
H2O2 induced by herbivory damage. Moreover, DPI treatment led to an obvious decrease in
the activities of POD, APX, and CAT. The results indicated that NADPH oxidase contributed
to the accumulation of H2O2 and the increase in activities of H2O2-scavenging enzymes in
poplar leaves induced by herbivory damage. The balance between H2O2-production
pathway and H2O2-scavenging enzymes led to the tolerable level of H2O2 acting in
P. simonii × P. pyramidalis ‘Opera 8277’ cuttings in response to herbivory damage (Hu et al.
2009).
The relations of catalase activity to the efficiency of symbiotic dinitrogen fixation and
leghemoglobin (Lb) content were investigated in roots and nodules of several legume plant
species together with the catalase distribution between the inner bacteroidal and the outer cortical
nodule tissues. The catalase activity in the nodules exceeded that of the roots of the amide- and
ureide-synthesizing plant species by one and two orders of magnitude. During the growth period,
catalase activity and Lb content changed in parallel and reached their highest levels early in the
stage of flowering or fruit formation, depending on plant species. In the case of effective
symbiosis, catalase activity in the nodules was 2.5–5 times higher than in the case of ineffective
symbiosis. Catalase activity in the bacteroidal zone of the nodules was several times higher than
that of the cortical tissue, and two nodule tissues differed in catalase activity more notably in the
plant species exporting ureides. The high catalase activity in the nodules, especially in their
bacteroidal zone, is essential for the efficient functioning of the symbiotic system of dinitrogen
fixation in both ureide- and amide-transporting plants (Troitskaya et al. 2000).
Legumes are considered to have beneficial health implications, which have been
attributed to their phytochemical content. Polyphenols are considered the most important
phytochemical compounds extensively studied for their antioxidant properties. The aim of the
present study was to examine the effects of potent antioxidant legume plant extracts on xanthine
oxidase (XO), catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities. XO exerts a dual role,
as it is the major contributor of free radicals during exercise while it generates uric acid, the most
potent antioxidant molecule in plasma. CAT and SOD are two of the main enzymes of the
antioxidant defence of tissues. The majority of the extracts inhibited XO activity, but they had no
effect on CAT inhibition and SOD induction when used at low concentrations was demonstrated.
These results imply that the tested extracts may be considered as possible source of novel XO
inhibitors. However, it was showed that allopurinol administration, a known XO inhibitor, before

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exercise reduces performance and induces oxidative stress in rats. The extracts examined had an
inhibitory effect on XO activity, possibly posing a restriction in their characterization as
antioxidants, phytochemical antioxidant administration before exercise should probably be
reconsidered (Spanou et al. 2012).
The role of irradiance on the activity of antioxidant enzymes: superoxide dismutase
(SOD) and catalase (CAT) was examined in the leaves of Pisum sativum L. plants grown
under low (LL) or high (HL) irradiance (PPFD 50 or 600 µmol m−2 s−1) and exposed after
detachment to 5 mM Pb (NO3)2 for 24 h. The activities of both enzymes increased in
response to LL compared with HL and no effect of Pb ions was observed. Photosystem (PS)
1 and PS 2 activities were also investigated in chloroplasts isolated from these leaves. LL
lowered PS 1 electron transport rate and changes in photochemical activity of PS 1 induced
by Pb2+ were visible only in the chloroplasts isolated from leaves of LL grown plants. PS2
activities were influenced similarly by Pb ions at both PPFD. This study demonstrates that
leaves of HL grown plants were less sensitive to lead toxicity than those from LL grown
plants. Changes in electron transport rates were the main factors responsible for the
generation of reactive oxygen species in the chloroplasts and as a consequence, in
induction of antioxidant enzymes (Romanowska et al. 2008).
In plants, the chloroplast is the main reactive oxygen species (ROS) producing site under
high light stress. Catalase (CAT) decomposes hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), is one of the
controlling enzymes that maintains leaf redox homeostasis. The catalase mutants with reduced
leaf catalase activity from different plant species exhibit an H2O2-induced leaf cell death
phenotype. This phenotype was differently affected by light intensity or photoperiod, which may
be caused by plant species, leaf redox status or growth conditions. In the rice CAT mutant nitric
oxide excess 1 (noe1), higher H2O2 levels induced the generation of nitric oxide (NO) and higher
S-nitrosothiol (SNO) levels, suggested that NO acts as an important endogenous mediator in
H2O2-induced leaf cell death. As a free radical, NO could also react with other intracellular and
extracellular targets and form a series of related molecules, collectively called reactive nitrogen
species (RNS). The studies revealed that both RNS and ROS are important partners in plant leaf
cell death. The H2O2-induced leaf cell death and the crosstalk of RNS and ROS signals in the
plant hypersensitive response (HR), leaf senescence, and other forms of leaf cell death triggered
by diverse environmental conditions (Wang et al. 2013).
The decrease in catalase activity and its relationship to change in salicylic acid content
were investigated in rice, wheat, and cucumber seedlings exposed to oxidative stresses. A
decrease in chlorophyll fluorescence (ΔF/Fm′), measured as an indicator of the oxidative stress,
and a drop in catalase activity were observed following treatment with NaCl in all plant
seedlings tested. Furthermore, such decreases in ΔF/Fm′ and catalase activity were also observed
under low temperature conditions in both rice cultivars, whereas the degrees of decrease were
dependent on their low temperature tolerance. Although the content of salicylic acid increased in
rice seedlings stressed by NaCl treatment, it was inversely correlated with the decrease in the
catalase activity. Such a relationship between the decrease in catalase activity and increase in
salicylic acid content was confirmed with paraquat treatment of the rice seedlings. The results
suggested that the fall in catalase activity is a phenomenon occurring in many plant species under
oxidative stress and is related to the accumulation of salicylic acid in oxidatively-stressed plants
(Shim et al. 2003).

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Chilling stress
In a study, one-year-old shoots of the olive (Olea europaea L.) cv. Gemlik were tested at
artificial low temperatures (4, −5°C, −10°C, and −20°C) every month for two years. For low
temperature treatment, the degree of cell membrane injury in leaves and barks was determined
by ion leakage method. In addition, with regard to antioxidative defense mechanism, activities of
catalase (CAT, EC 1.11.1.6) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX, EC 1.11.1.11) enzymes were
determined. Leaf and bark tissues subjected to 4°C and −5°C injured to a limited extent in all
months. However, more than 50% injury occurred by temperatures equal to or colder than −10°C
treatments depending on the season. For −10°C and −20°C treatments, the lowest and the highest
injury in leaf and bark tissues were detected during winter and summer seasons, respectively.
CAT and APX enzyme activities were generally higher during fall and winter compared with
those in summer. On the other hand, CAT and APX enzyme activities started increasing during
fall along with a decrease freezing injury while the activities of these enzymes decreased to some
extent during winter when freezing injury was the lowest. In addition, while CAT activity
decreased with low temperature treatments, APX activity did not change until −5°C treatment
but decreased with decreasing temperatures starting from −10°C depending on the month the
tissue was obtained. The olive plant showed considerable tolerance to low temperatures that were
achieved after daily gradual decreases by increasing cell membrane stability through complicated
mechanisms including antioxidative enzyme metabolisms. In addition, APX may be more
effective in maintaining cold-hardiness of olive compared with CAT (Cansev et al. 2011).
The physiological role of H2O2 was investigated by exogenous H2O2 application could
affect short-term cold response of tomato and induce acclimation. Pretreatments were performed
by immersing roots into 1 mM H2O2 solution for 1 h by transferring seedlings from seedling
substrate to soil (acclimated group). Cold stress (3 °C for 16 h) caused significant reduction in
relative water content (RWC) of control and non-acclimated (distilled water treated) groups
when compared with unstressed plants. H2O2 promoted maintenance of relatively higher RWC
under stress. Anthocyaninlevel in leaves of acclimated plants under cold stress was significantly
higher than that of unstressed control and non-acclimated plants. Malondialdehyde (MDA) levels
demonstrated low temperature induced oxidative damage to control and non-acclimated plants.
MDA remained around unstressed conditions in acclimated plants, which demonstrate that H2O2
acclimation protected tissues against cold induced lipid peroxidation. H2O2 acclimation caused
proline accumulation in roots under cold stress. Ascorbate peroxidase (APX) activity in roots of
cold stressed and unstressed H2O2 acclimated plants increased was compared with control and
non-acclimated plants, with highest increase in roots of acclimated plants under cold stress. CAT
levels in roots of acclimated plants also increased, whereas levels remained unchanged in
unstressed plants. Endogenous H2O2 levels were significantly increased in roots of control and
non-acclimated plants under cold stress. H2O2 content in roots of acclimated plants was
significantly lower than control and non-acclimated plants under cold stress. The results
demonstrated that H2O2 significantly enhanced oxidative stress response by elevating the
antioxidant status of tomato (Iseri etal.2013).
Potassium deficiency
Potassium (K+) is an essential nutrient required by plants in large quantities, but changes
in soil concentrations may limit K+ acquisition by roots. Changes in the kinetics of Rb+ uptake in
Arabidopsis roots occur within 6 h after K+ deprivation. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and
ethylene increased when the plants were deprived of K+. ROS was found to be accumulated in a
discrete region of roots that shown to be active in K+ uptake and translocation. Suppression of an

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NADPH oxidase in Arabidopsis (rhd2), which is involved in ROS production, prevented the up-
regulation of genes that were normally induced by K+ deficiency, but the induction of high-
affinity K+ transport activity was unchanged. The application of H2O2 restored the expression of
genes induced by K+ deficiency in rhd2 and was also sufficient to induce high-affinity K+
transport activity in roots grown under K+-sufficient conditions. ROS production is an early root
response to K+ deficiency that modulates gene expression and physiological changes in the
kinetics of K+ uptake (Shin and Schachtman 2004).
Salt stress
The ability of exogenous compatible solutes, such as proline, to counteract salt inhibitory
effects in olive plants (Olea europaea L. cv. Chemlali) was investigated. Two-year-old olive
trees were subjected to different saline water irrigation levels supplied or not with exogenous
proline. Leaf water relations (relative water content, water potential), photosynthetic activity, and
leaf chlorophyll content decreased under either saline water level. The proline supplement
mitigated the reduction of growth and photosynthetic activity under salt stress, and the mitigating
effect of proline was different among treatments. The increment rate of leaf relative water
content (RWC) in the presence of 25 and 50 mM proline was 4.45 and 6.67%, respectively, in
comparison to values recorded in SS1-treated plants (plants irrigated with water containing 100
mM NaCl). In SS2 (200 mM NaCl) plus proline-treated plants, this increase was 1.14 times for
25 mM proline and 1.19 times for 50 mM proline higher than those recorded in severe salt stress
treatment (SS2). In response to salt stress, Chemlali olive plants seem to activate a complex
antioxidative defense system that was displayed via the increase of activities of superoxide
dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and the decrease of
polyphenol oxidase (PPO) under either salt stress treatment. The exogenous application of
proline improved the antioxidative enzyme activities of salt-stressed olive plants. Indeed, in
young or old leaf tissues, the highest levels of these antioxidant enzymes activities were recorded
in (SS2 + P2)-treated plants (plants irrigated with water containing 200 mM NaCl plus 50 mM
proline). In young leaves, this increase was 2.11, 2.96, and 2.76 times, respectively, for SOD,
APX, and CAT enzyme activities in comparison to their respective activities in control plants
(nonstressed plants irrigated with fresh water). In old leaves, this increase was 2, 2.41, and 2.48
times, respectively, for the various enzymes. If compared to high water salinity-treated plants
(SS2), this increase was 1.1, 1.3, and 1.4 times in young leaves, respectively, for SOD, APX, and
CAT activities. From these results, the proline supplements seem to improve olive salt tolerance
by amelioration of some antioxidative enzyme activities, photosynthetic activity, and, so, plant
growth and the preservation of a suitable plant water status under salinity conditions. The
decrease of soluble sugars contents in proline treated-plants revealed the important
osmoprotectant effect played by the added proline in such a way that limited the need of salt-
stressed plants for soluble sugars synthesis (Ahmed et al. 2010).
The nodular antioxidant enzyme expression in response to salt stress, Phaseolus vulgaris
genotype BAT477 was inoculated with reference strain CIAT899, and treated with 50 mM NaCl.
Plant growth, nodulation and nitrogen fixing activity were analyzed. The results showed that: (1)
all parameters, particularly in nodules, were affected by salt treatments, and (2) confirmed
preferential growth allocation to roots. The ARA was significantly decreased by salt treatments.
Protein dosage confirmed that nodules were more affected by salt treatment than were roots. The
enzymes i.e. superoxide dismutase, catalase, ascorbate peroxidase and peroxidase in nodules,
roots and a free rhizobial strain were analyzed. The results indicated that SOD and CAT nodular
isozymes had bacterial and root origins. The SOD expressed the same CuZn, Fe and Mn SOD

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isoforms in nodules and roots, whereas in free rhizobia we found only one Fe and Mn SOD.
APX and POX nodule and root profiles had only root origins, as no rhizobial band was detected.
Under salt stress, plant growth, nitrogen fixation and activities of antioxidant defense enzymes in
nodules were affected. Thus, these enzymes appear to preserve symbiosis from stress turned out
that NaCl salinity lead to a differential regulation of distinct SOD and POX isoenzyme. So their
levels in nodules appeared to be consistent with symbiotic nitrogen fixing efficiency hypothesis,
and they seem to function as the molecular mechanisms underlying the nodule response to
salinity (Jebara et al. 2005).
Aluminum tolerance
Seedlings of two Indica rice (Oryza sativa L.) cvs. HUR-105 and Vandana, differing in
Al-tolerance were used to identify the key mechanisms involved in their differential behavior
towards Al toxicity. Cv. HUR-105 appeared to be Al sensitive by showing significant reduction
(p ≤ 0.01) in root/shoot length, fresh weight, dry weight and water content in presence of 421 μM
Al3+ in growth medium whereas cv. Vandana appeared to be fairly Al3+ tolerant. There was a
conspicuous and significant reduction in dry weight of root and shoot in Al sensitive cv. HUR-
105 with 178 μM Al3+ treatment for 3 days. Al was readily taken up by the roots and transported
to shoots in both the rice cultivars. Localization of absorbed Al was always greater in roots than
in shoots. Our results of the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) H2O2 and O2.− and
activities of major antioxidant enzymes such as total superoxide dismutase (SOD), Cu/Zn SOD,
Mn SOD, Fe SOD, catalase (CAT) and guaiacol peroxidase revealed Al induced higher oxidative
stress, greater production of ROS and lesser capacity to scavenge ROS in cv. HUR-105 than
Vandana. With Al treatment, higher oxidative stress was noted in shoots than in roots. The
enhanced activities of SOD (especially Fe and Mn SOD) and CAT in Al treated seedlings of cv.
Vandana suggested the role of these enzymes in Al tolerance. The marked presence of Fe SOD
in roots and shoots of the seedlings of Al tolerant cv. Vandana and its significant (p ≤ 0.01)
increased activity was due to Al-treatment, appeared to be the unique feature of the cultivar used
and indicates a vital role of Fe SOD in Al-tolerance in rice (Bhoomika et al. 2013).
β-Thujaplicin and ROS
β-Thujaplicin is a natural troponoid with strong antifungal, antiviral, and anticancer
activities. β-Thujaplicin production in yeast elicitor-treated Cupressus lusitanica cell culture and
its relationships with reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO) production and
hypersensitive cell death were investigated. Superoxide anion radical (O2•–) induced cell death
and inhibited β-thujaplicin accumulation, whereas hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) induced β-
thujaplicin accumulation but did not significantly affect cell death. Both elicitor and O2•– induced
programmed cell death, which can be blocked by protease inhibitors, protein kinase inhibitors,
and Ca2+ chelators. Elicitor-induced NO generation was nitric oxide synthase (NOS)-dependent.
Inhibition of NO generation by NOS inhibitors and NO scavenger partly blocked the elicitor-
induced β-thujaplicin accumulation and cell death, and NO donors strongly induced cell death.
Interaction among NO, H2O2, and O2•– shows that NO production and H2O2 production are
interdependent, but NO and O2•– accumulation were negatively related because of co-
consumption of NO and O2•–. NO- and O2•–-induced cell death required each other, and both
were required for elicitor-induced cell death. A direct interaction between NO and O2•– was
implicated in the production of a potent oxidant peroxynitrite, which might mediate the elicitor-
induced cell death (Zhao et al. 2007).
Abscisic acid (ABA) and ROS

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Abscisic acid (ABA) modifies the hydraulic properties of roots by increasing root water
flux (Jv). The role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in this ABA-induced process was evaluated.
At the same time, some antioxidant enzyme activities in root tissues were measured. Phaseolus
vulgaris plants were grown hydroponically, and different concentrations of ABA in combination
with catalase enzyme or ascorbate were added to the nutrient solution. Catalase treatment had no
effect by itself (no ABA) and had little or only a small stimulatory effect at ABA concentrations
of 1, 50, and 100 μM, but it partially inhibited the ABA effect at 5 μM. Ascorbate by itself
doubled Jv and root hydraulic conductance over the control value. In the presence of ABA,
ascorbate partially or, at 100 μM, completely inhibited that ABA stimulation of Jv. (Aroca,
2006).
Histochemical test: production of hydrogen peroxide
The production of hydrogen peroxide in plant tissue is demonstrated quickly with a
simple histochemical test. The test solution, 50 mM potassium iodide in a 4% (w/v) potato starch
suspension, is applied to the cut surface of the tissue to be tested. Hydrogen peroxide oxidizes
iodide ions to iodine; the iodine is complexed by the starch to form a blue-purple color. This test
detects hydrogen peroxide production in cells undergoing lignification, i.e. tracheary elements
and phloem fibers, and in some epidermal cells. In addition there is a rapid production of
hydrogen peroxide in crushed cells. The test is negative under (i) anaerobic conditions and (ii) in
the presence of catalase (Olson and Varner, 1993).
An improved version of a simple histochemical test for the in situ assaying the production
of hydrogen peroxide in living plant tissue was demonstrated. The test solution containing 50
mM KI in a 4 % potato starch solution was directly applied to the fresh cut surface of the tissue
to be tested. Incorporation of an enhancer potassium permanganate (1 % final concentration) into
the test reagent resulted in a ten times greater hydrogen peroxide mediated oxidation of iodide
ions to iodine, especially in the case when, e.g. suboptimal concentration of H2O2 is present or
endogenous catalase decomposes the H2O2 in tissue as quickly as it is evolved. Subsequently,
iodine is complexed by the starch to form a coloured product. H2O2 production by wound-
induced oxidative burst or lignification can be easily discriminated due to the dual colour
response (Repka 1999).
The presence of endogenous H2O2 was demonstrated at the electron microscope level
with the CeCl3 technique in lignifying cell walls of poplar. Reaction product was precisely
located in the very same walls which could oxidize hydrogen donors in the absence of
exogeneous H2O2. The results showed peroxidases were involved in the polymerisation of lignin
monomers even if other oxidases may participate in this biosynthetic pathway (Czaninski et al.
1993).
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A STUDY ON ANTIOXIDANT METABOLITES AND ENZYME ASSAYS IN
PHYSALIS MINIMA
Bunga.Thirupathi*1 S. Gangadhar Rao2
Department of Botany, University College of Science, Osmaina University.
Hyderabad 500007, Telangana State, INDIA
Correspondences for Author

*1
Bunga.ThirupathiDepartment of Botany, MOBILE 9989807071
University College of Science,
Osmania University, Hyderabad-500007, Telangana State, India.
2
Former
Professor and Chairman Board of Studies in Botany
Department of Botany, MOBILE 9948650105
University College of Science, Osmania University, Hyderabad-500007
Telangana State, India.
Abstract
Physalis minima L. is medicinal plant belongs to family solanaceae, commonly called
Indian gooseberry appears along road sides, open forest margins. It is a annual herb found
throughout India, Afghanista, Baluchisthan, tropical Africa and Australia. Mainly used as
diuretic, laxative, anti-inflammtory.Its contain phenolics flavonoids, alkaloids, steroids.
Physalis minima L plant samples wascollected from Karimnagar local area were used for the
present investigation.In this plant secondary metabolites and antioxidant properties in leaves and
fruits were estimated. Concentration of flavonoids (1.699), flavonol (2.48), proanthocyanins
(0.18), anthocyanins (0.163), total carotenoids (2.299), β-carotene (2.421), μ/g fr.wt was
recorded maximum in leaves as compared to fruits. However phenols content was recorded
maximum of (1.562) μ/g Fr wt in fruits as compared to leaves (0.462).Enzymes catalase,
peroxidase and polyphenoloxidase, showed maximum activity in fruits with (6.3), (1.02), (0.527)
units/g Fr wt as compared to (3.166), (O.552), (0.35) units in leaves respectively. Glutathione
reductase activity was recorded maximum in leaves with (1.459) units as compared to fruits.
FRAP, ABTS and DPPH radical scavenging activity assays has showed maximum (6.12),(8.55),
(3.54) inhibition % activity in the leaves as compared to (14.26), (20.1), (5.74) inhibition %
activity in fruits respectively.
Key words: Antioxidant, secondary metabolites, enzyme assays, Physali minima L.,
medicinal plant.
INTRODUCTION
Physalis minima is a very useful plant in Indian system of medicine,belongs to solanaceae
family ,generally grows well in open forest margins ,along road side and shaded feilds.Stem
hollow quadrangular, lower branches sometimes prostate and rooting at the node, green, and
glabrous. Leaves simple, alternate, ovate acute, margins irregularly toothed, petiole 0.5- 4.0 cm
long slightly hairy. Flowers pendunculate, peduncles 1.3 cm long greenish-
chocolate,glabrous,complete ,biseual,regular,actinomorphic, hypogynous.Sepals 5,
gamosepalous,flower: calyx 0.4 cm long,greenish-violet,margin slightly hairy, fruiting calyx 3
cm long, green with purple ribs, glabrous ,fruit a globosely berry, enveloped in the bladder-like

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enlarged calyx. Seeds many, brown, flowering and fruiting almost throughout the year, annual
herb ,distributed thought out India,Bagladesh, Malaysia[1]tropical and temperate zones of the
world .This plant reported as a laxative,diuiretic,anti-ainflammtary,it contain
phenols[2]flavonoids, alkaloids and steroids in Malaysia the aerial parts including the fruits, are
used for the digestive, intestinal problems and various skin disorders such as allergies, boils and
cuts.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Chemicals required: TPTZ, NADP, ABTS, (2, 2’-azinobis3-ethylbenzthiazoline-
sulphonicacid), DPPH (2, 2-Diphenyl -2-picryl hydrazine) obtained from Sigma –Aldrich and E
Merck only. The green and purple varieties of Physalis minima plantswere collected from local
market of Hyderabad city and washed with water, sun dried for 7days, pulverized in mill and
sieved and stored in an airtight container for further use. Ten grams of dried leaf powder were
extracted by maceration in 100ml of methanol at 300 C overnight, followed by extracting and
stirring with 100ml of distilled water overnight , centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 15 to20 min and
the supernatant were pooled and made up to 100ml.
Phenolic contents in the extracts were determined by the modified Folin ciacalteau
method [ 3].2ml of the leaf extract was mixed with 5ml Folin ciacalteau reagent (diluted with
water 1:10v/v)and 4ml (75g/l) of sodium carbonate .The tubes were vortexed for 15sec and
allowed to stand for 30min at 40 0 C for colour development .Absorbance was then measured at
765nm using Shimadzu 160A UV-VIS spectrophotometer . Total phenolic contents were
expressed as mg/g Dry Wt garlic acid equivalent.
Aluminum chloride colorimetric method was used for the determination of
flavonoids [4].0.5ml of leaf extract in methanol were separately mixed with 1.5ml of methanol
,0.1ml of 10% aluminum chloride ,0.1ml of 1M potassium acetate and 2.8ml of distilled water.
Kept at room temperature for 30 minutes. The absorbance of the reaction mixture was recorded
at 415nm with a Shimadzu 160 a UV/Visible spectrometer .The calibration curve was prepared
by preparing quercetin concentration 12.5 to 100µg/ml.
Total flavonols in the plant extracts were estimated using the method of [ 5].To
2.0ml of the sample ,2.0ml of 2%AICl, ethanol and 3.0ml(50g/l) sodium acetate solution were
added .The absorption was read at 440nm by Shimadzu 160A UV-VIS spectrophotometer after
2.5h at 200 C. The total flavonols content was calculated as quercetin (mg/g) using the following
equation based on the calibration curve.
Y=0.0255x,R2 =0.9812,where x is the absorbance and is quercetin equivalent.
Determination of proanthocyanidins was based on the procedure reported by [6].
A volume of 0.5 ml of the extract solution was mixed with 3ml of 4% vanillin-methanol solution
and 1.5 ml of HCL ,the mixture was allowed to stand for 15min , the absorbance was measured
with Shimadzu 160A UV-VIS Spectrophotometer at 500nm .Total proanthocyanidin content
were expressed as catechin equivalent(µg/g).
The total anthocyanins content was determined according to pH differential method by
[7]. The leaf extract was dissolved in potassium chloride –hydrochloride acid buffer solution
pH1.0 and sodium acetate trihydrate (CH3COONa.3H2O) buffer solution pH4.5.Methanolic
extract with 3.6ml of the corresponding buffers and read against water as a blank at 510 and
700nm.Absorbance was calculated using the formula A=[(a510-A700)-(A510-A700)].Results
are expressed inµg/g Fr wt.
Carotenoids were estimated by the method of [8] One gram fresh sample was crushed
with methanol and centrifuged. Residue was discarded and supernatant was concentrated to

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dryness. The dried extract was dissolved in 10ml of ether, 5ml of 10% methonolic KOH and the
mixture was kept for one hour at room temperature in dark. The ether layer was washed with 1ml
of 3% NaCl(in distilled water)for 3 times to remove alkaline methanol and dried over sodium
sulphate for one hour .The absorbance of ether extract was measured at 450nm by using UV-Vis
160A double beam spectrometer ,and expressed as µg/g Fr wt.
Extraction of β-carotene:10g sample (leaf) were rinsed with distilled water to remove
sand, cut into pieces and lyophilized to remove the moisture content .Resulting dried samples
were powdered using blender. These ground samples were extracted twice with a total volume of
100ml of 70% aqueous methanol .The mixture was shaken on an orbital shaker for 75min at
2500rpm and then filtered through Whatman No1filter paper. The combined methanolic extract
was then evaporated at 550 C using water bath and dried to powder in a lyopholyzer.
β Carotene was determined according to the method of[ 9].The dried methanolic extract (100mg)
was vigorously shaken with 10ml of acetone and hexane mixture (4:6) for 1 min .The absorbance
of the filtrate was measured at λ=453,505,645 and 663nm by Shimadzu 116 A UV_VIS
Spectrometer. Contents of β-Carotene were calculated according to the following equations:
-Carotene µg/g Fr wt =0.216xA 663 _0.304xA505 +0.452xA453.
Where A=absorbance recorded at specific wavelengths.
Extraction of enzymes : One gram of fresh plant materials was taken and placed in a pre
cooled mortar and ground with 10ml of cold 0.005M Tri–HCl buffer (pH 7.0).The extract was
passed through cheese cloth and centrifuged at 1000rpm for 20mins .the supernatant was used as
crude enzyme for the activities of catalase , peroxidase, and polyphenol oxidase.Polyphenol
oxidase and peroxidase was estimated as per the method of [10], the assay mixture contained,
2ml, of 0.1M (pH7.0) Tri-HCl buffer, 1ml of pyrogallol (0.01M) and 1ml of enzyme extract. The
assay mixture was incubated for 5 minutes at 250 C. The reaction was stopped by adding 1ml of
2.5NH2SO4 .The absorbance at 425nm was recorded using Shimadzu 160 A UV-visible double
beam spectrophotometer, enzyme activity was expressed as units/g Fr wt.
Peroxidase activity: The assay mixture consisted of 2ml of 0.1M (pH-7.0) Tri— HCl buffer,
1ml of H2O2 (0.05M) and 1ml of enzyme .The reaction mixture was incubated at250C for 5
minutes. The reaction was stopped by adding 1 ml of 2.5N H2SO4. The absorbance was recorded
at 425nm in Shimadzu 160A UV-Visible double beam spectrophotometer .The activity was
expressed as change in absorbance.
Catalase activity was estimated as per the method of [11].The reaction mixture consists of `1ml
of enzyme ,2ml of hydrogen peroxide and 3ml of 0.05M Tri-HCl buffer (pH 7.0).The reaction
was stopped by 1ml of 2.5 N H2SO4 .After 5 minutes of incubation at 200 C, the residual H2O2
was titrated with 0.05M,KMNO4 . A blank was prepared by adding 1 ml of 2.5 N H2SO4 initially
to the reaction mixture at zero time .Catalase enzyme activity was expressed as units/g Fr wt.
The enzyme units were calculated by using the following formula; Catalase activity =25/2 x
0.85x V/W
Where, V=difference in the titre value between control and treatment, W=Fresh weight of the
sample in grams, 0.85mg of H2O2 =1ml of (0.05M). KMnO4
Glutathione reductase enzyme extraction : The leaf material was weighed separately and
ground in water at a concentration of 1g/5ml.The extraction were centrifuged at 1000rpm for
10minutes and the supernatants were kept under refrigerated conditions and used for enzyme
estimations.
Glutathione reductase activity was determined according to the method of [12].0.2ml of
sample, 1.5ml of 0.3 M phosphate buffer, pH6.8, 0.5ml of 25mM EDTA, 0.2ml of 12.5mM

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oxidized glutathione and 0.1 ml of 3mM NADPH was added .Decrease in absorbance was
measured against that of blank at 340nm .The enzyme activity is calculated and expressed a
Units/mg Fr wt.
Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) assay: Soxhlet extraction method was employed
for the preparation of 50%alcoholic extracts of the leaf powdered, sample was extracted for 6
hours. The collected solvent extract was evaporated, dried and stored at 40 C.
The FRAP reagent was prepared from 300mM of sodium acetate buffer , (pH3.6),10mM of
TPTZ solution , 40mM Hull as a solvent , 20mM (Fe+3 ) chloride solution in a volume of ratio of
10:1:1,respectively [ 13].The FRAP reagent was prepared freshly and warmed to 370C in a water
bath before use .100µL of the diluted sample was added to 3ml of the FRAP reagent , The
absorbance of the reaction mixture was recorded at 593nm by using Shimdzu 160 A UV-VIS
double beam spectrophotometer , after 4 min in room temperature .The standard curve was
constructed by using FeSO4 solution and the results were expressed in percentage.Extraction for
ABTS and DPPH Assays: The leaf materials were collected dehydrated in a chamber below
400 C for 48h, powdered with a mechanical grinder and stored in an air-tight container.
The methanolic leaf extracts were prepared by adding 1g of dry powders the leaf materials in
100ml, methanol, further stirring at 150rpm at ambient temperature for 3 hours. Insoluble
residues from the solutions were removed by centrifugation at 8,000g for 10min (cooling
centrifuge) and the clear supernatants were used for analysis. The extracts were stored at 40C in
plastic vials, till further use. All the estimations were performed in triplicates.
The ABTS cation radical scavenging activity of the extracts was determined according to the
modified method of [14].A stock solution of ABTS was produced by mixing 7mM aqueous
solution of ABTS with potassium per sulphate (2.45mM) in the dark at ambient temperature for
12-16h before use .The radical cation solution was further diluted until the initial absorbance
value of 0.7±0.005 at 734 nm was reached .For assaying test samples, 0.98mL ABTS solution
was mixed with 0.02mL of the plant extracts. The decrease in absorbance was recorded at 0 min
and after 6 min. Scavenging ability relative to the reaction control (without plant extracts as
100%) was calculated by using the formula: ABTS* radical Scavenging activity (%) =[(Initial
reading –final reading)/Initial reading ]x100, where initial reading is absorbance at 0 min. And
final reading absorbance for 6min.The DPPH radical scavenging activity was estimated by
measuring the decrease in the absorbance of methanolic solution of DPPH by [15]. In brief , to
5mL of DPPH solution (3.3mg of DPPH in 100mL methanol),1mL of each plant extracts were
added , incubated for 30min in the dark and the absorbance (A1) was read at 517 nm. The
absorbance (A0) of a reaction control (methanol instead of plant extract) was also recorded at the
same wavelength .Ascorbic acid (5-50µg/mill was used as a standard .Scavenging ability (%)
was calculated by using the formula: DPPH radical scavenging activity (%) =[(A0-A1)/A0]x100,
where A0 was the absorbance of reaction control and A1 was the absorbance of extracts or
standards.
Statistical and Discussion:
All results are expressed as mean ±standard deviation .All results are means of three replicates
.The data were correlation coefficient at p<0.05.SPSS 15 Version was used for the statistical
analysis.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Concentration of flavonoids (1.699), flavonol (2.48), proanthocyanins (0.18), anthocyanins
(0.163), totalcarotenoids (2.299), β carotene (2.421), μ/g fr. wt was recorded maximum in leaves

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as compared to fruits. However phenols content was recorded maximum of (1.562) μ/g Fr wt in
fruits as compared to leaves (0.462μ/g Fr wt).
Table 1: Showing the content of antioxidant secondary metabolites (μg/g Fr wt) in leaves and
fruit varieties of Physalis minima.
Parameters Leaf Fruit
mean ±sd mean ±sd
Phenols 0.426±0.0006 1.562±0.006
Flavonoids 1.699±0.009 0.711±0.011
Flavonols 2.48±0.055 1.068±0.002
Proanthocyanin 0.180±0.006 .0148±0.013
Anthocyanin 0.163±0.14 0.1446±0.117
Total Carotenoids 2.299±0.120 1.365±0.008
β Carotene 2.421±0.0005 1.286±0.0015
Enzymes catalase, peroxidase and polyphenoloxidase, showed maximum activity in fruits with
(6.3), (1.02), (0.527) units/g Fr wt as compared to (3.166), (O.552), (0.35) units in leaves
respectively. Glutathione reductase was recorded maximum in leaves (1.459) units as compared
to fruits. (Table 2, figure 2).
Table 2: Showing antioxidant enzyme activities (Units/g Fr wt) inin leaves and fruit varieties of
Physalis minima.
mean ±sd mean ±sd
Catalase 3.166±0.028 6.3±0.03
Peroxidase 0.001±0.0006 0.013±0.004
Polyphenoloxidase 0.008±0.0003 0.527±0.001
Glutathione reductase 1.459±0.011 0.837±0.055
activity in fruits respectively. (Table 3, figure 3)
Table 3: Showing the antioxidant assays activity (inhibition %) in Leaf and Fruit Physalis
minima.

mean ±sd mean ±sd
FRAP in (%) 6.12±2.04 14.26±4.75
ABTS in (%) 8.55±2.85 20.1±6.7
DPPH in (%) 3.54±1.18 5.74±1.91

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Figure 1: Showing the antioxidant secondary metabolites contents expressed in µg/g Fr wt in

leaves and fruit varieties of Physalis minima.
Figure 2:Showing antioxidant enzyme activities (Units /Fr wt) inin leaves and fruit varieties of
Physalis minima.

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Figure 3: Showing antioxidant assays (inhibition %)) inin leaves and fruit varieties of Physalis
minima.
CONCLUSION
Comparison of the result gave, indication that Flavonoids, Flavonols, Proanthocyanins,
Anthocyanins, Total caratenoids, β carotene were recorded maximum in leaf when compared to
fruist and Phenols concentration was maximum in fruit compared to leaf. ).Enzymes catalase,
peroxidase and polyphenoloxidase, showed maximum activity in fruits with (6.3), (1.02), (0.527)
units/g Fr wt as compared to (3.166), (O.552), (0.35) units in leaves respectively. Glutathione
reductase activity was recorded maximum in leaves with (1.459) units as compared to fruits.
activity in fruits respectively
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I sincerely thank UGC for providing RFSMS fellowship through the Department of
Botany, University College of Science, Osmania University, Hyderabad, Telangana state, India.

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REFERENCES
1. Nahid Sultana, M.A.Hassan, Momtaz Begum and Mahbuba Sultan.Physalis Angulata
L. (Solanaceae)-A new Angiospermic Record for Bangladesh. Bangladesh J. Bot.
37(2): 195-198, 2008 (December)
2. T.patak, K.shah, K.jiwan and neeta. Study on the Antibacterial Potential of Physalis
Minima Linn. Indian J PharmSci. 2011 Jan-Feb; 73(1): 111–115.
3. Wolfe, K. Antioxidant activity of apple. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2003; 51:609-614.
4. Chang, Yang, M.,Wen.Chern. Estimation of total flavonoids content in propolis by two
Complementary colorimetric methods. J.food Drug Analysis.2002; 10:178-182.
5. Kumran. Karunakaran.R.J. In vitro antioxidant activities of methanol extracts of
Phyllanthus species from India. Volume 40.Lebens-Wiss technologie2007; 344-352.
6. Sun,J.S.,Tsuang,Y.W.,Chen,I.J.Huang,W.,Hang,Y.S.,Lu. An Ulltra a weak
chemiluminiscence study on oxidative stress in rabbits following acute thermal injury,
Burns1,24.1998; 225-231.
7 .Giusti, M.M, & Wrolstad, R.E. Unit F1.2.1-13.Anthocyanins.Characterization and
measurement with uv-visiblespectroscopy. In R.E.Wrolstad (Ed.), Current protocols
In Food Analytical Chemistry .2001; New York, Wiley.
8. Jensen, A. Chlorophyll and carotenoids. In: Hellebust, A. and Crargei, J.S. (eds)
Handbook of phytological methods. Cambridge, Cambridge university press, London.
1978; 5-7.
9. Nagata, M.and Yamashita, Simple method for simultaneous determination of
chlorophyll and carotenoids in tomato fruit: Nippon shokuhin kogya
gakkaish;39(10),1992; 925-928.
10. Kar, and Mishra. Inorganic pyrophosphatase activity during rice leaf senescence.
Can.j.bot.53, 1975; 503-510.
11. Barber,J.M. Catalase and peroxidases in primary leaves during development and
senescence. Z.pflanzen physio. 97:5, 1980;135-144.
12. Beutler; Red Cell Metabolism: A Manual of Biochemical Methods (3rd ed.)Grune &
Stratton, New York (1984); pp. 74–76. 22.
13. Sharique Ahmed .Ascorbic acid, carotenoids, total phenolic content and antioxidant
Activity of various genotypes of oleracea encephala. Journal of Medicinal and

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A Study on Dominated Air Borne Pollengrains at University College

of Science Campus, Satavahana University, Karimnagar, Telangana
State
N.V.Madhav1, E.N.Murthy2, N.Gangadhr3 and N.Thirumala chary4,Arjun.M5
1,2&3 Dept. of Botany, University College of Science,Satavahana University,

4 Dept.Botany, KIMS Degree and P.G. College, Karimnagar
Abstract
Now a day’s pollen study is important for human welfare. Pollen grains are used in various
branches like forensic, melissopalynology, cosmetic, food, medicine, geopalenology etc.A total
of 10 airborne pollen grains were recorded in anairborne pollen survey at Satavahana University
campus, during October to December 2014. Maximumcontribution was made by Poaceae type,
followed by Asteraceae ,Ceasalpinaceae and Mimosoaceae.
Introduction
The study of morphology of pollen grains called palenology.Pollen and spores are the common
airborne biological materials and can be detectedthroughout the year. The present investigation is
expected to add more data about the qualitative andquantitative occurrence of pollen grains in the
atmosphere of Satavahana University Campus interms of their role as organic environmental
pollutants. The university college of science Satavahana University nearby Lower Manair Dam,
Karimnagr (fig.1).
Materials and Methods

The Stavahana University Campus was selected as sampling area. Three locations are selected in
the campus. The airborne pollen survey was carried out by Gregory’s Sampler method (Gregory
1961).This sampler is grouped under impaction method using vertical wind movement and
inclined glass slide. From October to December, 2014, two slides smeared with glycerin jelly,
wereplaced daily in Gregory’s Sampler on the root of a 10 m height building. Here, fast green
wasused to stain the jelly during its preparation. With an interval of every 24 hours, the slides
werecollected from the trap and covered with 18 mm × 18 mm cover glass. The covered areas
wereexamined under microscope instantly or within a few days afterwards. The trapped pollen
grainswere studied on daily, monthly basis. Pollen identification was made on
The basis of the reference slides from the A Text Book of Palenology placedin the
Department of Botany, Satavahana University and also the relevant published literatures.
Results and Discussion

A total of 10 pollen grains were trapped. The pollen grains identified up to family, genus or
species level were considered as identified type. The identified types belonged to four families,
four genera, Of the identified pollentypes, Poaceae contributed the highest number followed by
Asteraceae ,Ceasalpinaceae and mimosoaceae, and a few other minor types specific to this
region. The unidentifiedpollen types were observed.
.

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Fig:1
Fig:2
• (2)

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(3) (4)
Plate 1. Some of the commonly trapped airborne pollen morphoforms at Satavahan University
Campus.
Figs. 1-4: 1.Acacia, 2. Grass, 3. Parthenium, 4. Cassia
References
Alson, J. and I. Hurtado, 1990. Air pollen dispersal in a tropical area. Aerobiol. 6:122-127.
Badya, K.K. 1989. Palynomorph and Airborne Pollen Spore Survey of Chittagong. M.Sc. Thesis,
Department
of Botany, Chittagong University, Chittagong.
Badya, K.K. and M.K.Pasha. 1991. A pollen calendar for Chittagong University Campus,
Chittagong
(Bangladesh). Aerobiol. 7(1): 62-68.
Bhat, M.M. and A.H. Rajasab, 1985. Incidence of airborne pollen at two different locations. Ind.
J. Med. Res.
82: 346-352.
Boral, D., S. Chatterjee and K. Bhattacharya. 2004. The occurrence and allergic potential of
airborne pollen
in West Bengal, India. Ann. Agric. Environ. Med. 11: 45-52.
El-Ghazaly, G., P.K. El-Ghazaly, K.A. Larson and S. Nilsson, 1993. Comparison of airborne
pollen grains
in Huddinge and Stockholm. Aerobiol. 9: 53-68.
Gregory, P.H. 1961. The Microbiology of the Atmosphere. Leonard Hill and Co., London, pp.
251.
Hyde, H.A. 1959. Volumetric counts of pollen grains at Cardiff, 1954-1957. J. Allergy 30: 219-
234.
Katelaris, C.H. and T.V. Burke. 2003. A 7- year pollen profile of major Olympic Games venues
in Sydney,
Australia. Aerobiol. 19: 121-124.
Leticia, T. and B. Angeles. 2005. First volumetric airborne pollen sampling in Montevideo city,
Uruguay.
Aerobiol. 21: 33-41.

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Pasha, M.K. 2003. Aerobiology. In: Banglapedia Vol. 3. S. Islam, S. Miah, W. Ahmed, A.M.
Chowdhury,
S.M.M. Rahman, K. Siddiqui and S.M.H. Kabir (Eds.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. p. 52.
Recio, M., M.M. Trigo, F.J. Toro, J.J. Garcia-Gonzalez and B. Cabezudo. 2006. A three year
aeropalynological study in Estepona (Southern Spain). Ann. Agric. Environ. Med. 13: 201-207.
Vergamini, S.M., R.M.B.C.A., Valencia-Barrera, C.P. Morales and D. Fernandez-Gonzalez.
2006. Atmospheric
pollen survey in Brazil. Aerobiol. 22(2): 20-23.
Zaursza, E.B., B. Samolisski, B. Tarchalska and P. Rapiejko. 1993. Allergenic pollen and
pollinosis in
Warsaw. Aerobiol. 11: 47-51.
(Manuscript received on 22 June, 2008; revised on 21 March, 2009)

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ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY OF METHANOLIC EXTRACT

OF LEAVES OF MADHUCA INDICA, L.
Yahya Khan and Sahera Nasreen
P.G. Department of Botany, Government Institute of Science and Research Center,
Nipat Niranjan Nagar, Caves Road, Aurangabad -431004 (M.S.)
Corresponding author- [email protected]
Abstract
Anti bacterial activity of methanolic extracts of Madhuca indica was screened by agar Disc
diffusion method. The results revealed that the methanolic extract exhibited significant
antimicrobial activity of concentration of 100, 250, 500, 1000 µg/ml respectively against tested
organisms, particularly more effective against gram – ve bacteria staphylococcus aureus and
gram –ve bacteria Escherichia coli than the aqueous extract when compared to the standard drug
(streptomycin).
Keywords-Madhuca indica, antimicrobial activity S. aureus , E. coli.
Introduction-
Madhuca indica belonging to family Sapotaceae is an important economic tree growing
throughout INDIA. Traditionally Madhuca indica. Leaves have been used as an Anti-diabetic,
Rheumatism, Ulcers, Bleedings and Tonsillits. The flowers, seeds and seed oil of Madhuca have
great medicinal value. Externally, the seed oil massage is very effective to alleviate pain. In skin
diseases, the juice of flowers is rubbed for oleation. It is also beneficial as a nasya (nasal drops)
in diseases of the head due to pitta, like sinusitis. The purpose of the present study was to
evaluate the in vitro antibacterial activity of the methanol leaves extract of Madhuca indica.The
external applications are skin effections, analgesic anti pyretic,anti-oxidant
and anti diabetic.
MATERIALS AND METHODS -
Plant material-
Disease free leaves were collected from the campus of Government Institute of Science,
Aurangabad. The collected leaves were surface sterilized with 0.1% mercuric chloride & then
washed with D/W 2-3 times separately & shade dried. Fine powder were made after complete
drying and used for the experimental work.
Solvent Extraction of Leaves –
Extracts were made in 80% methanol at room temperature by simple extraction method
(Deshpande et al). 10 gm dried powder of leavesmixed with 100ml solvent in 250 ml flask and
were kept on shaker for 24 hrs. Then it was allowed to stand for the 30 min to stand the plant
material. Thereafter it was filtered & centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 15 min .The supernatant was
collected &solvent was evaporated at 45 0C in vacuum evaporator to make the final volume 1/5
of the original volume

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Determination of Antibacterial activity -

Culture media –
For antibacterial test Nutrient Agar/broth was purchased from Hi-Media Pvt. Ltd Bombay, India.
Inoculums Preparation –The bacteria were inoculated into Nutrient broth &Incubated at37o C
for 18 hrs & suspension was checked to provide approximately 3x 105 cfu/ml.
Microorganism Used –
The pure culture of test microorganism Bacillus cereus, E.coli. Staphylococcus aures,
P.auroginosa was isolated from different samples in the Dept. of Botany Government Institute of
science, Aurangabad (M.S.)
Antibacterial assay-
The Antibacterial activity of methanolic extract analysed by using disc diffusion assay (Dugler
and Gomez, 2004) sterile disc was used for the present investigation. The extracts were
incorporated to the sterile disc individually with 100, 250, 500, and 1000 µl using micropipette
.Precautions were taken to prevent the flow of solvent extract from the disc outer surface
.commercial antibiotic streptomycin (20 ml) was used foe the positive control .The Disc was
placed on the nutrient agar plates in which the bacteria were inoculated and spread uniformly and
incubated at 37oC+ 1oC for 24 hrs. The diameter of zone of inhibition was measured in mm.
Table 3-Antimicrobial activity of methanolic extract of leaves of Madhuca indica
Sr. Test Zone of inhibition Zone of inhibition

No Microorganism (mm) (mm)
. Conc. of methanolic leaf extract( µl ) Streptomycin(µl)
100 250 500 1000 400
1 E.coli. + + ++ +++ +++++

2 S.aures +++ +++ +++ ++++ +++++
3 B. cereus +++ +++ +++ ++++ +++++
4 P.auroginosa + + ++ +++ +++++

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Plate 1: Antimicrobial activity of methanolic extract of leaves of Madhuca indica
RESULT AND DISCUSSION –

Methnolic extracts of leaves of Madhuca indica, were screened for antimicrobial
activities against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas

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aeruginosa, and at dose level ranging from 100 µl/ml, 250 µl/ml, 500 µl/ml and 1000 µl/ml.
(Table 1) methanolic extracts of Madhuca indica, leaves inhibited all the bacterial strains tested.
All the doses (100 µg/ml to 1000 µg/ml) showed zone of inhibition against all the bacteria, even
at a dose of 100µg/ml of extract exhibited significant zone of inhibition was 3cm for 50µl, and
3.7cm for 100µl comparable to standard antibiotic (streptomycin) against Pseudomonas
aeruginosa. For leaf extract Pseudomonas aeruginosa exhibited maximum inhibition (3.7 cm)
which was greater than that of standard. For all other bacteria 100 µg/ml concentration of the
extract was sufficient to produce effective inhibition. Concentration which were comparable to
standard antifungal agent Streptomycin. Thus leaves of alcoholic extracts of Madhuca indica,
were found to be inhibitory against all the bacteria tested. Antibacterial activities of alcoholic
extracts of leaves of Madhuca indica, could be attributed to the presence of biological
compounds like 2-Furan methanol, 4H pyran 4-one, 2,3-dihydro 3,5-dihydroxy-6-
methyl,Thiophene, 2-Furancarboxyaldehyde-5-(hydroxymethyl) and 1,4- tetra decanediol .The
use of medicinal plants play a vital role in covering the basic health needs in developing
countries and these plants may offer a new sources of antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral
agents with significant activity against inflective microorganisms.
CONCLUSION-
The present study indicates that Madhuca indica, extracts have broad inhibitory activities
to pathogenic microorganism and to act as potential antibacterial agent from natural sources. In
general, commercial antibiotic and antifungal drugs causes side effects such as liver, kidney and
gastrointestinal tract toxicity. Severe hepatotoxicity had also been reported in patients
undergoing antifungal drug therapy. However, herbal remedies often do not produce any side
effects. Therefore, alternative medicine become popular remedy to various types of ailments In
conclusion, Madhuca indica extracts have revealed significant antibacterial activities against test
organisms used for the study.
References:-
• A. B. Aliyu1, M. A. Ibrahim, A. M. Musa, H. Ibrahim, I. E. Abdulkadir1 and A. O.
Oyewale (2009) Journal of Medicinal Plants Research Evaluation of antioxidant activity
of leave extract of Bauhinia rufescens Lam. (Caesalpiniaceae) Vol. 3(8), pp. 563-567.
• Adhikarimayum haripyaree, Kshetrimayum guneshwor, Maibam damayanti (2010)
Evaluation of Antioxidant Properties of Phenolics Extracted from Ananas comosus L.
Notulae Scientia Biologica: 2 (2), 68-71
• Akash P. Dahake1 et al (2010) Antioxidant activity of methanolic extract of Madhuca
indica bark, Journal of Pharmacy Research 3(8), 1709-1711.
• Aruoma I.O. and Cuppette S.L. (1997) Antioxidant Methodology : In vivo and Vitro
concepts IL; AOAS Press
• Aruoma .I.O. Antioxidant action of action of plant foods .Use of oxidative DNA damage
, as a tool of Studying Antioxidant efficacy (1999).Free Radical Res., ,30.419-427
• AO Morakinyo, GO Oludare, OT Aderinto, A Tasdup (2012) Biology and Medicine
Antioxidant and free radical scavenging activities of aqueous and ethanol extracts of
Zingiber officinale 3 (5): 25-30, 2011.

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• Climpoiu C; (2006) Analysis of Some Natural Antioxidants by Thin‐Layer
Chromatography and High Performance Thin‐Layer Chromatography Journal of Liquid
Chromatography & Related Technologies, (9) 7-8
• D. Sai Koteswara Sarma et al (2013),Phytochemical And Antimicrobial Activity Of
Whole Plant Of Madhuca indica International Journal Of Research In Pharmacy And
Chemistry, 3(1) : 15-19.
• Hanspeter r. witschi and David g. doherty(1984) Butylated Hydroxyanisole and
Lung Tumor Development in A/J MiceToxicol. Sci. 4 (5): 795-801
• Ho-min kang and Mikal e. saltveit (2002), Antioxidant Enzymes and DPPH-Radical
Scavenging Activity in Chilled and Heat-Shocked Rice (Oryza sativa L.) Seedlings
Radicles , J. Agric. Food Chem. 50, 513-518
• Kalaivani.M and Jegadeesan.M (2013) Antimicrobial activity of alcoholic extract of
leaves and flowers of Madhuca indica International Journal of Scientific and Research
Publications, 3( 5) 1-3.
• M.S.F.Lie ken Jie (2003) Novel halo-oxo-allenic fatty ester derivatives from epoxidized
methyl santalbate : Science Direct Elsevier .chemistry and physics of lipids (125), 93-
101.
• Sheetal Anandjiwala, Honnegowda Srinivasa, Jyoti Kalola, Mandapati Rajani2007Free-
radical scavenging activity of Bergia suffruticosa (Delile) Fenzl Journal of Natural
Medicines,(61)1,59-62.
• Suprava Sahoo, Goutam Ghosh and Sanghamitra Nayak (2012) Journal of Medicinal
Plants Research Evaluation of in vitro antioxidant activity of leaf extract of Alpinia
malaccensis Vol. 6(23), 4032-4038.
• Kaushik et al. (2010) Evaluation of antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of madhuca
indica pharmacology online vol 2: 1-8 .

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ETHNOBOTANY IN GENERAL WITH A REVIEW OF THE FAMILY

MORACEAE
Dr.J.UshaKumari,Reader in
Botany(retd),S.C.W.Degree&P.G.College,Kothagudem,Telangana,India.
Email:[email protected]
Ethnobotany is a multidisciplinary science defined as the interaction between plants and people.
("ethno" - study of people and "botany" - study of plants). Ethnobotany is considered a branch of
ethnobiology. Ethnobotany studies the complex relationships between (uses of) plants and
cultures. The focus of ethnobotany is on how plants have been or are used, managed and
perceived in human societies and includes plants used for food, medicine, divination, cosmetics,
dyeing, textiles, for building, tools, currency, clothing, rituals, social life and music. The
relationship between plants and human cultures is not limited to the use of plants for food,
clothing and shelter but also includes their use for religious ceremonies, ornamentation and
health care.
ETHNOBOTANY PAST AND PRESENT:
In the past, ethnobotanical research was predominately a survey of the plants used by
villagers. A trained botanist identified the plants and recorded their uses. Sometimes an
anthropologist was present to translate the disease descriptions, but rarely was a physician
available to identify the disease. The results generated a list of plants and their uses which was
published in a professional journal, usually in the country of the scientist. Nothing was
communicated or returned to the cultural group in exchange for their participation in the survey,
nor was any environmental or cultural status or concerns included in the survey.Basic
quantitative and experimental ethnobotany includes basic documentation, quantitative evaluation
of use and management and experimental assessment.
Today the field of ethnobotany requires a variety of skills: botanical training for the
identification and preservation of plant specimens; anthropological to training to understand the
cultural concepts around the perception of plants; linguistic training, at least enough to transcribe
local terms and understand native morphology, syntax and semantics.
Today, ethnobotanical surveys include applied projects that have the potential to
ameliorate poverty levels of these(cultural groups) people, allowing them to make more educated
decisions about their future directions. These new approaches enhance the quality of the science,
provide compensation for the cultural groups and take into account environmental concerns. This
modern approach is based on an interdisciplinary team usually composed of an ethnobotanist, an
anthropologist, an ecologist and a physician. Some of these team members are remote area

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colleagues who have arranged the details of the expedition as well as the contractual agreements
for reciprocal programs of the village or community.
------ Brief History of Ethnobotany :--------------------
The term "ethnobotany" was first used by a botanist named John W. Harshberger in 1895
while he was teaching at the University of Pennsylvania. Although the term was not used until
1895, practical interests in ethnobotany go back to the beginning of civilization when people
relied more on plants as a way of survival. Harshberger, defined Ethnobotany as “the study of
the utilitarian relationship between human beings and vegetation in their environment, including
medicinal uses”. Plants have been used for treating ailments for thousands of years through the
empirical knowledge gathered about the useful and harmful properties of different plants and
also by intuition. In India CharakSamhitaand SushrutSamhitadescribed the medicinal properties
of 500 and 700 plants respectively under 37 classes or “Ganas” (Saxena, 2003). The oldest
record of medicinal use of plants is found in the Atharva Veda remarkable description of Indian
medicinal plants were provided by ancient Indian scholars. Ayurveda, an Upaveda, composed
around 2500 BC deals with medicine, healthcare and treatment .Rig Veda, which is
approximately 8000 years old in treatment of disease from indigenous drugs.
The publication of De Materiamedica by Dioscirides (77 A.D.) can be considered as the

starting followed by the works of John Ray,Linneaus and others.The first individual to study the
emic perspective of the plant world was a German physician working in Sarajevo at the end of
19th Century: Leopold Glueck. His published work on traditional medical uses of plants done by
rural people in Bosnia (1896) has to be considered the first modern ethnobotanical work.
Beginning in the 20th century, the field of ethnobotany experienced a shift from the raw
compilation of data to a greater methodological and conceptual reorientation. This is also the
beginning of academic ethnobotany. The founding father of this discipline is Richard Evans
Schultes.
Very little organised work had been done in the country till about twenty years ago.
Organised field work and other studies in the subject were started in the Botanical Survey of
India. Also there has been a resurgence of interest developed in ethnobotanical research in
various institutions. Dr. E.K. JanakiAromal initiated researches on ethnobotany in BSI. She
studied food plants of certain tribals of South India. From 1960, Dr. S.K. Jain from BSI started
intensive field work among the tribals of Central India. He devised methodology for ethnobotany
particularly in the Indian context. The publications from this group in the early sixties triggered
the ethnobotanical activity in many other centres, particularlyamong botanists, anthropologists.
Branches of ethnobotany:
. In interaction with the traditional areas of science, ethnobotany gives out several interrelated
and interdisciplinary subjects like:

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• ethnomedicine,
• ethnoarchaeology,
• ethnobryology,
• ethnoecology,
• ethnoagriculture
• , ethnonarcotics,
• ethnopharmacology, etc.
variouscentres working on ethnobotany in india:
• National Botanical Research Institute at Lucknow,

• National Bureau of plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) at Delhi,
• Central Council of Research in Unani Medicines,
• Central Council of Research in Ayurveda and Siddha (CCRAS) etc..
----------------------- DIFFERENT TRIBES OF INDIA-------------

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Figure 1DIFFERENT TRIBES OF INDIA
In india ,our constitution recognizes around 645 types of indigenous people collectively
called upajathis or tribes while in United Andhra Pradesh 33 types are recognized.InThe
Khammam district has a tribal population of 5,58,958, which is about 13.29% of the total tribal
population of the Telanganastate.Major types of tribes here are koyas, kondareddis and banjaras.
Much work has been done in different parts of the world. . The (cultural groups)tribes
which were studied in India includes Asurs, Bhils, Bhunji, Chenchus, Garos, Gonds, Hoes,
Jaintias, Karbis, Khasis, Konds, Khols, Lodhas, Mahlis, Mundas, Marias, Mishmees, Mompas,
Miris, Nagas, Nicobaries, Onges, Oraons, phanias, Rotha, Saoras, Santals and Shompens .
Tribal people have their own traditional knowledge and wisdom, and their ethomedicinal
systems. The tribal people are custodian of unique traditional knowledge systems and their
ambient flora and fauna.Scuttles (1962) explained about the Indian ethnobotinocal emporia
in his words: India with her many living groups of people, having diversifiedethnic culture,
history of rituals and performances, who are more or less isolatedfrom modern world, and are
closely associated with their ambient vegetation isthe emporia of enthnobotinical research".
The information about the prescriptions, pharmacology, attitudetowards disease
diagnoses etc., of the age-old tribal medicine are lying unknownas they are not rendered in
writing. The people who belong to the modernsocieties are not aware of the rich native
knowledge systems. So far, studies intribal medicine have enabled to identify some 1,600 drug-

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yielding plants. Thus ithas become imperative to collect information and document the same to
studythem scientifically.
Most of the roots, barks and leaves are obtained from the variousmedicinal plants
available in the surrounding forests By the herbalists ormedicine-men. A few herbs, roots and
barks, which are not available insurrounding forests of the village, are collected from the forests
far from theirvillage. Many useful medicinal plants are available at their locality. Theherbalists
or medicine-men specially cultivates a few plants in their respectivekitchen gardens. Some
taboos and other traditional restrictions of collection ofmedical herbs are in existence. Usually
children and other people-especiallynon-herbalists are not engaged in gathering of roots, herbs,
barks, leaves etc,from the medicinal plants. In general, they maintain secrecy about the use of
various medicinal plants used in curing refractive diseases, women's diseases etc. There is a
strong belief that the medicines will loose their healing power if anybody, other than them come
to know aboutthem.
Plant Conservation systems
They have a wide range of animistic beliefs associated with groves, plant species and
forest worship. Certain plants having medico- religious values are not damaged or destroyed by
the tribes under any circumstances. Worshipping of certain plants is common during festivals.
Useful plants near or inside the tribal villages are protected for In many cases they never take off
the whole plants or all fruits for use, but leave some reproductive parts for the growth of the
plant. Some vegetables like chikkudu(beans) is not consumed at the ripening stage of the fruits.
Observance of these types of restrictions plays an important role in the conservation of genetic
resources. Generally they avoid peeling the bark from any single plant more than once in an year.
The medicine man plucks the medicinal herbs at daytime before noon and collects the bark only
from one side of the trees. Their herbalist never cuts the whole tree for collecting the medicinal
parts. Collection of gums, resins latex, sap, etc. is not done from younger plants. Certain fruits or
vegetables are not consumed by them before the performance of specific rituals.
Pharmacology of Herbal Medicines and their prescriptions
Preparation of drugs and medicines among them is based on ageoldexperience. Most of

the medicines are prepared either as single drugs ordrugs made of a mixture of different plant
parts. A combination of plants, animalorgans, rocks and, minerals etc., in their medicines is
common. Some of the medicines include infusions, decoctions, mixtures, pastes, powders, pills,
plasters, etc. In general, the dose prescribed by their herbalists for eachmedication is the adult
dose. It is proportionately reduced according to the ageof the patient. Pounding the plant or plant
parts into a paste or the extract orsqueezing the liquid and fermentation are common practices
among them..
Pounded products are generally administered directly in the forms of pills. Forrheumatic
swellings and boils, either boiled roots, barks, leaves or the paste ofthe plant part is applied.
Poultice. Dry plant parts are usually made into powder.In certain cases barks or roots of
medicinal plants are chewed and sucked.Generally they take the medicine either with fresh cold
drinking water orwith their traditional liquor, or with honey as advised by the medicine-man
Several of their medicines are prepared in combination with black pepper.Some times they also
add sonti(dried ginger).The herbalists believe thataddition of pepper or sontiin the medicine

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make the drug therapeuticallyeffective.Red hot stones will be dropped into the extracts in some
cases.
With this background ,the paper attempts to review the family Moraceaae with special
reference to ethnobotanical aspects.
Only four genera had been dealt with in the present paper.
1.FICUS
2.ARTOCARPUS
3.MORUS AND
4.MACLURA PURIENS
Figure 2artocarpus Figure 3 FICUS
Figure 4 MORUS Figure 5 OSAGE ORANGE

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FICUS: The ficus genus is distinguished by their fruit, which is called a syconium. Both male
and female flowers are found within a hollow stem (the "fruit" we are familiar with). They are
pollinated by different wasp species. These flowers develop seeds, which are the true fruits. this
is a multiple fruit since the fruit is made up of a bunch of flowers fused together.
Figure 6syconium-fruit of ficus
Ficus L., commonly known as ‘Fig’, is considered as a keystone species in tropical rain forests as
it plays very fundamental role in ecosystem, due to its fruits which are eaten by insects, birds and
animals throughout the year.It is one of the largest genera in the angiosperms with.750 species.
The genus is distributed throughout the world primarily in subtropical and tropical regions
(Corner, 1965; Berg, 1989; Berg and Corner, 2005). The main concentration of the species lies in
Asian-Australian region with about 500 species which is about 66% of the world species. The
maximum diversity of the genus exhibits in Asiatic mainland (170 spp.),New Guinea (132 spp.)
and Borneo (129 spp.). Many species of Ficus L. are very common in different biogeographic
regions. Although, the great majority of the species grow in lowlands but some of them reach up
to about 2,000 m altitudes. Ficus is also considered one of the most diversified genera with
regard to its habits (deciduous and evergreen trees, shrubs, herbs, climbers and creepers) and life
forms (free standing tree, epiphytes, semi-epiphytes in the crevices, rheophytesand lithophytes).
The first systematic account of the Indian Ficus L. is available in King (1887-88, 1888);
therein he recorded 113 species and 47 infraspecific taxa from whole British India.The genus
FicusL. (Moraceae) was first published in SystemaNaturae by Carolus Linnaeus in 1735.
Ficusis one of the largest genus among angiosperms. Among the genera of seed plants it ranked
as the twenty-first (Frodin 2004). It comprises of about 800 species distributed in tropical and
subtropical regions of the world (Adebayo et al. 2009). in India, 115 species are distributed
throughout the country with the maximum diversity of the species lies in the North-East region
having about 43 species in Meghalaya alone and may be considered as the hotspot region in
India(Chaudharyet al ,2012).A checklist of all species of Ficus L. available in the present

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political boundary of India is provided.by choudary et al(2012), About 115 taxa(89 species and
26 infraspecific taxa) of Ficus have been recorded . The taxa have been arranged among six
subgenera and 12 sectionsOut of the 115 taxa occurring in India, only 10 taxa have been
recorded as endemic. The maximum number of the species belongsto subgenera
Urostigma.Members of the genus have been used as food, fodder,medicine, as source of rubber
and several other uses.Studies on pharmaceutical activities of Ficushave been carried out by
several workers (Sehgal, 2003; Patil&Patil, 2010; Lalla, 2005; Joseph & Raj, 2011; Mousaetal.,
1994; Zahra et al., 2009; Khan et al., 2007; Shuklaet al., 2004; Vohra&Parasar, 1970; Singh et
al.,2009; Arefet al., 2010; Kueteet al., 2011; Shukla,1995; Daniel et al, 2003; Morton &
McManus, 1986;Aswar et al., 2008; Mahalingam,2008; Sharma et al.,2010; Gabhe, 2006;
Abdulla et al., 2010; Mukherjee etal.,1998; Taur, 2007 and several others). These works have
provided information on medicinal properties of several members of Ficus. Of the Indian
species of Ficus, ithas been found that F. bengalensishave been reported to be beneficial in the
treatment of maximum number of diseases (pain reliever, cancer, anti-ulcerogenic, ageing,
diabetes, fever, antherogenesis, helminthes infections, inflammation, Immune system,
diarrhoea, allergy and stress) followed by F. carica(diabetes,fever, scanvenging, immune
response, fungal diseases,bacterial diseases and diseases caused by microbes).Species such as F.
racemosa(syn. F. glomerata), F.deltoidea, F. hispida, F. benjamina, F. exasperate, F.religiosa,
F. arnottianaand F. glabrataare also reported to contain pharmaceutical properties for the
treatment of different diseases.
DIFFERENT SPECIES OF FICUS
The morphology,traditional uses, phytochemicals,their pharmaceutical values and biological

activities of the above mentioned species of Ficus along with Artocarpus, Morus and
Muclurapommifera is discussed in the paper.
Applications/conclusion:
Ethnobotanical research can provide a wealth of information regarding both past and
present relationships between plants and the traditional societies. Investigations into traditional
use and management of local flora have demonstrated the existence of extensive local knowledge
of not only about the physical and chemical properties of many plant species, but also the
phenological and ecological features in the case of domesticated species. In addition to its
traditional roles in economic botany and exploration of human cognition, Ethnobotanical
research has been applied to current areas of study such as biodiversity prospecting and
vegetation.management. It is hoped that, in the future, ethnobotany may play an increasingly
important role in sustainable devolopment and biodiversity conservation research has been

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applied to current areas of study such as biodiversity prospecting and vegetation.management. It
is hoped that, in the future, ethnobotany may play an increasingly important role in sustainable
devolopment and biodiversity conservation.
The biological diversity of our world is great and we have only begun to investigate her
potential. In some areas diversity may be more valuable in its natural state than when used for
pasture or timber . Methods to identify medicinal plant include random screening, taxonomic
collecting (sampling by botanical family), or ethnobotanical collecting. It has been shown that
ethnobotanically-derived compounds have greater activity than compounds derived from random
screening and therefore a greater potential for product development.
Most of plants having ethno botanic use have been categorized into rare and endangered.
This lack of effort to sustain resources may result in their depletion from natural habitats. There
is a great need to create awareness among the indigenous communities about endangering
medicinal plants, if over exploited to meet market demand.
:
The present status of the economically and medicinally important plants of the study area
needs to be determined in order to develop plans for their protection. Improved awareness of
conservation issues is needed. Proper documentation of indigenous knowledge about the plants
could be supportive in achievement of objectives. Local cultivation of medicinal plants and other
economic species can play an important role in economic development of the area. For
sustainable and long term conservation of natural resources of the area; there is a need to actively
involve the quiescence of local people in evaluation, planning, implementation and monitoring
processes as they are the best judges of the area.
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EXPRESSION OF FLOWER COLOUR IN MIRABILIS JALAPA PLANTS

IS INFLUENCED BY TRANSPOSABLE ELEMENTS.
S.K.Reddy.
Cytogenetics and Cell biology lab.
Department of Botany, UCS OU, Osmania University, Hyderabad-7.

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Email: [email protected]
Key words: Red colour, Ac elements, DS elements, Breakage.
ABSTRACT
The basic flower colours in Mirabilis jalapa is red, white, and yellow. The white and
yellow colour is dominant over red colour. The red colour is expressed on yellow colour flower
plant may be complete red flower or half sector red or streacks of red due to breakage of yellow
gene by double DS elements and also spotted red, due to insertion of Ac elements into yellow
gene.
In the similar way white gene is dominant over red; but red colour is expressed either
quarter sector, half sector or totally red due to breakage of white gene. But in some plants totally
spotted white flower with red, it indicates that particular plant may contain only Ac elements and
inserted into white gene.
Introduction :-In 1948 Barbara McClintock discovered Ac and DS elements in maize. Through
genetic analysis, she explained that the activities of these elements are responsible for the
striping and spotting of maize kernels. She got the Nobel Prize in 1983 after the discovering IS
elements in E.coli on molecular basis. In a similar way we can observe flower colour in Mirabilis
jalapa (4’o clock, plant) with Red colour stripping and spotting on yellow and white colour
flower. This is due to breakage of chromosome with respective white and yellow colour genes.
McClintock found that the breakage resonsible for these mosaic kernels occurred at
particular site on chromosome 9. She named the factor that produced these breaks DS, for
dislocations. However, by itself, this factor was unable to induce chromosome breakage .
McClintock found that DS had to be stimulated by another factor called AC, for activation. The
AC factor was present in some maize stocks but absent in others AC like elements are there in
spotted Mirabilis Jalapa white and yellow flower plants.
Results: The colour of the flower basically White, Red, Yellow and Pink. The pink colour is due
to expression of two gene products red and white. In the present study observations showed
white flower plants contain white flowers, stripped red, half or quarter red flowers and purely
white flowers with red spots. The yellow flowered plants have pure yellow flowers, stripped red,
quarter, half and full red flowers in colour on the same plant. Some of the yellow flower plants
contain mostly sported red flowers (table-1).
Table: 1- 4’o Clock plants observed in the pots.

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White flower Pure white -------- --------- -----------
plant
White flower Pure white with --------- -------- ---------
plant red spots
White flower Pure white Stripped white Quarter white Full red
plant
Yellow flower Pure yellow ---------- ----------- ---------
plant
Yellow flower Spotted yellow ---------- ---------- ----------
plant
Yellow flower Pure yellow Yellow with Quarter red Full red
plant stripped red
Red flower Red ---------- ----------- ----------
plant
Pink flower Pink ---------- ----------- ----------
plant
Discussion:
In these plants three basic coloured flowers viz., white, red and yellow, and also pink flowers are
found due to expression of two factors of red and white gene incomplete dominance.
The yellow flower plant contain pure yellow and stripped, quarter yellow, half red and
full red flowers, this might be due to yellow is dominant over red. But the red colour is appearing
due to breakage of yellow factor is due to double DS elements. McClintock observed similar
chromosome breaks in maize on 9th chromosome (1). Spotted yellow flower with red colour due
to Ac elements.
Fig: 1
Yellow flower colour is due to Y dominant over R
Fig: A
AC R
Ac Y Yellow flower with red spots
Fig: B

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AC R
DS Y
AC R
Y The colour of the flower is red.
Fig : D
In a similar way white flower plant produce pure white; red and chimera of red flowers
due to brakeage of whit gene might be due to DS elements. Spotted Red colour on white flower
due to unstable mutations are caused by Ac elements. They can insert in to white gene and red
colour is expressing as spots. Sequencing these elements and constructing as vectors of Ac and
Ds elements and three different genes of white, red and yellow can be introduce into different
plants by Homologous recombination. This technique is used in floriculture for the production
of transgenic plants, to express different colours on the same plants.
Fig:2
White flower colour is due to W dominant over R
Fig: A
AC R
Ac W white flower with red spots

Fig: B
AC R
DS W
AC R W The colour of the flower is red.

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Fig : D
Plate:1 showing flower colours in Mirabilis jalapa
1
2 3 4
6 7 8
5
11
9 10 12
13 15 16
14
References:
1. McClintock, B.1956. Controlling elements and the gene Cold Spring Harbor Symp. Quant Biol 21: 199-
216.

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Bio-delignification: Issues and Prospects

Vijaya, Ch., Vidya Sagar Reddy, G. and Vinusha. B
Dept. of Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Vikrama Simhapuri University, Nellore, A.P-
524001
Corresponding author Email address: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Lignin, the most abundant aromatic biopolymer on Earth, is extremely recalcitrant to
degradation. Some basidiomycetous white-rot fungi are the only potent agents of
biodelignification and able to degrade lignin efficiently using a combination of extracellular
ligninolytic enzymes, organic acids, mediators and accessory enzymes. The demand for
application of ligninolytic enzyme complexes of white-rot fungi in industry and biotechnological
approaches is ever increasing due to their use in a variety of processes. Ligninolytic enzymes
have potential applications in a large number of fields including the chemical, fuel, food,
agricultural, paper, textile, cosmetic industrial sectors etc. The degradation of various
xenobiotic compounds and dyes that make them a useful tool for bioremediation purposes. This
review describes ligninolytic enzyme families produced by these fungi that are involved in wood
decay processes, biochemical properties and the mechanisms of action and their application
within different industrial and biotechnological area and also highlight some of the modern
approaches which could potentially be used to tackle one of the major impediments namely high
enzyme cost, to speed-up the extensive commercialisation of the lignocellulose bioprocessing.
The biotechnological significance of these enzymes has led to a drastic increase in the demand
for these enzymes in the recent time.
Key words: biodelignification,lignolytic enzymes, lignases, white rot fungi,

bioprocessing.
Lignocellulosics: Renewable organic matter

Lignocellulose the major structural component of all plants is a renewable organic
material. This lignocellulosic biomass from plants is a renewable source of food, energy and
chemicals and accounts for more than 60% of the total biomass production (Kuhad et al., 1997).
There is a wide range of agricultural residues like paddy straw, wheat straw, corn cobs, cotton
stalks etc. composed mainly cellulose, hemi-cellulose and lignin commonly designated as
lignocellulosics (Zadrazil and Grabbie, 1983).They are not only a renewable resource but also
the most abundant source of organic components in high amounts on the earth. They consists of
three major components: cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. In addition, small amounts of other
materials such as ash, proteins and pectin can be found in lignocellulosic residues in varying
degrees based on the source (Sanchez, 2009). The lignocellulosic content of agricultural residues
and wastes is presented in Table.1 ( Sun and Cheng, 2002). Cellulose, the major constituent of all
plant material and the most abundant organic molecule on Earth, is a linear biopolymer
consisting of anhydro-glucopyranose molecules (glucose) connected by β-1,4- glycosidic bonds.
Unlike cellulose, hemicelluloses are heterogeneous polymers of pentoses (including xylose and
arabinose), hexoses (mainly mannose, less glucose and galactose) and sugar acids. The highly

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variable composition of hemicelluloses is dependent on its plant source (Saha, 2003). Lignin, the
second-most abundant biopolymer on Earth and a heterogeneous polymer in lignocellulosic
residues, is the only naturally synthesised polymer with an aromatic backbone (Fig. 1). It
generally contains three precursor aromatic alcohols including coniferyl alcohol, sinapyl and p-
coumaryl. These precursors form the guaiacyl- (G), syringyl- (S) and p -hydroxyphenyl (H)
subunits in the lignin molecule, respectively (Martinez, 2005). Oxidative coupling of this lignin
aromatic alcohol monomers creates a complex structure in lignin which is highly recalcitrant to
degradation (Wong, 2009). By linking to both hemicelluloses and cellulose, lignin acts as a
barrier to any solutions or enzymes and prevents penetration of lignocellulolytic enzymes to the
interior lignocellulosic structure. Among the lignocellulosic components, lignin is the most
resistant to degradation however some basidiomycetous white-rot fungi, are able to degrade
lignin efficiently (Howard et al., 2003; Wong, 2009).
Fig. 1. Schematic structural formula for lignin (Hartley, 1972)

The chemical properties of the components of lignocellulosics make them a substrate of
enormous biotechnological value (Malherbe and Cloete, 2003). Large amounts of lignocellulosic
“waste” are generated through many industries including those of forestry, pulp and paper,
agriculture and food (Kim and Dale, 2004; Kalogo et al., 2007). These potentially valuable
materials were treated as waste in many countries in the past and even today in some developing
countries, which raises many environmental concerns (Palacios-Qrueta et al., 2005). Much of the
lignocellulosic waste is often disposed of by biomass burning, which is considered to be a global
concern (Levine, 1996). However, the huge amounts of residual plant biomass can potentially be
converted into several value added products including biofuels, chemicals, cheap energy sources
for fermentation, improved animal feeds and human nutrients. A wide variety of biomass
resources are availableon our planet for conversion into bioproducts (Table 2). These may
include whole plants, plant parts (seeds, stalks etc.), plant constituents (starch, lipids, protein and

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fiber), processing by products (distiller’s grains, corn solubles), materials of marine origin and
animal by products, municipal and industrial wastes (Smith et al., 1987). These resources can be
used to create new biomaterials which requires an intimate understanding of the composition of
the raw material so as to obtain the desired functional elements for bio-product production.
Table.1: Lignocellulosic contents of common agricultural residues and wastes (Sun and
Cheng, 2002)
Lignocellulosic materials Cellulose (%) Hemicellulose (%) Lignin (%)

Hardwood stems 40-55 24-40 18-25
Softwood stems 45-50 25-35 25-35
Nut shells 25-30 25-30 30-40
Corn cobs 45 35 15
Paper 85-99 0 0-15
Wheat straw 30 50 15
Rice straw 32.1 24 18
Sorted refuse 60 20 20
Leaves 15-20 80-85 0
Cotton seeds hairs 80-95 5-20 0
Newspaper 40-55 25-40 18-30
Waste paper from chemical 60-70 10-20 5-10
pulps
Primary wastewater solids 8-15 NA 24-29
Fresh bagasse 33.4 30 18.9
Swine waste 6 28 NA
Solid cattle manure 1.6-4.7 1.4-3.3 2.7-5.7
Coastal Bermuda grass 25 35.7 6.4
Switch grass 45 31.4 12.0
S32 rye grass (early leaf) 21.3 15.8 2.7
S32 rye grass (seed setting) 26.7 25.7 7.3
Orchard grass (medium 32 40 4.7
maturity)
Grasses (average values for 25-40 25-50 10-30
grasses)
NA. data not available.
Table.2 : Types of Lignocellulosic materials and their current uses (Smith et al.,1987).
Lignocellulosic material Residues Competing use

Grain harvesting Straw, cobs, stalks, husks. Animal feed, burnt as
Wheat, rice, oats barley and corn fuel, compost, soil
conditioner
Processed grains Corn, wheat, Waste water, bran. Animal feed
rice, soybean
Fruit and vegetable harvesting Seeds, peels, husks, stones, Animal and fish feed,
rejected whole fruit and some seeds for oil

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juice extraction
Fruit and vegetable processing Seeds, peels, waste water, Animal and fish feed,
husks, shells, stones, some seeds for oil
rejected whole fruit and extraction
juice
Sugar cane other sugar products Bagasse Burnt as fuel
Oils and oilseed plants, Shells, husks, lint, fibre, Animal feed, fertiliser,
nuts, cotton seeds, olives, soybean sludge, presscake, burnt fuel
etc. wastewater
Animal waste Manure, other waste Soil conditioners
Forestry-paper and pulp Wood residuals, barks, Soil conditioners, burnt
Harvesting of logs leaves etc.
Saw-and plywood waste Woodchips, wood shavings, Pulp and paper
saw dust industries, chip and fibre
board
Pulp and paper mills Fibre waste, sulphite liquor Reused in pulp and board
industry as fuel
Lignocellulose waste from Old newspapers, paper, Small percentage
communities cardboard, old boards, recycled, others burnt
disused furniture
Grass Unutilised grass Burnt
Bio-delignification: Methods and approaches
Among the lignocellulose constituent macromolecules, lignin is the most recalcitrant due
to its amorphous hydrophobic heteropolymeric nature (Martinez et al., 2009). Pretreatment
technologies for lignocellulosic biomass include biological, mechanical, chemical methods and
various combinations thereof. Mechanical methods such as chipping, grinding and milling (often
referred to as physical methods) reduce crystallinity but significantly reduces the particle size
which makes material handling easier and increase surface/volume ratio. These processes often
have high energy and capital costs. Chemical pretreatments using alkalis, ozone, peroxide or
organic solvents are largely focussed on lignin removal, which in turn leads to an enhanced
enzymatic degradability of cellulose. Only a small number of pretreatment methods has been
reported as being potentially cost-effective. These include steam explosion, liquid hot water,
concentrated acid hydrolysis and dilute acid pretreatments (Mosier et al., 2005). However,
chemical processes may not be as selective as biological processes but may represent advantages
related to required time, scalability and process control. Often, the pretreatment is a combination
of mechanical and chemical action in which moderate amounts of chemicals are used.
Biological pretreatments employ microorganisms which degrade lignin and
hemicellulose. Biological delignification can be carried out using either microorganisms, which
produce a set of enzymes that work synergically or purified enzymes. The most widely used
microorganisms are Basidiomysetes fungi. Nevertheless, bacterial genera like Pseudomonas,

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Flavobacteria, Xanthomonas, Bacillus, Aeromonas and Cellulomonas strains can also
decompose lignin and its derivatives. In the group of biological pretreatments mainly
microorganisms such as white, brown and soft rot-fungi are employed to degrade hemicellulose
and lignin. Biological lignin degradation- bio-delignification can be conducted by culturing the
microorganism in submerged, semisolid or solid cultures where enzymes such as lignin
peroxidase, xylanase, laccase, and manganese peroxidase perform selective lignin degradation.
Advantages of biological pretreatments are low energy requirement and mild operation
conditions. Nevertheless, the rate of biological hydrolysis is usually very low as this
pretreatment requires long residence times (Cardona and Sanchez, 2007; Sun and Cheng, 2002;
Tengerdy and Szakacs, 2003). The other disadvantage is that fungi primarily attack cellulose
and the hydrolysis rate is often very low, accompanied with insufficient separation of cellulose
and lignin. As the bio-delignification takes much longer time (8-12 weeks) than chemical or
thermal processes (Yu et al., 2010a), attempts have been made to explore new microorganisms,
and improved culture conditions to hasten up the process.
Solid state fermentation (SSF): an attractive process
Bioconversions of lignocellulosic materials to useful, highe value products normally
require multi-step processes which include: (i) pre-treatment (mechanical, chemical or
biological), (ii) hydrolysis of the polymers to produce readily metabolizable molecules ( hexose
or pentose sugars), (iii) bio-utilization of these molecules to support microbial growth or to
produce chemical products and (iv) the separation and purification (Smith et al., 1987). It has
been reported that the solid state fermentation (SSF) is an attractive alternative process to
produce fungalenzymes using lignocellulosic materials derived from agricultural wastes with
lower capital investment and lower operation costs (Chahal et al.,1996). SSF, for the reasons
stated, will be ideal for developing countries. SSFs are characterized by the complete or almost
complete absence of free liquid. Water, which is essential for microbial activities, is present in an
absorbed or in complexed-form with the solid matrix and the substrate. These cultural conditions
are especially suitable for fungi, which can grow at relatively low water activities. As the
microorganisms in SSF grow under conditions closer to their natural habitats they are capable of
producing high levels of enzymes and metabolites which may be produced only in low amounts
in submerged conditions. SSF is reported to have the advantages like (1) increase the hydrolysis
rate by conversion of sugars that inhibit the enzyme (cellulase) activity; (2) lower enzyme
requirement; (3) higher product yield; (4) low requirement for sterile conditions since glucose
produced is immediately utilized in ethanol production; (5) shorter process time and (6) less
reactor volume (Sun and Cheng 2002).SSFs are practical for complex substrates including
agricultural, forestry and food-processing residues and wastes which are used as carbon sources
for the production of lignocellulolytic enzymes. Jwanny et al.,. 1995; Vijaya and Singaracharya
(2005) demonstrated the improvement of growth and enzyme production in Pleurotus ostreatus
when it was grown on straw and mango or date wastes at 1:1 ratio by solid state fermentation.
Further, Stajic et al.,. (2004), Vijaya et al., (2005) screened Pleurotus species for laccase,
manganese, peroxidase and a versatile peroxidase activity by using various raw materials as
carbon sources and found that all enzymes showed high activity under SSF than SF (Submerged
Fermentation) conditions. Like all technologies, SSF has its disadvantages and these have
received the attention by Mudgett (1986). Problems commonly associated with SSF are heat
buildup, bacterial contamination, scale-up, biomass growth estimation and control of substrate
content. In a recent review (Malherbe and Cloete, 2003) reiterated that the primary objective of
lignocellulose treatment by the various industries is to access the potential of the cellulose

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encrusted by lignin within the lignocellulose SSF technology with the ability of an appropriate
fungus to selectively degrade lignin will make possible industrial scale implementation of
lignocellulose-based biotechnologies.
Basidiomycetes white rot fungi: potential source for lignases

Basidiomyceteous fungi particularly while rot fungi are considered to be a very
interesting group with their exceptional ability to decompose natural lignocellulosics (Cho et al.,
2009). (Fig.1).The white-rot fungi are the most efficient and extensive lignin degraders with
Phanerochaeta chrysosporium being the best-studied lignin-degrading fungus producing copious
amounts of a unique set of lignocellulytic enzymes (Table 3) (Akin et al., 1995). P.
chrysosporium has drawn considerable attention as an appropriate host for the production of
lignin-degrading enzymes or direct application in lignocellulose bioconversion processes
(Ruggeri and Sassi, 2003).
Over 60 fungal strains belonging to Ascomycota, Zygomycota and especially
Basidiomycota show laccase activities (Baldrian, 2006) ( Table 4). Based on their activity on
lignin and other lignocellulosic materials, white-rot fungi are categorized into two groups viz,
simultaneous and selective degraders. Many white rot fungi simultaneously attack lignin,
hemicelluloses and cellulose whereas others white-rot fungi preferentially work on lignin in a
selective manner. Ceriporiopsis subvermispora (Guerra et al., 2005), Phlebia spp. (Arora and
Sharma, 2009), Physisporinus rivulosus (Hilden et al., 2007) and Dichomitus squalens (Fackler,
2006) selectively attack lignin while Trametes versicolor (Tanaka et al., 1999), Heterobasidium
annosum (Daniel, 1998) , P.chrysosporium (Sanchez, 2009) and Irpex lacteus (Xu et al., 2009)
simultaneously degrade all cell wall components. Selective lignin degraders may have significant
potential biotechnological applications when the removal of lignin is required to obtain intact
cellulose such as in biopulping processes and also in procedures where the main objective is to
provide an unprotected carbohydrate for subsequent use (e.g. animal feed and/or biofuel
substrate) (Anderson and Akin, 2008). For example C. subvermispora, which lacks cellulase, has
been selected for biopulping processes as a selective lignin degrader (Anderson and Akin, 2008).
Less known white-rot fungi such as Daedalea flavida, Phlebia fascicularia, P. floridensis and P.
radiate have been found to selectively degrade lignin in wheat straw and hold out prospects for
bioconversions biotechnology were the focus is just to remove the lignin leaving the other
components almost intact. However, the selection of white-rot fungi for the delignification of
lignocellulosics is a difficult job. An ideal property of fungi for effective bioconversion is
selective delignification with cellulase negative or reduced cellulase activity(Kamra, 1998).
Table . 3 : Ligninolytic enzymes produced by white rot fungi
Enzyme EC No Catalyzed reactions Fungi References

Trametes Yaropolov et al.,
Laccase 1.10.3.2 Phenol oxidation versicolor 1994
Pleurotus sp. Vijaya et al.,2005
Lignin Phenol Phanerochaete
1.11.1.14 Gold and Alic, 1993
peroxidase polymerization chrysosporium
Phenol oxidation;
Manganese Phanerochaete
1.11.1.13 Oxidize Mn2+ to Hofrichter, 2002
peroxidase chrysosporium
Mn3+

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Cellobiose- Quinone reduction;
Phanerochaete
quinone 1.1.5.1 Cellobiose Soares, 1998
chrysosporium
oxireductase degradation
Aryl alcohol Pleurotus sajor-
1.1.3.7 H2O2 production Martinez et al., 2009
oxidase caju
Glyoxal Phanerochaete
1.2.3.5 H2O2 production Martinez et al., 2009
oxidase chrysosporium
Manganese
Activity on aromatic Phanerochaete Ruiz-Duenas and
independent 1.11.1.7
substrates chrysosporium Martínez, 2009
peroxidase
Oxidizes Mn2+; High
Versatile Ruiz-Duenas et al.,
1.11.1.16 redox-potential Pleurotus sp.
peroxidase 2009
aromatic compouds
Lignin degradation;
Unite the hydrolytic
and oxidative
systems; Dispose
Cellobiose Phanerochaete Kersten and Cullen,
1.1.99.18 manganese (MnII)
dehydrogenase chrysosporium 2007
for MnP through
precipitate reduction
from manganese
oxide (MnO2)
Table 4. List of fungi with the highest specific activity (µmol.min-1.mg-1) for lignases (Howard
et al., 2003 )
Opt.
Specific Opt.
Enzyme Organism Substrate Temp
activity pH
(oC)
Manganese Stropharia Mn2+ + H+ + H2O2 692 25 NA
peroxidase coronilla
Laccase Botrytis cinerea 1,2,4-benzenetriol + O2/1-naphthol + 5778 55 4
O2/2-naphthol + O2/3,5-dimethoxy-
hydroxy-benzaldazine + O2/4,5-
dimethyl-o-phenylenediamine + O2/4-
amino-N,N'- dimethylaniline + O2/4-
methylcatechol + O2/ascorbate +
O2/caffeic acid + O2/catechol +
O2/ferrocyanide + O2/gallic acid +
O2/guaiacol + O2
Diarylpropane Phanerochaete 1,2-bis(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)propane- 28 23/37 3/4.
peroxidase chrysosporium 1,3-diol + H2O2/1-(3,4-diethoxyphenyl)- 5
(ligninase) 1,3-dihydroxy-2-(4- methoxy-
phenyl)propane + O2 + H2O2/1-(4-
ethoxy- 3-methoxyphenyl)-1,2-propene +
O2 + H2O2/H4- ethoxy-3-

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methoxyphenyl)propane + O2 + H2O2/2-
keto-4-thiomethylbutyric acid +
H2O2/3,4- dimethoxybenzyl alcohol +
H2O2
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of lignin degradation by basidiomyceous white-rot fungi (Mehdi et

al., 2010).
Lac: laccase, LMS: laccase-mediator system, LiP: lignin peroxidase, MnP: manganese
peroxidase, VP: versatile peroxidase, H202-G0: H202-generating oxidases, AAO: aryl-alcohol
oxidase, GLOX: glyoxal oxidase, H202: hydrogen peroxide AAD: aryl-alcohol dehydrogenases,
QR: quinone reductases, 'OH: free hydroxyl radicals.
Lignases: An overview
Fungi breakdown lignin aerobically through the use of a family of extracellular enzymes
collectively termed “lignases”. Two families of lignolytic enzymes are widely considered:
oxidases (laccase) and peroxidases (lignin peroxidase (LiP) and manganese peroxidase (MnP).
Other enzymes whose roles have not been fully elucidated includeH2O2-producing enzymes:
glyoxal oxidase (Kersten and Kirk, 1987), glucose oxidase (Kelley and Reddy, 1986), veratryl

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alcohol oxidases (Bourbonnais and Paice,1988), methanol oxidase (Nishida and Eriksson, 1987)
and oxido-reductase (Bao and Renganathan, 1991). The exact mechanism by which
lignocellulose is degraded enzymatically is still not perfectly understood but significant advances
have been made to gain insight into the microorganisms, their lignocellulolytic genes and various
enzymes involved in the process (Mehdi et al., 2010; Richa Gupta et al., 2012).
Table5: The features of the main two groups of fungal ligninolytic enzymes (Mehdi et al., 2010).
1
General reactions.2Differnet enzymes from different species need different metal(s) or
3
ion(s). Fungal laccases are mostly extracellular enzymes but cytoplasmic or intracellular laccases
were also found especially in plants and bacteria.4Glycosylation degree varies between different
fungal ligninolytic enzymes.3-HAA: 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid; NHA: N-hydroxyacetanilide;
ABTS: 2,2'-azinobis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6 sulphonate). N/A: not applicable.
Laccases: the key lignolytic enzymesLaccases (benzenediol: oxygen oxidoreductase EC

1.10.3.2) belong to multicopper oxidase family (Hoegger et al., 2006). These copper-
containing enzymes catalyze the oxidation of various substrates with the simultaneous
reduction of molecular oxygen to water (Yaropolov et al.,. 1994). Yoshida first discovered
laccases in 1883 after observing that latex from the Japanese lacquer tree (Rhus vernicifera)
hardened in the presence of air (Gianfreda et al., 1999).
The catalytic site of laccase is quite conserved among different species of fungi, but the
rest of the enzyme structure shows high diversity (Gochev and Krastanov, 2007). Fungal
laccases are mostly inducible, extracellular, monomeric glycoproteins with carbohydrate
contents of 10-20% which may contribute to their high stability. The amino acid chain contains
about 520-550 amino acids including a N-terminal secretion peptide (Gianfreda et al., 1999). The
active site of laccase comprises four copper atoms in three groups, referred to as T1, T2 and T3
(Solomon et al., 1996). Copper atoms differ from each other in their paramagnetic resonance
(EPR) signals (Gianfreda et al., 1999). The T1 copper is responsible for the blue colour of the
enzyme and has a characteristic absorbance around 610 nm. The T2 copper is colourless and
cannot be detected spectrophotometrically, but EPR detectable (Solomon et al., 1996). The bi-
nuclear T3 copper is diamagnetic which displays a spectral absorbance shoulder in the region of
330 nm and also exhibits a characteristic fluorescence spectrum. The yellow laccase was
suggested to be formed as a result of blue laccase modification by products of lignin degradation,
which might play a role as natural electron-transfer mediators for the oxidation of non-phenolic
substances (Higuchi, 2004). Almost all fungi that have been examined produce more than one
isoform of laccase (Hoshida et al., 2001).
Laccases are usually the first ligninolytic enzymes secreted to the surrounding media by
the fungus that normally oxidizes only those lignin model compounds with a free phenolic
group, forming phenoxy radicals as the mediators that are a group of low molecular-weight
organic compounds. Many artificial mediators have been studied, being ABTS [2.2-azino-bis-(3-
ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid)] the first described laccase mediator (Bourbonnais and
Paice, 1990). There are natural compounds acting as mediators in laccase oxidation such p-
hydroxycinnamic acids (Gianfreda et al., 1999; Camarero et al., 2008 Parenti et al., 2013; ).
Peroxidases: Versatile lignases

Lignin peroxidases (LiPs) (EC 1.11.1.14) belong to the family of oxidoreductases
(Higuchi, 2004). They were first described in the basidiomycete Phanerochaete chrysosporium

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in 1983 (Tien and Kirk, 1988). This enzyme has been recorded from several species of white-rot
basidiomycetes (Pointing et al., 2005) and in actinomycetes (Perie et al., 1996; Niladevi and
Prema, 2005). LiP is an extracellular hemeprotein, dependent of H2O2, with an unusually high
redox potential and low optimum pH (Gold and Alic, 1993). LiP is capable of oxidizing a variety
of reducing substrates including polymeric substrates (Oyadomari et al., 2003). Due to their high
redox potentials and extended substrate range, LiPs have great potential for application in
various industrial processes (Erden et al., 2009). They show little substrate specificity, reacting
with a wide variety of lignin model compounds and even unrelated molecules. It has the
distinction of being able to oxidise methoxylated aromatic rings without a free phenolic group,
generating cation radicals that can react further by a variety of pathways, including ring opening,
demethylation and phenol dimerisation (Haglund, 1999). LiPs in contrast with laccases do not
require mediators to degrade high redox-potencial compounds but they need hydrogen peroxide
to initiate the catalysis.
Manganese peroxidases (EC 1.11.1.13) belong to the family of oxidoreductases (Higuchi,
2004). Following the discovery of LiP in Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Manganese peroxidase
(MnP) secreted from the same fungus was found as another lignin degrading enzyme (Glenn and
Gold, 1985), and subsequent investigations have shown that MnP is distributed in almost all
white-rot fungi. Manganese peroxidases (MnP) seem to be more widespread among white rot
fungi than lignin peroxidase. Manganese peroxidase (MnP) oxides Mn2+ to Mn3+, which oxides
phenolic structures to phenoxyl radicals (Hofrichter, 2002). The product Mn3+ is highly reactive
and complex with chelating organic acid, as oxalate or malate, which are produced by the fungus
(Kishi et al., 1994). The redox potential of the Mn peroxidase system is lower than that of lignin
peroxidase and it has shown capacity for preferable oxidize in vitro phenolic substrates. On the
other hand, studies indicate that contrary to LiP, MnP may oxidize Mn(II) without H2O2 with
decomposition of acids, and concomitant production of peroxyl radicals that may affect lignin
structure (Hofrichter et al., 1999). Due to their Mn-oxidizing activity, the Pleurotus vsersatile
peroxidase (VP) enzymes were first described as MnP enzymes, but they were later recognized
as representing a new peroxidase type. VP is also able to efficiently oxidize phenolic compounds
and dyes that are the substrates of generic peroxidases and related peroxidases, Versatile
Peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.16) oxidizes Mn2+ s as MnP does, and also high redox potential aromatic
compounds, as LiP does. The interest on VP has increased during the last years, not only as a
model enzyme and but also as a source of industrial/environmental biocatalysts (Martinez et al.,
2005; Ruiz-Duenas et al., 2009).
Industrial and biotechnological applications:

Lignolytic enzymes have significant potential applications in various industries including
chemicals, fuel, food, brewery and wine, animal feed, textile and laundry, pulp and paper and
agriculture.
Food Industry: Laccases can be applied to certain processes that enhance or modify the colour
appearance of food or beverage for the elimination of undesirable phenolics, responsible for the
browning, haze formation and turbidity in clear fruit juice, beer and wine (Rodriguez and Toca,
2006). They are is also employed to ascorbic acid determination, sugar beet pectin gelation,
baking and for the treatment of olive mill wastewater (Ghindilis, 2000; Minussi et al.,. 2007).
LiP and MnP have potential to produce natural aromatic flavours (Barbosa et al., 2008).

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Pulp and paper industry: Laccases are able to depolymerize lignin and delignify wood pulps,
kraft pulp fibers and chlorine-free in the biopulpation process (Bourbonnais et al.,s 1997;
Chandra and Ragauskas, 2002; Camarero et al., 2004). One of the most studied applications in
the industry is the laccase - mediator bleaching of kraft pulp and the efficiency of which has been
proven in mill-scale trials (Strebotnik and Hammel, 2000). This ability could be used in the
future to attach chemically versatile compounds in the fiber surfaces and let recycled pulp for
new use (Saparrat et al., 2008). Lignin peroxidases (LiP) compared with laccase, are the
biocatalysts of choice for bleaching (Bajpai, 2004). LiP and MnP were reported to be effective in
decolourizing kraft pulp mill effluents (Ferrer et al., 1991). In laboratory scale the consumption
of refining energy in mechanical pulping was reduced with MnP pretreatment with a slight
improvement in pulp properties at laboratory scale (Kurek et al., 2001; Maijala et al., 2007).
Textile industry: Laccase-mediator system finds potential application in enzymatic modification
of dye bleaching in the textile and dye industries ( Kunamneni et al., 2008). Most currently
existing processes to treat dye wastewater are ineffective and not economical (Mc Kay, 1979;
Rodríguez and Toca, 2006). Therefore, the development of processes based on laccases seems an
atractive solution due their potential in degrading dyes of diverse chemical structure including
synthetic dyes currently employed in the industry ( Rodríguez and Toca, 2006; Kunamneni et al.,
2008). LiP were evaluated by decolorizing different synthetic dyes too (Cripps et al.,. 1990;
Pointing, 2001). MnP can biodegrade dyes, as well as decolorize various types of synthetic dyes
in aqueous cultures and packed-bed bioreactors (Kasinath et al., 2003; Champagne and Ramsay,
2005).
Bioremediation: Laccases are involved in green biodegradation due to theirmk catalytic
properties. The xenobiotic compound is a major source of contamination in soil and laccase
degrade it (Rodríguez and Toca, 2006). Moreover, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs),
which arise from natural oil deposits and utilisation of fossil fuels, are also degraded by laccases
(Pointing, 2001). Lignin peroxidases (LiP) present a non specific biocatalyst mechanism. MnP
showed that mineralization of many environmental contaminants are used for bioremediation
process. Due to their ability to degrade azo, heterocyclic, reactive and polymeric dyes, it
degrades 1.1.1-trichloro-2.2-bis-(4-chlorophenyl) ethane (DDT), 2.4.6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) and
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH’s) too (Koller et al., 2000; Wen et al., 2009). LiP from
P. chrysosporium was one of the first enzymes of basidiomycetes capable for PAH degradation
(Bumpus and Aust, 1987).
Organic, medical, pharmaceutical, cosmetic and nanotechnology applications:
Efforts have been made to find the ways of microbial and enzymatic modifications or
delignification of cereal straws to improve their biodigestibility and upgrade feeding value,
(Arora et al., 1998 Vijaya et al., 2006; Reddy and Vijaya, 2007). This delignification process
also has an added advantage for minimizing the wastes besides also the production of some
important food additives like SCP, vitamins, fermented foods etc.Efforts have been made to
further improve the selective delignification ability of P. ostreatus so that the so obtained
cellulase minus (cel¯ ) strains obtained through mutation can be efficiently used for the bio-
delignification without any dry matter loss(Vijaya et al., 2005)
The results of the research conducted by Vijaya et al., (2009 and 2010) on the
improvement of feed value indicated that the wild and mutant strains of P. ostreatus are able to

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degrade lignin selectively and therefore, cause an increase in the digestibility of fermented
lignocellulose in comparison to untreated substrate .
Laccases not only show potential for biological delignification of pulp but also for other
applications. They can be applied for the treatment and detoxification of soils containing
phenolic pollutants as well as other polluted systems due to the broad substrate range of the
enzyme (Filazzola et al., 1999; Jarosz-Wilkolazka et al., 2001). The application of laccases for
dyeing of materials with sulfur and reduced vat dyes has been patented (Xu et al., 2000). The use
of laccase for the treatment of textile (Wong and Yu, 1999) and bleach-plant effluents
(Manzanares et al., 2001) has also been investigated with success. The use of laccase for the
production and treatment of beverages and as biosensor for the estimation of phenol or other
enzymes in fruit juice has also been proposed (Gianfreda et al., 1999). Recently, increasing
interest has been focused on the application of laccase as a new biocatalyst in organic synthesis
(Mayer and Staples, 2002) (Table 5). Enzymatic polymerization using laccase has drawn
considerable attention since laccase or laccase-mediator system (LMS) are capable of generating
straightforwardly polymers that are impossible to produce through conventional chemical
synthesis (Akta and Tanyolac, 2003).
Laccases have been employed for several applications in organic synthesis as the
oxidation of functional groups, the coupling of phenols and steroids, medical agents (anesthetics,
anti-inflammatory, antibiotics and sedatives), the construction of carbon-nitrogen bonds and in
synthesis of complex natural products and industries of cosmetics ( Xu, 2005; Rodríguez and
Toca, 2006; Mikolasch and Schauer, 2009). A new enzymatic method based on laccase was
developed to distinguish simultaneously morphine and codeine in drug samples injected into a
flow detection system (Bauer et al., 1999). Laccases also can be applied as biosensors or
bioreporters ( Xu, 1999; D’Souza, 2001; Kunamneni et al., 2008). They still could be
immobilized on the cathode of biofuel cells for small transmitter systems (Ghindilis, 2000).
Laccase-based miniature biological fuel cell is of particular interest for many medical
applications calling for a power source implanted in a human body (Rodríguez and Toca, 2006).
LiP exhibit highest bioelectro-catalytic activity at atomic resolution and this makes available for
commercial development of biosensors for polymeric phenol or lignin (Christenson et al., 2004)
(Table 5). In the future LiP may be of great interest in synthetic chemistry, where they have been
proposed to be applicable for production of cosmetic and dermatological preparations (Belinky et
al., 2005).
MnP produced by the basidiomycete Bjerkandera adusta was used for acrylamide
polymerization (Iwahara et al., 2000). MnP from Phanerochaete chrysosporium can degrade
styrene, an important industrial polymer used as a raw material for wrapping and transporting
goods ( Lee et al., 2006). MnP is also a redox enzyme with efficient direct electron transfer
(DET) properties with electrodes. It is enabled to use for many applications such the
development of biosensors based on DET, effective biofuel cells, and selective bioorganic
synthesis (Ferapontova et al., 2005; Márcia Jaqueline Mendonça et al., 2010) (Table 5).
Table 5. Applications of Lignolytic enzymes applications

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Food Industry
Laccase Phenolic remotion from Ghindilis, 2000;
the food and beverage; Minussi et al., 2002;
Ascorbic acid Rodríguez and Toca, 2006;
determination; Sugar beet
pectin gelatination
Lignin peroxidase Source of natural Lesage-Meessen et al., 1996;
aromatics; Production of Lomascolo et al., 1999;
vanillin Barbosa et al.,2008
Manganese peroxidase Production of natural Lomascolo et al., 1999;
aromatic flavours Zorn et al., 2003;
Barbosa et al., 2008
Pulp and paper industry
Laccase Depolymerization of Bourbonnais et al., 1997;
lignin; Delignify wood Chandra and Ragauskas, 2002;
pulps; Bleaching of kraft Camarero et al., 2004;
pulps Rodríguez and Toca, 2006;
Vijaya et al., 2009
Lignin peroxidase Decolouriment of kraft Ferrer et al.,1991;
pulp Mill effluents Bajpai, 2004;
Manganese peroxidase Kraft pulp bleaching Wasenberg et al., 2003;
Maijala et al., 2007
Textile industry
Cooper, 1993; Wong and Yu,
Laccase 1999;
Abadulla et al., 2000;
Pointing, 2001;
Kasinath et al., 2003;
Lignin peroxidise Textile dye degradation Shin, 2004;
and bleaching Champagne and Ramsay, 2005;
Rodríguez and Toca, 2006;
Kunamneni et al., 2008;
Robles-Hernández et al., 2008;
Manganese peroxidase Gomes et al., 2009
Bioremediation
Laccase Biodegradation of Pointing, 2001;
xenobiotics; Rodríguez and Toca, 2006;
Polycyclic aromatic Anastasi et al., 2009
hydrocarbons(PAHs)
Lignin peroxidase Degradation of azo, Abraham et al., 2002;
heterocyclic, reactive and Ohtsubo et al., 2004;
polymeric dyes Gomes et al., 2009;
Mineralization of Wen et al., 2009

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environmental
contaminants; Xenobiotic
and pesticides
degradation
Manganese peroxidase PAHs degradation; Köller et al., 2000;
Synthetic dyes; Bleach Robles-Hernandez et al., 2008
from paper producing
plants; DDT, PCB, TNT
Applications in Organic synthesis, Medical, Pharmaceutical, Cosmetics and
Nanotechnology
Laccase Polymers production ; Bauer et al., 1999;
Coupling of phenols and Xu, 1999;
steroids; Baminger et al., 2001;
Medical agents ; D’Souza, 2001;
Carbon-nitrogen bonds D’Acunzo et al., 2002;
construction; Mayer and Staples, 2002;
Complex natural products Stahl et al., 2002;
synthesis ; Personal Barilli et al., 2004;
hygienic products; Xu, 2005;
Biosensors and Rodríguez and Toca, 2006;
bioreporters Kunamneni et al., 2008;
Mikolasch and Schauer, 2009
Lignolytic organisms and enzymes: biotechnological perspectives

Screening for organisms with novel enzymes
One of the main areas of biotechnology research into lignocelluloses has been driven by
the need to isolate and identify organisms which are either hyper-producers and/or sufficiently
robust to withstand conditions of the intended application and/or are producers of novel
lignocellulolytic enzymes. In terms of enzyme novelty from an application perspective, interest
is focused not only on finding enzymes which could break down lignocelluloses much more
rapidly but also enzymes which could withstand pH, temperature and inhibitory agents more
resiliently depending on the intended application. Questions have been raised concerning the
continued screening of the environment for lignocellulolytic microorganisms given that on
average less than 1% of the potential microbes in the biosphere have been identified using
traditional methods of culturing ( Rondon et al., 2000) and that genomics and metagenomics
might be more productive approaches in biomining for unique lignocellulolytic genes which
could then be cloned and expressed in industrial strains. Genomics offer the potential to obtain
the complete blueprint of an organism and to assess its genetic potential in a comparative and
functional manner. Metagenomics describes genomics associated with the functional analysis of
organisms at community level. Although this technology holds out the best opportunity for
discovering unique genes, the technology is still in its infancy and issues such as representative
cloning, quantitative analysis and expression still require refining (Gupta et al., 2002). Eriksson
(1978), Puniya and Singh (1998) and Vijaya et al., (2005) in their studies on genetic
manipulation of lignolytic microorganisms stressed the need for the development of cellulase

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minus mutants using physical and chemical mutagens for effective bio-delignification.
Investigations on the development of cellulase less strains of white-rot fungi and their effective
use in bio-delignification have also been carried out (Garzillo et al., 1992; Messner et al., 2003,
Vijaya et al., 2008). Different species of Pleurotus are being studied to understand the
mechanism of peroxidase activation and its probable role in the enhancement of bio-
delignification of paddy straw.
Strain improvement of existing industrial organisms and enzyme engineering

These approaches have the potential to create organisms or designer enzymes more
rapidly and cost effectively than the continued screening for organisms which are likely to be
novel Enormous amount of data and information have been gathered over the years on the
different organism’s lignocellulolytic genes and controlling elements, their sequences and
organisation, protein sequence data, identification of catalytic amino acids and protein structural
data including an increase in three-dimensional modular protein structures obtained from
crystallographic studies (Martinez, 2002). Farell (1986) viewed that the existing powerful lignin
degrading microbes can be further improved by either mutation, protoplast fusion or by
recombinant DNA technology and aimed at enhancing the production of lignolytic enzymes
while suppressing the production of cellulolytic enzymes. Further, he proposed an approach for
strain improvement through recombinant DNA technology and succeeded in inserting DNA
sequence transcribed from RNA of Phanerochaete chrysosporium in to bacteriophage vectors,
which were propagated in E. coli To evaluate the lignocellulolytic activities of edible
mushrooms, various techniques have been applied: mating among monokaryotic hypha,
protoplast fusion between inter and intra species (Fukuda et al.,. 1995) and gene transformation
(Godfrey et al., 1994). Further, protoplast fusion was proved potentially useful method for the
improvement of desired traits in higher basidiomycetes ( Vijaya et al., 2011) since Gold et al.,
(1983) who first reported protoplast fusion between different auxotrophic strains of
Phanerochate chrysosporium. Recently, the entire genome of P. chrysosporium has been
sequenced opening-up new possibilities for a variety of molecular studies (Martinez, 2002). This
is the first basidiomycete genome that has been sequenced and is now available for genomic and
proteomic studies (http://www.jgi.doe.gov). All of this information is useful from a
biotechnology applications approach for engineering lignocellulolytic enzymes with different
properties for various industrial commercial applications. A novel selection marker gene for
transformation of white-rot basidiomycete, Pleuortus ostreatus was developed by introducing a
point mutation and this homologous marker gene was made available for the molecular breeding
of this edible mushroom (Honda et al., 2000)
Genetics and recombinant DNA technology

Genome sequencing projects of 62 fungal species, including six basidiomycetes and 27
ascomycetes, have been completed thus far. Availability of the full genome sequence of white rot
fungi, such as that of P. chrysosporium, now allows for the creation of proteomic methods to
identify all enzymes involved in lignin degradation. In turn, such methods may lead to the
discovery of new enzymes involved in the degradation (Abbas et al., 2005). In order to achieve
this, small sample sizes were used to identify the proteins released by P. chrysosporium
grown in a solid-substrate culture (red oak wood chips). Traditional two dimensional (2-D) gel
electrophoresis was coupled to advanced instrumentation, such as matrix assisted laser
desorption ionization time-off light mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF/MS) or capillary liquid

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chromatography-nanoelectrospray ionization-tandem MS (CapLC-ESI-MS/MS). Using this
combination, 16 extracellular proteins were identified from over 40 proteins spotted on 2-D gel
(Abbas et al., 2005). However, it was predicted that P. chrysosporium, which was found to have
a 30-Mb genome with more than10,000 gene models (based on computational analysis), could
potentially release about 790proteins into the culture medium (Bouws et al., 2008). The goal of
this and other on-going projects is to identify the extracellular proteome (proteomic secretome)
of P. chrysosporium or other basidiomycetes white-rot fungi when grown on a solid substrate.
More recently, the first genome level transcriptome study of P. chrysosporium was performed to
determine all the gene products involved in wood degradation using red oak as a carbon source.
The results have shown that in addition to other lignocellulolytic enzymes, lignin peroxidase and
alcohol oxidase (H2O2-generating enzyme) are highly expressed during lignin degradation (Sato
et al., 2009). Further investigation is needed to identify the novel proteins involved in fungal
lignin degradation and their mechanisms of action. In addition, the suppression of lignin
biosynthesis enzymes via plant genetic engineering may be of potential use in overcoming some
of the problems related to the recalcitrance of lignin (Sticklen, 2008).
The initial work on the genetics of lignocellulolytic organisms was dominated by random
mutagenesis, and selection of hyper-cellulase producing mutants and mutants insensitive to
catabolite repression. In general, it can be noticed that mutagenesis (UV) proved to be an
effective technique to enhance enzyme productions. Most of the T. Reesei mutants such as RUT
C 30, CL-847, VTT-D which are used for commercial production of cellulases were derived
from the wild strain T. reesei QM 6a that was originally isolated by the US Army Laboratories
(Esterbauer, 1991). In addition, intra-strain protoplast fusion between higher laccase producing
mutants proved effective in achieving superior laccase producing fusants Protoplast fusion
technology has been particularly useful than mutations or other genetic engineering methods
with some fungi or higher organisms for which a few or no plasmids have been identified (
Vijaya et al., 2011). These techniques have been widely used for enhanced yield in conversion
of cellulose to ethanol (Knowles et al., 1987), strain improvement for alcohol fermentation
(Fukuda and Kimura 1991), citric acid producing strains of Aspergillus niger (Kirimura et al.,
1987), concomitant synthesis of cellulose and citric acid (Kirimura et al.,1990).
Attempts have also been made to identify genomic heterogeneticity within individual
strains of P. chrysosporium and between different strains classified as belonging to this species
with the expectations that their genetic differences may also translate into variations in their
lignocellulolytic genes and efficiency in lignocellulose degradation. These different strains could
then be used for breeding purposes to generate novel hybrids strains (Broda et al., 1989) While
significant progress has been made using physical and chemical mutagens to increase production
of lignocellulolytic enzymes (Vijaya et al., 2009), recombinant DNA technology and protein
engineering used apart or in combination are powerful modern approaches holding out the
greatest potential for making significant improvements in several aspects of lignolytic enzymes
such as increased production, increased specific activity, pH and temperature stability and also
creating “synthetic” designer enzymes for specific applications. Computer programs permit the
researcher to identify catalytic-sites, residues which are essential for protein stability under
various pH and temperature conditions and protein folding patterns. This accumulated
knowledge is then used to simulate enzymatic behavior upon any changes in any one or a
combination of sites. Then a specific gene is cloned, subjected to site-directed mutagenesis to
give rise to protein with properties similar to the simulated model.

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The gene-product’s enzymatic behaviour is then experimentally verified. Equally so
DNA technology offers the possibility of fusing different lignocellulolytic genes or sections of
genes from different organisms to give rise to novel chimeric gene-products with altered
properties. A few examples will briefly be discussed to demonstrate the value and potential of
these approaches in lignocellulolytic enzyme improvement. A heterologously expressed
Neocallimastrix patriciarum CelD encoding a multi-domain, multi-functional enzyme possessing
endoglucanase, cellobiohydrolase and xylanase activity exhibited higher specific activities on
Avicel than two T. reesei cellobiohydrolase and a T.reesei endoglucanase (Aylward et al.,.,
1999). The active carboxylic residues in T. reesei endoglucanase was identified by site-directed
mutagenesis (Okada et al., 2000) opening up future research prospects for modifying these to
improve activity. A South African research team led by Pretorius have for years been active in
engineering Saccharomycetes cerevisiae for efficient cellulose hydrolysis (Van Rensburg et al.,
1998). A number of designer enzymes, also called glycosynthases, including cellulases and
hemicellulases have been engineered by replacing the nucleophilic residue thus resulting in
higher yields of different oligosaccharides ( Fairweather et al., 2002).
Increasing the thermostability of recombinant manganese peroxidase has been attempted
by engineering a disulfide bridge contiguous to the distal Ca+2 binding site (Reading and Aust,
2000). Attempts have also been made to create a bifunctional hybrid of manganese-lignin
peroxidase (Timofeevski et al., 1999). Using a combination of genetic and DNA technology
approaches, a few strains with increased specific activities have been reported (Montenecourt et
al., 1983; Sheir-Neiss and Montenecourt, 1984). A genetically improved T. reesei mutant strain
CL 847, resistant to catabolite repression, was generated that exhibited a four-fold increase in
cellulose productivity compared with QM 9414 and increased β-D-glucosidase specific activity
(Durand and Clanet, 1988). A heterologous expressed Cellulomonas fimi exoglucanase with
increased specific activity from E. coli was overproduced (Lam et al., 1997). Although some
strides have been made in increasing lignocellulolytic activity, there is an enzyme activity ceiling
beyond which it would not be possible to move since the rate and extent of breakdown of
lignocellulose is influenced by the complex structural nature of the substrate, as previously
discussed, including structural features which prevent enzyme access and binding.
Conclusions:
Lignocellulolytic microorganisms, especially fungi, have attracted a great deal of interest

as potential biomass degraders and /or biodelignification agents for large-scale applications due
to their ability to produce vast amounts of extracellular lignocellulolytic enzymes. Lignin, the
most recalcitrant component of lignocellulosic material, acts as a barrier for any solutions or
enzymes by linking to both hemicelluloses and celluloses and prevents penetration of
lignocellulolytic enzymes to the interior lignocellulosic structure. As selective lignin degraders,
white rot fungi are most attractive for their potential biotechnological applications in
removing lignin, as in biopulping processes, and for providing an unprotected carbohydrate for
subsequent use, as in animal feed and/or biofuel substrate.
The energy and environmental crises which the world is experiencing is forcing us,
among other things, to re-evaluate the efficient utilisation or finding alternative uses for natural,
renewable resources, especially organic “waste”, using clean technologies. Lignocellulose
biotechnology offers significant opportunities to developing countries for addressing some of the
issues highlighted since most of the technology is based on the utilisation of readily available

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residual plant biomass considered as “waste” to produce numerous value-added products.
Lignocellulose biotechnology from a capital costs investment perspective is an attractive
technology for developing countries since its biodegradation could follow solid-state
fermentation comparable to silage or mushroom production, thus making such technology
suitable for farms and small industrial plants without the need for large engineering
infrastructure. It is also important to emphasize that in order for lignocellulose biotechnology to
make meaningful impact on developing countries; suitable bioconversion processes need to be
developed on a much wider scale and these countries should begin to pull their meagre resources
and biological science expertise in a
co-operative and integrated manner towards modern, advance genomics and proteomics
technologies for identifying novel lignocellulolytic enzymes and engineering enzymes with
improved activities suitable for industrial-scale application. Thus, there is a broad field of
investigation that is almost entirely open to new findings and it is quite reasonable to propose
that many new applications will be found in the near future.
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161. XU, F. (2005). Applications of oxiredoreductases: Recent progress. Industrial
Biotechnology, vol. 1, no. 1, p. 38-50.
162. XU, F. Laccase In: Encyclopedia of bioprocess technology: fermentation, biocatalysis,
and bioseparation. Flickinger, M.C. and Grew, S.W. eds. John Wiley & Sons, 1999: New
York, p. 1545-1554.
163. XU, F., Salmon, S., Deussen, H.J.W. and Lund, H. Enzymatic methods for dyeing with
reduced vat sulfur dyes. 2000:US patent 6129769.
164. Yaropolov, A.I., Skorobogatko, O.V., Vartanov, S.S. and Varfolomeyev, S.D. Laccase:
properties, catalytic mechanism, and applicability. Applied Biochemistry and
Biotechnology, 1994: 49. 257-280.
165. Zadrazil, F.and Grabbie, K. Edible mushrooms. In: Biotechnology Ed. Dellweg H.Vol.3
Verlag Chemie, Weinheim, Deerfield Breach, Florida, Basal., 1983: 145-187.
166. Zorn, H., Langhoff, S., Scheibner, M., Nimtz, M. and Berger, R.G. A peroxidase from
Lepista irina cleaves β,β-Carotene to flavor compounds. Biological Chemistry. 2003:
384, 1049-1056.

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Green synthesis of silver nanoparticlesfrom Cuscuta Pentagona leaf root

extract
P. Anitha1 , G. Anuradha.2, P.Suneetha3and M.V.Ramana4
1, 4
Department of Physics, SR&BGNR Govt. Arts & Science College, Khammam. Telangana,
India
2
Department of Chemistry, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur, A.P, India
3
Department of Physics, Singareni Women’s college, Kothagudem, Telangana, India
Abstract
Leaf extract of Cuscuta Pentagona was tested for the synthesis of silver and copper
nanoparticles using rapid green synthesis route. Synthesized nanoparticles were confirmed by
analyzing the excitation of surface Plasmon resonance (SPR) using UV-VIS spectrophotometry.
The preliminary SEM analysis confirmed the range of particle size between 20-90 nm for silver
and 40 - 170 nm for copper. FTIR spectrum confirms the presents of high amounts of phenolic
compounds in the leaf extractwhich possibly influence the reduction process and stabilization of
nanoparticles. Results indicate the potential usage of Cuscuta Pentagona leaf extract for the
green synthesis of metal nano particles.
Keywords: Biosynthesis, plant extracts, nanoparticles, silver and copper nanoparticles, SEM , FTIR.
1. Introduction
Nanotechnology is rapidly expanding and potentially beneficial field with tremendous
applications for society, industry and medicine. Current research in bactericidal nano materials
has opened a new area in pharmaceutical industries. The Silver nano particles act on a broad
range of target sites both extracellular as well intracellular. In fact microbes generally have a
harder time to develop resistance to silver then they do to antibiotics [1, 2].Plants are the richest
bioresource of drugs in traditional and modern medicine [3]. The plant mediated synthesis is
rapid, low cost, eco- friendly and for safer human therapeutic uses [4].Manyreports are available
on biogenesis of Silver
nanoparticlesusingseveralplantextractsParthinium[5],Desmodium[6],Morindacitrifolia[7],
turneraulmifolia[8],Acalyphaindica[9],Ocimumsanctum[10],catharanthusroseus[11],Ocimumcan
um[12],plantlatex[13]andE.coli[14]etc.Here we report an in expensive, versatile and green
method for the synthesis of Silver nanoparticles by reduction process using using Cuscuta
Pentagona leaf extract.
2. Materials and Methods

2.1 Collection of plant material
India has great potential for bioprospecting because of its biodiversity. Cuscuta
Pentagona leaves were collected from interior forests 4 Kms far from Paloncha, Khammam
district of Telangana, India.

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2.2 Preparation of leaf extract
Fresh leaves were washed several times with tap water and later with deionised water.10
gm of washed fine cut leaves along with 100 ml double distilled water were taken in 250 ml glass
beaker and boiled for 5 minutes at 80oc.The extract was cooled to room temperature and filtered
with Whatman No 1 filter paper .The filtrate was centrifuged for 10 minutes at 10000 rpm, the
supernatant was collected and stored at 4o C. The filtrates are used as reducing and sterilizing
agents.
2.3 Bio synthesis of Silver nanoparticles

Accurate concentration of 1 mM AgNo3 (Merck India Ltd) was prepared by dissolving
0.169 gm AgNo3 in 1000 ml double distilled water and stored in Amber coloured bottle to avoid
auto oxidation of silver.
In the single step green synthesis, 5 ml of leaf extract was added to 95 ml of 1 mM
aqueous Ag No3 solution and heated up to 80oC for 5 minutes, the colour change was observed
(Fig.3), which stands as a preliminary conformation of the formation of Silver nanoparticles. The
silver nanoparticles solutions thus obtained were purified by repeated centrifugation at 10000
rpm for 15 minutes. The supernatant was transferred to a clean dry beaker for further settlement
of particles and repeated centrifugation was carried using cooling microfuge to get dried and
purify AgNps.The sample so obtained was dried in an incubator. The particles obtained were
used for further characterization. Thus the Silver nanoparticles are synthesized in a single step
green approach.
3. Characterization
3.1. UV –Visible spectra analysis
Synthesized silver nano particles were initially characterized by sampling small aliquot of
sample in to UV –Visible spectro photo meter absorption spectra at 300-700 nm using Shimadzu
UV -1800Spectro photo meter.
Fig .2 UV-Visible absorption spectrum of Cuscuta Pentagona leaf extract containg silver
nanoparticles.
3.2. SEM analysis of silver nanoparticles

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Scanning electron microscopic (SEM) analysis was done using Zeiss SEM machine. A
thin film of the sample was prepared on a carbon coated copper grid by just placing small
amount of the sample on the grid. Then the film on the SEM grid was allowed to dry by putting
it under a mercury lamp for 5 min.
Fig.4 SEM image of silver nanoparticles formed by Cuscuta Pentagona leaf extract.
3.3 EDX Analysis
Energy Dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) is available along with SEM. The peaks
obtained from EDX gives the element composition of the sample and found to have Silver.
Fig .6EDX image of silver nanoparticles produced from Cuscuta Pentagona leaf extract
4. FTIR- Spectroscopy
Fourier-transform spectroscopy Perkin Elmer model was used for the analysis of the
reduced silver. The spectrum was taken in mid-IR region of 400-4000cm-1.The sample was

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mixed with pure KBR crystals in the ratio of 1:100 and the pellet was fixed in the sample holder
for the analysis.
Fig .7FTIR-spectrum of bio synthesized silver nanoparticles formed by Cuscuta Pentagona leaf
extract.
5. Results and Discussion

Synthesis of Silver nanoparticles by using Biological materials is one of the most widely
used methods for the synthesis of Silver colloids. The present study emphasizes the use of
Cuscuta Pentagona leaves for the Synthesis of Silver nanoparticles.
Extract from this plant may act as reducing and capping agents in silver nanoparticles
synthesis. Studies have indicated that biomolecules like protein, phenols, and flavonoids not only
play a role in reducing the ions to the nano size, but also play an important role in the capping of
the nanoparticles [22, 23]. The reduction of Ag+ ions by combinations of biomolecules found in
these extracts such as vitamins, enzymes, proteins, organic acids such as citrates, amino acids,
and polysaccharides [23, 24]are environmentally benign, yet chemically complex.
The nanoparticles were preliminarily characterized by UV-Visible Spectroscopy, which
is proved to be a very useful technique for the analysis of nanoparticles. As the leaf extracts were
mixed with the aqueous solution of the silver ion complex it was changed in to yellow to brown
colour (Fig.3) due to excitation of the surface plasma vibrations indicate the formation of the
Silver nanoparticles [25].UV-Visible Spectrograph of Silver nanoparticles has been recorded as a
function of time by using quartz cuvette with distilled water as the reference. The reaction
between 95 ml Silver nitrate solution and 5 ml leaf extract was carried at 90 o C. Fig.2 shows the
UV-Visible Spectra which are recorded after the completion of the reaction at different time
intervals (10, 30, 60 min) at 90 o C temperature .The UV spectrum absorption is recorded at
427nm, 429nm, 432nm respectively was confirmed that polydispersed nanoparticles were
formed.
The SEM image showing high density silver nanoparticles synthesized by the leaf
extract, further confirmed the development of silver nano structure. The SEM image shows the
formation of porous surfaced with spherical nano particles. They were clearly distinguishable,
20-100nm size.

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The EDX spectra showed the purity of the material and the complete chemical
composition of synthesized silver nanoparticles. In the present EDX analysis shows high
percentage of silver indicating the purity of the synthesized sample.
The FTIR spectrum of silver nanoparticles are shown in Fig.7.The band at 3424cm-1 is
assigned to the O-H stretching of H-bonded alcohols and phenols.The band at 1636 cm-1
corresponds to the N-H bending of primary amines. The bands at 1384cm-1 are related to the C-N
streching of aromatic amine group.Whereas in the region 1018 cm-1are corresponding to the C-C
streching of alcohols carboxylic acids ,ethers and esters are the binding metal with to form a
silver nanoparticle is confirmed.
6. Conclusion
The present study reveals that Cuscuta Pentagona is good source for synthesis of silver
nanoparticles at a faster rate. The formation of silver nanoparticles was confirmed by the colour
change within 30 minutes. The bioreduced silver nanoparticles were characterized using UV-Vis,
FTIR spectroscopy and SEM techniques.
7. Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to the Department of Physics, Osmania University, Hyderabad
for SEM, EDX and spectral analysis of the plant sample.
8. References:
[1].C. Baker, A. Pradhan, L. Pakstis et al.,J Nanosci Nanotechnology . , 2005, l5, 244.
[2].A.B. Landsdown, A. Williams, J Wound Care. Jan., 2007, 6, 1, 15.
[3].U.Viplav Prasad, B Syama sunder G.Anuradha, J.Sreekanth kumar,conference Proceedings
of Chemistry of Phytopotentials: Health,Energy & Environmental Perspective (CPHEE
).,2011,73.
[4]. Kumar V,Yadav SK, J.Chem Technol Biotechnol.,2009, 84,151.
[5]. Vyom parashar*, et al,Digest Journal of Nanomaterials and Biostructures ., 2009, 4(1), 45.
[6]. Naheed Ahmad, Seema Sharma, V, et al, Biotechnology Research International. , 2011, 1, 1.
[7]. Gnanasekar Sathishkumara , Chandrakasan Gobinatha , etal Colloids and Surfaces B:
Biointerfaces.,2012,95, 235.
[8]. M.S. Shekhawat*, N. Kannan and M. Manokari, Journal of Ecobiotechnology., 2012,4,1,54.
[9]. R.Sakthi sundar Saravanan etal, Proceedings of Second National seminar on New Materials
Research and Nanotechnology., 2013,383.
[10]. Yogeswari Rout, Sikha Behera, Akshya Kumar Ojha and P. L. Nayak*, J. Microbiol.
Antimicrob. , 2012, 4, 6, 103.
[11]. Ponarulselvam S, Panneerselvam, Murugan K, Aarthi N, Kalimuthu K, Thangamani , Asian
Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine.,2012, 574.
[12]. Chidambaram Jayaseelan, et al,Parasitology research., 2012,111,3, 1369.
[13].Amal Kumar Mondal, Sanjukta Mondal (Parui)*,Sumana Samanta and Sudebi Mallick Adv.
BioRes.,2011, 2,1.
[14]. Abd EI-Raheem R.EI-Shanshourry etal, ISRN Nanotechnology., 2011, 1.
[15]. Gupta R. etal, NewsLetter., 1994, 1, 1.
[16]. M. Tamil Selvi, et al,Journal of Saudi Chemical Society., 2012,1.

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[17]. Jeferson c. Nascimento ,et al,Anais da Academia Brasileira de ciências., 2011, 83,3,787.
[18].Nyarko A.K.et al, Phytomedicine, 2002,9,4 ,346.
[19]. Behera Saiprasanna, et al,Journal of Drug Delivery & Therapeutics., 2012, 2,4, 122.
[20].A. W. Bauer, W. M. Kirby, et al, American Journal of Clinical Pathology., 1966, 45, 4, 493.
[21]. C. W. Hanson and W. J. Martin, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy., 1978, 13,3, 383.
[22]. A. Vedpriya, Digest Journal of Nanomaterials and Biostructures., 2010, 5, 19.
[23]. O. Collera-Z úñiga, F. Garc´ıa Jiménez, and R. Meléndez Gordillo, Food Chemistry.,
2005, 90, 1,109.
[24].B. H. Jagadeesh, T. N. Prabha, and K. Srinivasan, Indian Journal of Plant Physiology.,
2004, 9,2, 164.
[25].S. S. Shankar, A. Rai, B. Ankamwar, A. Singh, A. Ahmad, and M. Sastry, Nature
Materials., 2004, 3,482.
[26]. C.Baker,A.Pradhan,Journal of Nanoscience and Nano technology., 2005,5,2, 244.
[27]. M.singh,S.Singh,S.Prasad,Digest journal of nano materials and biostructures., 2007,3,3,
115.

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Ethnobotanical study of Folk Medicinal plants used by Tribals (Adivasi) of

Bhadrachalam and Cherla areas of Khammam District, Telangana State.
Md. Ghani1, V. Suresh1, K. Thirupathi1, and Dr. Md. Mustafa2*
1Research Scholar, *2Assistant Professor, Dept. of Botany, Kakatiya University, Warangal,

Telangana State, 506009, India.
E-mail:[email protected], [email protected], [email protected]*
Abstract.
Traditionally plants have been used as a source of medicine in India, by indigenous

people of different ethnic groups inhabiting various terrains to control various diseases among
Humanbeings. Tribal (Adivasi) communities of Bhadrachalam and Cherla area are living with
rich traditional botanical knowledge pertaining to medicinal values of plant species was surveyed
during the year 2013-14. The medicinal plants data was obtained through structural questionnaire
and personal interviews during several field trips. The plant based drugs were prepared by using
them for the add mixture of goat milk, oils, sugar and pepper other parts of the plant.The study
revealed that the tribal practitioners have been using mainly 42 medicinal plants species belongs
to 27 families to treat various diseases among human beings. Finally the collected plant
specimens were identified taxonomically with the help of local floras and prepared herbarium
specimens. Collected plant inflorescence, flowers,fruits, and seeds are deposited in museum,
Department of Botany, Kakatiya University, Warangal, Telangana state, India.
KEYWORDS: Ethnomedicinal plants, various diseases, Koyas, Kondareddies, Gond-naikpodu,

Kondakapu, Guttikaya, Bhadrachalam, Cherla, Humanbeings, and Floras.
INTRODUCTION
Khammam Forest Division lies in the southern part of Khammam district between
latitudes 160 46’ 2’’ S and 17033’35’’ N and longitudes 79048’ 10’’ W and 810 16’ 37’’ E.
Geographical area of the Division is 6027 Km2, which is 37.6% of the area of the district
(Andhra Pradesh state of forest report, 2013, 69-76). The rivers in this division are Munneru,
Paleru, Akheru and Wyra. The average highest temperature in the summer is480C and the
minimum average temperature in December is 140C and the average annual rainfall is 997.96
mm, received mainly from Southwest monsoons. The soil types found mainly in this Division are
sandy, black, red and loamy. The Mineral resources in this Division are coal, iron ore, lime
stone, barytes, graphite, mica, kyanite and building stones. The district is bounded by Chattisgarh
and Orissa on the north, Krishna district on the south, west Godavari and East Godavari districts
on the east and Nalgonda and Warangal districts on the west. As such, the district is adjoined
with neighboring states and remaining Telangana region. Land use pattern of the division is
given in Table I.
Table I. Land use pattern

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Land use Area in Sq km Percentage

Forest including Scrub 1242.49 20.62
Land with Scrub 126.96 2.11
Fallow Lands 18.75 0.31
Vegetation outside Forest 303.10 5.03
Table II. The Tribal population of Khammam district.
S.No Sub Tribe Population Percentage

1 Koya 359582 52.68
2 Lambada(Banjara, Sugali) 271373 39.76
3 Gond-nayakpodu 16203 2.37
4 Yerukala 13328 1.96
5 Nayak 11869 1.74
6 Konda reddi 7252 1.06
7 Yanadi 727 0.10
8 Valmiki 640 0.09
9 Kammara,Chenchu,Kondakapu 1643 0.24
10 Total 682617 100%
There are twenty five tribal groups living in the district. According to 2001 census, their
population 6.83 lakhs, of which 3.44 lakhs are men and remaining 3.39 lakhs women (Srihari
Mancha, 2012, 244-253). Out of 25 tribes in the district, the Koyas are numerically predominant
tribal group with 52.68%, followed by Lambadas 39.76%, Gonds/Naikapodu 2.37%, Yerukalas
1.96%, Nayaks 1.74%, Konda reddies 1.06% and remaining nineteen tribal sub groups constitute
0.43%.
The above data was collected from 29 Tribal mandals of Khammam district.Most of the
Koyas resides in forest mountains and understand telugu language but they communicate by
using their mother tongue (i.e. Koya language) and they mainly depend on forest for their shelter,
food and medicine.
Study area
The study area in the part of Khammam district (Bhadrachalam and Cherla) of Telangana
state, India is located 200 km (160 mi) away from Research centre i.e. Department of Botany,
Kakatiya University, Warangal. The Godavari, Sabari, Sileru, Taliperu rivers and Dry deciduous,
tropical moist deciduous, Semi ever green and tropical thorn forest types are present in the study
area.
Methodology
Ethnomedicinal plants data were collected from Bhadrachalam and Cherla mandals are
situated in the Khammam district. According to the methodology suggested by Jain and Goel
(Jain S.K. and Goel A.K, 1995, 142-147). A survey has been conducted during the period of
2012 to 2014 for all three seasons (summer, Mansoon and winter) in various habitats with special
emphasis on medicinal values. The data has also been collected through interviewing from the

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local villagers, vaidhyas, medical practitioners hakeems and, priests.Herbal cure for the most
common ailments like fever, headache,body pains, wounds, bone fracture, toothache, cough, cold
and sprains were known to all local inhabitants. The main tribal groups in this region are
Adivasi, Koya, Koyadora, Nayakpodu, Chenchu and Lambada. These people identify the plants
and who regularly use and visit nearby forests for source to cure various ailments. The plant
parts used for the treatment, method of preparation, mode of administration, ingredients added
and existing threats to medicinal plant species were also recorded.
The collected plant specimens were identified taxonomically with the help of Flora of
presidency of Madras (Gamble JS,1928,).Flora of Andhra Pradesh (Pullaiah T & Chennaiah
E,1997,Vol. I-III,). A.H Flora of Karimnagar (Naqvi, 2001,). And other local floras
(http://forest.ap.nic.in/Forest%20Flora%20of%20Andhra%20pradesh/index.htm.). Recent
monographs using salient features.Plant specimens were prepared as herbaria according to
Handbook of herbarium (Jain SK & Rao RR,1997,). and plant inflorescence, flowers,fruits, seeds
are deposited in Museum at Department of Botany, Kakatiya University, Warangal.
Results & Discussion:
Tribal people mostly depend on forest products for their livelihood. Their traditional
knowledge part was from ancient culture and ethnic practices. They are connected with their
habits such as gathering of tubers, fruits, seeds, inflorescence, gums, medicinal herbs and other
mineral based products.
The present study revealed that totally (42) plants included in (39) genera belonging to
(27) families. The plant species were arranged alphabetically and included vernacular names,
scientific names and family names of the medicinal plants. Different parts of the plants were
crushed and milk, sugar, pepper, salt and water were added as ingredients. Different modes of
treatment for various diseases were followed by tribals of Bhadrachalam and Cherla areas of
Khammam district (Table.III).
The collected specimens of medicinal plants are enumerated with their uses. The
dominant families are Fabaceae (7), Solanaceae (3), Amaranthaceae (2), Acanthaceae (2),
Asclepiadaceae (2), Cucurbitaceae (2), Liliaceae (2), Moraceae (2), Verbenaceae (2),
Annonaceae (1), Anacardiaceae (1), Apocyanaceae (1), Burseraceae (1), Cyperaceae (1),
Combretaceae (1), Hypoxidaceae (1), Loganiaceae (1), Meliaceae (1) Myrtaceae (1),
Nyctaginaceae (1), Phyllanthaceae (1), Rhamnaceae (1), Sapotaceae (1), Sapindaceae (1),
Stemonaceae (1), Euphorbiaceae (1), Vitaceae (1).
The disease wise categorization of ailments for the treatment of which a large number of
medicinal plants are used Urinary infection (3), Piles (3), Nutrition (3), Wound healing (3),
Malarial fever (3), Toothache (3), Snake bite (2), Diabetes (2), Scorpion bite (2), Fracture (2),
cough (2), Ulcers (2), potency (1), Kidney stones (1), Bacterial diseases (1), Hangnails (1),

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Jaundice (1), Chest pain (1), Stomachache (1), Hair fall (1), Headache (1), Bp control (1), Free
motion (1) etc.
Different parts of the medicinal plants are using by the tribal peoples, local practitioners,
among them – Leaves (40%),Fruits (10%), Roots (10%), Stem bark (10%),Tubers (7%), Seeds
(5%), Twig ( 5%), Whole plant (5%), Bulbils (2%), Gum (2%), Flower (2%), Latex (2%).
(Figure I).
Table III. Medicinal plant used for the treatment of various diseases in Humanbeing by
Tribal people of Bhadrachalam and Cherla areas of Khammam District.
S. Botanical Name & Family Part Used Ingredients Medicinal Uses

No Vernacular Name add
01 Acalypha indica L. Phyllanthaceae Leaves None 50 ml decotion of the leaves are
(Muripinda) given orally twice in a day to get
relief for Piles.
02 Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae Leaves None The leaf juice used for Scorpion
( Uttareni) bite.
03 Aerva lanata (L.) Juss Amaranthaceae Roots Water Calcine powder of dry root, placed
(Pindikura) in water after 1 day it drink for
Kidney stones.
04 Allium sativum L. Liliaceae Bulbils None Bulbils are grinded and applied over
(Nirulli) Scorpion bite area.
05 Andrographis paniculata Acanthaceae Leaves None Young leaves are crushed and it
(Burm.f.) Nees consumed for Malarial fever.
(Nelavemu)
06 Annona squamosa L. Annonaceae Leaves None Leaves are useful for Anti-bacterial
(Sitapalam) diseases.
07 Asparagus racemosus Liliaceae Tubers Sugar/jagger Tubers of Asparagus with
Willd. y sugar/jaggery are mixed (1:1) ratio
(Shatavari gaddalu) in water and consumed for Urinary
infections.
08 Azadirachta indica A. Meliaceae Leaves None The tender leaves of Neem and
Juss. Pongamia pinnatawere crushed and
(Vepa) later applied for Piles treatment.
09 Boerhavia diffusa L. Nyctaginaceae Leaves None Leaves are used as vegetables,
(Atuka mamidi) useful for Fever.
10 Boswellia serrata Roxb. Burseraceae Stem Bark None Stem bark is used for Arthritis and
(Andugu) and Gum gum used for Nutrition.
11 Bridelia hamiltoniana Euphorbiaceae Leaves None Leaves and bark are crushed and
(Panchothku) applied externally on Fracture area.
12 Buchanania lanzan Anacardiaceae Gum None Morri gum used for Nutritional
Spreng. purpose and good healthy.
(Morri)
13 Cissus quadrangularis L. Vitaceae Whole None The whole plant is crushed and
(Nalleru) plant applied externally on Fracture area.
14 Clerodendrum phlomides Verbenaceae Leaves None 50ml of Leaf juice is used for
L. f Cough.
(Takkali)
15 Coccinia grandis J. Voigt. Cucurbitaceae Leaves None Leaves are crushed to form paste
(Donda) and it applied on body to expose to

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sunlight for Bp control.
16 Curculigo orchiodes Hypoxidaceae Tubers Water Calcine powder of dry tuber placed
Gaertn. in water after one day it is
(Nelatati) Consumed for Potency.
17 Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae Tubers Water Calcine powder of tuber is mixed
(Thunga muste) with water then consumed for
Ulcers.
18 Datura metel L. Solanaceae Fruits None Fresh fruits are crushed to form
(Ummetha) paste and applied it for Hangnails.
19 Ficus benghalensis L. Moraceae Seeds Rice Seeds of Ficus and rice were boiled
(Marri) together, and then the paste is
applied on Piles area.
20 Gymnema sylvestris Verbenaceae Leaves Water 2 (or) 3 Leaves are placed in water
(Retz.) R.Br. ex Sm. and add Coriandrum fruit powder,
(Podapatri) the mixture is consumed for
Diabetes.
21 Hemidesmus indicus (L.) Asclepiadaceae Roots Milk (or) Half spoon of root extract with milk
R.Br Tea (or) tea is given orally once in a day
(Suganda pala) for Nutritional purposes.
22 Holarrhena pubescens Apocyanaceae Latex None Plant latex applied on Wounds for
Wall. Ex G. Don. Healing.
(Pala kodisa)
23 Luffa acutangula Var. Cucurbitaceae Fruits Water Fruit epicarp crushed to form
amara. powder, mixed with water and it
(Chedubeera) consumed for Diabetes.
24 Lepidagathis cristata Acanthaceae Whole Water Whole plant crushed to form
Willd. plant powder, mixed with water then it
(Nakka peeta gadda) consumed for all Fevers.
25 Manilkara hexandra Sapotaceae Leaves None Leaves and fruits are used in
(Roxb.) and Fruits summer season for Ulcers.
(Pala chettu)
26 Physalis minima L. Solanaceae Leaves Goat milk Leaf extract mixed with goat milk
(Budda gosha) taken daily twice to cure Jaundice.
27 Pongamia pinnata (L.) Fabaceae Leaves Salt Fresh leaves are crushed and add
Pierre. half tea spoon of salt, take this
(Kanuga) mixture twice a day for Cough.
28 Pterocarpus marsupium Fabaceae Twigs None Twigs are used as tooth brush for
Roxb. healthy Teeth.
(Peddegi)
29 Rhynchosia suaveolens L. Fabaceae Leaves None Fresh leaves (2-3) can be chewed
f. for Toothache.
(Adavi kandi)
30 Schleichera oleosa Sapindaceae Stem bark Oil Stem bark is crushed to form
(Lour.) Merr. powder mixed with oil and applied
(Pusugu) over the chest for Chest pain.
31 Senna auriculata (L.) Fabaceae Flowers Water The flowers are placed in the water
Roxb. take twice a day for Urinary
(Tangedu) infection.
32 Senna alexandrina Mill. Fabaceae Leaves Hot water These two plant leaves are placed in
(Sonamuki) hot water then take this water twice
a day for Stomachache.
33 Senna italica Mill. Fabaceae Leaves
(Nela tangedu)
34 Senna tora (L.) Roxb Fabaceae Fruits None Fruits and curry prepared from
(Penta chennangi) pulses and consumed for free

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Motion.
35 Solanum surattense L. Solanaceae Fruits None Fruit decotion is used as shampoo
(Mulla vanga) for Dandruff and hair fall.
36 Stemona tuberose Lour. Stemonaceae Roots Black Roots of Stemona and black pepper
(Giritonda) pepper seeds are crushed to form powder
then mixed in water and consumed
for Headache.
37 Streblus asper Lour. Moraceae Twigs None Twigs are used as tooth brush for
(Barrenka) healthy Teeth.
38 Strychonos potatorum L. Loganiaceae Seeds None The plant seeds grinded to powder
f. form, which is applied to relieve
(Chilla ginjalu) from Snakebite.
39 Syzigium cumini (L.) Myrtaceae Roots Water Plant root made as bowel, water
Skeels. placed in bowel after 8 hours it is
(Neredu) consumed for Urinary calculi.
40 Terminalia alata Heyne Combretaceae Stem bark None Powder of stem bark is applied on
& Roth Wounds for Healing.
(Nallamaddi)
41 Tylophora indica Wt.and Asclepiadaceae Leaves None Leaf juice given orally for
Arn. Snakebite.
(Meka meyani aku)
42 Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Rhamnaceae Stem bark Oil Dried stem bark powder mixed with
Mill. oil to applied for Wounds and Cuts.
(Pariki)
Figure.I: Percentage of different plant parts used in the preparation of Folk medicine.
Percentage Leaves
Tubers
Roots
2% 2%
Stem bark
10% 5%
2% 40%
Twigs
2%
5% Whole plant
5% Bulbils
10% Gum
7%
10% Flower
Latex
Fruits
Seeds

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A B
C D
Fig.2. Images showing study area of Bhadrachalam and Cherla areas of Khammam
District
A. Visit to Medicinal Aromatic plants board Hyderabad.

B. Tribal Medical Practitioner to treatment for primary health care.
C. Tribal people live in Gumpu of Bhadrachalam tribal area
D. Preparation of plant herbarium in the research
CONCLUSION
The present study shows that Bhadrachalam and Cherla tribal area are rich with
medicinal plant diversity and traditional knowledge in all habitats. The culture is useful not only
for conservation of traditional knowledge and also for biodiversity. Due to the modernization and
globalization changes in cultural practices this heritage and traditional knowledge is not properly
documented. Hence it is essential to study and document the folk knowledge which can provide
voluble information to pharmacologists and herbalists in future these endangered medicinal
plants can be conserved through micro propagation by using tissue culture technique for future
use.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are thankful to the ethnic resource persons who shared their knowledge of
ethnomedicine in the study area and forest department officers for providing road map, revenue
department for providing the data of tribal people and tribal villages in the study area of
Khammam dist.

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REFERENCES
• Andhra Pradesh State of Forest Report, 69-76 (2013).

• Gamble JS. Flora of Presidency of Madras. Adlard & Son Ltd., London; (1928).
• http://forest.ap.nic.in/Forest%20Flora%20of%20Andhra%20pradesh/index.htm.
• Jain S.K. and Goel A.K., Workshop Exercise-1. Proforma for Field work IN: Jain, S.K.
(Editor). A Manual of Ethnobotany. Scientific Publisher, Jodhpur, 142-147 (1995).
• Jain SK & Rao RR. A Handbook of Herbarium method today and tomorrow. New Delhi;
(1997).
• Naqvi, A.H. Flora of Karimnagar District, Andhra Pradesh, India. Ph.D., Thesis, (2001).
Kakatiya University, Warangal.
• Pullaiah T & Chennaiah E. Flora of Andhra Pradesh. Vol. I-III, Scientific publishers;
Jodhpur; (1997).
• Srihari Mancha., Role of Media In Tribal Agriculture Development –A Study of
Khammam District Agency Tribes, International Journal of Social Science &
Interdisciplinary Research, 244-253 (2012).

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Traditional use of Medicinal plants in pediatric & maternal care practiced by
the Ethnic groups of Khammam District, Telangana State, India.
Dr.S.Rama Mohana Rao (Lecturer in Botany), SR&BGNR GDC Khammam,
Dr. Ch. Ramesh Babu (Lecturer in Botany) GDC (W), Khammam.
G.Ravi ( Research Assistant), Ch.Saidi Reddy( Dept. of Botany), SK.Shareefa (Dept.Of Botany)
SR&BGNR GDC Khammam.
[email protected]
Abstract:-
A large number of Ethnic people with diverse cultural background are inhabiting in
Dandakaranyam, area of Khammam District in Telangana State. An Ethno medicinal survey was
conducted in the remote villages of the District. In the present investigation, a venture is being
made to explore the use of medicinal plants for paediatric and maternal care purpose by the
aboriginals of the district. A number of informants such as local traditional medical practitioners
and knowledgeable elders have provided the information, in frequent field visits to the place.
Total number of 24 plant species belonging to 15 families has been enumerated with scientific
names, families, vernacular names, uses and locality of use.
Key words:- Paediatric, Maternal, Traditional, Ethno botany.
Introduction:- Since the dawn of human civilization, men have used plants as a source of
medicine, because they were available in the immediate environment unlike other crop plants,
medicinal plants are less vulnerable to disease and insect attack. Plants provide various kinds of
drugs and medicines and our dependence on medicinal plants has no way been minimized by the
use of modern system of synthetic drugs whose use are not without side effects. In India there are
more than 7000 species, which have been identified has medicinal plants.
Several ethno botanical investigations have been conducted in the district to explore
its vast ethno medicinal plants resources. Koppula Hemadri, K.N.Reddy, Raju V.S. etc., are
explored the medicinal flora of Khammam District.
The present investigation is an attempt to investigate the ethnomedicinal plants
used in the district for the purpose of paediatric and maternal care.
Materials & Methods:- Khammam district is situated between 16◦ 45’ and 18◦ 35’ North
latitudes and between 79◦ 47’and 80◦ 47’ East latitudes. With an area of 16,029.00 sq km and a
maximum altitude ranging from 100-800 m above sea level. Total forest coverage area is
(52.6%) of its geographical area.
Prior to the field visits, extensive literature survey was carried out on the
previous ethno medicinal & floral reports of the district. Rural areas were visited during summer,
monsoon, and winter to avail most of the plants in their flowering conditions. During the visits,
the informants were chosen on the basis of structured questionnaire. Prior consent was taken
from the rural folks for documentation of their ethnic knowledge on medicinal plants. The plant

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specimens were made into an herbarium. Local herbal medicinal practitioners and elderly people
were preferred during the interviews. After knowing the specific use of the medicinal plants,
informants were taken to the field to identify the plants on the basis of vernacular names,
collected plants were compared with the literature and identified with the help of standard keys
to the specimens.
Results & Discussion :- The plants used for paediatric & maternal care are enumerated
alphabetically with their Scientific names, Vernacular names, Uses & Locality.
1. Achyranthes aspera L.
Family:- Amaranthaceae
Vernacular names: Uttareni
Use: The whole plant decoction is used to treat dermatological disorders in children.
Pneumonia is treated with the root decoction.
Locality: Kinnerasani, palavoncha
2. Alstonia scholaris R.Br.
Family:- Apocynaceae
Vernacular name:- Yedaakula paala
Use:- Leaf juice is prescribed in epilepsy and asthma in children as well as in
adults.
Locality:- Chintoor.
3. Aristolochia indica L.
Family:- Aristolochiaceae
Vernacular name:- Gadida gadapa
Use:- Root paste is prescribed in bowel troubles and skin infections in children.
Locality:- Venkatapuram
4. Atylosia scarabaeoides (L). Benth.
Family name:- Fabaceae
Vernacular names:- Adavi Ulava Teega
Use:- The whole plant or the roots are being crushed and prescribed for vitality to the
mothers after childbirth. Bronchitis in children is treated with the fresh root paste.
Locality:- Aswarapet
5. Buettneria herbacea Roxb.
Family: Malvaceae
Vernacular names:- Dikku sindur

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Use:-The roots are crushed with some other herbs and prescribed in diarrhea in children.
The same preparation is prescribed in body ache and stomach upset in minors.
Locality:- Manuguru.
6.Calotropis gigantea (Linn) R.Br
Family:- Apocynaceae.
Vernacular names:- Jilledu
Use:- Latex is used in skin irritations and scabies of children. Root decoction is
prescribed as an analgesic to babies in high fever. The same preparation is
prescribed to women at child birth to reduce labour pain.
Locality:- Yellendu
7.Cissampelos pareira L.
Family:- Menispermaceae
Vernacular names:- Chiruboddi
Use:- The crushed roots are used in stomach ache, cough and cold and
breathing troubles of babies. Roots are used as an anthelmintic and also to
cure severe stomach ache in children. Root paste is also prescribed to the
snake bitten children and adults.
Locality:- Padugonigudem, Gundala.
8. Crotalaria prostrata Roxb.
Family:- Fabaceae
Vernacular names:- Serrigallygista
Use:- The crushed plant preparation is prescribed to women just after childbirth to
prevent weakness. Crushed roots are prescribed in skin infection and snakebite.
Locality:- Bayyaram.
9. Cryptolepis buchananii et. Schult.
Family:- Periplocaceae
Vernacular names:- Paala teega
Use:- Malnourished children are prescribed with the plant decoction to
strengthen bones. Stomach pain and other gastric problems of minors are
treated with fresh root decoction.
Locality:- Gandhampalli
10. Dolichos biflorus L.

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Family:- Fabaceae
Vernacular names:- Ulavalu
Use:- Water boiled seed decoction is prescribed to weak pregnant ladies and
malnourished mothers after delivery. The whole plant decoction is used in
dysentery to children.
Locality:- Sathupally.
11. Emilia sonchifolia (L) DC.
Family:- Asteraceae
Vernacular names:- Garbhapodu
Use:- Root is tied to the neck to cure fever in babies. Toothache in children is
treated with the leaf juice.
Locality:- Rekapalli.
12. Helicteres isora L.
Family:- Malvaceae
Vernacular names:- Nulitada
Use:- Mustard oil boiled fruits along with the oils is given in stomach ache of babies.
Fruits are also given in irritable bowel complaints of children.
Locality:- Chatti.
13. Hiptage benghalensis L. (Kurz.)
Family:- Malpighiaceae
Vernacular name:- Madhavilata
Use:- Whole plant powder is used as an analgesic in babies suffering from high fever.
Water boiled plant decoction is administered orally in case of weak mothers after
childbirth. Leaves are used as temporary cure in asthmatic problems.
Locality:- Badhrachalam
14. Hymenodictyon excelsum (Roxb.) DC.
Family:- Rubiaceae
Vernacular names:- Bhorsal
Use:- Crushed stem bark is prescribed to cure enlarged spleen of babies.
Diarrhoea and dysentery in babies are cured whole plant decoction.
Locality:- Chintoor.
15. Mallouts philippensis (Lam.) Mull.Arg.
Family:- Euphorbiaceae
Vernacular names:- Kunkuma Chettu

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Use:- Malnourished pregnant ladies are prescribed the crushed roots to re-
-gain vitality. The same preparation is prescribed to babies with enlarged
spleen.
Locality:- Palavoncha
16. Mimosa pudica L.
Family:- Fabaceae
Vernacular names:- Attipatti
Use:- Insomniac babies are treated with the root tied to the neck. The leaf
paste is applied to open bleeding wounds.
Locality:- Manuguru
17. Ocimum sanctum L.
Family:- Lamiaceae
Vernacular names:- Tulasi
Use:- Leaf decoction is used in cough and cold with honey and also in fever in
children. Leaf paste is applied to the babies suffering from skin disease
like scabies, ring worm etc. Mucus formation in babies is also treated by it.
Locality:- Nelakondapalli
18. Plumeria rubra fo. Accuminata (W.T.Aiton)Woodson
Vernacular names:- Yerra Devaganneru
Use:- Paste of crushed root is applied topically to promote lactation in
mothers. Root paste is also applied to prevent pus in open
wounds.
Locality:- Khammam.
19. Polygala chinensis L.
Family:- Polygalaceae
Vernacular name:- Meradu
Use:- Roots are crushed and prescribed to reduce body temperature in
babies . Root are also used to treat open wounds.
Locality:- Ayyagaripalley
20. Rauvolfia serpentina (L). Benth.ex.Kurz.

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Vernacular names:- Pathalagarudi
Use:- The root juice is prescribed in gastrointestinal diseases. The roots are
also used as an anti-dote to snakebite in children and adults.
Locality:- Lower Sileru
21. Rotala leptopetala (Blume) Koehne
Family:- Lythraceae
Vernacular names:- Rosy Rotala
Use:- Dried stem segments are given to babies in fever.
Locality:- Kunavaram
22. Sarcostemma acidum (Roxb.) Voight
Vernacular name:- Atukudu Teega, Somavalli
Use:- A dry powder of the plant is being used in the form of a decoction to
treat earache in babies. Milky latex is prescribed to the lactating mothers.
Locality:- Charla
23. Solanum surattense Burm. f.
Family:- Solanaceae
Vernacular names:- Nela vaakudu
Use:- Anthers are soaked in mother’s milk and orally administered to babies
to cure chronic cough. In case of chest complains, fever and body pains,
the decoction is given to the children.
Locality:- Sathupally
24. Zingiber officinale Roscoe
Family:- Zingiberaceae
Vernacular names:- Allam
Use:- The rhizomes are crushed and given to the child with honey or sugar in
chronic cough and cold. Bronchitis in children is also said to be cured by
using the preparation.
Discussion:- Ethno botanical uses of many of the above plants and their pharmacological
potentials have been supported by the literature( Dey, 2011 a,b; Dey and De, 2010c; 2011b).
Authors have noted, in particular, some novel use of certain medicinal plants used in maternal
and pediatric treatment. It was also found that some of the ethnomedicines are not suggested to
the infants or minors which, otherwise, have been proved effective to the elders. In many cases
the concentration or dose of certain preparations were lowered when applied to the children. The

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aboriginals were found to take almost care to the newborns and the mother in pre delivery,
during delivery and post delivery conditions.
Conclusion:- The ethnic groups of Koyas & Kondareddis use a number of medicinal plants to
treat a wide array of ailments occurring in children and mothers. Although some rituals and
beliefs are prevalent in these areas, the authors have noted successful remedy of certain disease
by using herbal preparations. Traditional healers mostly rely on the crude preparation of
ethnobotanicals. Furthermore, some herbs were found to be more effective when used in
combination with other plant preparation. Synergistic interaction between the active
phytochemicals of crude preparations and associated herbs could have been responsible for the
increased efficacy. Phytochemical nature and pharmacological activity of these preparations
should be tested in vitro and in vivo to find out the active biomolecules and their mode of
action.Positive clinical trials of isolated compounds may lead to the discovery of novel
phytomedicines in future drug discovery programs.
Acknowledgement:- The authors are grateful to the principal SR&BGNR Govt Degree College
Khammam, for providing facilities. Thanks are also due to UGC New Delhi for providing
research grant.
References:-
1. Abhijit dey Traditional use of medicinal plants by the ethnic group of Purulia
District W.B. Indian J.Med.Arom.plants 2011, 1(3) 189-194.
2. De,J.N.1965. Some min or plant- fibers of aboriginal usage in the District of
Purulia, Bulletin of Botanical society of Bengal 19 (2). 67-72.
3. Dey. A.2011 a.Achyranthes aspera L.Phytochemical and Pharmacological aspects.
A review. International journal of pharmaceutical sciences, Review and Research 9(2) 72-82.
4. Dey.A.De.J.N2010.Rauvolfia serpentine (L) Benth.ex Kurz- A review.Asian journal of
plant sciences. 9(6) 285-298

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Spider webs: A source of Allergenic Spore and Pollen
Allam Vijaya Bhasker Reddy

Palaeobotany and Palynology Research Lab
Department of Botany, University College of Science, Saifabad, Hyderabad-500004.
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
This study concerns about the spore and pollen analysisof 50 spider webs, which were
collected from the various intra and extramural localities of Osmania University campus,
Hyderabad. 29 Pollen taxa belong to 19 families were recorded. The fungal spores and pollen
grains extracted from spider webs reflect the distinct characteristics of the regional vegetation,
which changes from intra to extra mural environments. The entire campus is spread over with the
dominance of fungal spores and allergenic pollen grains. The aerobiological survey through
analysis of trapped pollen and spores in spider webs clearly indicates that extramural
environments are more allergenic due to qualitatively and quantitatively more dispersal of
allergenic bio-pollutants. The palynotaxa viz., Peltophorum, Ailanthus, Prosopis, Holoptelea,
Causarina, Eucalyptus,and the fungal spores viz., Curvularia, Nigrospora, Tetraploa, Torula,
Teichospora, Dreschlera, etc.wererecorded from the study, allergenic of either seasonal or
perennial.
Key words: Spider webs; Pollen allergy; Palynomyxtum.
INTRODUCTION
Pollen grains and spores as a rule are only a few hundred of a millimeter in size called as
bio-pollutants can be studied in an enlarged state and can be used as a solid mean for the
identification, classification, determination of affinity and so on of vegetation of a particular
region.Evaluation of these pollen and spores from the intra and extramural environments of
Osmania University campus has been done through the indoor intramural environment. The
palynological analysis through web samples have provided a comparative account of the
allergenic palynotaxa from the Osmania University. Spider webs are natural traps for
atmospheric pollen rain (Xiao.Yan Song et al. 2007 and Vijaya Bhasker Reddy et al. 2009). The
reconstructed pollen spectra not only portrays overall local vegetation of the region but also
prove the spider-webs to be the better substrates for airborne bio-pollutants as compared to the
soil samples (Bera, S.K. et al., 2002).
Osmania University is located in the centre of the Hyderabad and is named after its founder,
Nawab Osman Ali Khan, the seventh Nizam of Hyderabad who rather through a farman or Royal
Charter, brought the University into existence in 1918. It is the seventh oldest in the Country
and third oldest in South India. Hyderabad is situated 170-22l East and 780-27l North on the
banks of the river Moosi with an elevation of about 536 m above the sea level. The present
locality lies on the latitude 780-24l N and longitude 180-25l E. The climate of the studied locality
is generally hot and dry and annual rainfall ranging between 500-1000 ml and is chiefly due to
the southwest monsoon. The temperature is around 270C to 400 C.

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MATERIAL AND METHODS
Fifty spider web samples were collected from the intra and extra mural localities of
Osmania University campus during October -December 2012. Spider webs;which were collected
from the walls of various departments, and bushes seen growing in open areas by rolling them at
the end of the stick and kept in polythene bags.
Spider web samples were first treated with Conc. HCL to dissolve the meshes and then
passed through sieve (150 meshes) to remove the superfluous matters i.e. small twigs, fruits,
leaves etc. After washing the filtrate several times with distilled water, the residue was treated
with HF in polythene test tubes for two days to dissolve the dust particles. Thereafter, the residue
was acetolysed by standard acetolysis method (Erdtman, 1943, 1969) using acetolysis mixture
(9:1, acetic anhydride and Conc. Sulphuric acid). 3 slides were prepared for each sample for the
quantitative analysis of spore and pollen. Depending upon the productivity of the samples 1000-
1200 spore and pollen were counted for each sample. The encountered spore and pollen have
been arranged in sequence viz., trees, herbs, and fungal spores.
OBSERVATIONS
The palynomyxtum consists of pollen grains, fungal spores, and cuticles, insect remains
like wings, scales and legs. A total of 29 pollen types referable to 19 families were identified.
The pollen grains constitute 80% and remaining 20% are the fungal spores. The pollen of tree
taxa was high (42%) followed by herbs (32%) and fungal spores (26%) (Fig: 1). the incidence of
aerospora was even throughout the extramural environment whereas intramural environment is
dominant with herbaceous taxa and fungal spores. The important pollen were of Acacia nilotica
(0.2%), Acalypha indica (12%), Ageratum conyzoides (8%),Ailanthus excelsa (8%), Albizia
lebbeck (0.4%), Alternanthera sessilis (12%), Amaranthus viridis (4%), Casuarina equisitifolia
(0.5%), Celosia arjentea (5%), Chenopodium album (2%),Cocos nucifera (1.2%), Croton
bonplandianum (0.4%), Cucumis sativus (0.2%), Cynodon dactylon(4.2%), Eucalyptus globulus
(7%), Feronia elephantum (1%),Hibiscus rosasinensis (0.2%),Holoptelea intigerfolia (4%),
Justecia procumbens (0.3%),Leucaena leucocephala (0.2%), Parthenium histerophorus (18 %),
Peltophorum pterocarpum (3%), Prosopis juliflora(5%), Ricinus communis (0.3%), Syzygium
cumini (0.8 %), Terminalia catappa (0.3%), Tinospora cordifolia (3%), Tribulus terrestris
(0.6%), Tridax procumbens (2%). Typha aungustata (0.8%), Xanthium strumarium (0.4%) and
significant fungal spores were of Alternaria sp (12%), Ascospores ( 18.5%), Curvularia sp (
10.6%),Nigrospora sp (5%), Rust spores (11.2%), Teichospora sp (7.8%), Tetraploa sp
(1.04%),Torula sp (33.5%). The most dominant pollen types were Parthenium (18%), Acalypha
indica (12%),Alternanthera sessilis (12%),Ageratum conyzoides (8%),Ailanthus excelsa (8%)
and are of anemophilous type pollen grains (Table:1 ).

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Palynomyxtum
35
spores 30
26% trees 25
20
42% 15
10
5
0
herbs
32% Extra mural
Intramural
Fig: 1 showing percentage of the Pollen and spores from the intra and extra mural environments.
Along with the pollen and spores, were also recorded the other plant particles, cuticles,
fungal hyphae and insect remains more or less from the webs. A high frequency of fungal
hyphae was recorded from the web samples of intramural environments. A negligible Bryophytic
and Pteridophytic spores were also encountered in the samples (Fig:1).
Table:1 Showing various pollen types and their percentage recorded from the spider webs.
S.No Pollen type Family Habit Indoor Outdoor Dominance

• Acalypha indica Euphorbiaceae Herb + + 12%
• Ageratum conyzoides Asteraceae Herb + + 08%
• Ailanthus excels Simarubaceae Tree _ + 08%
• Albizia lebbeck Mimosaceae Tree _ + 0.4%
• Alternanthera sessilis Amaranthaceae Herb + + 12%
• Amaranthus viridis Amaranthaceae Herb + + 04%
• Casuarina equisitifoliaCasuarinaceae Tree _ + 0.5%
• Celosia arjentea Amaranthaceae Herb _ + 05%
• Chenopodium album Chenopodiaceae Herb _ + 02%
• Cocos nucifera Arecaceae Tree _ + 1.2%
• Croton bonplandianumEuphorbiaceae Herb _ + 0.4%
• Cucumis sativus Cucurbitaceae Herb _ + 0.2%
• Cynodon dactylon Poaceae Herb + + 4.4%
• Eucalyptus globules Myrtaceae Tree + + 07%
• Feronia elephantum Rutaceae Tree + _ 01%
• Holoptelea intigerfolia Ulmaceae Tree + + 04%
• Justecia procumbens Acanthaceae Herb _ + 0.3%
• Leucaena leucocephalaMimosaceae Tree _ + 0.2%
• Parthenium histerophorus Asteraceae Herb + + 18%
• Peltophorum pterocarpum Caesalpiniaceae Tree + + 03%
• Prosopis juliflora Mimosaceae Tree + + 5%
• Ricinus communis Euphorbiaceae Shrub + + 0.3%
• Syzygium cumini Myrtaceae Tree + + 0.8%

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• Terminalia catappa Combretaceae Tree _ + 0.3%
• Tinospora cordifolia Menispermaceae Herb + + 03%
• Tribulus terrestris Zygophyllaceae Herb _ + 0.6%
• Tridax procumbens Asteraceae Herb _ + 0.2%
• Typha aungustata Typhaceae Herb _ + 0.8%
• Xanthium strumarium Asteraceae Herb + + 0.4%
DISCUSSION
The present study highlights the trapped bio-pollutants by the spider webs in the outdoor
and indoor environments. The total aerospora of intra and extramural environments was similar
qualitatively but differed quantitatively, which is attributed to varied meteorological factors.
Similar observations were also earlier recorded by Lakhanpal & Nair (1957), Sreeramulu &
Rajalingam (1966), Subba Reddy (1970), Mutha Reddy & Ramanujam (1989) by using
aeroscope. Though the present study carried with spider web analysis but the overall quantity of
aerosporal incidence is strikingly similar to the studies carried out by using aeroscope from other
parts of the country such as Jaipur (Sarna &Govli 1979), Vishaka Patnam (Janakibai & Subba
Reddy 1982), Modinagar (Gaur & Kasna 1981), Bangalore (Mangala & Seetharamaiah 1981),
Aurangabad (Tilak & Patil 1983), Gulbarga (Mari Bhat & Rajasab 1985 ) and Delhi (Shivpuri et
al. 1960a, 1960b; Singh & Babu, 1980).
Many of the pollen and spores recorded in the present study were earlier listed as
potential allergens (Lakhan pal & Nair, 1958; Ramalingam 1966-67; Nair, 1963; Shivpuri, 1964;
Subba Reddy, 1970; Chanda & Sarkar, 1972; Tilak & Vishwe 1977; Shukla & Misra, 1980).
These include Ailanthua excelsa, Casuarina equisitifolia, Eucalyptus globulus, Holoptelia
integrifolia, Parthenium hysterophorus, Xanthium strumarium, Cynodon dactylon, and the
spores like Alternaria sp., Curvularia sp., Nigrospora sp.,Teichospora sp., Tetraploa sp., Torula
sp.(Plate-1)
The identified pollen types were referred to 19 families; of which 3 were monocots and
the rest of were dicots. Fluctuations and unseasonal pollen representations were observed in the
incidence of pollen and spores taxa could be due to diverse factors viz., age of the spider webs,
meteorological factors, and other biological related activities. The representation of fungal spores
in both intra and extra mural environments is due to the growth of fungi on insect residues
leftover by the spiders after trapping and consuming. The fungal spores and pollen grains
extracted from spider webs reflect the distinct characteristics of the regional vegetation, which
changes from intra to extra mural environments. The entire campus is spread over with the
dominance of fungal spores and allergenic pollen grains. The aerobiological survey through
analysis of trapped pollen and spores in spider webs clearly indicates that extramural
environments are more allergenic due to qualitatively and quantitatively more dispersal of
allergenic bio-pollutants.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am thankful to Prof. P. Ramachandra Reddy for his constant support and
encouragement throughout the work. My sincere thanks to Principal, University College of
Science, Saifabad for providing facilities.

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REFERANCES
1. Bera, S.K. et al., (2002). Trapped pollen and spores from spider webs of Lucknow
environs. Curr. Sci. 83, 1580-1585.
2. Erdtman, G. (1943). An introduction to pollen analysis, Waltham, Mass, USA. Erdtman,
G. (1969). Handbook of Palynology: An introduction to the study of pollen grains and
spores. Haf. Pub. Co. New York.
3. Chanda. S. & Sarkar, P.K., (1973). Atmospheric pollen flora of greater Calcutta and
Falta. Aspects of Allergy and Applied Immunology 6: 74-87.
4. Gaur, R.D., (1978). Aeropalynology of Meerut I-Pollen grains. J. Indian Bot. Soc. 57:
353-365
5. Janakibai, A. & Subba Reddy. C., (1982). Air borne pollen grains of Vishakapatnam. A
combined field and air sample study. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci, (Plant Sci.) 91: 329-350.
6. Lakhanpal, R.N. & Nair, P.K.K., (1958). Survey of the atmospheric pollen at Lucknow. J.
Sci. & Indust. Res. 17(c): 80-87.
7. Nair P.K.K., (1963). An analysis of atmospheric pollen, fungal spores and other
vegetable matter at Vellore, Madras state (India). Indian J. Med. Res. 51: 447-452.
8. Ramalingam A., (1966-67). A volumetric study of the atmospheric pollen over paddy
fields at Vishakapatnam in 1960-61. Palynol. Bull. 2&3:11-17.
9. Shivpuri, D.N., (1964). Aeropalynology and its significance in allergy. In Nair, P.K.K.
(Ed.) Recent Advances in Palynology. 420-437. Today &Tomarrow publ. New Delhi.
10. Shukla A.C. & Mishra, S.P., (1980). Palynology of Kanpur trees with special reference to
their allergenic significance. In P.K.K. Nair (Ed.)Advances in Pollen and Spore research
V-VII: 209-215. Today &Tomarrow publ. New Delhi.
11. Subba Reddy, C., (1970). A Comparative study of atmospheric pollen and fungus spores
at two places twenty miles apart. Acta Allergologia. 25: 189-215.
12. Tilak, S.T. & Vishwe, D.B., (1977). Aeroallergenic pollen at Aurangabad. In P.K.K. Nair
(Ed.)Advances in Pollen and Spore research 144-149. Today &Tomarrow publ. New
Delhi.
13. Vijaya Bhasker Reddy A. et al., (2009). Spider webs- a natural trap of spores and pollen.
Advances in Pollen Spore research vol.45: 65-73.
14. Xiao-Yan Song, et al., (2007). Pollen analysis of spider webs from Yunnan, China. Rev.
Palaeobot. Palynol. 145, 325-333.

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Plate 1: some important allergenic pollen and spores recorded from the spider webs.
H. integrifolia S. cumini A. viridis P.hysterophorus
Cynodon dactylon Eucalyptus globulus Alternaria sp. Tetraploa sp.
Dreschlera sp. Rust spore Ascospore
Torula sp.

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IN VITRO ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITIES ON DIFFERENT

PLANT EXTRACTS
Sahera Nasreen Yahya Khan , Shital Yadav, Lata Tupe, Priyanka Tupe, Kavita
Pohalkar, Priyanka Velhal, and Abhay Salve.
P.G. Department of Botany and Research Center, Government Institute of Science,

Nipat Niranjan Nagar, Caves road, Aurangabad-431004 (M.S.) India.
Corresponding author- [email protected]
Abstract-
Fungal and Bacterial infections are among the ailments treated by traditional healers.
The World Health Organization has expressed high interest in traditional medicine, and
it is important to demonstrate scientifically that remedies employed in folk medicine are
indeed therapeutically active. The aim of the study was to scientifically test if plants
used in traditional medicine for the treatment of infections showed indeed antifungal
and antibacterial activity. The plants Enicostemma littorale, Citrus lemon,
(Seeds),Aristolochia clamatitis (Leaves and seeds), Phyllanthus erecta. Simple
laboratory conditions can be applied to validate the antifungal and antibacterial
properties of plants used in traditional medicine. Different extracts of the selected plant
parts was evaluated against four different fugal and bacterial cultures which are plant
and human pathogenic.
Keywords: - Enicostema, Aristolochia, Antifungal and Antibacterial.
INTRODUCTION : - In India many plants are mostly used as traditional
medicines for the treatments of various diseases.
Medicinal plants have been an integral parts of the life in various regional
communities for food and drugs both .
Everyone is concerned with high & growing no. of diseases associated with many
microorganisms especially bacteria and Fungi. Bacteria also have become far more
resist to many antibacterial agents.
The current research focuses on the extraction and assay of the antimicrobial
components from the different plant leaves and seeds .Like Enicostemma littorale,
Citrus limon ,(Seeds), Aristolochia clamatitis (Leaves and seeds), Phyllanthus erecta.
These are easily available at zero cost and found everywhere.
Now a day, the use of phytochemicals for pharmaceutical purpose has gradually
increased in many countries. According to “World Health Organization” (WHO). (Selva
Mohan T. et. al.)
Plant produces a wide variety of secondary metabolites which are used either directly as
precursors or as lead compounds in the pharmaceutical industry.
• Enicostemma littorale-E. littorale bloom called chota chirayita in (Marathi), has
been used traditionally for many diseases. According to Ayurvedic literature
survey. The fresh juice of leaves has been use stomachic and laxative, blood

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purifier in dropsy, rheumatism, abdominal ulcers hernia, swelling, itches and
insect poisoning. The leaves paste is applied on boils. The leaves are feed to
cattle to increase appetite.
Plant extract were reported for the biological activities such as anti-diabetic, anti-
inflammatary and useful in skin diseases. It also act as ethnomedicine for snakebite.
The plant is used to cure leucorrhoea.
• Phyllanthus erecta
In India, many plants are mostly used to as traditional medicines for the
treatment various infective diseases. The active ingredients present in those
plants are highly used for curing the diseases.
Phyllanthus erecta is an herbaceous plant. Its fruits are so tiny, found below the
branches. Belonging to family Euphorbiaceae. It is found all over the tropical
regions. It is widely used for the treatment of Jaundice, Syphilis against
constipation gonorrhea and Kidney disorders.
• Citrus lemon
Everyone is concerned with the high and growing number of diseases associated
with microorganism especially Bacteria and Fungi. Bacteria also have become
for more resistant to many anti bacterial agents. Fruit also have been studied
researchers for the presence bioactive compounds choose related with herbs. The
current research also focuses on the extraction and assay of the antimicrobial
components from the peels of citrus fruit which are easily available at zero cost
thus decreasing the cost for production. The following fruits have been targeted
in the present study. The Citrus lemon is used for culinary and non culinary
purposes throughout the world primarily for its juice; through the pulp &rind is
also used, mainly in cooking &baking.
• Aristolochia clamatitis ( seed & leaves)
Plants based antimicrobial represent a vest untapped source for medicines,&

further exploration of plant antimicrobial needs to occurs. Aristolochia
clamatitis commonly known as Iswari, nakuli & Gandhanakuli have enormous
therapeutic, potential & it was found to be effective in the treatment of
intermittent fever ,malaria, parasitic in festations, various skin disease , as an
aphrodisiae an anthelmintic & it is also used oeclema, intestinal disorders fungal
and bacterial infection
MATERIALS & METHODS

COLLECTION OF PLANTS
The aerial plants parts of Enicostemma littorale , Phyllanthus erecta,
Aristolochia, Citrus Lemon were found to be growing in the campus of the

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Institute of Science, Aurangabad in Marathwada regions in the month of
August-September 2014. The plant species were identified and confirmed by
using the standard literatures. The collected plant samples were deposited in the
form of herbarium in the Dept. of Botany, Govt. Institute of science
Aurangabad. The bacterial and fungal strains for the study were isolated in the
Dept. of Botany, Govt. Institute of Science, Aurangabad from different infected
plant parts .
BACTERIAL/ FUNGAL STRAINS & CULTURE PREPARATION
The bacterial strain used in this study were, Pseudomonasaerogeonasa,

Basillusstabtilis, E.coli,Bacillusthorogenesis, the fungal strain used in this study
were Fusariumoxisporium, Fusariummonilifomii, Helmanthosporium sativum,
bacterial stains were maintained on nutrient Agar plates. They were sub cultured
weekly & subsequently stored at 4˚C .The strains were inoculated in the nutrient
broth (PH .7.0) the Agar plates, they were sub cultured weekly & subsequently
stored at 4˚C and all fungal species were confirmed in the Dept. of Botany,
Govt. Institute science Aurangabad.
PREPRATION OF PLANT CHEMICAL EXTRACTS:-

The methanolic, chloroform & aqueous extracts of all 5 medicinal plants were
prepared by. Following method.
PREPARATION OF (CHEMICALS)
1) 80% Chloform
2) 80% Methanol
3) 100 ml D/W (Aqueous extract) –
PREPARATION:-
10 gm of fresh healthy leaves were collected, washed with D/W and filter with
whatmann filter paper No.-1.
Preparation of dilution – For each plant extract.

Sr.No Plant Extract D/W Extract Conc. Control
.
1. 2 ml 2 ml 2:2 80% Ethanol
2. 4 ml 2 ml 2:4 D/W and 80%
3. 8 ml 2 ml 2:8 Chloroform
4. 16 ml 2 ml 2:16
Preparation of sterile disc:-

The filter paper was punched into 5 mm disc and sterile in the oven at 1210C for
30 min.

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Assay Antibacterial activity wing disc diffusion methods.
In the1 litre. Sterile Nutrient Agar we added bacterial culture which are
E.coli,Pseudomonasaroginosa, B.T., Basillus sabtilis in different- different flask
then nutrient Agar was poured into sterile petri plates after solidification then
mark on plates as 2:2, 2:4, 2:8, 2:16, concentration, then in sterile condition at
laminar between two burners with the help of wire loop take a disc. Which have
different concentration of plants extract and put it into labeled petri dish and
remove wire loop safely for all bacteria using this same procedure for all
concentration and all chemicals and make one plate for control.
Assay of anti-fungal activity using well diffusion methods:-

PDA medium was poured into the sterile petriplates aseptically and that were
also to solidify then spread the fungal culture on that plates
Fussariumoxisporium, Fussariummoniliformi, Helmenthosporium and
incubatedit for three days after the completed growth of fungal mycelium in
sterile condition at the laminar make a well with the help of cork borer make on
the plate 2:2,2:4,2:8,2:16.Then with the sterile pipette add aqueous solution as a
control and aqueous different plant extract dilution same procedure followed for
other to chemical methanol and chloroform.
Table 1-Antimicrobial activity of Alcoholic and Aqeuos extract of leaves

Sr.No. Test Microorganism Zone of inhibition
(mm)
Conc. of leaf extract
(Alcoholic and Aqeuos)
1:1 1:2 1:4 1:8
1 E.coli. --- --- --- ---
2 B.subtilis -- -- -- --
3 B. thourangenesis ++ ++ ++
4 P.auroginosa -- -- -- --
Table 2 -Antifungal activity of Alcoholic and Aqueous extract of leaves
Sr.No. Test Zone of inhibition Cont

Microorganism (mm) rol
Conc. of leaf extract (Alcoholic and
(Alcoholic and Aqueous) Aqueous) (80%)
2:2 2: 2:8 2:16
4

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1 F. monoliformi +++ +++ +++ +++ ++++++
2 F. oxysporum +++ +++ +++ +++ ++++++
3 H. sativum --- --- ---- --- +++++

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CONCLUSSION:
Among the selected plant leaves extracts only Arostilocia leaf extracts at 10% and 60%
concentration shows positive antifungal activity against the Fusariumoxysporum and F.
moniliformi. While Aristolocia leaf extracts at 20% concentration shows positive
activity against Bacillus thorengensis. The rest of the plant extracts in different solvents
and concentrations are found to be negative against the test organisams.

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REFERENCES
Rainer W. Bussmann Antibacterial effects of Emblica officinalis and Phyllanthus niruri
crudeInternational Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Science Universal Research
Publications.
William L. Brown Curator Antibacterial activity of northern-peruvian medicinal plants
Selvamohan T., V. Ramadas S. Shibila Selva Kishore Antimicrobial activity of selected
medicinal plants against some selected human pathogenic bacteria CRITICAL
REVIEW IN PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES ISSN 2319-1082
Thirumal.M*, Vadivelan.R, Kishore.G, Brahmaji.V.S Aristolochia bracteolata: An
Overview on Pharmacognostical, Phytochemical andPharmacological Properties.
Volume 1 Issue 1 2012 www.earthjournals.org 70
Yahya Khan*, Sahera Nasreen Free radical scavenging activity in methanolic leaf
extract of Santalum album International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical
Sciences
ISSN- 0975-1491 Vol 3, Issue 4, 2013
Manas Mathur, Rashi Sharma, Jaya Sharma, Ruchi Pareek and Raka Kamal
Phytochemical screening and antimicrobial activity of Phyllanthus niruri Linn

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MICROBIAL CONSORTIA FOR EFFECTIVE DECOLORIZATION AND BIO
DEGRADATION OF ANTHRAQUINONE DYES
B.Aruna, L.Rathna silviya, Dr.D.Vijaya Lakshmi and
Dr.D.Vijaya Raghava Prasad
Department of Microbiology
Yogi Vemana University
Kadapa-516003
Abstract:
In the present study an attempt was made to examine the potential of bacterial consortia
for effective decolourization and degradation of Anthraquinone dyes (Acid blue 25, Reactive
blue 19). The effect of culture media composition, pH, temperature and initial concentration of
dyes was studied with an aim to determine the optimal conditions required for maximum
decolourization and degradation. The microbial consortia were used mainly Klebsiella sps,
Acinetobacter sps, Citrobacter sps, Bacillus sps 1, and Bacillus sps 2. Out of five microbial
consortia combinations the most potential combination was tested and selected for further
studies. The selected consortium showed maximum decolourization at static conditions as
compared to shaking conditions. The optimum pH for decolourization was PH 8 in both the dyes.
It shows good decolourization even in pH 7.The optimum temperature was 37oc.The optimum
decolourization showed by Acid blue 25 (90%) with in 48 hrs and Reactive blue 19 showed (85
%) with in 72 hrs. The optimum conditions are stabilized like static, pH 8, 37oc and 100 ppm
initial dye concentration. The results showed that the selected microbial consortium has good
potential in removal of Anthraquinone dyes from effluents under static conditions.
Keywords:
Microbial consortia, textile effluents, Decolourization, Biodegradation, and
Anthraquinone dye.
Introduction:
Removal of color from dye bearing which was advancement in industrialization spoiling
a lot causes pollutants in soil and water environment. Many contaminants present in wastewater,
such as acids, bases, toxic organic and inorganic, Dissolved solids, and colors. Among them,
colors are considered the most undesirable and are mainly caused by dyes. Dyes usually have a
synthetic origin and complex aromatic molecular structures which make them more stable and
more difficult to biodegrade. The textile industry utilizes about 10000 different dyes and
pigments the effluents of these industries are highly colored and the disposal of these wastes into
receiving waters causes damage to the Environment. Synthetic dyes have many structural
varieties such as acid dyes, basic, reactive dyes, dispersive, Azo, Anthraquinone dyes.
Anthraquinone based dyes are the most resistant to degrade due to their fused aromatic ring
structure. The chromophores in anionic and non-ionic dye are mostly Anthraquinone dyes and
azo dyes. Several physical and chemical methods have been used to eliminate the colored

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effluents in waste water. They are usually expensive and produced large amount of sludge
ultimately lead to the formation of unusual products effects the environment. The interest is
therefore now focused on the microbial degradation of dyes is a better alternative process. The
microorganisms including Bacteria, Fungi and also Algae can degrade and adsorb the wide range
of dyes. The biological mode of treatment of dye effluents offers distinct advantages over the
conventional modes of treatment. Most importantly biological treatment of dye effluents is eco
friendly and causes mineralization of dyes to simple components which are not lethal. In view of
these problems the most potent bacterial cultures was selected in this study for maximum
decolourization of Anthraquinone dyes. Bacterial biodegradation has observed that several
bacteria can degrade Anthraquinone dyes. The isolation of potential species and there by
degradation is one of the interest in biological aspect of effluents treatment. During the past
decade the use of the use of microbiological degradation methods have been under active
development in textile and dye stuff industries. Among the most, bacteria are the commonly used
for various bioremediation of textile dyes from environment. In the present study an attempt has
been made to utilize the common soil bacteria isolated indigenously from textile industry for
decolourization of dyes.
Materials and Methods:

The soil samples were collected near the places located at Hyderabad, Vijayawada,
madhanapally, chirala Nellore, Andhra Pradesh, India, where the effluents are discharged from
the textile factories. The Anthraquinone textile dyes used was Acid blue 25, Reactive blue 19
supplied by sigma Aldrich chemicals limited. These are water soluble dyes and used in textile
industries. Maximum absorption noted for Acid blue 25 (600-630 nm), Reactive blue 19 (583-
590nm).
Isolation and screening of dye degrading organisms:

Isolation of bacterial strains from textile effluent contaminated soil was collected and was
inoculated to ZZ broth and incubated at 37oc temperature for 24 hours. After incubation broth
was inoculated onto the sterile Petri dishes which consist of sterile, cool, molten, ZZ Agar
medium and kept the plates for incubation at 37°c for 24 hrs. Colonies were identified using
steriobinocular microscope and with the help of standard manual. Identified bacterial isolates (1,
2, 3, 4, &5) were taken and inoculated in ZZ medium containing each dye i.e. Acid blue 25,
Reactive blue19 in separate flasks of each isolates and incubated at 37oc for six days under static
conditions. After six days of incubation decolourization was observed.
Development of Microbial consortium:

The isolates obtained from textile effluents are screened and selected for maximum
degradation and decolourization of the dyes and further by using the above isolates the microbial
consortia was constructed.
Decolourization studies:

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Decolourization was assessed by measuring the absorbance of supernatant with the help
of spectrophotometer at wave lengths maxima of respective dyes. The decolourization
experiments were carried in triplicates on ZZ medium. Without inoculums was served as control.
Percentage of decolourization was calculated using the following formula.
Initial absorbance – observed absorbance

Decolourization (%) = -------------------------------------------------------- × 100
Initial absorbance
Results and Discussion:

Among the isolates selected only five bacterial sps for the present study. Interestingly all
five isolates showed confluent growth on selective medium containing 10 ppm of acid blue 25,
Reactive blue 19. The Five bacterial isolates were identified as Isolate1 (Klebsiella sps), Isolate 2
(Acinetobacter sps), Isolate 3(Citrobacter sps), Isolate4 (Bacillus subtilis), Isolate5 (Bacillus
cereus). The bacterial isolates 1, 2,3,4,5 were screened based on their maximum degradation and
decolourization efficiency. 92% and 90% decolorization and degradation efficiency was
recorded for Isolate 1 () within 2 days of incubation at 37OC with the dye concentration of 10,
50, 100, 200 ppm of Acid blue 25 & Reactive blue 19 respectively. Bacterial isolate 2 showed
maximum decolourization (85%) within 3 days at 10, 50,100,200 ppm of Acid blue 25 , 50%
decolourization potential was observed in Reactive blue 19. Maximum decolourization (71%)
within six days of incubation was recorded in Acid blue 25 with Isolate 3 and moderate
efficiency noted (40%) in Reactive blue 19. Isolate 4 showed 62% decolourization in acid blue
25 and 30% in Reactive blue19. From the observations it was noticed that the Isolate 5 showed
only 35 % decolorization with Acid blue 25 and maximum 70% decolourization was marked in
Reactive blue 19 at 50 ppm of dye concentration the results were recorded in Fig-1.

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Effect of decolourization by isolated bacterial cultures

100
d e m o d e m o d e m o d e m o d e m o
90 Acid blue 25
R eactive blue 19
80 d e m o d e m o d e m o d e m o d e m o
% 0f decolourization
70
60
40
30
20
0
Isolate1 Isolate 2 Isolate 3 Isolate4 Isolate5
Figure -1 Decolourization of Acid blue 25 & Reactive blue 19 dyes by the Bacterial isolates
Bacterial consortiums were developed from combination of five bacterial isolates.
Bacterial consortium 01: Isolates 1, 2,3,4,5.

Bacterial consortium 02: Isolates 1,2,3,4.
Bacterial consortium 03: Isolates 1, 2, and 3.
Bacterial consortium 04: Isolates 2, 3, and 4.
The bacterial consortium 01 showed 90 % of decolourization for Acid blue 25 and 80 %
decolourization for Reactive blue19 while the consortium 02 showed 88% & 70% of
decolourization. With the consortium 03 showed 84% & 63% of decolourization was obtained.
The consortium 04 showed 55% & 39% of decolourization for both the dyes. Graphical results
are shown in Fig-2

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Effect of Bacterial consortia on decolourization of dyes by isolated cultures

100
Acid blue25
90 R eactive blue 19
80
% of decolourization
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
B C-01 BC -02 B C-03 BC -04
Bacterial consortia
Figure -2 Decolourization of Acid blue 25 & Reactive blue 19 dyes by the Bacterial
Consortia
Discussion:
The effluents released from the textile industries causes serious threat to ground water & soil,
which also affects the human beings where there is a poor sanitation. (Jiunkins et al., 1982). The
effluents collected from the textile industries consists of toxic chemicals, dyes and also
acclimatized with microbial population such as Bacteria, Fungi, Algae & Yeast etc…More
frequently encountered population was the bacteria , can be isolated from the dye amended
effluents , sludge & soil was demonstrated by MadamwarD.et al., (2006) &Rashid Mahmood et
al., (2012). Five dominated bacterial species were isolated and characterized from the textile
effluents and therefore coded them as Isolate1, Isolate 2 , Isolate 3, Isolate 4 , Isolate 5 . After
though analysis of these species with morphological and biochemical tests with reference to the
Bergey’s manual (Edition - VIII) and molecular characterization at NCCS, PUNE confirmed
these sps (Klebsiella sps, Acinetobacter sps, Citrobacter sps, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus
respectively). These Five isolates showed maximum decolourization potential of Anthraquinone
dyes Acid blue 25, Reactive blue 19 with different combinations). Similarly Kalyani et al.,
(2009);Wong P, Yuen P. (1998); Khalid et al., (2008); were also analyzed the textile dyes for
their maximum decolorization and degradation showed very interesting results for azo dyes by
bacillus sps, Klebsiella sps& Pseudomonas sps. And further the bacterial consortia was made by
different sps and extensively used them for the biotreatment of textile effluents & all the
consortia groups showed good results for decolourization. Khadijah et al., (2009) developed
bacterial consortia for decolourization of Congo red. Rashid Mahmood et al., (2012) & Sivaraj et

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al., (2011) constructed the bacterial consortium for biotreatment with different sps of bacillus
showed optimum decolourization with Azo dyes. Jianling Zhen et al were studied on Citro bacter
sps it has also been reported maximum decolorizing ability against both Azo & Anthraquinone
dyes. Saranjal et al (2010) ., isolated five bacterial sps viz Bacillus subtilis, pseudomonas
aeurozinosa, E.coli, Proteus mirabilis & Klebsiella pneumonia from textile effluents , the extent
of colour removal varied depending on the dye complexity and nitrogen availability and
ligninolytic activity in the culture.. Abdul raham Giwa et al., (2012) & Deepti Gulati et al.,
(2014) isolated bacillus cereus & Klebsiella sps from the effluents amended by Reactive blue
19. The Bacillus subtilis showed 70% decolorization of Anthraquinone dyes and 90% of Azo
dyes like Crystal violet (Sapna kouhu et al., (2011) & Khehra et al (2010). Acinetobacter sps
showed 84% decolourization in Anthraquinone dyes like Acid blue25 but in other study showed
85% decolourization of Acid red dye (Mohandas Ramya et al; & G. Godakhae et al.,( 2009)).At
known nitrogen concentration 90% of the colour was removed with in initial 6 hours while when
excess nitrogen was provided up to 5 days and were required to achieve 63- 93% decolourization
of Anthraquinone dyes (Cripps et al (1990)). Haug et al (1991) described a bacterial consortium
capable of mineralizing the sulfonated azo dye mordant yellow. However an alteration from
anaerobic to aerobic conditions facilitated to require for complete degradation. This was
necessary for different members of the consortium needed different conditions for optimization
& bond cleavage needed the reductase enzymes which are mainly functional under anaerobic
conditions, A Rhodococcus capable of effectively decolorize copper based azo dyes & also by
actinomycetes strain (Zhou & Zimmermann (1993). Recently a bacterium, pseudomonas Luteola
with ability to remove colour of reactive dyes such as Red G, RBB, and Rp2B & V2RP has been
isolated from treatment of dyeing sludge. Hence isolated bacterial strains used for
decolourization should have capability to decolorize structurally different dyes. So, Consortium
has importance over single bacterial isolate because of collective effect to degrade and
decolorize the dyes (Watanabe & Baker (2000). To remove the textile dyes is possible by
developing consortium. Therefore isolation of single bacteria and developing consortium were
formulated for high efficiency of decolourization.
Conclusion:
The textile dyes are harm full, toxic and carcinogenic to the environment & Living beings.
Among the most economically viable choices available for the effluent treatment /
decolourization, and the most practical systems to adopt & develop, appear to be the biological
systems are known to be capable of dealing BOD & COD reduction or removal through
conventional aerobic biodegradation. Although decolourization is a challenging process to both
the textile industries and Waste water treatment. Present study leads to conclude that the isolates
had adequate potential to decolorize the Anthraquinone dyes. Thus the isolates could be
exploited or its bioremediation ability, concerted efforts were still required to establish biological
developmental system, the techniques by which the decolourization occurs vary and among them
adsorption seems of great significance for future development in bio-removal or bio-recovery of
dye substances.
Acknowledgments:
The authors are gratefully acknowledged Yogi Vemana University for facility and the
Department of Biotechnology for funding major research project.
No.BT/PR13941/BCE/08/807/2010.

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19.Sapna kochher & Jitender kumar Microbial decolourization of crystal violet by Bacillus
subtilis.Biological forum-An International Journal ,3(1);82-86(2011).

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Bio-Synthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles from Artocarpus

heterophyllus leaf and root extracts
G. Anuradha.1 , V. Srinivasa Rao2, M.C.Rao3and M.V.Ramana4
1
Department of Chemistry, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur, A.P, India
2
Department of Physics,Govt. Arts College, Rajahmundry, A.P, India
3
Department of Physics, Andhra Loyala College, Vijayawada, A.P, India
4
Department of Physics, SR & BGNR Govt. Arts & Science College, Khammam, Telangana,
India
Abstract
Leaf and root extracts of Artocarpus heterophyllus were assessed for the synthesis of
silver nanoparticles using rapid green synthesis route. Synthesized nanoparticles were confirmed
by analyzing the excitation of surface Plasmon resonance (SPR) using UV-VIS
spectrophotometry. SEM analysis confirmed the majority range of particle size between 32 -
58nm for silver. FTIR spectrum confirms the presents of high amounts of phenolic compounds in
the leaf and root extracts which possibly influence the reduction process and stabilization of
nanoparticles. The results of particle size analysis confrim the distribution of the particles within
20 nm to 110 nm.
Keywords: Biosynthesis, plant extracts, nanoparticles, silver nanoparticles, SEM , FTIR.
1. Introduction
Nanotechnology is an active area of research with tremendous applications for society,

industry and medicine. The non-polluting nanotechnologies have revolutionized the production
of nanomaterials as environmentally safe products. Several chemicals used in the synthesis of
nanoparticles are toxic which leads to environmental pollution [1]. Therefore biological sources
can be an alternative for the synthesis of nanoparticles [2]-[4]. Plants are the richest bioresources
of drugs in traditional and modern medicine [5]. Silver nanoparticles have wide range of
applications such as catalysis [6], drug delivery [7], biosensing [8], [9] and optics [10]. Biogenic
path of nanoparticle synthesis using microorganisms [11]–[13], enzymes [14] and plant extracts
[15]–[20] were suggested as possible ecofriendly alternatives to chemical and physical methods.
Here we report an in expensive and green method for the synthesis of Silver nanoparticles by
reduction process using Artocarpus heterophyllus leaf and root extracts.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1 Collection of plant material

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The Artocarpus heterophyllus leaves and roots were collected from the surroundings of
Lakaram lake, Khammam, Telangana, India and were identified scientifically.
2.2 Preparation of leaf extract and root extracts
Fresh leaves were washed several times with tap water and later with deionised water. 10
grams of washed fine cut leaves along with 100 ml double distilled water were taken in 250 ml
glass beaker and boiled for 5 minutes at 80oc. The extract was cooled to room temperature and
filtered with Whatman No 1 filter paper. The filtrate was centrifuged for 10 minutes at 10000
rpm, the supernatant was collected and stored at 4o C. The filtrates are used as reducing and
stabilizing agents. Similar process is followed for preparation of root extract.
2.3 Preparation of 1 mM AgNO3 solution
Accurate concentration of 1 mM AgNO3 (Merck India Ltd) was prepared by dissolving

0.169 gm AgNO3 in 1000 ml double distilled water and stored in Amber coloured bottle to avoid
auto oxidation of Silver.
2.4 Bio synthesis of Silver nanoparticles
In the single step green synthesis, 5 ml of leaf extract or root extract was added to 95 ml
of 1 mM aqueous AgNO3 solution and heated up to 80oC for 5 minutes, the immediate colour
change indicaing the formation of Silver nanoparticles.
The silver nanoparticles solution thus obtained was purified by repeated centrifugation at
10000 rpm for 15 minutes. The supernatant was transferred to a clean dry beaker for further
settlement of particles and repeated centrifugation was carried using cooling microfuge to get
dried and purified Silver nanoparticles. The particles obtained were used for further
characterization.
3. Characterization
3.1. UV –Visible spectra analysis
Synthesized silver nanoparticles were initially characterized by taking small aliquot of

sample in to UV –Visible spectrophotometer absorption spectra at 300-700 nm using Shimadzu
UV -1800 Spectrophotometer.
3.2. SEM analysis of silver nanoparticles
Scanning electron microscopic (SEM) analysis was carried by using Zeiss, EV-18
model.
3.3 EDX Analysis

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Energy Dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) was carried out on Zeiss, EV-18 model. The
peaks obtained from EDX gives the element composition of the sample.
3.4 FTIR- Spectroscopy
Fourier-transform infra red spectroscopy Bruker Tensor 27 model was used for the
analysis of the reduced silver. The spectrum was recorded in mid-IR region of 400-4000 cm-1
with 16 scan speed, using attenuated total reflectance (ATR) technique.
4. Results and Discussion
The present study reports the use of Artocarpus heterophyllus leaf and root extracts for
the Synthesis of Silver nanoparticles. The plant extract or root extract may act as reducing and
capping agents in silver nanoparticles synthesis. Studies have indicated that biomolecules like
protein, carbohydrates, flavonoids and phenols not only play a role in the capping of the
nanoparticles, but also play an important role in reducing the ions to the nano size [27], [28].
The biomolecules found in these extracts like enzymes, vitamins, proteins, amino acids, and
polysaccharides [29] play a vital role in the reduction of Ag+ ions.
Figure 4: UV-Visible absorption spectrum of using Artocarpus heterophyllus leaf extract
The nanoparticles were primarily characterized by UV-Visible Spectroscopy, which is

proved to be a very useful technique for the analysis of nanoparticles. As the leaf extract or root
extract was mixed with the aqueous solution of the silver ion complex there is a significant
change in the colour. This is due to the excitation of the surface plasma vibrations, which
indicates the formation of the Silver nanoparticles [30]. UV-Visible Spectrograph of Silver
nanoparticles has been recorded as a function of time by using quartz cuvette with distilled water
as the reference. The UV spectrum absorption is recorded at 447 nm.

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Figure 5: SEM image of silver nanoparticles formed by using Artocarpus heterophyllus leaf
extract.
Figure 6: SEM image of silver nanoparticles formed by using Artocarpus heterophyllus root
extract.
The SEM images indicate the presence of silver nanoparticles synthesized from the leaf
extract and root extract, further confirmed the development of silver nano structure. The SEM
image shows the formation of porous surface with spherical nano particles. They are clearly
distinguishable in 24 to 47 nm in size .
Figure 7: EDX image of silver nanoparticles produced from Artocarpus heterophyllus root
extract.
The EDX spectra exhibit the purity of the material and the complete chemical
composition of synthesized silver nanoparticles for both leaf and root extract synthesis routes. In

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the present synthesis EDX analysis shows high percentage of silver indicating the purity of the
synthesized sample.
Figure 8: FTIR-spectrum of bio synthesized silver nanoparticles formed by Artocarpus

heterophyllus leaf root extract.
The FTIR spectrum of silver nanoparticles is shown in Figure. The band at 3463cm-1 is
assigned to the O-H stretching of H-bonded alcohols and phenols.The peak formed at 2962 cm-
1
is because of C-H stretching and symmetric stretching of methoxy groups. The strong peak at
1737 cm-1 shows the stretching vibrations of C=O .The band at 1639 cm-1 corresponds to the N-
H bending of primary amines. The value 1440 cm-1 is related to the C-C stretching of aromatic
ring structure. The bands at 1367cm-1 are related to the C-N streching of aromatic amine group.
Whereas in the region 1020 cm-1 are corresponding to the C-C streching of alcohols, carboxylic
acids, ethers and esters which are binding to metal to form a silver nanoparticle.
The preliminary phytochemical analysis of leaf extract and root extracts revealed the
presence of amino acids, carbohydrates, flavonoids, sterols, terpenoids, proteins, and phenolic
compounds. FT-IR predicts the molecular configuration of different functional groups present in
the extract. Considerable absorption peaks are found at 3463cm-1, 2962 cm-1, 1737 cm-1, 1639
cm-1, 1440 cm-1, 1367cm-1, 1020 cm-1 respectively.
6. Conclusion
The present study reveals that the plant species of Artocarpus heterophyllus is good
source for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles at a faster rate. The formation of silver
nanoparticles was confirmed by the colour change within 30 minutes. The bioreduced silver
nanoparticles were characterized using UV-Vis, SEM, FTIR techniques.

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The Silver nanoparticles formed were quite stable in the solution. SEM analysis
confirmed the range of particle size between 22 to 42 nm. The carbohydrates, flavanoids and
poly phenols constituents present in leaf extract act as the surface active stabilizing molecules for
the synthesis of Silver nanoparticles. The method was unique and cost effective
7. Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully thank the Department of Physics, Osmania University, Hyderabad
for SEM, EDX and spectral analysis.
8. References:
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Medicinal plants used by the Tribals of Khammam DistrictTelangana State,

India.
G.Ravi (Research Assistant), Ch.Saidi Reddy, S.K.Shareefa, Dr.S.Rama Mohana Rao
Department of Botany, SR&BGNR GDC Khammam
[email protected]
Abstract:-
An attempt has been made to compile the Ethno botanical utilization of the data presented in
the present study has brought to light a total of 100 species of medicinal plants belonging to 100
genera under 55 families have been identified, which are used by the tribal for their health care
and day to day life of different ethnic groups such as koyas, kondareddis, lambadas of
Khammam District of Telangana State. The traditional knowledge regarding the use of these
plants is widely applied by the ethnic groups. The diverse ethnic communities to gather with the
luxurious floristic diversity offer ample scope for the ethnobotanical study in this district. The
indigenous groups depend either directly or indirectly on the products of the forest for their
livelihood and have, down the ages, preserved the knowledge about the Traditional & cultural
uses of plants.
Key words:- Ethnobotany, Khammam District, Telangana State.
Introduction:- Since time immemorial human beings have been using plants for their survival
and development . In the beginning, they were food gatherers and hunters of food. But
subsequently concentrated on plants that are useful for other purposes, such as shelter, health
care and artifact. The understanding of the use of plants for food, health care, shelter, agriculture
and other purposes got accumulated over generations as traditional knowledge. The indigenous
people of various regions have developed their own way of using plants for their health care and
following their own culture, customs, folk songs and food habits. This knowledge is transferred
through orally from one generation to another.
People all over the world are still dependent on the traditional plant based healing
practices as it is cheap and easily available. Rural people and tribal communities who live in the
forest areas predominantly depend upon locally available medicinal plants to take care of their
health and has become an integral part of their culture. Thus the accumulated diversified
traditional knowledge has led to the dawn of a science called Ethnobotany. Documentation of
traditional knowledge through Ethnobotanical studies is very important for conservation and
utilization of indigenous peoples knowledge. The available information shows that the tribes still
are largely depend on the traditional knowledge as for majority of the people new technologies
are not reachable.
Methodology:- Intensive field work was undertaken by the author for a period of 2 years
October 2012-2014. Locally well known herbal healers namely vejjolu, were identified and
interacted with them. The author has visited nearly 15 habitations belonging to Chintoor,
Bhadrachalam, Vararamachandrapuram, Bayyaram, Manuguru, Aswaraopet, Palvoncha mandals,
the author has also visited nearby villages of the mandals. Standard methods of botanical
collection and techniques of Herbarium preparations were followed as suggested. Plants have

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been collected in flowering and fruiting stages for the preparation of herbarium. Herbarium
specimens were identified and accessed as per the norms laid down. The vouchered specimens
were deposited in the Dept of Botany, SR&BGNR Govt. Degree College,
Khammam.Observations were made of the plant species with respect to their location and other
fieldcharacters.
The traditional healers who are practicing traditional medicine were
interviewed from time to time to record the first hand information. Information was gathered
regarding plants or their parts, preparation of the medicine, dosages, method of administration
etc are recorded. Ethno medicinal knowledge information gathered from Khammam District
ispresented under three headings viz, plants used in human ailments,treatments for human
ailments were given according to the diseases recorded.Local terminologies of disease names
which have been described by healers are noted.
Enumeration:-Under enumeration, the recent botanical name, synonyms & family name was
given. Under vernacular names, telugu names were given. voucher specimen collection number,
locality & plant description has been recorded for each species. The plant species have been
arranged alphabetically. photographs or plants of their parts collected during field work are
presented to authenticate the information accrued.
1. Abrus precatorius L. Fabaceae
Telugu Name: Gurivinda
White discharge: Grind handful leaves to make juice; 20 ml of this juice is given internally
twice a day for 3 days.
Bladder stones:- 5 g of fresh roots are chewed once in the early morning and evening for a
week to removal of kidney stones.
Infertility:- 10 g of seed pulp is pounded along with 50g jaggery and 50 g seeds of red gram
to make 1 gm size of pills, 1 pill are given internally for 3 days starting from 4th day of
menstruation.
2. Abutilon indicum(L) Sweet; Malvaceae
Telugu Name :- Tutturu benda,
Scorpion sting:- Leaf paste is applied over the spot of scorpion sting.
3. Acacia nilotica (L) Del. : Mimosaceae
Telugu Name :- Nalla Thumma
Burns:- Take 20gms of stem bark powder and apply on burns along with oil.
Wounds:- Dried stem bark powder mixed with camphor and ghee applied on wounds.
4. Acacia leucophloea (Roxb).: Mimosaceae.
Telugu Name:- Tella Thumma

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Dental diseases:- Stem bark in dental diseases;
Leaves:- Leaves as fodder and wood for agricultural implements.
5. Achyranthes aspera:- (L). Amaranthaceae.
Telugu Name :- Uttareni
Fever:- Leaves are eaten as food directly to cure fever.
Tooth problem:- Roots are used as a brush for strong and healthy teeth.
Scorpion sting:- Leaf paste is applied on hands for protection from scorpion sting.
Scorpion can not bite if we apply the juice.
Cold and Cough:-Take a 100 g leaves squeeze out the juice and give twice a day for 4
days.
6. Adathoda vasica:- Acanthaceae
Telugu Name:- Addasaram
Asthma:- Leaves are ground to make paste and it is mixed with water and given orally
once a day for 4-5 days.
Skin infections:-Dried leaf powder is used to cure skin infections.
7. Aegle marmelos:-(L) Rutaceae.
Telugu Name :- Maredu, Bilvamu
Diarrhoea:- 10 g of fruit pulp is given with water to children who are suffering with
diarrhoea.
Wounds:-Leaf paste is applied over the wounds once in a day until cured.
8. Aerva lanata:- (L).Juss.: Amaranthaceae.
Telugu Name :- Pindi kura
Cough & Cold:-10 ml of leaf juice is taken orally twice in a day for 3 days
Wounds:-whole plant is grained to paste and applied on wounds.
9.Ageratum conyzoides(L)Asteraceae.
Telugu Name:- Vanjira
Kidney stones:- Root anti-lithic for Kidney stones; Leaf febrifuge, antiseptic, useful in
piles, ring worm, uterine disorders, cuts , wounds, cancer etc.
10. Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. Simaroubaceae

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Telugu Name:- Peddamanu
Snake bite:- 1-2 glasses of stem bark juice is given internally to the person on snake bite
immediately after the snake bite, the leaf paste of same tree is also applied on the bite
spot.
11. Alangium salvifolium:- (L.F) Wang:Alangiaceae.
Telugu Name:- Udugu, Ooduga
Anorexia:- Fruits are given to the patient who is suffering with loss of appetite.
12. Albizia amara (Roxb) Boivin. Mimosaceae.
Telugu Name:-Seekireni
Fungal infections:- Stem bark in pain due to fungal infections, bark extract internally in
dehydration
Leaf paste in bone setting and as a substitute for soap nut.
13.Albizia lebbeck(L) Mimosaceae.
Telugu Name:- Dirisana Chettu
Snake bite:- The root juice is extended by adding 3-4 pepper seeds, half cup of juice is
given to drink by the patient and a little paste is also to be smeared on the bite spot.
14. Allium cepa:-(L) Alliaceae
Telugu Name:-Ullipaya
Bulb diuretic, expectorant, useful in asthma, bronchitis, fits,piles, ringworm and other
skin diseases.
15.Alstonia scholaris:- (L) R.Br. Apocynaceae.
Telugu Name:- Yedaakula paala
Stem bark in malaria, asthma, bronchitis, Pneumonia, rheumatism etc.
16. Alternanthera sessilis( L) R.Br.ex DC. Amaranthaceae
Telugu Name:-Ponaganti koora
Leaf in night blindness, malarial fever, diarrhoea, dysentery, rabid dog bite etc; also eaten
as vegetable.
17.Amaranthus viridis:- (L) Amaranthaceae.
Telugu Name:- Doggali koora
Leaf eaten as vegetable, digestive,; anti-dote to poisons and snake bite.

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18. Amaranthus spinosus (L) Amaranthaceae
Telugu Name :- Mulla Thotakoora
Whole herb in fevers and to increase sweating; root laxative, used in colic, eczema,
scorpion sting. Seed in colds and cough. Leaf eaten as vegetable for its blood purifying
properties.
19. Andrographis paniculata:- (Burm.f.) Nees.: Acanthaceae.
Telugu Name:- Nelavemu
Stomach ache:- 5 g leaf extraction mixed with 5 ml zinger juice is given orally thrice in a
day particularly on Tuesday, Friday and Sundays.
White patches:- handful leaves of Andrographis paniculata, one tea spoon of Neem oil a
pinch of turmeric powder , a half spoon of salt are ground together and applied
externally.
20.Anisomeles indica:- (Linn) Ktze. Lamiaceae.
Telugu Name :- Magabeera
Whole plant antipyretic, astringent, carminative, refrigerant; useful in fevers, uterine
infections. And antidote to poisonous bites.
21.Annona reticulata:- (L) Annonaceae
Telugu Name:- Ramaphalam
Stem-bark- Anti-dysenteric, astringent, and vermifuge ; leaves and seeds insecticide.
Fruit pulp sweet to taste.
22. Annona squamosa (L) Annonaceae
Telugu Name:- Sitapalam
Leaf juice- Is used as nasal drops to bring down night hang over due to excessive intake
of intoxicating drinks. Leaf is tied on wounds and sprains for healing and to alleviate
pains.
23. Anogeissus latifolia (DC) guill. & per.: Combretaceae

Telugu Name:- Tiruman
Scorpion sting:- Stem bark is pasted and applied on injury of scorpion sting.
Asthma:- 1 tea spoon full of stem bark extract is given by adding pepper powder in it
thrice in a day for twenty days.
24. Anthocephalus chinensis:- (Lamk.) Rich.ex Walp. Rubiaceae

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Telugu Name:- Kadambam
Stembark- Tonic, astringent, useful in fever and snake bite, leaf decoction as gargle in
apthae and stomatitis. Ripe fruit edible, sweet and sour to taste.
25.Argemone Mexicana L.: Papavaraceae
Telugu Name :-Pitchi kusuma
Burns:- Leaf paste is applied on burns.
Root:- Root anti-inflammatory used in piles, skin diseases
26. Areca catechu:- Linn. Arecaceae
Telugu Name:- Poka Chettu
Root:- Root in liver complaints, Leaf in leucorrhoea; nut astringent, anthelmintic ,
vermifuge in tapeworm, used in urinary disorders and as nervine tonic.
27. Aristolochia bracteolata Lam.: Aristolochaceae
Telugu Name:- Gadida gadapa
Ear diseases:- One table spoon root powder along with water is administered orally.
28. Aristolochia indica:- (L) Aristolochaceae
Telugu Name:- Nalla ishwari Teega
Root & Leaves – Abortifacient , Digestive, febrifuge, hypertensive and anti-cancerous
used in cholera, menstrual complaints, scabies.
29.Artemisia vulgaris L Asteraceae
Telugu Name:- Machipathri
Whole plant analgesic, anthelmintic, antispasmodic, vermifuge; used in asthma, epilepsy
menstrual complaints, peptic ulcers etc.
30. Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk. Moraceae
Telugu Name ;- Panasa
Root in diarrhoea, leaf anthelmintic, used in skin diseases, latex in glandular swellings,
abscess, tooth ache, fleshy perianth edible sweet taste, laxative, wood in making musical
instruments.
31.Asparagus racemosus Wild.: Liliaceae.
Telugu Name:- Pilli teegalu

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Body cooling:- A small piece of root is tied around the ears to relive vertigo due to
excessive heat.
32.Averrhoa carambola L. Averrhoaceae
Telugu Name;- Karambola
Fruit edible, a rich source of ascorbic acid and minerals; useful in haemorrhages, the pulp
and juice are made into preserves, jellies, cool drinks.
33. Azadirachta indica:- Juss. Meliaceae.
Telugu Name:- Vepa.
Joint pains:- Root bark is dried in shade, ground to powder, mixed with sugar and one tea
spoonful is consumed daily once for 15 days. Leaf paste is tied over the joint pains.
34. Azima tetracantha:- Lamk. Salvadoraceae
Telugu Name :- Tella Uppi.
Root- diuretic, used in dropsy, rheumatism, leaf in fevers asthma, cough and
body pains, seed in eye complaints.
35. Bacopa minnieri (L) Wettst. Scrophulariaceae
Telugu Name:- Sambareni Mokka
Whole plant diuretic nervine tonic, vermifuge, used in asthma, epilepsy, insanity fevers,
liver complaints, urinary complaints, as hair tonic and brain tonic.
36. Balanites aegyptica(L.) Del.: Balanitaceae
Telugu Name. Garachettu.
Cough & Cold:- Fruit powder is given with milk once in a day until cure.
37.Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.) Wild.: Poaceae
Telugu Name :- Veduru
Sprain:- Leaves are gently warmed and tied on sprain of back.
38. Barleria prionitis Linn. Acanthaceae
Telugu name :- Mulla gorinta.
Root inglandular swellings, anasarca , boils, toothache; leaf in catarrhal
affections. Cough, ear complaints, piles, rheumatism.
39.Barringtonia acutangula:- Gaertn. Barringtoniaceae
Telugu Name ;- Kadimi Chettu

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Root emetic, useful in colds, stem bark fish poison, fruit used in colic, leaf juice in
diarrhoea.
40. Bauhinia purpurea Linn.: Caesalpiniaceae.
Telugu Name:- Kanchanam
Stem bark in abdominal tumours, wounds, dropsy, leaf in jaundice, flowers and tender
leaf eaten as vegetable in indigestion.
41.Bauhinia recemosa:- Lamk.: Caesalpiniaceae,
Telugu Name :- Are chettu
Mouth ulceration:- Young leaves are ground to paste and applied to lips and in mouth.
42.Biophytum sensitivum;- (Linn.) DC., Oxalidaceae

Telugu Name:- Lajja alam
Root to decrease sexual vigour , whole plant antiseptic, haemostatic , used in fever due to
vitiated bile, burns, cuts, wounds, diarrhoea, giddiness, malaria.
43. Bixa orellana:- Linn. Bixaceae

Telugu Name:- Jabara Chettu
Leaf used in snake bite, seeds a source of vegetable dye.
44. Boerhavia diffusa L.: Nyctaginaceae
Telugu Name:- Atika mamidi
Diabetes:- Two teaspoonful whole plant juice is given orally twice a day for 40 days.
Asthma:-10 g of root powder is given along with honey twice in a day.
45.Bombax ceiba:- Linn. Bombacaceae
Telugu Name:- Boorugu Chettu
Root aphrodisiac, tonic, useful in burns cough, prickles in pimples, stem bark in blood
dysentery, bone fracture.
46.Borassus flabellifer Linn. Arecaceae.
Telugu Name:- Taati Chettu
Extract from petiole burns, earache, epilepsy, scabies, sores, syphilis, ulcers, male
flowering spike in rheumatism, ripe fruit pulp is edible.
47.Boswellia serrata. Roxb.ex Colebr. Burseraceae

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Telugu Name:- Anduga Chettu
Dog bite:- Gum is applied our the bitten area.
Scorpion sting:- the leaves are burnt and inhaled, the leaves are also applied on the bitten
area.
48.Butea monosperma. (Lam) Taub.: Fabaceae
Telugu Name:- Moduga
Tooth problem:- 5 gm of petioles of Butea monosperma are ground and mixed with 10
ml leaf juice of Tridax procumbens 2-3 drops of the liquid extract is put in the opposite
ear for tooth ache.
Red discharge:- 1/2 cup stem bark juice with a pinch of zeera powder is given orally
for 5 days, once in a day, before brakefast.
49.Caesalpinia bonduc:- (L).Flimming.: Caesalpiniaceae

Telugu Name:-Gatchakaaya
Hydrocele:- Leaf paste along with those of bandaged over the hydrocele.
50.calotropis gigantea (L)R.Br.: asclepiadaceae;
Telugu Name:- Jilledu
Ear disease:- 4 to 5 drops of latex of Calotropis gigantea mixed with 3 spoons of sesame
oil,4-5 drops is instilled in ear.
51.Calycopteris floribunda Lam.: Combretaceae.
Telugu Name:-Bonta tega
Fever:- Leaves are ground to make a fine paste and administered with butter to cure
malarial fever.
52.Canthium parviflorum:- Lamk. Rubiaceae.
Telugu Name:- Balusu
Root in swellings of the neck, febrifuge, leaf eaten as vegetable, fruit pulp eaten.
53.Capparis horrida:- L.F.: Capparaceae.
Telugu Name :- Adonda
Indigestion:- Root bark ground to paste mixed with water, boiled and taken orally.
54. Caralluma adscendens:- Roxb) Haw. Asclepiadaceae.
Telugu Name:- Kundeti kommulu.

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Fresh herb anti bilious, made into chutney and eaten
55. Cardiospermum halicacabum:-Linn. Sapindaceae.
Telugu Name;- Butla teega
Whole plant in anasarca , Ear ache and fever, Lung and nerve disorders.
56.Caryeya arborea:- Roxb. Barringtoniceae.

Telugu Name:- Buddadarmi
Stem bark in blood dysentery, cold, cough cuts and wounds, leaf in facial swellings
calyx in cough and colds.
57.Carica papaya:-L.: Caricaceae.
Telugu Name:-Boppayi.
Indigestion:- 4-5 pieces un ripe fruit is given to eat to treat indigestion.
58.Carissa spinarum:- Linn. Apocyanaceae.
Telugu Name:- Kalimi kaya
Roots in body pains, cuts, injuries, sores, anti-inflammatory, sweet sour to taste.
59.Cassia alata:= linn. Caesalpiniaceae.
Telugu Name:- Seema avisa
Root infusion in rheumatism and as a strong laxative, leaf in ring worm and other
skin diseases.
60.Cassia auriculata:- L.: Caesalpiniaceae.
Telugu Name:- Thangedu.
White discharge:- Handful flowers are crushed and mixed with 100 ml of cow milk and
given orally to treat white discharge.
61.Cassia fistula L.: Caesalpiniaceae
Telugu Name:- Rela
Leprosy:- 50 ml stem bark decoction is given orally.
62.Cassia occidentalis:- L.: Caesalpiniaceae
Telugu Name:-Kasintha
Boils:- 10 ml of leaf juice is given orally to cure boils.

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63.Cassia tora:- Linn. Caesalpiniaceae
Telugu Name:- Tagirasa
Root in fever , ring worm, antidote to scorpion sting, leaf anthelmintic, antiseptic, used in
boils.
64.Catharanthus roseus (L).G.Don.: Apocynaceae
Telugu Name:- Billa ganneru;
Diabetes:-10 gm whole plant powder is mixed with 100 ml of water and given orally.
65.Celastrus paniculatus:- Willd. Celastraceae.
Telugu Name:-Malleru Teega
Root antidote to snake bite, stem bark in bone fracture, bronchitis, swollen veins, seeds
in cold, colic, gout, fever.
66.Ceiba pentandra:-(L) Gaertn.: Malvaceae.
Telugu Name:-Tella buruga
White discharge:-50 ml juice is extracted from stem bark and a pinch of zeera powder
and sugar is mixed to taste and given orally before breakfast alternate days.
67.Centella asiatica(Linn). Apiaceae
Telugu Name:- Saraswati aaku.
Leaf anthelmintic, brain tonic, diuretic, used as blood purifier, memory booster also in
fever , insanity, nervous and respiratory disorders.
68. Chloroxylon swietenia DC .: Rutaceae.
Telugu Name:- Billudu.
Dandruff: Stem bark powder is mixed with coconut oil and applied to hair and scalp to
cure dandruff.
69.Cissus quadrangularis:= L. Vitaceae.
Telugu Name:- Nalleru.
Whole plant:- Whole plant in bone fracture, root in cuts, wounds, Stem diuretic used in
joint pains.
70.Cleome viscosa:- L.: Cleomaceae.
Telugu Name:- Vaminta
Wounds:- Leaf paste is applied topically to heal wounds.

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71. Clitoria ternatea:- L.: Fabaceae.
Telugu Name:-Shankhu pushpamu
Indigestion:- Root pwder mixed with water and given orally to treat indigestion.
72.Coccinia grandis:- Linn. Voigt.: Cucurbitaceae
Telugu Name:-Kaki donda

Diabetes:- 20 ml whole plant extract is given orally to treat diabetes.
72. Coccinia indica:-Wt.&Arn.: Cucurbitaceae
Telugu Name:- Donda;
Wound:- Leaf juice is applied on the wounds.
73.Curculigo orchioides:- Gaertn.: Hypoxidaceae
Telugu Name:- Nelatadi
Apharodisiac:- 50 gms of root powder is mixed with 200 ml of goat milk and it is given
orally twice every day.
74. Curcuma longa L.: Zinziberaceae.
Telugu Name:-Pasupu
Cough & Cold:-10 g dried rhizome powder is boiled in milk and taken orally.
75. Cynodon dactylon:- (L) Pers.: Poaceae.

Telugu Name:- Garika gaddi
Body cooling:- 50 ml whole plant decoction is taken orally to keepthe body cool
76. Cyperus rotundus l.: Cyperaceae.

Telugu Name:- Thunga
Scorpion sting:- Dried tubers are dried pasted and applied topically on bitten site of
scorpion.
77. Datura metal:- L.: Solanaceae
Telugu Name:- Ummentha
Ring worm:- Leaf juice is applied over the effected areas of ring worm.
78.Dichrostachys cinerea:- (L). Wt..& Arn.: Mimosaceae.
Telugu Name :- Velthuru Chettu.

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Paralysis:- 10 g stem bark extract of Dichrostachys cinerea and Abutilon indicum in
water is given orally in a day for a week.
79. Dregea volubilis:- (Linn.f.) Benth.ex Hook.f. Asclepiadaceae
Telugu Name:- Bandigurija teega

Root anthelmintic,useful in fevers, blood in urine, leaf paste in abscess, boils and other
skin diseases.
80.Eclipta alba:- (Linn.) Hassk. Asteraceae
Telugu Name:- Guntagalagaraku
Whole plant antiseptic, antidote to snake bite, scorpion sting, used in asthma, bronchitis,
gastric complaints.
81.Euphorbia hirta:- L.: Euphorbiaceae
Telugu Name:- Chukka botti.
Wounds:-Latex applied externally to cure wounds.
Burns:- Latex applied externally on burns until cure.
82.Euphorbia thirucalli L.: Euphorbiaceae
Telugu Name:- Kada jemudu.
Tooth problems:- The latex applied on the aching tooth.
83. Evolvulus alsinoides (L).: Convolvulaceae
Telugu Name:- Vishnukrantha
Fever:- Leaf paste is boiled in water and decoction is given orally for 5 days.
84.Ficus bengalensis L.: Moraceae
Telugu Name:- Marrichettu
Hair growth:- Leaves are fried and powdered, mixed with cow ghee and applied on the
head once in a day for 15 days.
85.Ficus religiosa L.: Moraceae.
Telugu Name:-Raavi chettu
Wounds:-Decoction of stem bark is applied on wounds to stop bleeding from wounds.
86.Gardenia uliginosa:-:- Rubiaceae.
Telugu name:- Nallaika

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Bone fracture. Stem bark is soaked with egg yolk and turmeric a dry clean cloth dipped
in the extract and dressed around the part.
87. Gloriosa superba L.: Liliaceae
Telugu Name:- Konda nabhi
Boils:-Tubers are ground to paste and applied over the boils.
88.Gmelina arborea:- Roxb.: Verbinaceae.
Telugu Name:-Gummudu.
Cough and cold:- 20 ml leaf juice is taken orally to cure cold and cough.
89.Gymnema sylvestre:- (Retz) R. Br:- Asclepiadaceae.
Telugu Name:-Podapathri
Diabetes:- Leaves are eaten directly or 5 g dried leaf powder is mixed with water and
given orally once in day.
90.Haldinia cordifolia:- Roxb)
Telugu Name:- Kadambam
Wounds:- Leaf paste is applied over wounds.
91. Heliotropium indicum:- Linn. Boraginaceae
Telugu Name:- Telumani mokka
Whole plant in throat infections, ulcers, also in blood cancers, root in coughs and fevers.
92. Hemidesmus indicus(Linn). R.Br.ex Schult. Periplocaceae
Telugu Name:- Sugandipaala
Root blood purifier , cooling, anti dote to snake bite, galactagogue, nervine tonic, used in
hypertension.
93. Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall.ex DC. Apocynaceae.
Telugu Name:- Kodishapala
Stembark and seeds anti- dysenteric, tonic, anthelmintic, antipyretic and febrifuge.
94.Jatropha gossypifolia Linn. Euphorbiaceae
Telugu Name:-Adavi amudam
Stem in tooth ache, leaves and seeds purgative, used externally in boils, carbuncles,
eczema and itch. Leaf poultice to reduce swellings of the breast.

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95.Lemonia acidissima:- Linn. Rutaceae
Telugu Name:- Velaga Chettu
Leaf aromatic, carminative,astringent,used in dysentery, fruit pulp tonic.
96.Pedalium murex:- Linn. Pedaliaceae.
Telugu Name:- Yenugu palleru.
Root antibilious, leaf in gonorrhoea, impotency, spermaorrhoea, fruit aphrodisiac,
antispasmodic, tonic diuretic.
97.Plumbago rosea:- Linn. Plumbaginaceae
Telugu Name;- Yerra chitramulam.
Root vesicant, abortifacient, useful in joint pains, indigestion, skin diseases, paralysis.
98.Pongamia pinnata:- (Linn)Pierre Fabaceae
Telugu Name:- Kaanuga chettu
Root fish poison, used in fistula, ulcers, stem-bark in bleeding piles, wounds, leaf in skin
diseases, seed in bronchitis, burns, fever, eczema.
99.Rauvolfia serpentina(Linn.) Benth. Ex Kurz.
TeluguName:- Patalagarudi
Root abortifacient, anthelmintic, antidote to snake bite, sedative, used in blood pressure,
malaria, insanity, insomnia,nervous disorders, stomach troubles and to increase uterine
contractions during lobour pains.
100.Ricinus communis Linn. Euphorbiaceae.
Telugu Name:- Amudamu
Root in lumbago, sciatica, leaf in hydrocele, night blindness, pneumonia, joint pains,
skin disease, seed in constipation, seed oil purgative.
Conclusion:- The survey reveals that, the local tribal peoples are using the forest flora as
medicinal plants for the treatment of a wide verity of ailments, both major and minor. It may be
mentioned that in most cases, the nearest medicinal facilities were not accessible to many people
due to financial or other reasons. So they prefer to turn towards herbal medicine to cure various
diseases affecting them and their domestic animals.
The area of study is rich in floral diversity with strong traditions of Ethno botanical
practices existing among the ethnic communities. Therefore, there is a strong need to take
necessary steps for the conservation and sustainable use of these plants, which are the source of
food, herbal medicine and a variety of materials for daily use of the ethnic communities.

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Acknowledgements:- The authors are grateful to the principal SR&BGNR Govt Degree
College, Khammam for providing facilities. Thanks are also due to UGC New Delhi for
providing research grant.
Figure-9. Ficus bengalensis figure-10. Gloriosa superba
Figure-11 Acacia alata figure-12. Ricinus communis
References:-
1). Jain S.K (Ed)1987: A Manual of Ethno botany, Scientific publishers Jodhpur.
2). Dr. Koppula Hemadri (2006) Medicinal flora of Pragathi Resorts.
3). Pullaiah. T (1997), Flora of Andhrapradesh, Scientific publishers ,Jodhpur, India Vol(1&2)
4). N.Ramakrishna, Y.N.R. Varma, Journal of pharmacognasy & Phytochemistry (1)-2014.
5). Savithramma. N, Sulochana. Ch, 1998. Endemic Medicinal plants from Tirumala Hills, A.P.
India,Fitoterapia LXIX 253-254.

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Candida sps colonization in oral Infections of Diabetic Patients and their

susceptibility to specific antifungal agents
L.Rathna silviya, B.Aruna, Dr.D.Vijaya Lakshmi *and

Dr.D.Vijaya Raghava Prasad *
Department of Microbiology
Yogi Vemana University
Kadapa-516003
ABSTRACT
Present study was to determine the prevalence, species distributionand antifungal

susceptibility profile among oral cavity isolates of Candida species fromDiabetic and non-
diabetic subjects. The contribution of dentistry, smoking and age factor of the subjects their
prevalence and distribution of Candida species was evaluated. Total of 100 individuals were
tested for this the study, including healthy persons as controls. Very few of the non-diabetic
controls had less clinical evidence of oral candidiasis, 75% of diabetics had clinical evidence of
oral candidiasis, of which, 25% were overnight denture wearers and tobacco smokers. An
imprint culture method was used to determine the frequency of isolation and density of Candida
species at up to five intra-oral sites. Yeast-like colonies were identified by classical methods and
CHROMagar Candida medium. Broth macro dilution technique was used to determine the
antifungal susceptibility pattern of Candida isolates. Positive yeast was detected in 78.3% of
diabetics compared with healthy controls (P<0.001). C. albicans was the most prevalent species
in both diabetics (81.8%) and controls (16.9%) followed by C. tropicalis, C. parapsilosis and C.
glabrata. C. kefyr and C. krusei were isolated only from diabetics at a combined rate.
Candidiosis was detected more frequently in diabetic denture wearers than in control
counterparts in all anatomic sampled sites (P<0.05). The frequency of Candida isolation was
significantly higher in smokers than in the non-smokers in both diabetics and controls
(P<0.001). All C. albicans recovered from diabetics and controls were susceptible to
amphotericin B, ketoconazole, itraconazole and fluconazole. Non-albicans Candida isolates
were shown to have higher azole MIC values than C. albicans isolates. Our findings show that
smoking and continuously worn dentures, promote oral candidal colonization in diabetics.
INTRODUCTION:
Candida is yeast like organism; they are imperfect unicellular dimorphic fungi which multiply
by budding similar cells from their surface and form hyphae or pseudohyphae. Candida albicans
is the most common species isolated from the oral cavity of diabetes and also in healthy people.
Oral candidiosis is an opportunistic infection which affects various sectors of the population
irrespective of their age and habits; in general the frequency and distribution of Candida have
been reported range from 20-75% asymptomatic. There are also non-albican species like
Candida dubliniensis, Candida galbrata, Candida krusie, Candida parapsilosis, and Candida
tropicalis which cause oral infection.

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Diabetes is the chronic disease frequently associated with many risk factors. It
is a syndrome of abnormal carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism due to decreased insulin
secretion or disturbed insulin activity. Diabetes has been related to numerous oral complications,
such as periodontal disease, decreased function of salivary glands, burning mouth sensation. Oral
dryness is more frequent complaint among diabetic patients. Another manifestation of diabetes is
systemic immunosuppressant which allows the opportunistic fungi like Candida cause oral
Candida infection.
Present study describes the prevalence of candidial infection in the oral cavity
of diabetic patients. With the oral washing technique, the frequency of isolation of Candida sps
and their intraoral density and distribution were assessed in the diabetic patients and age matched
controls of similar dental status and smoking habits, smoking is an important predisposing factor
for oral candidiosis (6,23,42,43), possible support in this regard could be that, smoking causes
localized epithelial alteration which leads to microbial colonization particularly Candida ,
because the aromatic substances of smoke referred as nutritional factors for Candida. We have
attempted to relate these parameters to the degree of diabetic control. The prevalence of oral
candidal infection and the frequency of isolation of Candida sps and their density distribution
have been determined. In order to assess in the frequency in the oral cavity of 40 randomly
selected out patients attending hospital under treatment have been selected for the present
investigation , the control groups of healthy volunteers for age , sex , and smoking habits were
also chosen for correlation studies. SDA culture technique used with oral washings collected
from subjects could be used for candidiosis. Five of the diabetic patients were found to have a
chronic oral candidiosis. According to the oral wash technique, the oral carrier rate and density
of Candida sps is higher in diabetic group than in control. Smoking was associated with an
increased prevalence of the yeast in diabetes. Diabetics wearing dentures had higher candidial
density than those without prosthesis. No differences in candidial status could be detected
according to the degree of control of diabetes, mode of treatment, duration of diabetes. Local
factors such as smoking and the presence of dentures, particularly when worn continuously,
interact with diabetes in promoting candidial colonization of the mouth and also
immunocompramised patients with leukemia, chemotherapy etc and also established as
predisposing factor for diabetics, several studies have reported that the prevalence of yeast
carriage among patients with diabetes could reach up to 54%(Akpan, Morgan). In the present
study it was indicated that the prevalence of Candida is significantly higher in diabetes than in
healthy individuals. The scope of this study was extended to include the frequency of isolation of
Candida albicans and related sps with its intraoral distribution as well as the contribution of
smoking and dental status to candidial prevalence. Attention to these predisposing factors could
reduce the incidence of thrush in diabetes.
MATERIALS AND METHODS:

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Oral washings of 40 diabetic subjects for attending clinics under treatment, the control
group compromised of 40 healthy persons matched for age, sex and smoking habits. Patients and
controls were examined for signs and symptoms of oral infection all the patients were asked to
sign a consent form in Order to understand that the data will be used for non commercial. The
detailed information of the patient to be demographic and health status data placed in (table 1).
The oral washings were collected as samples; these samples were inoculated on sabourad
dextrose agar and incubated at 27°c for 24hr.
Yeast cells were inoculate into the plasma (separated from blood) and incubated at 37°c
for 3hr. Then the aliquots were subjected for microscopic observation. Germ tube was
considered as a slender tube with straight walls without septum and without constriction at the
junction between the cells. Germ tube was indicative of C.albicans or C.dubliniences.
CHROM agar medium is a selective and differential medium for the isolation of
dimorphic fungi with the inclusion of chromogenic substrates in the medium , the colonies of
Candida sps produce different colors thus allowing the direct detection of organisms on the
culture plate usually Candida albicans appear light green in colour , Candida tropicalis appear
bluish green and light pink in colour, creamy etc other yeast may develop either natural color or
appear rose or light to dark , main advantage of this medium is for differentiation and for easy
detection of mixed cultures of yeast.(Fig 3)
The Candida sps differentiated on chrome agar were analyzed by various molecular methods
i.e. by amplifying fragment of 18S region by using PCR and application of several
bioinformatics tools for the identification of different species of the Candida, based on the
nucleotide homology and phylogenetic analysis the Candida sps were differentiated. In our
present study there are four different species which were differentiated genetically and
sequenced . (Fig 4)
The anti fungal susceptibility test was conducted to the species isolated from the oral cavity of
the diabetic patients two antifungal agents were used one is nystatin and other is amphotericine
B , by using the disc diffusion method the experiment is conducted .

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s:no name of Colour of the Ger Organisms observed signs of habits

the patient Sex age colony m infection
observed on tube
the CHROM test
agar
1 Subject-1 M 30 Green +ve Candida albicans -

symptomatic
2 Subject-2 F 60 Green +ve Candida albicans -

symptomatic
3 Subject-3 M 50 Green +ve Candida albicans smoking

symptomatic
4 Subject-4 M 60 Green +ve Candida albicans smoking

symptomatic
5 Subject-5 M 60 Green +ve Candida albicans -

symptomatic
6 Subject-6 F 55 Green +ve Candida albicans asymptomatic -
7 Subject-7 M 70 Green +ve Candida albicans asymptomatic smoking
10 Subject-10 M 68 Green +ve Candida albicans asymptomatic -
11 Subject-11 M 40 Green +ve Candida albicans asymptomatic smoking

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15 Subject-15 M 43 Green +ve Candida albicans asymptomatic Smoking
17 Subject-17 M 55 Green +ve Candida albicans asymptomatic Smoking
23 Subject-23 F 53 Baby Pink +ve Candida tropicalis asymptomatic -
24 Subject-24 M 56 Baby pink +ve Candida tropicalis asymptomatic -
25 Subject-25 M 62 Baby pink +ve Candida tropicalis asymptomatic smoking
26 Subject-26 M 43 Metallic blue +ve Candida tropicalis asymptomatic -
27 Subject-27 M 60 Metallic blue +ve Candida tropicalis asymptomatic

smoking
28 Subject-28 F 60 Metallic blue +ve Candida tropicalis asymptomatic -

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29 Subject-29 M 50 Metallic blue +ve Candida tropicalis asymptomatic -
30 Subject-30 M 42 Metallic blue +ve Candida tropicalis asymptomatic smoking
31 Subject-31 M 46 Metallic blue +ve Candida tropicalis asymptomatic Smoking
32 Subject-32 M 55 Metallic blue +ve Candida tropicalis asymptomatic smoking
33 Subject-33 M 58 Grayish -ve Candida ontarioensis asymptomatic Smoking

purple
34 Subject-34 F 60 Grayish -ve Candida ontarioensis asymptomatic -

purple
35 Subject-35 M 39 Grayish -ve Candida ontarioensis asymptomatic -

purple
36 Subject-36 F 43 Grayish -ve Candida ontarioensis asymptomatic -

purple
37 Subject-37 M 46 Grayish -ve Candida ontarioensis asymptomatic -

purple
38 Subject-38 M 43 Pink with -ve Dipodascus capitatus asymptomatic -

white borders
39 Subject-39 F 66 Pink with -ve Dipodascus capitatus asymptomatic -

white borders
40 Subject-40 F 50 Pink with -ve Dipodascus capitatus asymptomatic -
white borders

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Results:
The Candida albicans is the predominant species causing the oral infections of diabetic
subjects, present investigation showed that there were several Candida sps have been isolated
and identified was playing an important role in the disease manifestation (i.e. non albican
species),50.2% of the diabetic patients were infected by C.albicans, 30% by C.tropicalis, 15%
by C.ontarioensis, 10% by Dipodascus capitatus.
As shown in the (Fig 2) germ tube test is the predominant and preliminary test for the
detection of the C.albicans and C.tropicalis, further, all the isolated Candida sps from SDA were
selected and re-inoculated on the CHROM agar medium which is a selective and differential
medium used for species differentiation . After the Incubation at 37oC for 24hrs, all the Candida
sps were effectively grown and were observed in different colour after 48hrs of incubation. 40
isolates were chosen for present study and very interestingly, almost all the species were showed
magic in the color formation that is green color by C.albicans, the distinctive dark blue-gray
color shown by C.tropicalis, only dark gray colour by C.ontarioensis and pink-white mixed
margins by Dipodascus capitatus(Table 1).
The species which were differentiated by the CHROM agar were subjected to PCR and
electrophoresis, based on the formation of bands the differentiation of the species were selected
for further sequencing process. (Fig 4).
The 18S region was sequenced (ABI 3730*1 genetic analyzer) and later performed the
BLAST analysis with NCBI Database of gene bank. Based on the maximum identity score all the
species were named and their Gene Bank accession numbers were recorded. Candida tropicalis
the Gene Bank accession number: JQ008834.1 it was showing 99% of similarity with the
Candida tropicalis original sps of gene bank, Candida tropicalis showing the pink color colonies
and the blue color colonies on the CHROM agar. Candida ontarioensis the Gene Bank
accession number: JN820129.1 it was showing 99% of similarity with the Candida
ontarioensis original sps of gene bank Candida ontarioensis showing the grayish purple on the
CHROM agar. Candida albicans the Gene Bank accession number: HQ876034.1 it was showing
99% of similarity with the Candida albicans original sps of gene bank, Candida albicans
showing the green color colonies on the CHROM agar Dipododascus capitatus the Gene Bank
accession number: ab083080.1 it was showing 99% of similarity with the Dipododascus
capitatus original sps of the gene bank Dipododascus capitatus showing the pink colonies with
the white borders on the CHROM agar. Further the infection caused by the Candida sps is
compared with several factors, the range of infection in the symptomatic and asymptomatic oral
candidiosis can be assessed by the no: of colonies formed on the SDA plate. The plate which is
inoculated with symptomatic infection sample shown more number of colonies than the
asymptomatic samples, by this range of infection can be assessed, graph (Fig-6) is plotted by
comparing five symptomatic infectious patients (white patchy appearance on the buccal cavity)

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and asymptomatic infectious patients (samples were collected from the diabetic patients with no
oral infection symptoms) the mean value of the no: of colonies is represented. Another factor is
age that increases the infection with the increase in the age, samples were collected from
different age groups i.e. from 30-70 years, and these were compared to controls, the range of
infection is measured by taking mean values of no: of colonies formed that is plotted as a graph
(Fig-7).
The smoking habitat is one of the predisposing factor that increases the candidial carrier rate
both in diabetic and control , out of every 5 diabetics who smoked carried the infection, ,the
overall candidial densities in either patients however neither the mode of treatment nor the
degree of diabetic control significantly influenced the prevalence of candidial infection in
diabetics , no correlation was found between the age of diabetics (or) the duration of the diabetic
and carrier rate , finally oral washing technique is more sensitive , more accurate for detecting
candidial infection. The C.albicans is most frequently isolated Candida sps in this kind of
patients , people without diabetic also the carriers of infection but the rate of infection is less
when compared to the diabetes, this can be known by no: of colonies formed on the SDA plate
represented graphically by taking their mean values and their standard deviation error(Fig-8).
Further the antifungal susceptibility test (16) was conducted for the two antifungal agents like
nystatin and amphotericine B, here the nystatin is a active antifungal agent which is suppressing
the the growth of almost all the species isolated that is Candida tropicalis,Candida
ontarioensis,Candida albicans,Dipododascus capitatus, but the amphotericine B is showing less
activity than the nystatin here only Candida albicans is suppressed more than the other species
(fig-5).

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C(1) C(2)
C(3) C(4)
C(5)
C(1) : Colony formation of C.tropicalis on SDA
C(2) : Microscopic observation by simple staining
C(3) : Colony formation on CHROM agar
C(4) : C.tropicalis showing positive result to the germ tube test by forming the germ tube
C (5): Scanning electron microscopic picture at 2.00 K X magnification.

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B(1) B(2)
B(3) B(4)
B(5)
B(1): Colony formation of C.ontarioensis on SDA

B(2): Microscopic observation by simple staining
B(3): Colony formation on CHROM agar

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B(4): Showing negative result for Germ tube test
B(5): Scanning electron microscopic picture at 3.00 K X magnification.
D(1) D(2)
D(3) D(4)
D(5)
D (1) : Colony formation of C.albicans on SDA
D(2) : Microscopic observation by simple staining
D(3) : Colony formation on CHROM agar
D(4) : C.albicans showing positive result to the germ tube test by forming the germ tube
D (5): Scanning electron microscopic picture at 4.00 K X magnification.

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F(1) F(2)

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F(3) F(4)
F(5)
F(1): Colony formation of Dipodascus capitatus on SDA
F(2): Microscopic observation by simple staining
F(3): Colony formation on CHROM agar
F(4): Showing negative result for Germ tube test
F (5): Scanning electron microscopic picture at 3.00 K X magnification.
Gel Image of 18S rDNA amplicon
(RS-1) (RS-2)
1 2 1 2

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900 bp 900 bp
(RS-5)( RS-7)
1 2 1 2
900 bp
900 bp
Figure 4: 1.2% Agarose gel showing single 900 bp and 18S rDNA amplicon
Lane 1: DNA marker (1kb ladder) Lane 2: 18S rDNA amplicon

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Figure-5 antifungal test by nystatin and amphotericine B
candidial infection differing from

symptomatic and asymptomatic
42
freqeuncy of candidial infection
40
38
36
34
32
30
symptomatic asymptomatic
(Figure-6 graphical representation of range of infection symptomatically and asymptomatically)

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frequency of candidial population by increase in

age
60
frequency of candidial infection

controls
50 samples
40
30
20
10
0
30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70
age of the diabetic patients
Figure-7 (graphical representation of range of infection by age difference)
60
candidial population with reference to
frequency of candidial infection
50
smoking
40
30
20
10
0
control non smokers control smokersDiabetic non smokersDiabetic smokers
Figure-8 (graphical representation of range of infection among smokers and non-smokers)
DISCUSSION:
The present study has confirmed that Candida is more prevalent in the oral cavity of
diabetics than non-diabetics however the carriage rate of Candida in the oral cavity was different
in various studies. The oral rinse technique with water was used for sampling in the present study
since this is known to be a sensitive technique for estimating the oral Candidal carriage (6) Bai
et al. (1995) used water and (7) Samaranayeke et al (1986) used phosphate buffer saline in their
study. There was a significant difference in the carriage rate of Candida in the oral cavity of
diabetics in various aspects. Colony forming unit (CFU) is usually recorded to obtain the clinical
data essentially to establish a clinical diagnosis of oral candidiasis.(8) Epstein et al (1980) have

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demonstrated that carriers and patients with oral candidiasis can be reliably distinguished on the
basis of quantitative cultures. The patients with clinical candidiasis harbor large number of
colonies on SDA than the patients who are the carriers i.e. (asymptomatic) such cut off limits for
CFU between carriers and patients may serve as a useful clinical indicator. It is observed in the
present study from the (Fig-6). The rate of infection was calculated by the number of colonies
formed on SDA of different age group samples, there is no significant range of infection of the
samples below 30years, inspite that higher rate of carriage in age group 41-70, Tapper-Jones et
al (1981), while Smits B.J.et al (1996) has been proved significantly that the increased
prevalence of Candida albicans advancing with different age groups and also with support of
other predisposing factors (Fig-7).
Various mechanisms were identified for Candida carriage with respect to habits of
the diabetic subject that successively effect on the metabolic disorders by smoking, alcoholic
addiction but still it is uncertain. Arendrof and Walker (1980) were proposed that smoking may
lead to localized epithelial alterations which facilitate colonization of Candida sps which
regulates in subclinical infection. In addition to diabetes mellitus, the prevalence of oral Candida
infections was influenced primarily by smoking (Abu-Elteen KH, Neville B, Arendorf TM,
Walker DM, Rindum JL, Stenderup A, etal). Present study clearly stating that extensive cases
of Candida infections were facilitated that the findings of infected individuals specifically non-
smokers of diabetic subjects are not or less prone to C. albicans colonization. The range of
infection between non- smokers and smokers are assessed by the growth, number of colonies
formed on SDA medium and also represented by the appearance of the colony and its
characterization, and remarkably their significant levels were shown in (fig-8).
CONCLUSION:
The present investigation has been however disclosed several local factors that
ultimately influencing the rate of Candida infection with reference to the age, habits (smoking,
alcoholic addiction etc.,), symptomatic and asymptomatic predisposing factors. Special attention
over these findings that the local factors were reducing the high risk of thrush development or
oral colonization levels of Candida infection in diabetic patients.
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS: The authors are gratefully acknowledged Yogi Vemana University

for facility and the University Grants Commission for funding major research project. No. 42-
462/2013(SR)
References:
1. Winner HI, Hurley R. Candida albicans. London: J & A Churchill, 1964.
2. Arendorf TM, Walker DM. The prevalence and intra –oral distribution of

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Candida albicans in man Arch Oral Biol 1980;15:1-10
3. Beighton , D.;Ludford,R.;Clark,D.T.etal.(1995). Use of CHROM agar candida medium for

isolation of yeasts from dental samples . j Clin Microbiol.
4.Campbell, C.K.; Holmes , A.D.; Davey, K.G.; Szekely,A.;Warnock , D.W.(1998).

Comparison of a new chromogenic agar with the germ tube method for presumptive
identification of candida albicans . Eur j clin Microbial Infec Dis 17:367-8.
5. Gales, A.C.; Pfaller , M.A.; Houston , A.K.etal.(1999). Identification of candida dubliniensis

based on temperature and utilization of xylose and β-methyl-D-glucoside as determined with the
API 20C AUX and Vitek YBC systems . jclin Microbio 37:3804-8.
6. Bai KY, Reddy CD, Abu-Talib SH. Oral candidal carriage in young insulin dependent
diabetes mellitus. J Indian Soc Pedod Prev Dent 1995;13:20-23.
7. Samaranayake LP, Mac Farlane TW, Lamey PJ, Ferguson MM. A comparison of oral rinse
and imprint sampling techniques for the detection of yeast, coliform and
Staphylococcus aureus carriage in the oral cavity. J Oral Pathol 1986;15:563.
8.Epstein JB, Pearsall NN and Truelove EL. Quantitative relationships between Candida albicans
in saliva and the clinical status of human subjects. J Clin Microbiol 1980;12:475-76.
9.Tapper-Jones, L.M.:Candida infection and population of candida albicans in mouths of

diabetics.(1981)Jof clinical pathology.,34:706-11
10.Smits BJ: Prior AP:and Arblaster P.G., Incidence of Candida in hospital inpatients and the
effect of antibiotic therapy.(1966) BMJ 1:208-210.
11.Arendorf TM, Walker DM. The prevalence and intra-oral distribution of Candida albicans in
man. Arch Oral Biol 1980;
12.Abu-Elteen KH, Abu-Alteen RM. The prevalence of Candida albicans populations in the
mouths of complete denture wearers. Microbiologica 1998; 21: 41-8.
13.Neville B, Damm DD, Allen CM, et al. Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology: WB Saunders;
1995.166-9.
14. Arendorf TM, Walker DM, Kingdom RJ, et al. Tobacco smoking and denture wearing in oral
candidal leucoplakia. Br Dent J 1983;155:340-3.
15. Rindum JL, Stenderup A, Holmstrup P. Identification of Candida albicans types related to
healthy and pathological oral mucosa. J Oral Pathol Med 1994; 23: 406-12.
16. Detection of species diversity in oral candida colonization and anti-fungal susceptibility
among non-oral habit adult diabetic patients. j nat sci boil med.2014 jan jun(1) 148-154.

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Phytochemical Analysis of Medicinal Plants Occurring in Local Area

Bhadrachalam
B.Karunakar*Associate Professor, G.NagarajuAsst Professor. T.Rajesh.Department of
Chemistry, Dhanvanthari Institute of
PharmacceuticalSciences.Sujathanagar.Kothagudem.Khammam.district
Abstract
Medicinal plants have bioactive compounds which are used for curing of various human
diseases and also play an important role in healing. Phytochemicals have two categories i.e.,
primary and secondary constituents. Primary constituents have chlorophyll, proteins sugar and
amino acids. Secondary constituents contain terpenoids and alkaloids. Medicinal plants have
antifungal, antibacterial and anti-inflammation activities. The present study involves ten
different medicinal plants Bauhinia vahlii, Diospyrosmelanoxylon
,Aeglemarmelos,Vitexnegundo, ,Punicagranatum,Acacia nilotica.Luffacylindrica,Morus alba
Ficus palmate and Prunuspersicalocally available in Bhadrachalam forest region of
KhammamdistricAndrapradesh state in India. The leaves of the selected medicinal plants
were washed, air dried and then powdered. The aqueous extract of leaf samples were used for
the phytochemical analysis to find out the phytochemical constituents in the plants. The main
objective of the research work was to check the presence or absence of the phytochemical
constituents in all the selected medicinal plants. The results of the phytochemical analysis of
these medicinal plants showed that the terpenoids, phlobatannins, reducing sugar, flavonoids
and alkaloids were found to be present in afore mentioned medicinal plants. The
phytochemical analysis of the plants is very important commercially and has great interest in
pharmaceuticalcompanies for the production of the new drugs for curing of various diseases.
It is expected that the important phytochemical properties recognized by our study in the
indigenous medicinal plants of Bhadrachalam forest region will be very useful in the curing of
various diseases of this region.
Keywords: Medicinal plants; Phytochemicals; Anti-fungal; Antibacterial; Anti-inflammation
activities
Introduction
The medicinal plants are useful for healing as well as for curing of human diseases
because of the presence of phytochemical constituents [1]. Phytochemicals are naturally
occurring in the medicinal plants, leaves, vegetables and roots that have defense mechanism
and protect from various diseases. Phytochemicals are primary and secondary compounds.
Chlorophyll, proteins and common sugars are included in primary constituents and secondary
compounds have terpenoid, alkaloids and phenolic compounds [2]. Terpenoids exhibit various
important pharmacological activities i.e., anti-inflammatory, anticancer, anti-malarial,
inhibition of cholesterol synthesis, anti-viral and anti-bacterial activities [3]. Terpenoids are
very important in

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attracting useful mites and consume the herbivorous insects [4]. Alkaloids are used as
anaesthetic agents and are found in medicinal plants [5]. The Bauhinia vahlii is the largest
creeper in India and is called adattige in Telugu and asamantaka in sanskrit. It has been
reported to contain amino acids, proteins, minerals and flavonoids. Despite the very
encouraging traditional medicinal applications of some species of Bauhinia, prior
investigations to validate the traditional medicinal applications have not appeared in
literature.[6]. The bioactive constituentsare present in Bauhinia vahlii, that is
Agathisflavone,Betulinicacid, campesterol, quercetin, isoquercetrin, β-sitosterol,
stigmasterol,Kaempferol andquercetin 3-glycoside [7-11]. Diospyrosmelanoxylon is a species
of flowering tree in the familyEbenaceae that is native to India and Sri Lanka and that has a
hard, dry bark. Its common name derives from Coromandel, the coast of southeastern India.
Locally it is known as Tuniki orbeediaakuThe leaves can be wrapped around tobacco to create
the Indian beedi, which has outsold conventional cigarettes in India [12]. Aeglemarmelos, a
plant locally called as Maredu. The leaves, bark, roots, fruits and seeds are used extensively in
the Indian traditional system of medicine the Ayurveda and in various folk medicine to treat
myriad ailments. Bael fruits are of dietary use and the fruit pulp is used to prepare delicacies
like murabba, puddings and juice. Bael fruits are also used in the treatment of chronic
diarrhea, dysentery, and peptic ulcers, as a laxative and to recuperate from respiratory
affections in various folk medicines.[13,14]. Vitexnegundo, commonly known as the five-
leaved chaste treelocally called vavili, is a large aromaticshrub with quadrangular, densely
whitish, tomentosebranchlets. It is widely used in folk medicine, particularly in South and
Southeast Asia [15]. Pomegranate is the common name of the
Punicagranatumlocallycalleddanimma(PG) and belongs to the family Lythraceae. It has
much medical significance andused as medicines for centuries [16]. The recent studies have
investigatedthat pomegranates are used for the treatment of a number of diseasese.g., diabetes,
dysentery, diarrhea, cough, asthma, bleeding disorders,bronchitis, fever, AIDS, inflammation,
ulcers, malaria, prostate cancer,hypertension,atherosclerosis, hyper lipidemia, male infertility,
infantbrain ischemia and obesity. [17]. Acacia nilotica, locally called nallatummait is the
member of the Leguminosae family. Thesubfamily of the Acacia nilotica is Mimosoideae
[18]. Luffacylindrica isthe botanical name of the sponge gourds locally called as adavibeera
and belongs to Cucurbitaceaefamily. The fruits of this plant have flat seeds and black in
colourwhich is enclosed by group of fibers [19]. Medicinal and nutritionalproperties are the
characteristics of Luffa cylindrical and seeds of thisplant are used for curing of asthma, fever
and sinusitis [20]. Morusalbalocally called malbarychettu or reshmachettuis included in the
Moraceae family. Their leaves and fruits are used forcuring prematurely grey hair. Its root
bark is used by humans for morethan 4 thousand years [21,22]. Ficus palmate locally called
Manjimediis included in the family ofMoraceaeand is used as dry vegetable. It is herbaceous
perennial plant.Its leaves have hypotensive actions [23].The main objective of our research
work was to analyze the presence or absence of different phytochemicals in the selected ten

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medicinal -plants from Bhadrachalam forest region used for healing and curing
ofvariousdiseases
Materials and Methods

Plant materials
The present study included plant species which were Bauhinia vahlii,
Diospyrosmelanoxylon ,Aeglemarmelos,Vitexnegundo, ,Punicagranatum, Acacia nilotica.
Luffacylindrica ,Morus alba Ficus palmate and Prunuspersica
Chemicals
Fehling solution A and Fehling solution B, ethanol, distill water, aqueous HCl,
methanol, chloroform, concentrated sulphuricacid,Ammonia solution, picric acid, Hexane.
Sample collection
Ten medicinal plants were collected locally from the forestregion of
Bhadrachalam,KhammamDistricAndrapradesh India). The plants were used for the purpose of
their phytochemical analysis. The plants collected were identified botanically in department
of Botany JNTUH hyderabad, Andrapradesh. Fresh and tender leaves of selected plants were
used for phytochemical analysis. Plant species selected during present investigation were
given in Table 1.
Preparation of plant extract
The leaves of the selected plants were removed from the plants and then washed under
running tap water to remove dust. The plant samples were then air dried for few days and the
leaves were crushed into powder and stored in polythene bags for used.The plant powder was
taken in a test tube and distilled water was added to it such that plant powder soaked in it and
shaken well.
The solution then filtered with the help of filter paper and filtered extract of the
selected plant samples were taken and used for further phytochemical analysis
Test for phlobatannins
Plant powder sample was mixed with distill water in a test tube,thenshaked it well, and
filtered to take plant extract. Then to each plant extract, 1% aqueous hydrochloric acid was
added and each plant sample was then boiled with the help of Hot plate stirrer. Formation
ofred colored precipitate confirmed a positive result.
Test for reducing Sugar
An amount of 0.50 g of selected plant sample was added in 5 ml ofdistilled water.
Then 1 ml of ethanol mixed in plant extract. After thatwe took 1 ml of Fehling solution A and
1 ml of Fehling solution B in atest tube, heated it to boiling and then poured it in the aqueous
ethanolextract. When color reaction was observed, it shows a positive result.
Test for terpenoids
An amount of 0.8 g of selected plant sample was taken in a test tube,then poured 10 ml
of methanol in it, shaken well and filtered to take5 ml extract of plant sample. Then 2 ml of
chloroform were mixed inextract of selected plant sample and 3 ml of sulphuric acid were
added

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in selected sample extract. Formation of reddish brown color indicatesthe presence of
terpenoids in the selected plants.
Test for flavonoids
For the confirmation of flavonoid in the selected plants, 0.5 g ofeach selected plant
extract were added in a test tube and 10 ml of distillwater, 5 ml of dilute ammonia solution
were added to a portion ofthe aqueous filtrate of each plant extract followed by addition of 1
mlconcentrated H2S04. Indication of yellow color shows the presence offlavonoid in each
extract.
Test for alkaloids
For the purpose of phytochemical analysis of the selected plants,0.2 g of the selected
plant samples were added in each test tube and3 ml of hexane were mixed in it, shaken well
and filtered. Then took5 ml of 2% HCl and poured in a test tube having the mixture of plant
extract and hexane. Heated the test tube having the mixture, filtered itand poured few drops of
picric acid in a mixture. Formation of yellowcolor precipitate indicates the presence of
alkaloids.
Results
This study has revealed the presence of phytochemicals consideredas active medicinal
chemical constituents. Important medicinalphytochemicals such as terpenoids, reducing sugar,
flavonoids,alkaloids and phlobatannins were present in the samples. The resultof the
phytochemical analysis shows that the ten plants are rich inat least one of alkaloids,
flavonoids, terpenoids, reducing sugars andphlobatannins. Plant Psidiumgujauva having all
these phytochemicals.
The phytochemical screening and qualitative estimation of 10 medicinalplants studied
showed that the leaves were rich in phlobatannins,
Table 1: Ethnobotanical information of selected medicinal plant species forphytochemical
analysis in Local Area Bhadrachalam
.
Sl.no PLANT SPECIES LOCAL NAME PART USED
1 Bauhinia vahlii Addateega Leaf
2 Diospyrosmelanoxylon Tunikiaaku Leaf
3 Aeglemarmelos Maredu Leaf
4 Vitexnegundo Vaavili Leaf
5 Punicagranatum Danimma Leaf
6 Acacia nilotica Nallatumma Leaf
7 Luffacylindrica , Adavibeera Leaf
8 Morus alba Reshmachettu Leaf
9 Ficus palmate Manjimedi Leaf
10 Prunuspersica Baadam Leaf
terpenoid, flavonoids, alkaloids and reducing sugar (Table 2)
Results

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This study has revealed the presence of phytochemicals consideredas active medicinal
chemical constituents. Important medicinalphytochemicals such as terpenoids, reducing sugar,
flavonoids,alkaloids and phlobatannins were present in the samples. The resultof the
phytochemical analysis shows that the ten plants are rich inat least one of alkaloids,
flavonoids, terpenoids, reducing sugars andphlobatannins. Plant Psidiumgujauva having all
these phytochemicals.
The phytochemical screening and qualitative estimation of 10 medicinalplants studied
showed that the leaves were rich in phlobatannins,terpenoid, flavonoids, alkaloids and
reducing sugar (Table 2).
S Plant species Phlobatann Reduc Terpen Flavono Alkaloids

n ins ing oid ids
o sugar
1 Bauhinia vahlii - - + - ++++

2 Diospyrosmelanoxyl - - - - ++++
on
3 Aeglemarmelos + - + + ++++
4 Vitexnegundo _ + + + +
5 Punicagranatum - - - - +
6 Acacia nilotica - - - - ++++
7 Luffacylindrica , - - - - -
8 Morus alba - - - + -
9 Ficus palmate + - - - +++
1 Prunuspersica - - - + +++
0
+ = indicates presence of phytochemicals and

_ = indicates absence of phytochemicals.
+++++ = shows high concentration.
+++ = shows moderate concentration
Discussion
The research work was carried out on the ten selected medicinalplants which shows that
phytochemical constituent’s i.e., terpenoids,flavonoids, alkaloids, reducing sugars and
phlobatannins are eitherpresent or absent in these plants and the results were summarized in
Table 2.
Conclusion

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The selected ten medicinal plants are the source of the secondarymetabolites i.e.,
alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, phlobatannins andreducing sugars. Medicinal plants play a
vital role in preventing variousdiseases. The antidiuretic, anti-inflammatory, antianalgesic,
anticancer,anti-viral, anti-malarial, anti-bacterial and anti-fungal activitiesof the medicinal
plants are due to the presence of the above mentionedsecondary metabolites. Medicinal plants
are used for discovering andscreening of the phytochemical constituents which are very
helpful forthe manufacturing of new drugs. The previous phytochemical analysisand present
studied show nearly the similar results due to the presenceof the phytochemical constituents.
The phytochemical analysis of themedicinal plants are also important and have commercial
interestin both research institutes and pharmaceuticals companies for themanufacturing of the
new drugs for treatment of various diseases. Thuswe hope that the important phytochemical
properties identified byour study in the local Area plant of Bhadrachalam will be helpful in
the coppingdifferent diseases of this particular region.
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• Nostro A, Germanò MP, D'angelo V, Marino A, Cannatelli MA (2000) Extraction
methods and bioautography for evaluation of medicinal plant antimicrobialactivity.
LettApplMicrobiol 30: 379-384.
• Krishnaiah D, Sarbatly R, Bono A (2007) Phytochemical antioxidants for health
and medicine: A move towards nature. BiotechnolMolBiol Rev 1: 97-104.
• Mahato SB, Sen S (1997) Advances in triterpenoid research, 1990-1994.
Phytochemistry 44: 1185-1236.
• Kappers IF, Aharoni A, van Herpen TW, Luckerhoff LL, Dicke M, et al.
(2005) Genetic engineering of terpenoid metabolism attracts bodyguards
toArabidopsis. Science 309: 2070-2072.
• Hérouart D, Sangwan RS, Fliniaux MA, Sangwan-Norreel BS (1988) Variationsin the
Leaf Alkaloid Content of Androgenic Diploid Plants of Daturainnoxia.Planta Med 54:
14-17.
• Marles RJ, Farnsworth NR (1995) Antidiabetic plants and their activeconstituents.
Phytomedicine 2: 137-189.
• Begum S, Ahmed M, Siddiqui BS, Khan A, Saify ZS, et al. (1997) Triterpenes,A
sterol and Amonocyclic alcohol from Momordicacharantia.Phytochem 44:1313-1320.
• Okabe H, Miyahara Y, Yamauci T (1982) Studies on the constituents
ofMomordicacharantiaL.Chem Pharm Bull 30: 4334-4340.
• Kimura Y, Akihisa T, Yuasa N, Ukiya M, Suzuki T, et al. (2005) Cucurbitane-
typetriterpenoids from the fruit of Momordicacharantia. J Nat Prod 68: 807-809.
• Chang CI, Chen CR, Liao YW, Cheng HL, Chen YC, et al. (2008)
Cucurbitanetypetriterpenoids from the stems of momordicacharantia. J Nat Prod 71:
1327-1330.
• Akihisa T, Higo N, Tokuda H, Ukiya M, Akazawa H, et al. (2007)
Cucurbitanetypetriterpenoids from the fruits of Momordicacharantia and their
cancerchemopreventive effects. J Nat Prod 70: 1233-1239.

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• Kim HB, Bang HS, Lee HW, Seuk YS, Sung GB (1999) Chemical characteristicsof
mulberry syncarp. Korean J Med. Crop Sci 47: 3206-3209.
• Osman AM, Younes ME, Sheta AE (1974) Triterpenoids of the leaves
ofPsidiumguajava.Phytochem 13: 2015-2016.
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from the leaves of Psidiumguajava.Phytochemistry 61: 399-403.
• Caccioni DRL, Tonini G, Guizzardi M (2002) In vitro antifungal activity of
someSouth African medicinal plants. South Afr J Bot 68: 72-76.
• Orak HH, Demirci A, Gümü T (2011) Antibacterial and antifungal activity
ofPomegranate (Punicagranatum L. CV.)Peel.EJEAFCh 10: 1958-1969.
• Panhwar AQ and Abro H (2007) Ethnobotanical studies of MahalKohistan. PakJ Bot
39: 2301-2315.
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andLuffaacutangula. J HorticSciUniv Florida 3: 19-21.
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on the antibacterial and antifungal activities of the ethanolic extracts of
Luffacylindrica(Linn) fruit. Int J Drug Dev. Res 1: 105-109.

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ASSESSMENT OF WATER QUALITY OF RIVER MANJIRA FROM
HASGUL TO KANDAKURTHI
B.RAMESH & M.ARUNA *

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,TELANGANAUNIVERSITY,DICHPALLY,NIZAMABAD(T.S) INDIA
E.mail: [email protected]
*E.mail:[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Assessment of water quality has been made on River Manjira for a period of one year during Oct-
2013 to Dec-2014. Nine sampling stations were selected for collection of water samples . Surface and
bottom waters were collected from respective sampling stations and analyzed qualitatively by
following standard methods.
The data revealed that from nine sampling stations of Manjira ,S1 (Hasgul) was found to be
oligotrophic , indicating clean water . At S2 Dhoti) and S3 (Bassapur) many indices showed moderate
pollution of water. S4 (Bolakpally), S5 (Dadigi), S6 (Vaazidnagar), and S7 (Chincholly) showed
water with few pollutants and was found to be eutrophic in its status. But S8 (Saalura) and S9
(Kandakurthi ghat) showed high pollution when compared with other sites. The qualitative analysis
stated alkaline nature of water and concentration of sulphates and nitrates was found to be high,
whereas concentration of chlorides was found to be low. pH, dissolved oxygen , total hardness of
water, organic matter and Phosphates were present to be in lower concentration throughout the
period of investigation.
KEYWORDS :Assessment of water quality,River Manjir, Hasgul - Kandakurthi ghat.
INTRODUCTION
The river Manjira originates in Balaghats of Maharashtra . It passes through three
states Maharashtra , Karnataka, and Telangana ,Meets Godavari river at Kandakurthi village ,
Renzal mandal of Nizamabad district. It flow through two districts of Telangana Medak and
Nizamabad . It flow mainly depends upon occurrence of rain . High pollution levels in river have
negative effects on the ecosystem .
Manjira is a prominent river of Maharastra, Karnataka and Telangana . It is

supposed to be life line of twin-cities (Hyderabad and Secunderabad) for drinking water purpose
and also main source for irrigation to Medak and Nizamabad . We found the river Manjira
polluted with human wastes and industrial effluents. However , industrialization has also posed

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threat to water quality by effluent discharge and sewage disposed in rivers. This has led to
eutrophication of river and change in ecosystem of river. Fig-1 shows an overview of river
Manjira at saalura site
Fig-1
OVER VIEW OF RIVER MANJIRA AT SAALURA
LITERATURE SURVEY :
A literature survey reveals that physico-chemical characteristics of various rivers have been
studied by many authors: Chakraborty et al (1959), Charu et al 2006, Kallol and Mahapatra
(2005) and Das (2005) have measured the physico chemical parameters and assessed the water
quality status of the rivers. A comparative study of DO, BOD and COD of Godavari River at
Nanded and Rajahmundry has been carried out by Khan,Srinivasarao, Murthy .et al (2008) who
found that the river was more polluted at Nanded than at Rajahmundry.
According to Srivastava et al., (2011) drains are the main source of water pollution especially for
rivers flowing within the city . They carry industrial effluent, domestic waste, sewage and
medicinal waste resulting in poor water quality.. Study of water quality of the river Gomti of

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Jaunpur City was carried out by Yadav et al. (2012). Heavy metals reveals a huge amount of
problems having high density but physical properties are quit meaningless (Appenroth, 2007).
Heavy metals cause environmental pollution and are phytotoxic in nature (Prasad, 2004). The
contamination of the environment with toxic metals has become a worldwide problem, affecting
crop yields, soil biomass and fertility, contributing for the bioaccumulation and
biomagnifications in the chain (Prasad, 2011). High concentration of all metals like Cr, Cu, Ni,
Pd and Zn were noticed in River Gomti from 2006-2008 (Mishra and Mishra, 2008). Drinking
water containing traces of heavy metals is dangerous for health. Fresh water fishes also get
affected due to bioaccumulation of heavy metals (Vinodhini and Narayanan, 2008). Assessment
of water quality of river Yamuna at Agra was carried out by (Sharma and Agrawal, 1999).
Heavy metals are carcinogenic to humans. Higher concentration of metal in water and
sediment during rainy season could be due to the industrial, agricultural or domestic runoff
coming into the river (Gaur et al., 2005). Water quality assessment based on bio monitoring of
rivers in Uttaranchal, in view of their religious importance and ecological sustainability was
carried out by Semwal and Akolkar (2006). Some algae can be used as bio indicators of water
pollution (Dwivedi, 2010). Study carried out by Joshi (2007) indicated that surface water and
land resources management plan should be carried out for conservation of precious water.
Investigations, monitoring of seasonal variations in the concentrations of heavy metals Pb, Fe,
Zn, Mn, Cd Co, Cu, Cr and Ni in the Yamuna river water flowing through Delhi was carried out
by Kaur and Mehra (2012).
Rajukar et al., (2003) investigated physicochemical and biological nature of River Unshyrpi
at Shillong Meghalaya. A survey was carried out by Nanda and Tiwari (1999) to study the
discharge of mining environmental impact of this river. Singh (2001) presented a report on
monitoring and assessment of the Gomti river quality in Lucknow.
STUDY SITE :
The river Manjira is a tributary of Godavari river . About 724 km of total length enters
in Telangana at Karamungi village ,Mannor mandal of Medak district . A total of nine sampling
sites were selected namely Hasgul, Dhoti, Bassapur, Bolakpally, DadIgi, Vaazidnagar,
Chincholly, Saalura, and Kandakurthi
SAMPLE COLLECTION :
Sample collection was done for a period of 1 year during Oct- 2013 to Dec -2014 in
between 9:00 am to 2:00 pm , from both sides of the river Manjira. Total of eight
physicochemical parameters were assessed namely pH, alkalinity , chlorides, dissolved oxygen,

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nitrates, ,total hardness, phosphates and sulphates. And heavy metals namely copper , iron,
arsenic and cadmium were also analysed . Fig – 2 shows sample collection at site, kandakurthi
Table -1 indicates various physicochemical parameters of river manjira assessed during Oct-
2013 .Table -2 depicts results obtained during Dec-2014. Table -3 shows content of heavy
metals in river manjira
Fig – 2
SAMPLE COLLECTION AT KANDAKURTHI

TABLE 1: PHYSICOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS OF RIVER MANJIRA DURING
OCT-2013
Site Sampling site pH Alkaline Chlorides D.O Nitrates THW Phosphates Sulphates
No
mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l
S1. Hasgul 7.11 79 15 6.0 34.02 100 0.010 15
S2. Dhoti 7.7 120 17 6.8 38.20 110 0.015 17

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S3. Bassapur 7.6 121 18 6.9 40.20 78 0.016 14
S4. Bolakpally 7.9 81 16 6.6 44.02 80 0.012 16
S5. Dadigi 7.0 110 22 6.0 50.44 85 0.018 14.5
S6. Vaazid nagar 7.01 80 28 5.7 48.40 116 0.008 18
S7. Chincholly 7.12 83 19 5.9 50.20 114 0.014 16.5
S8. Saalura 8.0 122 18 6.0 40.20 100 0.010 13
S9. Kandakurthi 8.27 130 24 4.7 45.49 120 0.018 18.5

ghat
TABLE 2: PHYSICOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS OF RIVER MANJIRA DURING

DEC-2014
Site Sampling site pH Alkaline Chlorides D.O Nitrates THW Phosphates Sulphates
No.
mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l
S1. Hasgul 6.0 65 12 5.0 39.02 100 0.010 15
S2. Dhoti 6.2 60 10 6.0 34.06 80 0.08 12
S3. Bassapur 5.2 79 16 6.8 28.05 78 0.012 17
S4. Bolakpally 7.0 80 18 6.5 32.01 85 0.016 14.5
S5. Dadigi 6.5 65 14 5.8 30.02 88 0.018 15
S6. Vaazidnagar 6.2 70 19 5.7 38.04 90 0.09 16
S7. Chincholly 7.5 85 20 6.5 40.08 75 0.010 18
S8. Saalura 7.0 90 18 6.9 41.05 95 0.015 17
S9. Kandakurthi 8.5 120 22 5.5 42.05 110 0.014 19

ghat

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TABLE 3: SHOWING HEAVY METAL ANALYSIS OF RIVER MANJIRA
Site Sampling As(mg/l) Cu(mg/l) Fe(mg/l) Cd(mg/l) Cr(mg/l)

No. sites
S1. Hasgul 0.075 0.025 0.038 0.040 0.065
S2. Dhoti 0.050 0.020 0.070 0.060 0.045
S3. Bassapur 0.014 0.040 0.038 0.035 0.055
S4. Bolakpally 0.010 0.035 0.020 0.040 0.048
S5. Dadgi 0.015 0.039 0.045 0.048 0.047
S6. Vaazidnagar 0.020 0.040 0.035 0.030 0.038
S7. Chincholly 0.025 0.045 0.056 0.069 0.060
S8. Saalura 0.029 0.049 0.035 0.028 0.046
S9. Kandakurthi 0.0120 0.065 0.060 0.080 0.0125
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION :

The water samples were analysed for physicochemical characteristics , total
eight physicochemical parameters were analysed namely PH, Alkaline , Chlorides, D.O, Nitrates,
THW, Phosphates and Sulphates and also including four heavy metals namely As, Cu, Fe, and
Cd (Table 3 ).
In the present study , the maximum PH was at Kandakurthi ghat (8.27) which was
slightly higher than desirable limit and minimum value was at (7.0) Dadigi. PH was permissible
in all stations of river Manjira . PH of the water is a measure of the H⁺ ion acHvity of the water
system. It indicates whether the water is acidic , neutral or alkaline in nature. Dissolved oxygen
concentration is a remarkable indicators of water pollution. Fishes and other water animals
depend upon DO which is dependa nt on the water temperature. The maximum DO in water
was observed at Bassapur i.e. 6.9 mg/l, and minimum at Kandakurthi ghat i.e. 4.7 mg/l. The
maximum value of chlorides was recorded at Vaazidnagar i.e. 28 mg/l and minimum at Hasgul
15 mg/l. Most of the values of water samples were within permissible limit except kandakurthi
ghat, because it is the place confluence of three rivers Godavari, Manjra , and Haridra . The
maximum hardness of water at Kandakurthi 120 mg/l , minimum value 78 mg/l at Bassapur
were recorded.

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Health aspects of nitrates in drinking water were detected by (Adem 1980). For
drinking water the maximum desirable limit of nitrate concentration is 45 mg/l. The maximum
value of nitrates in water samples was at Dadigi i.e. 50.44 mg/l , minimum value of nitrate
concentration at Hasgul 34.20 mg/l. The maximum value of sulphates 18.5 mg/l , minimum at
Dhoti 12 mg/l. most of the values of the water samples were within the permissible limit
except Kandakurthi ghat .
Increase in population, urbanisation and industrialization in the past century have

resulted in increased domestic and industrial effluent being discharged into aquatic system.
Further dust input into water increases the heavy metal concentration in river line system. The
maximum and minimum values of heavy metals as shown in Table -3.
CONCLUSION
The water quality assessment of a 70 km stretch of river Manjira in Nizamabad district

from Hasgul to Kandakurthi ghat in Telangana state indicates slightly polluted . PH, DO,
Nitrates, and other parameters at some sites were beyond permissible limit. Water was slightly
polluted due to discharge of domestic and industrial waste through several drains. The increase
in value of chlorides, nitrate, and total hardness were also due domestic discharges of nearby
towns i.e. Bansuwada, Bodhan etc. Increase in the concentration of heavy metals at Hasgul,
Vaazidnagar and Kandakurthi was due to industrial discharge .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT :
We are grateful to Prof. Vidyavati, Former Vice- Chancellor of Kakatiya University,
Warangal for her valuable suggestions and constant encouragement.
REFERENCES:
1)Adam, J.W.H.(1980): Health aspects of nitrate in drinking-water and possible means of
denitrification, Methaemoglobinaemia Nitrates in drinking water. Environ. Health86.31 .
2) Ahmed,M.K., Islam,S., Rehman,S., Haque,M.R. and Islam,M.M.(2010): Heavy Metals in

water, sediment and some fishes of Buriganga River, Bangladesh. Int. J. Env. Res.,4,2 :321-332.
3) Apprenroth, K. J. (2007): Definition of heavy metals and their role in biological systems,
Friedrich-Schiller University of Jena, Institute for General Botany and Plant Physiology,
Dornburgerstr 159, 07743, Jena, Germany.

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4)Chakrabarty, R.D, P. Ray and S.I. Singh.(1959). ‘A quantitative study of the plankton and
physico-chemical conditions of river Jamuna at Allahabad’, Indian Journal of Fisheries6(1):186-
203.
5) Charu P., D. Savita and R. Srivastava, (2006) ‘Seasonal variations in physico-chemical

characteristics in upper lake of Bhopal,’, Asian Journal of Experimental Sciences20(2):297-302.
6) Das, D.N.,( 2005) ‘Studies on the sources of pollution in Tunia river,’ M. Tech. Project, AHEC
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India.
7) Diwedi, S. (2010): Pollution Induced Structural and Physico-Chemical Changes in Algal

Community: a case study of River Pandu of North India. World Acad.of .Sci.Eng and Tech47.
8) Gaur, V.K., Gupta, S.K., Pandey, S.D., Gopal,K., and Mishra, V.(2005): Distribution of Heavy
Metals in sediment and water of River Gomti, Env.Mon.Ass.,102,1-3:419-433.
9) Joshi, B.K.(2007) Evaluation of Land Denudation and Rivulets Water Quality in the Gomti
Basin of Indian Central Himalayas-A Case Study, G. B. Plant Institute of Himalayan Environment
and Development, Kosi,Katarmal,Almora,263643.
10) Kaur, S.and Mehra,P.(2012): Assessment of heavy metals in summer & winter seasons in
river yamuna segment flowing through Delhi. India.j.Env.Eco.,3,1:149.
11) Kallol, Dey and S.C. Mohapatra,(2005).‘Assessment of water quality parameters of river
Brahmani at Rourkela,’ Indian Journal of Pollution Control.21(2):265-70.
12) Mishra,S.S. and Mishra,A.(2008): Assessment of physico-chemical properties and heavy

metal concentration in Gomti river. Res. Env. Lif.,2:55-58.
13) Murthy, et al, ( 2008). ‘Assessment of water quality of Godavari River at Nanded,
Maharashtra and Rajamundry, Andhra Pradesh,’.Journal of Chemistry and
Environment12(1):65-68.
14) Namdev, D.K. and Singh, K.A.(2012): Studies on Physical Chemical Properties of water in
Yamuna River at Hamirpur (U.P) with special reference to occurrence of Lead. Int.J. Res.Tech.,
7:215-216.
15) Nanda, S.N. and Tiwari,T.N.(1999): Effect of discharge of effluents on the quality of the
river Brahmani at Raurkela. Ind . J.Env. Protec.13,1:52-55.
16) Prasad, M.N.V. (2011): Emerging phytotechnologies for remediation of heavy metal
contaminated/ polluted soil and water Department of Plant Sciences, School of Life Sciences
University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad.500046 AP, India.

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17) Prasad, M.N.V.(2004) Heavy Metal Stress in Plants. Biomolecule to Ecosystem Springer
Science.
18) Rajukar,N.S., Nongbri, B. And Patwardhan, A.M. (2003) .Physicochemical and biological
investigation of River Unshyrpi at Shillong Meghalaya.Ind.J. Env.Health.45:83-92.
19) Semwal, N. and Akolkar, P. (2006): Water quality assessment of sacred Himalayan rivers of
Uttaranchal. Curr. Sci.,91,4
20) Sharma,B.S. and Agrawal,A.(1999) Assessment of water quality of river Yamuna at Agra.
Poll.Res.18, 1:109- 110.
21) Sharma,B.S.(1999) : A study of water quality of river Yamuna at

Agra.Ind.J.Env.Protac.19,6:440-441.
22) Singh, K.P. (2001) Report on monitoring and assessment of the Gomti river quality.
Industrial Toxicological Research Centre, Lucknow.
23) Srivastava,S., Srivastava,A., Negi,M.P.S. and Tandon , P.K.(2011): Evaluation of effect of

drains on water quality of river Gomti in Lucknow city using multivariate statistical
techniques,Int. J.Env.Sci.,2:1.
24) Vinodhini, R. and Narayanan, M. (2008): Bioaccumulation of heavy metals in organs of

fresh water fish. Int. J. Env. Sci. Tech.,5 2: 179-182.
25) Yadav, S., Firdaus,T., Kumar, A, Alauddin, S. (2012) Spectrophotometric study of Iron,
Nitrate and Phosphate in the River Gomti of Jaunpur City, Int.j. Sci

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STYDIES ON ETHNOMEDICINAL AQUATICMACROPHYTES

FROMANNAPUREDDYPALLI, KHAMMAM DISTRICT IN
TELANGANA, INDIA.
Ramana V.V. And K.Rajyalaxmi
DEPT. OF BOTANY, S.C.W.D COLLEGE, KOTHAGUDEM
E-mail : [email protected]
ABSTRACT:
In the Present work on attempt is made to document the Ethno medicinal Aquatic
macrophytes of Annapureddy palli Lake located in Chandrugonda of khammam district of
Telangana state, South india.We reported 20 Medicinal Aquatic Macrophytes used by the Local
and Tribal people in alleviating diseases. Our collections of Ethno medicinal Aquatic
macrophytes Specimens from study area were deposited in the authors College.
KEY WORDS :Ethnomedicinal,Aquatic Macrophytes,Annapureddy palli, Aquatic ecosystem.
INTRODUCTION
A lot of Work has been Carried out on the terrestrial medicinal plants. However, Not much
work has been done on Aquatic Medicinal Plants . Hence an attempt as been made to study the
Aquatic medicinal plants. The Association between people and plants has always been extremely
important. Plants effect every aspect of our lives hence vitae for human welfare. From ancient
people to present day people have being using plants as a source of medicine in their daily life
for leading. People all over the world use medicinal plant remedies alternative to modern
medicine because of its low cost and independent availability according to studies it is estimated
that as many as 75-90% of the world tribal and rural people only on herbal traditional medicine
for their primary health care even today. Knowledge of Ecology Lentic Water bodies Like
Ponds, Lakes and Reservoirs etc. Provide an important tool for their Scientific management. A
Few systems required the study of their Structure and Function. Aquatic plants role in
Oxygenation of water, and removal of toxic substances are crucial for Water quality
improvement. Growth of Aquatic Macrophytes depends upon the availability of Water, Light
and other factors of Environment. Earlier Studies related to Aquatic and wet land Flora were
Globally by Mirashi,1954,Vyas 1964,Mishra1974, Baruah and Baruah ,2000, Chandra et al.
2008,Subrahmanyam 1962 has described 117 aquatic Angiosperms. Cook ,1996 has Publised
Wet land flora of India.

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Population knowledge of plants Used by humans is based on thousands of years of

experience. Plants still remain the basis for development of modern drugs; medicinal plants have
been used for years in daily life to treat diseases all over the World (Ates and Erzdogrul 2003).
Ethno medicinal Knowledge transmitted from generation to generation (Lev and Amar 200).
Study site: annapureddy palli the south eastern part of khammam district. The population of
Study area is mostly rural where allopathic medicine may not be available readily. The drug
Formation and dose varies with respect to particular illness.
Data collection: A through survey of Ethno medicinal aquatic vegetation was made during the
period December 2013- June 2014. The selection of a plant as a Specimen was that the plant
must be floating ,Submerged and wet land in Lentic condition.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The present study Provides valuable Information on Uses of Aquatic Macrophytes by rural
and tribal of Annapureddypalli of Khammam., Telangana. The elders possess Sound Knowledge
onTherapautic Potential of Crude Drugs available in the lake of Annapureddypalli . Hence
repeated Interviews were conducted on Such people and recorded the information on medicinal
resources . The Specimens were collected in the polythene bag and brought to the authors
college Laboratory. Table -1 shows the list of plants Used by Tribals in treatment of various
diseases.Total number ethnomedicinal value plants Recorded were around 22 taxa.Out of
22species 10 species are dicotyledons,10 species are monocotyledons and 2 species are
Pteridophytes. In the present survey of Ethnomedicinal plants ,Majority of Species Belongs to
dicotyledons and Monocotyledons.The medicinal plants are going to play an important role in
Social healthy system (Amit tomar .2008).
TABLE –I LIST OF ETHNOMEDICINAL MACROPHYTES USED BY TRIBALS

OF
ANNAPUREDDYPALLI,CHANDRUGONDA.
S.NO SPECIES NAME & VERNACULAR HABITAT USES

FAMILY NAME NAME E STATUS
Dicotyledons:
1 Hygrophilla auriculata Mullagobbi Emergent Whole plant – used for the

treatment of Eye diseases
(Acanthaceae)

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2 Alternanthera sessilis Ponaganti aku Emergent Whole plant- Used for the
treatment of night Blindness
(Amaranthaceae)
3 Boerhavia diffusa Atika mamidi Emergent Whole plant-used for the

treatment of jaundice.
Nyctaginaceae
4 Coldenia procumbens Hamsapadu Marginal Leaf- used in the treatment

of Rheumatism.
(Boraginaceae)
5 Eclipta alba Guntagalagara Emergent Whole plant – used in the

treatment of Dental disorders
(Asteraceae)
6 Ipomoea aquatic Thootikoora Emergent Root-used for the treatment

of Galactogague.
(Convolvulaceae)
7 Ipomoea carnea Pandiri thooti Floating Leaf-Used in the treatment

of Wounds.
(Convolvulaceae)
8 Nelumbonucifera thamara Floating Whole plant- used in the

treatment of skin diseases
(Nelumbonaceae)
9 Nymphea nouchali Kaluva Floating Whole palnt- Used for

Ulcerttreatment.
(Nympheaceae)
10 Utricularia aurea Bladder wort Submerged Whole plant- Used for

curing wounds.
(Lentibulariaceae)
Monocotyledons:

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11 Ceratophyllum demersum
(Ceratophyllaceae) Neeti sambrani Submerged Whole plant:Used as

Cooling Agent.
12 Cyperus rotundus Thunga Emergent Tuber-Used in the treatment

of Bowl complaints.
(Cyperaceae)
13 Lemna perpusilla Kappandamu Floating Whole plant-used for curing

the Swellings.
(Lemnaceae)
14 Wolffia globosa Nattanachu Floating Whole plant-Used in the

treatment of Rubifecient.
(Araceae)
15 Hydrilla verticillata Valakada Submerged Whole plant- used in the

curing of Skin disease.
(Hydrocharitaceae)
16 Ottelia alismoides Edakula thamara Submerged Whole plant-Paste used in

the treatment of wounds and
(Hydrocharitaceae) cuts.
17 Vallisnaria natans Neeti dharalu Submerged Whole plant- used for the
treatment of Stomach
(Hydrocharitaceae) disorders.
18 Potamogeton nodonus Neeti gogu submerged Whole plant –paste applied

on injuries and Muscle
(Potamagetanaceae) pains.
19 Typha angustata Jammu Emergent Whole plant- used in the

treatment of Calculi
(Typhaceae)
20 Pistia Stratiotes Anthara thamara Floating Whole plant- crushed with

water and applied on boils.
(Araceae)

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Pteridophyta:
21 Azolla pinnata Azolla Floating Whole plant-Traditional

Cough medicine.
(Salviniaceae)
22 Marsilea quadrifolia Chandamama koora Emergent Leaf-juice diuretic.
(Marsiliaceae)
The authors are Thankful to the Tribal and local people of Annapureddy palli
Those who helped During field work and their cooperation for bringing all these information
regarding uses of plants with remedies.
REFERENCES
• Hooker JD 1872-1897 The Flora of British India.London 7 Vols.

• Samant SS Rawal Rs and Pangtey Yps,1988. Aquatic and Marshy Angiospermic plants of
Nainital, Kumaun Himalaya.In Khulbe, R.D. (Ed) Perspective in Aquatic Biology.Papyrus
Pub House, New Delhi.p.p.409-416.
• Devlin RM, 1967. Plant Physiology. Reinhold, New York ,pp. 564.http://jsrr.in 14
ISSN:2249-7846 (Oneline
• Mishra KC,1974. Manual of plant ecology. Oxford & IBH publishing co. New Delhi,pp.491
• T.Pullaiah ,P.V Prasanna and G.Obulesu, 1992.Flora of Adilabad District.Used in Ethno
veterinary practices by koyas of Pakhal wild life sanctuary,Andhra Pradesh,India
• V.Madhu and Ds Ravindra Naik 2009-Ethno medicinal uses of leaf preparations in
Adilabad Disrtict A. P. ,India. Ethnobotanical leaflets13-1337-47.
• Usha kumari J., Ramana V.V. and Reddy K.J 2012-Ethnomedicinal Plants used for
Wounds and Snake-Bites by Tribals of Kinnerasani region AP.India. Journal of
Pharmocognosy Volume 3,(2) pp-79-81.
• Jain, S.k. 1987. A manual of Ethnobotany, Scientific publishers, Jodhpur

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Adilabad Disrtict A. P. ,India. Ethnobotanical leaflets13-1337-47
• Cook CDK 1996Aquatic and wetland Plants of India. Oxford university press.London.
• Biswas K& Calder CC 1937hand-book of Common Water and marsh plants of India and
Burma. Govt.Press.Delhi.
• Sen DN & Chatterjee uN 1959 Ecological studies on the aquatic and Swampy vegetation of
gorakhpur.Agra University. J Res (Sci)8 1-14.
• C. P. Khare, Encyclopedia of Indian Medicinal Plants, Rational western theraphy,
Ayurvedic and other Traditional Uses, Botany (Springer, London, 2004) p. 303

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Annapureddy palli cheruvu Coldenia procumbence
Typha angustata Pistia stratiotes
Boerhavia diffusa Ipomea aquatic

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Synthesis and characterization of Zinc nanorods from Aloe barbadensis leaf

extract
V. Srinivasa Rao1 and M.V.Ramana2
1
Department of Physics , Govt. Arts College, Rajahmundry, A.P, India
2
Department of Physics, SR & BGNR Govt. Arts & Science College, Khammam, Telangana,
India
Abstract
Leaf extracts of Aloe barbadensis were successfully used for the synthesis of Zinc nanorods
using rapid green synthesis route. Synthesized nanorods were confirmed by analyzing the
excitation of surface Plasmon resonance (SPR) using UV-VIS spectrophotometry. SEM analysis
confirmed the majority range of nanorod size between 70nm to 380 nm. EDS measurements
revealed the presence of Zn and O and the absence of any other impurities. FTIR spectrum
confirms the presents of high amounts of phenolic compounds in the leaf extracts which
possibly influence formation of nanorods. . The results of particle size analysis confirim the
distribution of the particles with mean Z value of 0.8 nm.
Keywords: Biosynthesis, plant extracts, nanorods, SEM , FTIR.
1. INTRODUCTION
Nanotechnology is a potentially beneficial field with tremendous implications for society,

industry and medicine. The uses of nano-sized particles are even more remarkable. They are
mostly prepared from noble metals like Zinc, Gold, Platinum and Palladium. Zinc nanoparticles
being most exploited. They find applications in various fields like medicine, electronics, textile,
cosmetics, and so forth. Aloe barbadensis is used in traditional medicine as a multipurpose skin
treatment.Aloe barbadensis leaves contains phyto-chemicals like such lectins, anthraquinones
and anthraquinone glycosides.
Here, we report an inexpensive, eco-friendly, rapid synthesis of Zinc nanoparticles by

reduction process using gel extract of Aloe barbadensis.
2.2 Preparation of leaf extract
10 grams of Fresh Aloe barbadensis gel directly extracted from the plant along with 100
ml double distilled water were taken in 250 ml glass beaker and boiled for 5 minutes at 900C.
The extract was cooled to room temperature and filtered with Whatman No 1 filter paper. The
filtrate was centrifuged for 10 minute at 10000 rpm; the supernatant was collected and stored at
40C.
2.3 Preparation of Super saturated solution of ZnCl2
Accurate concentration of ZnCl2 super saturated solution (Merck India Ltd) was prepared
at ambient temperature by dissolving ZnCl2 in 100 ml double distilled water.

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2.4 Nano biosynthesis
In the single step green synthesis, 5 ml of leaf extract was added to 25 ml of super
saturated aqueous solutionZnCl2 and heated up to 900 C for 5 minutes, the color change was
observed, which stand as a preliminary identification of the formation of Zinc nanoparticles, The
Zinc nanoparticles solutions thus obtained were purified by repeated centrifugation at 10000 rpm
for 15 minutes. The supernatant was transferred to a clean dry beaker for further settlement of
particles. The sample so obtained was used for further characterization.
3. Characterization
Synthesized Zinc nano particles were initially characterized by taking small aliquot of sample in
to UV-Visible spectrophotometer absorption spectra at 300-700 nm using Shimadzu UV-1800
spectrophotometer
Scanning electron microscopic (SEM) analysis was done using Zeiss, EV-18 model. A
thin film of the sample was prepared on carbon coated copper grid by placing small amount of
the sample on the grid. Then the film on the SEM grid was allowed to dry using mercury lamp
for 5min.
Energy Dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) was carried out on Zeiss EV-18 model. The peaks
obtained from EDX gives the element composition of the sample.
Particle Size Analyser (PSA) was carried out using HORIBA Scientific nano particle
analyser SZ-100.
4. Results and discussion
The present study emphasizes the use of Aloe barbadensis gel for the Synthesis of Zinc
nanoparticles. Studies have indicated that biomolecules like protein, phenols, and anthroquinones
only play a role in reducing the ions to the nano size, but also play an important role in the
capping of the nanoparticles.
4.1 UV-Visible spectral analysis
The nanoparticles were preliminarily characterized by UV-Visible Spectroscopy, which

is proved to be a very useful technique for the analysis of nanoparticles. As the leaf extracts
were mixed with the aqueous solution of the Zinc chloride and it was changed from Yellow to
gold colour (Figure.2) due to excitation of the surface plasma vibrations indicate the formation of
the Zinc nanoparticles. The UV spectrum absorption is recorded at 308 nm (Figure.3).

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Figure 1:UV spectrum of Zinc nanoparticles of Aloe barbadensis gel extract.
4.2 SEM analysis
The SEM image shows high density Zinc nanorods synthesized from the leaf extract,
further confirmed the development of Zinc nanostructure. The SEM image shows the formation
of rod shaped nano particles. They were clearly distinguishable and the diameter of rod is 60 nm
and the length 920 nm.
Figure 2:SEM image of Zinc nanorods of Aloe barbadensis gel extract.
4.3 EDX analysis
The EDX spectra show the purity of the material and the complete chemical composition of
synthesized Zinc nanoparticles. In the present synthesis EDX analysis shows 99.8% purity of the
Zinc nanorods produced by Aloe barbadensis gel. It revealed high percent of Zinc which
indicate the purity of the synthesized sample.

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Figure 5: EDX analysis of Zinc nanoparticles of Aloe barbadensis gel extract.

4.4 PSA analysis
The PSA analysis shows the average of the synthesized Zinc nanoparticles. In the present
synthesis PSA analysis shows the average particle size 63.4 nm of the Zinc nanorods produced
by Aloe barbadensis gel.
Figure6: PSA analysis of Zinc nanorods and particles of Aloe barbadensis extract.
CONCLUSION
The present study reveals that the plant species is a good source for the synthesis for
Zinc nano particles at a faster rate. The formation for Zinc nano particles was confirmed the
colour change within 30 minutes. The bio reduced Zinc nano particles were characterized using
UV-Vis, SEM, PSA techniques. In the present study, we have investigated the bio-fabrication of
Zn nanorods using aqueous gel extract of Aloe barbadensis. Colour change of the reaction
solution and UV-Vis spectra confirmed the formation of Zn nano particles. SEM studies
showed that the size ranging from 66 nm and 99 nm with the spherical shape and their crystalline
nature. The method was unique, cost effective to biosynthesized nanoparticles from the natural
resources. Still more clinical trials need to be conducted to support its therapeutic used.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the Department of Physics Osmania University for SEM, EDX
spectral analysis and Department of Nano Technology JNTU Hyderabad for PSA and UV – VIS
spectrum analysis.
REFERENCES:
[1]. N. Roy and A. Barik, “Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles from the unexploited weed
resources”, International Journal of Nanotechnology, vol. 4, pp. 95, 2010.
[2]. K. Govindaraju, S. Tamilselvan, V. Kiruthiga, and G. Singaravelu, “Biogenic silver
nanoparticles by Solanum torvum and

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their promising antimicrobial activity”, Journal of Biopesticides, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 394–399,
2010.
[3]. Kumar V,Yadav SK, Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology, 84, pp. 151,
2009.
[4]. Anuradha. G, B. Syama Sundar and M. V. Ramana, “Ocimum americanum L. leaf extract
mediated synthesis of silver
nanoparticles: A noval approach towards weed utilization”, Scholars Research Library, Archives
of Applied Science Research, 6 (3), pp. 59-64, 2014.
[5]. Naheed Ahmad, Seema Sharma, V, et al, Biotechnology Research International. , 1, pp.1.
2011
[6]. Gnanasekar Sathishkumara , Chandrakasan Gobinatha , etal Colloids and Surfaces B:
Biointerfaces., 95, pp. 235, 2012.
[7]. Anuradha. G, B. Syama Sundar, M. V. Ramana, J. Sreekanth kumar and T. Sujatha, “Single
step synthesis and characterization of Silver nanoparticles from Ocimum tenuiflorum L. Green
and Purple”. IOSR Journal of Applied Chemistry, Volume 7, Issue 5 Ver. II, pp. 123-127, 2014.
[8]. D. Gnana sangeetha and D. Sarala Thambavani, “Biogenic Production of Zinc Oxide
Nanoparticles Using Acalypha Indica”, Journal of Chemical, Biology and Physical Sciences,
Sec. B; Vol.4, No.1, pp. 238-246, 2014.
[9]. Vidya. C, Shilpa Hirematha, M. N Chandraprabha, M. A Lourdu Antony raj, Indu Venu
Gopal, Aayushi Jain and Kokil
Bansa,. “Green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles by Calotropis Gigantea”, International Journal of

Current Engineering and
Technology, Special Issue1, pp.118, 2013.
[10]. P. Ramesh , A. Rajendran , M. Meenakshisundaram, “Green Synthesis of Zinc Oxide
Nanoparticles Using Flower Extract Cassia auriculata”, vol 2, Issue 1, pp 41-45, 2014.
[11]. Ravindra P. Singh*, Vineet K. Shukla, Raghvendra S. Yadav, Prashant K. Sharma,
Prashant K. Singh, Avinash C. Pandey “Biological approach of zinc oxide nanoparticles
formation and its characterization”, Advanced Material Letters. 2(4), pp. 313-317, 2011.
[12] R. Rajeswari, M. Umadevi*, C. Sharmila Rahale, R. Pushpa, S. Selvavenkadesh, K. P.
Sampath Kumar, Debjit Bhowmik. “Aloe vera: The Miracle Plant Its Medicinal and Traditional
Uses in India”, Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry , Vol. 1 No. 4, pp. 118, 2012.

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Medicinal plants used to cure fractured bones in Khammam District of

Telangana, India
Dr. Ratna Manjula, R.
Lecturer in Botany, Government Degree College, Rammannapet, Nalgonda District, Telangana,

530 003, India. Email: [email protected]
Abstract
The present study yielded 11 species belonging to 11 genera and 10 families used for curing
fractured bones by the aborigines of the district. There are Three herb, Four Shrubs, Four Trees.
CACTACEAE is the dominant family with 2 plants
ASCLEPIADACEAE,CUCURBITACEAE,EUPHORBIACEAE,LAURACEAE,MORACEAE,
PASSIFLORACEAE,STERCULIACEAE,TILIACEAE AND VITACEAE families one each.
All the practices involved one plant only.
Keywords: Ethnomedicine, Bone fractures, Khammam district, Telangana

INTRODUCTION
Traditional herbal therapy is an age old practice (Rawat & Chaudhury 1998). This has
cured varied diseases in the past and is still a favorite way out for the indigenous tribe. In fact,
the traditional healing practices are arousing curiosity among various researches from all round
the professions to go in depth into this subject (Tag et al 2005). Ancient traditional treatment
methodology earns fame from its ethnic tribes, who still believe that traditional methods of
application in curing many incurable diseases where modern medicine definite limitations. For
the forest dwelling groups, age old practice of application plant-drugs for bone fracture, jaundice,
pneumonia, diabetes, etc are still in demand to their modern counter pant (i.e. allopathic/ modern
medicine). The local made herbal treatments along with enchantment for fast recovery by their
local doctors are more sought after by the local tribes (Kala 2005).
The Study Area Location, Topography and Geomorphology
Khammam district came into existence on October 1, 1953. It was carved out from the
taluks of Warangal and East Godavari districts and occupies an area of 16,029 km2 covering 46
Mandal Praja Parishads. It lies between 16° 45' and 18° 35' North latitude and between 79° 47'
and 80° 47' East longitude. The total population of the district is 25, 78, 927 of which 6, 82,617
(26.46%) are scheduled tribes as per 2001 census. The district presents a rough topography with
dissected uplands and hills, which sometimes exceeds 600 m. Temperature varies from 10 to 44°
C. The average rainfall of the district is 1045 mm. The main tribes of the district are Koyas,
Gonds/Naikpods, Lambadas and KondaReddis. The district has more than 52.6% forest land
with 4 divisions. Dry deciduous, moist deciduous, riparian, scrub and grass land forest types are
predominant. Though Filarial disease are important diseases exclusive studies on it are not many,
necessitating the present investigation in Khammam district of Telangana state.
METHODOLOGY
An ethnobotanical survey was conducted during 2008-11 among the tribal communities
of the district. Elder people, medicine men, tribal physicians and village old mothers were
consulted to record first-hand information on ethnomedicinal uses, methods of preparation and

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administration of crude drugs. The information from the tribal people was compared with
literature.
Enumeration
Cereus pterogonus Lemaire CACTACEAE
VN: Bontha jamudu, palaka jamudu E: Columnar cactus

Shrub ; stem columnar, 3-9 winged, wings to 4 cm across; areoles echinate, without glochids;
spines ca. 15, unequal; leaves absent; flowers lateral, sessile; perianth tube terete at base, funnel
shaped; tepals greenish-white.
Fl & Fr: Mar – Aug Wild.
A fine cloth dipped in latex is bandaged on the broken bones with the help of bamboo sticks.
The bandage is changed once in 5 d.
Cissus quadrangularis L. VITACEAE

VN: Nalleru S: Asthisamhari H: Hadjora E: Adamant creeper
Climbing shrub, stem fleshy, 4-angular, glabrous, winged or margined, contracted at nodes;
leaves simple, ovate or reniform, thick coriaceous, tendril leaf-opposed, highly coiled; flowers
greenish-red, short peduncled, umbellate cymes; berry globose, reddish brown, seed solitary,
obovate, smooth.
FI & Fr: Jun – Dec Wild.
Stem juice is mixed with egg albumen and a fine cloth is dipped into it and bandaged around the
fractured bones.
Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt. CUCURBITACEAE
VN: Kakidonda S: Bimb H: Kanduri E: Ivy gourd
Large climber from a woody base; leaves simple, 5-angled to entire, glabrous, denticulate, apex
obtuse, mucronate, tendril simple; flowers large, solitary, corolla white; fruit oblong, blood
red when ripe; seeds ovoid-oblong, compressed.
Fl & Fr: Jun – Dec Wild. Yetapaka
Leaf juice is mixed with white albumin of egg and a cloth is dipped into this mixture and tied
around the fractured bones with the support of bamboo sticks.
Euphorbia nerifolia L. EUPHORBIACEAE
VN: Bomma jemudu S: Gudh H: Patton-ke-send E: Common milk hedge
A small tree; leaves alternate or opposite; flowers monoecious; perianth 0 or minute scales;
stamens in female florets solitary; florets of male flowers a 3 celled ovary on an often decurved
pedicel; fruit capsule; seeds albuminous.

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Fl & Ft: Oct - Feb Wild.
Cloth dipped in latex is bandaged around the broken areas once a day till cure.
Grewia hirsuta VahlTILIACEAE

VN: Jibilika, Muvvalaku E: Veronix calolia
Shrub, branchlets softly fulvous pubescent; leaves linear, elliptic-lanceolate, serrate, acuminate
round at base, sparsely pubescent above, densely stellate tomentose beneath; flowers white,
axillary, 1-4 in umbellate cymes; fruit drupe, with indehiscent 4-lobes, fleshy, orange.
Fl & Fr: Jul – Dec Wild.
Root paste is applied on the fractured areas and tied with a cloth.
Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C. B. RobinsonLAURACEAE

VN: Naramamidi S: Adhavara H: Garbijaur E: Common fallow laurel
Evergreen tree; branches and peduncles softly pubescent, bark somewhat corky, brownish grey;
leaves aromatic, elliptic-ovate or oblong-lanceolate, pubescent; flowers white or yellowish,
borne in umbellate heads; berry globose, purple when ripe.
Fl & Ft: Jan – Dec Wild.
Stem bark paste mixed with goat milk is applied on the broken areas and bandaged with a cloth.
Opuntia dillenii (Ker-Gawl.) Haw. CACTACEAE
VN: Naga jamudu S: Vidara-visvasaraka H: Nag phana E: Prickly pear
A spinous, leafless bush, stem jointed, phyllodes fleshy, flat with many areoles bearing yellow
spines; flowers yellow, tinged with orange, perianth rotate, stamens unequal, style stout,
exceeding the stamens; fruit berry, pyriform, reddish purple when ripe
Fl & Fr: Feb – Apr Wild.
Phylloclade juice is applied on the cracked bones and bandaged with a cloth once a day till cure.
Passiflora foetida L. PASSIFLORACEAE

VN: Kondakakara, Poison fruit S: Muukupeera E: Sinking passion flower
Foetid climbing herbs; leaves alternate, 3 lobes; flowers axillary, foetid, generally solitary,
rarely 2; petals 5, white; stamens 5; anthers versatile, styles 3, free; fruits fleshy, globose, hairy;
seeds elliptic-oblong, reticulate
Fl & Fr: Mar-Dec Wild.

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Whole plant juice mixed with egg albumin is ground and and a fine cloth is dipped into the
mixture and tied around the fractured areas and tied with bamboo sticks.
Sarcostemma secamone (L.) Bennet ASCLEPIADACEAE

VN: Palatheega S: Dudhialata H: Dudhi E: Rosy milk weed
A twiner; leaves linear-lanceolate, subcoriaceous, base truncate, apex mucronate; flowers
drooping, few-flowered, lateral lax cymes; follicles often solitary; seeds numerous, slightly
margined
Fl & Fr: Jul – Oct Wild. Peruru
Stem juice is mixed with egg albumin and a cloth drenched into the juice is tied on the effected
part till cure.
Sterculia urens Roxb. STERCULIACEAE

VN: Kondagogu, Tapasi chettu S: Batika H: Gulu E: Gum karaya
A large deciduous tree, bark in thin peelings, wood reddish brown; leaves palmately lobed,
tomentose beneath, base cordate, margin entire, apex acuminate; flowers greenish yellow, in
terminal panicles; fruit with stinging bristles; seed oblong, black
Fl & Fr: Nov – Mar Wild and cultivated.
Gum paste is applied on the broken bones once a day till cure.
Streblus asper Lour. MORACEAE

VN: Barrinka S: Lakhotala H: Khorus E: Sand paper mulberry
A small, evergreen tree; leaves small, wedge shaped, alternate, coarse, dentate, acute, flowers
dioecious, male in globose, heads, female solitary; fruit yellow, berry, ellipsoid, enclosed by
perianth.
Fl&Fr: Mar-Aug Wild.
Latex is plastered on the broken areas until it is healed.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The present study yielded 11 species belonging to 11 genera and 10 families used for curing
Filarial diseases by the aborigines of the district. There are Three herb, Four Shrubs, Four Trees.
CACTACEAE is the dominant family with 2 plants than
ASCLEPIADACEAE,CUCURBITACEAE,EUPHORBIACEAE,LAURACEAE,MORACEAE
,PASSIFLOR CEAE,STERCULIACEAE,TILIACEAE AND VITACEAE families one
each. All the practices involved one plant only.
Present investigation indicates that Khammam district is blessed with magnificent

diversity of ethno-medicinal plants used to cure many diseases. The present study will give new

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incentive to the traditional system of healthcare. Further, this approach for the treatment of bone
fractures is a practical, cost-effective and biological safe.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author are grateful to the tribals of Khammam district for sharing their valuable knowledge
and help during the field trips.
REFERENCES
1. Chopra RN, Nayar SL, Chopra IC. Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants. 1st edn. New Delhi:
NISCOM; 1956. p. 235.
2. Kirtikar KR, Basu BD. Indian Medicinal Plants. Vol. 3. Allahabad: Lalit Mohan Basu
Publications; 1933. p. 2291.
3. Jain SK. Dictionary of Indian Folk Medicine and Ethnobotany. New Delhi: Deep Publications;
1991. p. 172.
4. Lalramnghinglova, H. 2003.Ethnomedicinalplants of Mizoram. Bishen Singh & Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun.
5. Arora R.K., Ethnobotany and its role in the conservation and use of plant genetic resources in
India, Ethnobotany, 9,6-15 (1997)

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EBOLA VIRAL DISEASE (EVD)
Gajula.Nagaraju1*, Dr.Chitturi.Dayakar1, Badugu.Karunakar1, Edunuri. Rajesh2,
Bommidi. Manoj2, Guguloth.Bhaskar3.

1*
Dhanvanthari Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences,Sujathanagar-507120, Khammam,
Telangana,India.
ABSTRACT
Ebola virus disease (EVD) has been creating a terror effects all around the globe and has been
declared as epidemic in most part of the world .The causative micro organism of EVD Is ebola
virus, ebola virus is spread by the direct contact with bush-animals(mostly monkeys and bats).
Ebola is also spread by the person infected by EVD. Ebola can produce a number of symptoms
in both adults and childrens are high fever, blood vomiting, diarrhoea. The intensity of this
disorder can be lowered by diagnosing and taking proper treatment.
Key words: Ebola virus, Epidemic,Transmission.
INTRODUCTION
Ebola virus is an emerging viral infection that is a present,global public health problem. There
are many cases of EVD in the present day. This new infection can be seen around the world in
the present days. This infection is a kind of variant of Ebola virus infection(figure 1).
*Corresponding Author.
*Gajula.Nagaraju
E-mail address;[email protected],[email protected].
Phone number;+919000338933,+919948303674.
Dhanvanthri Institute of Pharmaceutical sciences,
Sujathanagar-507120,Khammam,Telangana,India

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Figure 1:Atomic force microscopy image of the reasserted ebola virus
The problematic virus was firstly detected in areas of Sudan and Zaire in 1976 and this
virus is most widely studied virus in the present day. Due to the nature of this viruse the
transmission is contact person to person. Hence the rapid spreading and difficulty in control of
this infection can be expected(1)
Ebola, also called the African deadly virus. Ebolavirus (EV) orEbola virus disease
(EVD), formerly known as Ebola hemorrhagic fever. It is strain of the Filoviridae family
(filovirus), that is endemic in fruit-Bat(2). As of 1976 the known EV five species of genus are
Zaïre ebolavirus, Sudan ebolavirus, Reston ebolavirus, Taï Forest ebolavirus and Bundibugyo
ebolavirus.Ebola virus have been reported to spread from person to person,transmission of EVD
requires direct contact with blood, secretions, organs or other bodily fluids of dead or living
infected persons or animals or with material or utensils heavily contaminated with such fluids.
The first cases were reported from Guéckédou prefecture, a forested region of south-eastern
Guinea near the border with Liberia and Sierra Leone. After a slowdown in April, the
outbreak has accelerated during the last two months. This is the largest EVD outbreak ever
reported, both in terms of number of cases and geographical spread. It is also the first time
EVD has spread to large cities.
As of 27 July 2014, the cumulative number of cases reported to have been infected in the
three countries was 1 323, including 729 deaths (combined case-fatality rate = 55%). This
includes one case exported from Liberia to Nigeria. The distribution and classification of the
cases are as follows, based on best available information reported by ministries of health
through the World Health Organization, Regional Office for Africa:
HISTORY
For the first time Ebola was identified by the scientist peter poit (medical school graduate
training as a clinical microbiologist) in areas of Sudan and Zaire, Ebola virus disease observed
simultaneously in zaire and yumbuku . Due to the presence of river Ebola in the village of about

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in 284 in number with mortality rate of 53% Given the current situation of Ebola virus disease
(EVD) in West Africa, the Pan American Health Organization / World Health Organization
(PAHO/WHO) advises its Member States to remain vigilant for potential introduction of EVD in
the Americas, to raise the awareness and knowledge of health care providers and to strengthen
the implementation of standard precautions for infection prevention and control in health care
facilities at all levels(2).
HOW IT SPREAD
Like most viruses, it enters the body through the transmembrane –skin, blood stream,
open wounds. It goes from person to person through close contact and direct touch, in-direct
touch or saliva. Infected persons may be able to infect others beginning 10 to 21 days or more
days becoming sick.
People with ebola virus infection should be consider potentially contagious as long as they are
symptomtic and possible up to 10-21 days following ill ness on set(4). Indirect contact with
environment and fomites soiled with contaminated bodily fluids (e.g. needles) may also occur.
Airborne transmission has not been documented during previous EVD outbreaks. There is no
risk of transmission during the incubation period
STRUCTURE OF EBOLA
Figure:2Structure of Ebola genome and proteins
In Ebola virus structure consists of 7 structural proteins: they are yumbuku it is named as Ebola.
During the first out break of Ebola in Sudan infected people are

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Nucleoprotein (NP),4 viral/virion proteins (VP35, VP40, VP30, VP24,)glycoprotein
(GP,),RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (L protein),NP, VP35, VP30, L protein: required for
transcription & replication,VP40, GP, VP24: associated with the membrane.
– -Transcribed into 8 sub-genomic mRNA proteins: 7 structural and 1 nonstructural
SHAPE OF EBOLA
• Ebola is a filamentous virus with a single stranded RNA genome with an unusual variable
length
• Ebola virus forms variable lengths, filamentous, capsid that are some times branched
• The core has straighted appearance similar to that of rabdoviruses
INCUBATION PERIOD
Every virus, bacteria or pathogen of any time has a certain incubation period. This period is the
time it takes after the pathogen enters the body, for the symptoms to appear. Like all Ebola virus
the average incubation period is The incubation period is usually four to ten days but can vary
from two to 21 days. The case-fatality ratio for Zaïre ebolavirus infections is estimated to be
between 50% and 90%
Signs and symptoms

In humans
The symptoms includes, highfever (brutal and prolonged), abdominal pain, joint or body pain,
difficulty in swallowing, head ache, nausea, vomiting, dehydration, in some cases bleeding from
mouth. Eyes,nose and anus(5,6)
Diagnosis
Once an individual with illness compatible with EVD is identified, a sample must be taken
(whole blood and / or serum) for the diagnosis, The sample should be taken by trained health
personnel with extreme biosecurity measures and additional protective equipment
This sample should ideally be taken at the hospital designated to handle cases compatible with
EVD and sent to the National Reference Laboratorycan only be performed in patients who have
already developed symptoms. The confirmation is not possible during the incubation period If
patient has died with clinical and epidemiological history compatible with EVD, taking an oral
swab is suggested(7).

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Prevention and Control
Human-to-human transmission of the Ebola virus is primarily associated with direct or indirect
contact with blood and body fluids. Transmission to health-care workers has been reported when
appropriate infection control measures have not been observed(8).
It is not always possible to identify patients with EBV early because initial symptoms may be
non-specific. For this reason, it is important that health-care workers at all level apply standard
precautions
• Hand hygiene.
• Safe handling and disposal of sharp instruments.
• Use of personal protective equipment (PPE) according to the risk assessment.
• Hand hygiene.
• Safe handling and disposal of sharp instruments.
• Use of personal protective equipment (PPE) according to the risk assessment.
• Clean and disinfect spills, environment, and reusable equipment safely.
• Clean and disinfect spills, environment, and reusable equipment safely.
• Use of surgical masks, goggles – preferably with anti-fog visor, waterproof apron,
gloves and closed shoes before entering the patient's room.
• Goggles or eyewear must be washed with water and soap in advance and then
disinfected with 70% alcohol after.
Cleaning in the hospital and of households of patients

At home: If a patient develops symptoms at home before being isolated, the home should be
disinfected, and the clothing and the patient’s bedding and clothing should be incinerated.
• Clean surfaces with blood or other body fluids with water and detergent prior to
disinfection.
• Disinfection should be done with hypochlorite solution 0.05%.
• Use gloves, gowns and closed shoes for cleaning and disinfecting surfaces with blood and
/ or body fluids.
In the hospital: Both the bedding and clothing of the patient should be placed in a bag before
washing and routed separately to the hospital laundry facilities where staff is to be adequately
protected. Hand washing these items is not recommended(9).
CONCLUSION
From Above Survey of information it can be well known that the EVD is a dangerous
disorder which is spreading all world wide and this is a casual thing to be considered that there is
chance will be infected in India.It is important to take consideration about this disease it proved
deadly one. And thus the intensity of this disorder can be lowered by diagnosing and taking
proper treatment.
REFRENCES

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1 WHO Ebola virus disease: background and summary. Available at:
http://www.who.int/csr/don/2014_04_ebola/en/
2. International Travel and Health. 2014 Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) outbreak in West Africa.
Travel and transport risk assessment: Recommendations for public health authorities and
transport sector. Available at: http://www.who.int/ith/updates/20140421/en/
3. WHO Aviation Guide which includes information on sanitizing of aircraft. Available at:
http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/aviation_guide/en/
4. IATA guidelines for air crew to manage a suspected communicable disease or other
public health emergency on board. Availableat:
http://www.iata.org/whatwedo/safety/health/Documents/health-guidelines-cabin-
crew- 2011.pdf
5. IATA guideline for cleaning crew for an arriving aircraft with a suspected case of
communicable disease. Availableat:
http://www.iata.org/whatwedo/safety/health/Pages/index.aspx
6. ICAO Health related documents (1) Procedures for Air Navigation Services; (2) Annex
Medical Supplies. Available at:
http://www.capsca.org/CAPSCARefs.html%22%20/t%20%22_new
7. European Centre for Disease prevention and Control. Risk assessment guidelines
for infectious diseases transmitted on aircraft. June 2009. Available at;
http://www.hpsc.ie/A/Vectorborne/ViralHaemorrhagicFever/Guidance/File,4661,en.-
pdf
8. Risk assessment guidelines for diseases transmitted on aircraft (RAGIDA). Part 2:

Operational guidelines Second edition. November 2009. Available at:
- 14http://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications/_layouts/forms/Publication_DispForm.as
- px?List=4f55ad51-4aed-4d32-b960-af70113dbb90&ID=332
-
9. Interim Infection Control Recommendations for Care of Patients with
Suspected or Confirmed Filovirus (Ebola, Marburg) Haemorrhagic Fever.
March2008.WHO.Availableat:http://www.who.int/csr/bioriskreduction/interim_recommenda
tions_filovirus.pdf?ua=1

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FRESHWATER ALGAE FROM KINNERASANI OF KHAMMAM

DISTRICT IN TELANGANA
K. RAJYALAXMI & M.ARUNA *
DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY, TELANGANA
UNIVERSITY,DICHPALLY,NIZAMABAD(T.S), INDIA
*E.mail:[email protected]
E.mail:[email protected]
ABSTRACT
In the present study an attempt was made to document the Freshwater algae from
Kinnerasani project located in Khammam district of Telangana state, South India. The name
Kinnerasani is derived from one of the tributaries of river Godavari that flows through the
kinnerasani wild life sanctuary. Site is located between 170-191 N and 180-191 N latitude,800-251
and 800-301 E longitude, an extending area of 635.4 sq.kms. Storage capacity of the reservoir is
8.4 TMC ft (thousand million cubic feet),Algal samples were collected from different areas of
Kinnerasani project for a period of one year between March 2013 to April2014. Collections were
stored in 4% formalin for further study. Collections from the project showed rich filamentous
algae belonging to various classes, such as Chlorophyceae, Bacillariophyceae, Euglenineae
and Cyanophyceae. Algae are simple photosynthetic organisms that form the base of the food
chain in lentic ecosystem. Cyanobacterial members play a vital role in fixing the nitrogen and
increase the yield of the paddy crop by 40-50%.
Keywords: Freshwater algae, Kinnerasani project, tributary, Godavari river & Khammam.
INTRODUCTION:
Fresh water algae occur abundantly in ponds, lakes, pools slow floating streams and springs.
Algae is used as fodder, human food, fish food and commercially used in manufacture of
industrial products.. Algae plays important role in nitrogen fixation in agricultural fields.
According to the habitat the algae may be aquatic, terrestrial aerophytic or grow as cryophytes,
thermophytes and algae of unusual habitats such as halophytic, lithophytic, epiphytic, epizoic
and endozoic forms were also studied. The algae exhibit a great diversity in the organization of
the plant body, Simple forms are motile or non-motile, unicellular (Chlamydomonas,Chlorella).
The cells are grouped into aggregations (colonies), (Volvox Pediastrum) , the filamentous types
are usually multicellular .Simple filamentous forms like (Zygnema, Oedogonium).
In some multicellular forms the cells may perform vegetative and reproductive functions while
in other multicellular forms special reproductive cells or organs may be developed, Chara
(Globule and Nucule). Algal cells are basically of two kinds prokaryotic and eukaryotic. The
prokaryotic cells which constitute thalli of Cyanophytes. The eukaryotic cells constituting the
thalli of all other members except Cyanophytes.

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MATERIALS AND METHODS:
Study area:
Kinnerasani is the most important medium irrigated project of khammam district
Telangana, India, completed in the year 1977. It is located at 17 42’ 6” N latitude 80 38” 23”E
longitude at Yanambile. The total length of dam is 2315 meters in area and height is 38
meters, number of spill way gates are 13.The dam provides water to the Kothagudem thermal
power station (KTPS) for power generation at Paloncha. Thousands of acres of cultivated land
is irrigated by kinnerasani dam. The main attraction of kinnerasani dam is wild life sanctuary
which covers an area of 635.4 sq kms. Temperature is 150C-450C mean annual temp is
480C ,average rain fall is 863.55mm (June-September). Due to moderate climatic conditions
kinnerasani dam water is suitable for the growth of fresh water algae.
To document the diversity of fresh water algae exploration trips were carried out in
kinnerasani dam during the years 2012 to 2014 at monthly intervals. Algal samples were
collected from different areas, such as slow streaming water, stones in dam, walls of dam branch,
canals of dam and collected soil samples from nearby paddy fields also. Different types of algae
such as floating, submerged, epiphytic, Lithophytic forms were expected to grow. Algal samples
were collected separately in acid washed collection bottles. Samples were preserved in 4%
formalin for further microscopic study. Collected sample were observed under Olympus Light
microscope by using lens 10x X 20x. Algal Species were identified with the help of available
literature of Desikachary (1959), Kamat (1984), Randhawa(1959), Ramanatham (1964),
Philipose (1967), and Prescott(1961) . Diatoms were identified using standard texts( Barber and
Haworth, 1981; Heurck, 1896;Kelly, 2000) and Chlorococcalean members were identified
taking the help standard literature ,Tiffany & Britton (1952) and Prasad & Misra (1992) &
Vidyavati, 2007.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In our Present study we have identified 30 species in all, the members belonging to 4
Division, 4 Classes, 9 Orders, 14 Families and 24 Genera. The results are presented in Table -1.
High Temperatures has a direct effect on growth of algal members and aquatic communities.
Welch (1952). In our study the growth of algal members and aquatic communities were very
high due to high temperature recorded at study site , Kinnerasani dam waters . Algal members
and Cyanobacteria are being classified by morphological features such as cells, cellular
arrangement, hetetorocyst in cyanobacteria, unicellular and colonial forms. (Komark and
Angnostides (2005), Desikachary(1959) in habitats like rivers, lakes, ponds, and wells. In our
study some pollution tolerant specie were also identified such
Oscillatoria,Anabaena,Scenedesmus species etc.
TABLE – 1: List of Algal members recorded from Kinnerasani Dam.

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S.NO SPECIES FAMILY CLASS ORDER HABIT
NAME
1. Chlorella Chlorellaceae Chlorophyceae Chlorococcales Unicellular,
vulgaris non motile.
2. Pediastrum Hydrodictyaceae Chlorophyceae Chlorococcales Non motile
boryanum coenobium.
3. Pediastrum Hydrodictyaceae Chlorophyceae Chlorococcales Non motile
simplex coenobium.
4. Hydrodictyon Hydrodictyaceae Chlorophyceae Chlorococcales Non motile
reticulatum coenobium.
5. Oedogonium Oedogoniaceae Chlorophyceae Oedogonales Unbranched
formosum filamentous.
6. Chlamydomon Chlamydomonadaceae Chlorophyceae Volvocales Unicellular,
as reticulata motile.
7. Pandorina Volvocaceae Chlorophyceae Volvocales Motile
morum coenobium.
8. Eudorina Volvocaceae Chlorophyceae Volvocales Motile

indica coenobium.
9. Volvox Volvocaceae Chlorophyceae Volvocales Motile

globarator coenobium.
10. Scenedesmus Scenedesmaceae Chlorophyceae ChlorococcalesMotile

quadricauda coenobium.
11. Coleochaete Coleochaetaceae Chlorophyceae Chaetophorales Multicellular
sentata filamentous.
12. Cladophora Cladophoraceae Chlorophyceae Cladophoraceae Multicellular
crispata filamentous.
13. Zygnema Zygnemaceae Chlorophyceae Conjugales Multicellular
melanosperous filamentous.
14. Spirogyra Zygnemaceae Chlorophyceae Conjugales Multicellular
acquinoctialis filamentous.
15. Chara fragilis Characeae Charophyceae Charales Multicellular
filamentous.
16. Pinnularia Naviculoidaceae Bacillariophyc Pinnales Unicellular.
viridis eae
17. Navicula Naviculoidaceae Bacillariophyc Pinnales Unicellular.
turgidus eae
18. Oscillatorie Nostocaceae Cyanophyceae Nostocales Unbranched
principes filamentous.
19. Oscillatorie Nostocaceae Cyanophyceae Nostocales Unbranched
chlorina filamentous.
20. Nostoc Nostocaceae Cyanophyceae Nostocales Unbranched
microscopium filamentous.

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endophytium filamentous.
commune filamentous.
23. Gleocapsa spp Chroococaceae Cyanophyceae Chroococcales Unbranched
filamentous.
24. Spirulina Oscillatoriaceae Cyanophyceae Nostocales Unbranched
major filamentous.
25. Spirulina Oscillatoriaceae Cyanophyceae Nostocales Unbranched
gigantia filamentous.
26. Anabaena Oscillatoriaceae Cyanophyceae Nostocales Unbranched
planctonica filamentous.
27. Scytoname Oscillatoriaceae Cyanophyceae Nostocales Unbranched
circinnatum filamentous.
28. Lyngbya Oscillatoriaceae Cyanophyceae Nostocales Unbranched
majaor filamentous.
29 Lynbya Oscillatoriaceae Cyanophyceae Nostocales Unbranched
gracilis filamentous.
30 Phormidium Oscillatoriaceae Cyanophyceae Nostocales Unbranched
molle filamentous.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT :
We are grateful to Prof. Vidyavati, Former Vice- Chancellor of Kakatiya University,
Warangal for her valuable suggestions and constant encouragement.
REFERENCES
Akhtar, N.,M.Afzal and A. Rab. 1990.Evaluation of algal Utilization and dietary component in
freshwater fishes. Pak.J.Zoology,22(3):279-287.
Barber H G & Hayworth EY 1981. A guide to the morphology of the diatom ftusule. Scient.
Publs. Freshwater Biol. Ass.44 1-11.
Chaddha A & Pandey DC 1978 . Addition to the algal flora of Allahabad II. (Chlorophyta,
Chlorococcales), Phykos17 (1-2) 73-80
Desikachary T.V.1959 Cynophyta, ICAR Monograph on Algae. New Delhi.686.

Fristch, F.E.1956. The structure and Reproduction of the Algae .Vol.I & II.The Syndicate of the
Cambridge University press,London
Kumawat DA and Jawale AK,2004. An ecologiocal Behaviour Euglenoids in a fish pond,
periodicity and abundance. J.Aque Bio19(1):7-10
Philipose MT 1967 Chlorococcales , I.C.A.R. Monographs on algae. New Delhi. 365p.

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Prasad BN & Misra PK 1992 “Algal flora of Andaman and Nicobar Islands , vol.II” B. Singh and
Mahender Pal Singh Pub. Dehradoon, 284p
Prescott GW 1961 “Algae of the western greates lakes area”. W. M.C. Brown Publishers
Dubuque , Iowa. 977p
Ramanathan, KR 1964 Ulotrichales ICAR, New Delhi, pp 174.
Randhava, MS 1959 Zygnemataceae, ICAR , New Delhi , pp 436.
Suxena, M.R. and V.Venkateswarlu 1968. Desmides of Andhra Pradesh,IV. From Dharmasagar
Lake, Warangal. J.Osm.uni,sci.,52:316-34.
Tiffany LH & Britton ME 1952. “The Algae of Illinios.” Hafner Publishing comp., New York,
407p
Vidyavati(2007). Biodiversity in Desmids.Indian Hydrobiology,10 (1): 27-33.

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Ethno- Medicinal Plants in Bhadrachalam Forest-
Khammam District of Telangana State.

Dr.S.Rama Mohana Rao, G.Ravi, Ch.Saidi Reddy, S.K.Shareefa SR & BGNR
[email protected]
[email protected]
Abstract: The use of Herbal medicine is a common practice, in the agency area by the
tribal people. The tribes who are inhabiting on the hill cliffs of the forest area, collects the
plants parts like Barks,Roots,Leaves of various plants and make them into powder nor
decotion, to cure various diseases like Diabetes,Cold&Cough, Fever, Jaundice, Asthma&
Skin Disorders etc. By interacting with the tribal communities and vejjolu of that area, the
research team of SR&BGNR Govt.Degree College Botany Department collected some
medicinal plants and made them into an Herbarium. Disease wise (14), which
plants were administered by the tribal communities were recorded.
Keywords: Herbal medicine, Barks, vejjolu
Introduction: Bhadrachalam Revenue division is in Khammam District of Telangana
state.The forest is of Tropical rain forest & Tropical Dry deciduous type. Predominant Red
and Black soils are present in that area. The climate of the District is moderate, with an
average annual rain fall of 175 centimetres during the monsoon season. And the
temperatures range from a minimum of 40 °C and can rise up to
a maximum of 45 °C to 50 °C temperatures respectively.
The area is dominated by the Tribals like Konda reddis,Lambadas, Koyas, Gutti koyas.
Usually Konda reddis prefer to live in the hill cliffs regions by adopting podu cultivation. They
use to collect Fruits, Bamboo,Honey, Resins, Gums, Barks, Seeds, etc. and sold it in Girijan
Corporation. They may also collect, tree Barks, Other Ethno- Medicinal Plant parts for curing
various body ailments. They are more reluctant to come down from the hills, unless, if the
diseases are uncontrollable. The information reg. Ethno- Medicinal Plants are not generally
revealed to the common public, unless and until the confidence built by them. The
valuable information regarding these Plant products are transferred from one to one through
orally. Some times a few bark powders may mixed and give it to the patients.
2.Materials & Methods:

The data has been collected by field survey of different forest villages of
Bhadrachalam agency area, along with the Tribal Physician ( Vejjolu). The Research team
went in to the forest and identified the Plants, from where he is collecting. Herbarium
specimens of the above plants were made and kept in S.R& B.G.N.R Govt Degree College
Khammam for records.

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3.Observation:
The present study shows, that the Barks, Roots and leaves of some plants are used in
the treatment of various ailments like..Headache, Cough & Cold, Diabetes, White patches,
and Abortions. The collected plants Scientific name, Vernacular name, useful part was
given in the table. The Botanical name, Vernacular name & useful part of the plant used by
the tribals were given in the following Table -1
Plant parts used in Ethno-medicine by Tribals of Bhadrachalam agencyarea of

Khammam District, Andhra Pradesh.
s.n Disease Scientific Vernacular name Useful
o name part
1 HEADACHE Acalypha Muripinda Leaves

indica
Achyranthes Uttareni Seeds

aspera
Asparagus Sathavari Tuber juice

racemosus
Clitoria ternata Dhintena Leaves
Curculigo Nelatadi Leaves

orchioides
2 DIABETES Acacia Tella thumma Stem bark

leucophloea
Acorus calamus Vasa Rhizome
Carissa Vakkaya Leaves

carandas
Crataeva magna Varuna Stem bark
Enicosterva Nelagolimidi Whole

littorale plant
3 WHITE Abrus Gurivinda leaves

PATCHES precatorious
Aerva lanata Kondapindi Root
Argemone Pitchi kusuma Leaves,

mexicana roots.

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Bombax ceiba Boorugu Chettu root
Cassia Thangedu Leaves

auriculata
Cassia Kasintha Root

occidentalis
Cassytha Paachi Theega Leaf juice

Filiformis
Cocculus Doosari Teega Root

hirsutus
Ficus racemosa Medi Chettu Root

powder
4 ABORTIONS Aristolochia Nalla eshwari Root juice

indica
Averrhoa Karambola Seed

carambola
Calotropis Jilledu Leaves

gigantia
Citrullus Pedda papara Leaf juice

colocynthis
chedu puchha)
Drypetes Putramjeevika Seed

roxburghii
Plumbago Chitramoolam Root

zeylanica
5 COUGH &
COLD
Abelmoschus Kasturi Benda Seeds
moschatus
Albizia amara Narlinga Root bark
Andrographis Nelavemu Leaves

paniculata
Bambusa Bongu veduru Whole

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arundinacea plant
Carmona retusa Bapanapuri Leaf
Cassia tora Thagirasa Root
Celastrus Malleru Teega Leaves

paniculatus
Coccinia Donda Leaf

grandis
Cordia Bankanekkera Leaf

dichotoma
Coriandrum Dhaniyaalu Fruit

sativum
Dichrostachys Velthuru Chettu Whole

cinerea plant
Ficus racemosa Medi Chettu Latex
Gmelina Gummudu Chettu Leaf juice

arborea
Hibiscus Muddamandaram Leaf

mutabilis
Holarrhena Kodishapala/Kolam Whole

antidysenterica uki plant
Pongamia Kanuga Chettu Leaves

pinnata
6 STOMACH
PAIN
Alpinia galanga Dumpa Rastram Rhizome
Cocculus Doosari Teega Root juice

hirsutus
Curcuma Mamidaalam Root

amada
Cynodon Garika gaddi Root, Stem

dactylon

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Cyperus Tunga gaddi Tuber
rotendus
Hyptis Danti tulasi Root

suaveolens
7 MOTIONS Abutilon Mudra Benda Leaf

indicum
Aegle Maredu Bark

marmelos
Boswellia Anduga Chettu Wood

serrata
Cassia fistula Rela chettu Root
Cissompelos chiruboddi Root

perira
Cleistanthus Kodisapaala Stem

collinus
Cryptolepis Paala Teega Root

buchnani
Euphorbia hirta Gurri mokka Leaf
Ficus Marri chettu Leaf

bengalensis
Ficus hispida Brahma medi Latex

chettu
Ficus religiosa Raavi chettu Whole

plant
Grewia hirsuta Jabilika Root
Gymnema Podapathri Whole

plant
sylvestre
Helicteres isora Nulikaya Chettu Seeds
Psidium Jama Flower

guajava buds
8 FEVER Ailanthus Peddamanu Fruit

excelsa

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Boerhaavia Atakamamidi Leaf juice
diffusa
Caesalpinia Gatchakaaya Stem

bonduc bark,leaf
Carica papaya Boppasa Fruit
Cymbopogan Nimmagaddi Leaf oil

citratus
Evolvulus Vishunukrantha Whole

alsinoides plant
Helianthus Proddutirugudu Leaf

annus
Lannea Gumpena Stembark

coromandelica
Mimosa pudica Lajjalu Whole

plant
9 NERVE Artemisia Matchipatri Leaf juice

DISORDERS vulgaris
Bacopa monieri Jala Brahammi Whole

plant
Hibiscus Yerragongora Flower

sabdariffa
Trichopus Arogya putchha Leaves

zeylanicus
Withania Pennerugadda Root

somnifera powder
10 ASTHMA
Butea Moduga Flowers
monosperma
Coleus Karpooravalli Leaves

amboinicus
Datura metal Nalla ummetta Leaf

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Indigofera Neeli Root juice
tinctoria
Justicia Addasaramu Flowers

adhatoda
Leucas aspera Tummi kura Root
Tylophora Meka mayeni aaku Leaf+Pepp

indica er
Vitex negundo Vavili Leaf

juicewith
dried ginger
11 JAUNDICE
Blumea mollis Kukka pogaku Whole

plant
Canna coccinea Krishna Tamara Root
Cassia tora Thagirasa Leaves
Centella Saraswathi aaku Whole

asiatica plant
Eclipta alba Guntagalagaraku Leaf
Pavetta Papidi chettu Stem bark

tomentosa juice
Ricinus Amudamu Seed Oil

communis
Tribulus Palleru Whole

terrestris plant
12 EARACHE Borassus Taati Young

flabellifer flower
Capparis Uppi Root bark

zeylanica
Cardiospermum Butla teega Root

halicacabum

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Costus Costaceae Rhizome
speciosus
Crinum Adavi ulli Leaf

asiaticum
Diplocyclos Lingapottla Fruit

palmatus
Euphorbia Kadajemudu Phylloclad

tirucalli e
Solanum Kamanchi Leaf

nigrum
13 SKIN
DISORDERS
Argemone Pitchikusuma Seeds,
mexicana fruits
Bauhinia Devakanchanamu Root

purpurea
Calotropis Jilledu Latex

gigantia
Carthamus Kusumalu Seed

tinctorius
Cassia absus Chanupala Leaf
Dalbergia Irugudu chepa Stem bark

latifolia
Hedychium Kachhuralu Rhizome

spicatum
Jatropa carcus Pedanepalamu Latex
Lawsonia Gorinta Leaf

innermis
Tinospora Tippateega Root tuber

cordifolia
Vernonia Garitiki Seed +

pepper

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cinerea seeds
14 URINARY Ammannia Agnivendram Whole

DISORDERS baccifera plant
Caryota urens Jeeluga Toddy

neera
Cissus Nalleru Whole

quadrangularis plant
Cuminum Jeelakarra Seeds

cyminum
Diospyros Tuniki Flower

melanoxylon
Hemidesmus Sugandhipala Root

indica
Conclusion:- Folk medicinal plants survey of the area reveals that the people possess good
knowledge of herbal drugs, but as they are in progressive exposure to the
modernization,their knowledge on traditional uses of plants may be lost in due course. So it
is important to study and document the knowledge on plants used by different ethnic people
for the benefit of future generations. This type of studies may also provide valuable
information to biochemists & pharmacologists in screening of individual species and their
phyto constituents to accelerate the drug discovery and development process for the
treatment of above mentioned diseases.
Acknowledgement:- The authors are grateful to the principal SR&BGNR Govt Degree
College Khammam for providing facilities. Thanks are also due to UGC New Delhi for
providing research grant.

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PLATE-1 PLATE-2
Figure-1. Carissa carandus Figure-2. Ficus hispida
igure-3. Butea monosperma Figure-4. Euphorbia hirta
Figure-5. Cassia tora Figure-6. Asparagus racemosus

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Figure-7. Eclipta alba Figure-8. Holarrhena antidysenterica
Figure-9. Cassia auriculata Figure-10 Cassia fistula

References:-
1). Gamble. JS & Fischer CEC, Flora of the Presidency of Madras,(Land on Rep.ed
1957, BSI, Calcutta. (1935).
2). Hemadri.K, Tribals of A.P – Their knowledge in Nutritional & Medicinal herbs,
Indian med; 4 (3) (1992) 1-6.
3). Hemadri. K & Rao SS, Folk Medicine of Bastar, ethno botany 1 ( 1-2) (1989) 66-66.
4). Prayaga Murty, P.& G.M. Narasimha Rao (2010) Unique Ethnomedicinal Uses of
some plant species of Andhrapradesh, India, Journal of phytology 2 (4):17-21.
5). Venkaiah 1998. Ethnobotany of same plants from Vizianagaram District, A.P: Flora
& Fauna 4: 90-92

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PLANT-MADE PHARMACEUTICALS
G.Sailaja, M.Sc,M.Phil,(Ph.D)
Department of Chemistry, Singareni Collieries Women’s degree Collage, Kothagudem.
E-Mail ID: [email protected]
Abstract : Plant is the host for the manufacture of the active ingredient for a drug.Active
ingredient manufacture and marketing is regulated by FDA. The science and policy of
pharmaceuticals produced and/or delivered by plants has evolved over the past twenty-one years
from a backyard remedy to regulated, purified products. ‘Biopharming’ involves the use of
genetically modified (GM) plants or plant cells to produce proteins of therapeutic value. It
combines the disciplines of biopharmaceutical production with molecular genetics for
agriculturalbiotechnology. Though the current economic climate begs for cautious investment as
opposed to trail blazing, it is perhaps a good time to look to the future of plant-made
pharmaceutical technology to assist in planning for future developments in order not to slow this
technology’s momentum. To encourage continued.
1. Introduction
The market for recombinant protein pharmaceuticals is large and growing rapidly, with nearly all
large pharmaceutical companies reporting an increasing revenue share from these products rather
than small-molecule drugs. Typically, these pharmaceuticals are manufactured using mammalian
or bacterial cell-based systems, which are complex to operate and inherently vulnerable to
contamination with human pathogens. Production facilities compatible with current good
manufacturing practice (cGMP) require huge capital expenditure and involve considerable
financial risk. Plant biotechnology has the potential to overcome some of these limitations, but
several hurdles remain before this new industry can effectively compete in the pharmaceutical
sector.
Plant biotechnology for recombinant protein expression now encompasses a range of

different technologies. The first approaches using transgenic plants have been supplemented by
new techniques, leading to dramatically improved yields and product consistency. In
combination with work to clarify and mature the regulatory framework surrounding PMPs, these
advances constitute potential for current and future commercial enterprise in the field.
Plant-based Protein Production:-

Researchers have also developed whole plant-based production systems for biopharmaceuticals.
Plants have been a source of drugs and useful molecules for millennia but only since the advent
of biotechnology has it been possible to use plants to produce proteins that are found elsewhere
in nature. The first pharmaceutical protein made in plants was human growth hormone, which
was produced in transgenic tobacco in 1986. In 1989, the first antibody was produced in tobacco
and in 1992 plants were used to produce an experimental Hepatitis vaccine. This research
demonstrated that plants can produce complex proteins that could be used to treat and prevent a

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variety of diseases. While there are currently no whole plant-derived PMPs commercially
available, there are a number at various stages of development.
The systems under development vary in their choice of plant species, growth conditions and
nature of genetic modification. A broad range of plant species has been studied and tested for
suitability for biopharming:
Tobacco: Itis a leafy, non-food crop with a high biomass yield (for high protein production) and
most advanced procedures for PMP production. Large-scale protein production in contained
greenhouses is a viable option for this crop.
Maize:Ithas the largest biomass yield for a cereal, is simple to genetically manipulate, and easy
to scale up in the field.
Safflower:It is an oilseed crop that is self-pollinating, scalable and genetically tractable. It is

only a minor crop in USA and Canada and is not cultivated in Europe.
Rice:Itis similar to maize in potential for scalability and genetic tractability but has higher
production prices. It carries a lower biosafety risk because it is self-pollinating, making it less
likely to cross with related plant species.
Product Applications for PMPs
Therapeutic proteins are used as both treatment and prevention for a diverse range of
diseases. Examples of current applications of PMPs in development include the following:
Vaccines. Medic ago (Canada) has engineered tobacco plants, using transient technology,
to produce influenza vaccines, which can be manufactured in a short time-frame in response to
an epidemic.
Antibodies. The Pharma-Planta project (EU) has engineered tobacco to produce anti-HIV
antibodies, which could be used as an active component in a topical anti-HIV microbicide cream.
Therapeutic proteins. Sembiosis (Canada) developed insulin and ApoAI (cholesterol-reducing

therapy) production in safflower.
Conclusions
In this review, we have covered only some of the approaches described to generate
recombinant proteins from plants. The myriad of plant production systems available offers
unrivalled flexibility to create financially and technically viable approaches for the production of
PMPs, but the lack of focus on a particular technology has doubtlessly delayed the application of
plant biotechnology as a whole to this field. Thus, the pathway to commercialization for PMPs
remains unclear. It is likely that the first wave of human therapeutics from plants will employ
cell culture approaches, by virtue of compatibility with existing regulatory frameworks.
The third class of PMPs is therapeutic enzymes. At least initially, PMPs in this class are

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likely to be “biosimilars” such as insulin (SBS-100, SemBioSys Genetics), glucocerebroside
(UP-LYSO, Protalix), and interferon-alpha (Locteron, Biolex Therapeutics). These products
benefit from a potentially abbreviated review process and streamlined product development. The
use of PMP technologies may allow the marketing of biosimilar versions of drugs with extant
patent protection in other production systems. However, in view of the vast manufacturing
capacity already in place in the generics sector, PMPs must also rely on the advantages of a plant
production platform to compete effectively.
References:
1. Quinion, Michael. "Molecular farming". World Wide Words.
2. Norris, Sonya (4 July 2005). "Molecular farming". Library of Parliament. Parliament of
Canada. PRB 05-09E.
3. Humphreys, John M; Chapple, Clint (2000). "Molecular 'pharming' with plant
P450s". Trends Plant Sci. Miller, Henry I. (2003).
4. Sijmons, Peter C.; Dekker, Ben M. M.; Schrammeijer, Barbara et al. (1990). "Production
of Correctly Processed Human Serum Albumin in Transgenic Plants". Bio/Technology .
5. Twyman, Richard M.; Stoger, Eva; Schillberg, Stefan et al. (2003). "Molecular farming
in plants: Host systems and expression technology". Trends Biotechnol. 21 (12): 570–
8. doi:10.1016/j.tibtech.2003.10.002. PMID 14624867.
6. Julian K-C.; Drake, Pascal M. W.; Christou, Paul (2003). "Genetic modification: The
production of recombinant pharmaceutical proteins in plants". Nature Reviews
Genetics 4 (10): 794–805. doi:10.1038/nrg1177. PMID 14526375.
7. "ProdiGene Launches First Large Scale-Up Manufacturing of Recombinant Protein
From Plant System" (Press release). ProdiGene. February 13, 2002. Retrieved March
8, 2013.
8. Boehm, Robert (2007). "Bioproduction of Therapeutic Proteins in the 21st Century and
the Role of Plants and Plant Cells as Production Platforms". Annals of the New York
Academy of Sciences 1102: 121–34. doi:10.1196/annals.1408.009.PMID 17470916.
9. Gasdaska, John R.; Spencer, David; Dickey, Lynn (2003). "Advantages of Therapeutic
Protein Production in the Aquatic Plant Lemna". BioProcessing Journal 2 (2): 49–56.
10. Baur, Armin; Reski, Ralf; Gorr, Gilbert (2005). "Enhanced recovery of a secreted
recombinant human growth factor using stabilizing additives and by co-expression of
human serum albumin in the moss Physcomitrella patens". Plant Biotechnology
Journal 3 (3): 331–40.

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STYDIES ON ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS OF SCWDC CAMPUS,

KOTHAGUDEM, KHAMMAM DIST. TELANGANA.
*M.Pushpalatha, **Ch. Pavani
*- DEPT. OF BOTANY, S.C.W.D COLLEGE, KOTHAGUDEM
**- DEPT. OF BIOTECHNOLOGY, S.C.W.D COLLEGE, KOTHAGUDEM
Abstract
The tribal people are intricately intertwined with the plants around them. They depend
on them for their food, shelter, fabric and also for medicine. Modern medicinal facilities are
scanty and moreover, herbal medicines are cheap, easily available and patient friendly. So the
tribals prefer their indigenous traditional knowledge for the cure of different ailments rather than
use of modern medicine, although their knowledge dosages are not always scientific.
Approximately nearly 75-90% of the world tribal and rural people are using the traditional
medicine for the treatment of their diseases. The present paper focuses on nearly 40 traditional
medicinal plants available at Singareni Collieries Women’s Degree College campus,
Kothagudem, Khammam district. The communication documented the traditional knowledge of
medicinal plants that are used by the tribal people. The information on the ethnomedicinal uses
of these plants was obtained through interaction with Local elders and experienced tribal people
of kothagudem.
Introduction:
Ethnobotany deals with the study of people and plant relationships. It interdisciplinary in
nature. Ethnobotany’s development has challenged the prevailing trend in academic studies of
the twentieth century of disciplinary specialization.
Our college campus spread over 10 acres of land has lot of greenery with many native
species. There is an arboretum with rare and economic important tree species. Hence the
present study was taken up to explore the ethnomedicinal uses of plants from Singareni
Collieries Women’s Degree College campus, which is located in kothagudem, Khammam
district, Telangana state.
Materials & Methods:
Field study was carried out over a period of approximately 2 months. A survey was
performed using questionnaires with local tribal people. In addition, the use value and the
relative importance of species were determined. Intended plants usage was compared with
previous ethnobotanical literature.

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Characteristics of plants species, local plant names, utilized parts and their uses were
investigated and recorded. In the scope of the study, medicinal plant species and related
information were collected; herbarium materials were prepared. Field research was conducted by
collecting ethnobotanical information by interviews with native people.
Results & Discussion:
The present study provides valuable information on uses of various ethnomedicinal plants
available at Singareni Collieries Women’s Degree College Campus of Kothagudem Khammam,
Telangana. The medicinal uses of these plants were got by the interaction with local tribal people
of kothagudem. Hence repeated interviews were conducted on such people and recorded the
information on medicinal resources. Table -1 shows the list of plants used by tribals in treatment
of various diseases. Total number ethnomedicinal plants Recorded were around 45 taxa. Out of
45species, 10 species are dicotyledons, 10 species are monocotyledons and 2 species are
pteridophytes.. The medicinal plants play an important role in social healthy system (Amit tomar
.2008).
Table I- The following table represents the Ethnomedicinal plants of the SCWDC campus.
S.NO SPECIES NAME VERNACULAR FAMILY NAME USES

NAME
1 Tinospora cordifolia Tippateega Menispermaceae Fevers, gout
2 Achyranthes aspera Uttareni Amaranthaceae Piles, Diurtic,

Dent
3 Centella asiatica Saraswathi aku Umbelliferae Brain tonic
4 Phyllanthus niruri Nela usiri Euphorbiaceae Jaundice
5 Phyllathus emblica Usiri Euphorbiaceae Asthma
6 Ocimum sanctum Tulasi Lamiaceae Ear ache,

Expectorant
7 Euphorbia hirta Pacha bottu Euphorbiaceae Urinary disorders,

asthama
8 Acalypha indica Muripinda Euphorbiaceae Hysteria, Skin

care

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9 Adenantheraparonia Bandigurijaku Mimosaceae Boils, Gout
10 Andrographis Nela vemu Acanthaceae All fevers

paniculata
11 Ricinus communis Castor Euphorbiaceae Diuretic
12 Cleome viscosa Vaminta Capparidaceae Ulcers
13 Jatropha curcas Nepalamu Euphorbiaceae Laxative, Leprosy
14 Azadirachta indica Neem Meliaceae Skin diseases
15 Calotropis gigantea Jilledu Asclepiadaceae Spasmodic
16 Vitex negundo Vavili Verbenaceae Sciatica, arthritis
17 Leucas aspera Tummi Lamiaceae Insecticide
18 Aerva lanatia Pindi kura Amaranthaceae Urinary calculi
19 Alternanthera Ponnaganti aku Amaranthaceae Night blindness,

sessilis snake bite, sore
eyes
20 Eclipta alba Gunta galagara Asteraceae Hair dye
21 Tridax procumbence Gaddi chamanthi Asteraceae Antiseptic
22 Abutilon indicum Tutturu benda Malvaceae Haematuria,

Strong
23 Murraya paniculata Poovelaga Rutaceae Analgesic
24 Tephrosia purpurea Vempali Fabaceae Spleen, liver
25 Pongamia pinnata Kanuga Fabaceae Skin disease
26 Mimosa pudica Touch me not Mimosaceae Piles, fistula
27 Solanum nigrum Kamanchi Solanaceae Vomiting,

anaemia, jaundice
28 Lantana camera Akshintha poolu Verbanaceae Cancer, leprosy,

chicken pox,
rabies, measles

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29 Boerhavia diffusa Yerra kadalu Nyctaginaceae Urinary disorders
30 Ficus religiosa Ravi Moraceae Gonorrhoea
31 Bauhinia purpuria Deva kanchanam Caesalpinaceae Carminative
32 Lawsoniea inermis Gorintaku Lythraceae Burning feet,

fever, leprosy,
rheumatoid
arthritis
33 Sapindus Kunkudu Sapindaceae Migrain

emarginatus
34 Syzigium cumini Neredu Myrtaceae Urinary calculi
35 Hemidesmus indicus Sugandhi pala Asclepiadaceae Blood purifier,

diabetes,
rheumatism
36 Cissus Nalleru Vitaceae Bone fracture

quadrangularis
37 Cymbopogon Lemon grass Graminae Analgesic,

citratus antipyretic, anti
bacterial ,
antifungal
38 Terminalia bellarica Thanikaya Combretaceae Tridosha
39 Vernonia cinera Sahadevi Asteraceae Analgesic,

antiinflamatory,
anti anaemic, anti
thermal
40 Acacia nilotica Nallathumma Mimosaceae Diuretic, Ulcers
41 Moringa tinctoria Munaga Moringaceae Rheumatism
42 Tectona grandis Teak Verbenaceae Digestion
43 Celosia argentea Gunugu Amaranthaceae Scorpion bite
44 Gloriosa superba Nabi Liliaceae Abortificient

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45 Bambusa Veduru graminae Tuberculosis
aurundanaria
46 Aegle marmelos Maredu Rutaceae Dysentary, vomit
47 Oldenlandia Amara Rubiaceae Whole plant

umbellate Snake bite
REFERENCES
• Hooker JD 1872-1897 The Flora of British India.London 7 Vols.

• Samant SS Rawal Rs and Pangtey Yps,1988. Aquatic and Marshy Angiospermic
plants of Nainital, Kumaun Himalaya.In Khulbe, R.D. (Ed) Perspective in Aquatic
Biology.Papyrus Pub House, New Delhi.p.p.409-416.
• Devlin RM, 1967. Plant Physiology. Reinhold, New York ,pp. 564.http://jsrr.in 14
ISSN:2249-7846 (Oneline)
• Mishra KC,1974. Manual of plant ecology. Oxford & IBH publishing co. New
Delhi,pp.491
• T.Pullaiah ,P.V Prasanna and G.Obulesu, 1992.Flora of Adilabad District.Used in
Ethno veterinary practices by koyas of Pakhal wild life sanctuary,Andhra
Pradesh,India
• V.Madhu and Ds Ravindra Naik 2009-Ethno medicinal uses of leaf preparations
in Adilabad Disrtict A. P. ,India. Ethnobotanical leaflets13-1337-47.
• Usha kumari J., Ramana V.V. and Reddy K.J 2012-Ethnomedicinal Plants used
for Wounds and Snake-Bites by Tribals of Kinnerasani region AP.India. Journal of
Pharmocognosy Volume 3,(2) pp-79-81.
• Jain, S.k. 1987. A manual of Ethnobotany, Scientific publishers, Jodhpur
Adilabad Disrtict A. P. ,India. Ethnobotanical leaflets13-1337-47
• Cook CDK 1996Aquatic and wetland Plants of India. Oxford university
press.London.
• Biswas K& Calder CC 1937hand-book of Common Water and marsh plants of India
and Burma. Govt.Press.Delhi.
• Sen DN & Chatterjee uN 1959 Ecological studies on the aquatic and Swampy
vegetation of gorakhpur.Agra University. J Res (Sci)8 1-14.
• C. P. Khare, Encyclopedia of Indian Medicinal Plants, Rational western theraphy,
Ayurvedic and other Traditional Uses, Botany (Springer, London, 2004) p. 303

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Agriculture-Yesterday, Today & Tomorrow
CH.Sumalatha, Lecturer in Botany, SCWDC
Introduction:
It is clear that the human species currently an eater of grass seeds. It is also clear that the
world's food supply depends on twelve or fifteen plant species like wheat,barly,rice,maize, etc.
humans that have lived on this earth, 90% were hunter, gatherers,6% were formers, and only 4%
industrialized. Hunter- gatherers may have simply began to grow plants in gardens as a hobby or
may have had spiritual reasons for growing plant in a protected environment. This is probably
explains why human began to domesticate plants. The first crops domesticated were cereal
grains. The agricultural applications of protoplast fusion are now beginning to be realized and
although the recent successes in plant transformation offer many new opportunities in plant
genetic engineering for crop improvement. In this article we discuss the methodologies needed to
develop the somatic hybrids, their key features.
Origins Of Agriculture
Domestication of crop plants, and development of industrial society's that followed, is

a recent event in our history we don't know why most humans shifted from a hunter gatherer life
style to an agricultural one. Several hypotheses exist, but they are purely, speculative. Hunter
gathers seemed to leave better lives than cultivators did. Their diet and health were better, their
starvation rate was lower, and they are worked for two hours. Their work week was only about
20 hours long because they had abundant free time; hunter gatherers may have simply began to
grow plants in gardens as a hobby. They may have began to cultivate a few plants to supplement
lean times in the gathering schedule. Or, they may have had spiritual reasons for growing plants
in a protected environment. Because agricultural practices arose independently in many parts of
the world over thousands of years, each of these scenarios probably explains why humans began
to domesticate plants.Interspecific sexual hybridization has, been important both in the evolution
of cultivated crops and for the development of new cultivated varieties.
Plant Breeding
The systematic breeding of crop plants has been carried out only in the past 200 years.
Until then crop improvement was based on simply selecting and planting seeds from desirable
plants.
Plant breeding is accelerated evolution guided by humans rather than nature. Breeders
replace natural selection with human selection in order to modify plants genetically meet our
needs. The primary goals of plant-breeding programs are commonly improved yield, with
disease resistance, and stress tolerance contributing to yield.

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Breeding Methods using Sexually Compatible Germ Plasam
A Plant Breeder tends to divide crop plant species into two groups. self pollinating and
cross pollinating. A self pollinating plant is capable of fertilizing itself, while a cross pollinating
one can't. Breeding methods for self pollinating plants are radically different from those for cross
pollinating one's. A self pollinating plant tends to be highly homozygous because all of its gens
came from the same parent. The plants- mother was also it's father.
Norman Borlaug, who's is known as the "Father of Green Revolution" was awarded the
Nobel Prize in 1970 for developing new strains of wheat in Mexico. The new high yielding
strains, which were produced from crosses with a dwarf variety from Japan, were widely planted.
Before the project began in 1944, Mexico had imported wheat for many years, but the
new verities were so successful that, within 20 years, Mexico had quadrupled its wheat
production and had enough to export to other countries.
Breeding Methods using sexually incompatible germplasm
In recent years powerful new tools have been added to the tool boxes of plant breeders.
Most breeding progress today is made using crosses among crop plants and their relatives, as
described in the previous section, breeding methods using sexually compatible germ plasam.
However, in many breeding programs, species boundaries no longer exist. Through techniques
such as protoplast fusion and genes splicing genes from virtually any leaving organism can be
incorporated into crop plants. Everything, therefore, from an antifreeze gene in north Atlantic
fish to pesticide gene in bacteria is now accessible to breeding programs.
Protoplast Fusion
There are times when a breeder would like to tab into the genetic diversity of a plant
species that distantly related to a crop plant. However, it is possible to make a cross between the
2 species and obtained the viable seeds. An alternative strategy involves protoplast fusion. With
this method, cells of each species are grown in a liquid nutrient solution. then, their cell walls are
chemically stripped off to produce protoplasts. The protoplasts of the 2 species are mixed
together.
The selected protoplasts are than carried through a series of tissue culture events that
cause them to grow into whole plants.
Gene splicing and transgenic plants
Genes from virtually any organism, from viruses to human, can now be inserted into
plants, creating transgenic plants. The technologies that have been developed to support this
work arose from basic research to understand DNA structure and function. Recombinant
Danseuse that technology is based on the knowledge that DNA behaves the same no matter what

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organism carries it. Because the DNA code is nearly universal, a plant cell can read a DNA
sequence from almost any other organism and produce a foreign gene product.
REFERENCES
1. ECONOMIC BENEFITS FROM RESEARCH: AN EXAMPLE FROM

AGRICULTURE, Science: Robert E. Evenson1, Paul E. Waggoner2, Vernon W.
Ruttan 14 September 1979: Vol. 205 no. 4411 pp. 1101-1107.
2. The Global Supply and Demand for Agricultural Land in 2050: A Perfect Storm in
the Making?Am. J. Agr. Econ. 1 January 2011: 259-275.
3. Agricultural R&D, technology and productivity Phil Trans R Soc B 27 September
2010: 3035-3047.
4. Environmental Compliance In U.S. Agricultural Policy: Past Performance And
Future Potentialby Claassen, Roger & Breneman, Vincent E. & Bucholtz, Shawn &
Cattaneo, Andrea & Johansson, Robert C. & Morehart, Mitchell J.
5. Plant breeding methodology. Jensen, N. F., Plant breeding methodology. 1988 pp.
xviii + 676 pp. ISBN: 0-471-60190-X.

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A Study of Algal Diversity from Dhanbhad Lake, Kothagudem

B. Saroja, Lecturer in Botany, SCWDC, Kothagudem
Introduction:
The word algae represent a large group of different organisms from different
phylogenetic groups representing many taxonomic divisions. In general algae can be referred to
as plant life organisms that are usually photosynthetic and aquatic, but do not have true roots ,
stems, leaves, vascular tissue and has simple reproductive structure. They are distributed
worldwide in the sea in fresh water and in waste water. Most are microscopic but some are quite
large eg: some marine sea weeds that can exceed 50 Mt in length.
Algae are important as primary producer of organic matter that the base of the food chain.
They also provide oxygen for other aquatic life. Algae may contribute to mass mortality of other
organisms, in cases of algal blooms, but they also contribute to economic well being in the form
of food, medicine and other products.
Algal production issues
The commercial scale production of algae requires careful consideration of many issues
that can be broadly categorized into four main areas: selecting algae species which grow well in
specified environments, algae growth methods, water sources and issues and nutrient and growth
inputs
Nutrient and
Growth Inputs
Water sources Selecting Algae

and Issues Algal Production species
Algae Growth
methods
Material and Methods:

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Study site: Dhanbad Lake located in Kothagudem, Khammam Dist, Telangana State. The main
objective of the study is focused on diversity of algae.
Identification: one drop of sample was taken by the dropper and placed on the slide, then it is
covered with coverslip and observed under microscope.
Sampling and analysis: More than 10 algal samples were collected from different places of
Dhanbad Lake such as surface water, edges on stones, aquatic plants etc. Filamentous algae were
collected from mass growth by hand. The collected samples were observed fresh by preparing
wet mount within 48 hours. Then the samples were further preserved in Lugol’s solution and 4%
of Aldehyde solution separately for detailed study.
Results and Discussion:
S.No Genera Name Family Order Class
1 Oedogonium Oedoogoniaceae Oedogoniales Chlorophyceae
2 Pediastrum Hydrodictyceae Chlorococcales Chlorophyceae
3 Hydrodictyon Volvaceae Volvocales Chlorophyceae
4 Volvox Volvacaceae Volvocales Chlorophyceae
5 Chlamydomonas Chlamydomonadaceae Volvocales Chlorophyceae
6 Chlorella Chlorellaceae Chlorococcales Chlorophyceae
7 Closterium Closteriaceae Chlorococcales Chlorophyceae
8 Scenedesmus Scenedesmaceae Chlorococcales Chlorophyceae
9 Spirogyra Zygnemataceae Conjugales Chlorophyceae
10 Zygnema Zygnemataceae Conjugales Chlorophyceae
11 Chara Characeae Charales Chlorophyceae
12 Pinnularia Naviculaceae Pinnales Bacillariophyceae
13 Oscillatoria Nostocaceae Nostocales Cyanophyceae
14 Anabaena Nostocaceae Nostocales Cyanophyceae
15 Scytonema Scytonemataceae Nostocales Cyanophyceae

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In the present investigation, different groups of algae was verified from study area. In the present
study algal taxa of chlorophyceae, Bacillariophyceae, Cyanophyceae were dominant.
SCENEDESMUS OEDOGONIUM
OSCILLATORIA CHLORELLA
PINNULARIA SPIROGYRA
VOLVOX ANABAENA

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References:
1. Anuja J, Chandra S, studies on fresh water algae in relation to chemical constituents of

Thiruneermalai temple tank near Chennai, India. International Journal of Current Sciences
2012: 4: 21-29.
2. Das SK, Adhikary SP, Algal diversity in the reservoirs of Odisha State, India. Indian
Hydrobiology 2012, 15 :17-41.
3. Jadhavar PB, Papdiwal PB, Taxonomic diversity of Diatoms at Nathsagar water reservoir,
paithan- Maharashtra. The Ecoscan 2012;6:1-4.
4. Palmer, C.M.A composite rating of algae tolerating organic population, J.Phycol 1969;
5:78-82.
5. Kaur HN, Jerathkanwal, Bath KS, Aquatic plant diversity of roper wetland. Journal of
Environmental sciences 2001; 6 : 23-26.

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PLANT ADAPTATIONS TO CLIMATE CHANGE

G.MANJULA, LECTURER IN ENGLISH, S.C.W.D.C, KOTHAGUDEM
Introduction:
Among the most significant and daunting challenges science and society are facing in this
century is predicting the response of plants, and the communities and ecosystems to which they
belong, to global climate change. Rapid environmental changes have long been recognized as
powerful driving forces for positive, directional selection as a main cause of adaptation to
changing conditions. Directional selection is reliant on the availability of genetic diversity for
selection to act upon. However, human-caused environmental change is currently occurring at
unprecedented rates. These changes are so rapid that for most plants, new adaptive mutations are
powerless to respond on a relevant time scale, leaving these organisms reliant on existing genetic
diversity to enable adaptation.
Content:
Extant genetic diversity may be sufficient to support significant adaptive responses, but
others (i.e. those that have gone through “population bottlenecks” in their recent evolutionary
history) may lack sufficient genetic diversity to respond successfully to rapid environmental
change. Moreover, in the case of very long-lived organisms that reach reproductive maturity
slowly, such as many tree species, environmental change may be occurring too rapidly to allow
the expression of the genetic diversity that may exist within the species for adaptation. Thus, the
capacity of organisms to respond to the current challenges of exceptionally rapid environmental
change is defined in large part by existing genomes, which will dictate the capacity of organisms
to resist rapidly changing conditions or govern the capacity to change in response to
perturbations in ways that maintain overall organism integrity.
In addition to being affected by rapid changes in their physical environment, plants, and
the communities and ecosystems to which they belong, also have the potential to drive important
feedbacks on the physical environment. For example, the increase in net primary productivity of
many terrestrial ecosystems in response to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) serves
to remove a greater amount of CO2 from the atmosphere, whereas the accompanying decrease in
evapotranspiration from plants may feedback on local climate to reduce precipitation, thereby
constraining net primary productivity. Climate change can also alter natural species abundance
and distribution or favor invasive species, which in turn can alter ecosystem dynamics and the
provisioning of ecosystem services.
Plants adjust to a changing environment by both phenotypic plasticity and adaptation

through trans-generation natural selection. However, recent rapid global climate changes appear
in some cases to have outpaced that ability, and increasingly such climate changes impact

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biodiversity of flora and fauna worldwide. Thus, the global shortages of fresh water and resulting
deterioration and desertification of arable lands call into question future food security in a
sustainable environment. Consequently, a great challenge for plant biologists in the 21st century
is to enhance the potential of food production while considering our environment and its
biodiversity. The cooperative center will host the multidisciplinary skills and approaches to
address the mechanisms underlying short- and long-term plant plasticity and adaptation to
environmental threats imposed by climate change
The I-CORE brings together plant biologists and computer scientists with the following
research approaches: (1) Deciphering the genetic and epigenetic factors affecting short- and
long-term (trans-generational) phenotypic plasticity and adaptation to environmental changes;
(2) Elucidating the mechanisms underlying the interactions of the environment with intrinsic
developmental programs, and the role of phytohormones in stress responses; (3) Elucidating the
key factors regulating plant metabolism and catabolism under stress with focus on the switch-
points driving cell death versus cell vitality; (4) Dynamics of cell structures (cell wall,
membranes, organelles, and protein complexes) and their role in stress responses; (5) Laying a
foundation for a computational perspective of plant behavior under a changing environment, and
predictions of selected genetic and environmental perturbations that will bring the plant to a
desired metabolic or functional state. To address these objectives, the I-CORE will establish
appropriate research infrastructure including: Plant Phenomics Center, Climate Change
Simulating Center, Metabolite Imaging & Hormone Profiling Center, Center for Analysis of
Plant Stress Proteins, Computational Network Analysis & Modeling.
The I-CORE will contribute to a more holistic view of a plant in a changing environment, will
boost research of fundamental scientific questions, and will impact on the local Ag-Biotech
industries towards improved plant robustness under changing climate. The Center will also
provide state-of-the-art education opportunities for training the next generation of plant
biologists.
Plant Adaptations:
There is a significant shift in climate patterns resulting in highly variable environmental

conditions that include higher temperatures and shift of seasons; changes in rainfall and
subsequent variation in water availability; increased incidence of extreme natural events such as
storms, flood and droughts; and a change in atmospheric gas composition. Such fluctuations are
having a dramatic impact on the planet; shrinking glacier size, increase in sea levels, shifts in
plant and animal ranges and patterns and a reduction in biodiversity. Climate change is therefore
one of the major challenges that the world is facing.
Plants are key to mitigating the effects of climate change as they are a major sink of
carbon from the atmosphere via photosynthesis. However plants are also a major source of
atmospheric carbon via human actions such as burning fossil fuels, deforestation, which accounts
for 1.1x1015 grams of carbon per year (Friedlingstein et al 2010 ) and also via their use in
agriculture, which is estimated to constitute a approximately 10-12% of all greenhouse gas
emissions (IPCC 2007).

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Agriculture itself is also directly affected by climate change, for example high
temperatures at flowering time reduce pollen viability and grain set in cereals. Global models
predicted that a 1°C rise in temperature will decrease yields by up to 10% in a number of crops
in all but high latitudes (Lobell et al 2011). Water availability is a major rate-limiting factor for
plant growth and since 80% of world agriculture is rain fed, changes in the amount and pattern of
precipitation and evaporation will have a significant effect on crop development and yield. In
addition, extreme climate events, especially floods, have increased from 14% of all natural
disasters in the 1980s to 20 percent in the 1990s and 27% since 2000 (FAO, 2008); this poses a
major threat to agricultural harvests. Changing climatic conditions are also altering the patterns
of weeds, plant pests and pathogens. For example, phoma stem canker of oilseed rape is likely to
spread northwards in Europe and increase its severity as a result of higher winter temperature
(Evans et al 2008). Similarly, because of human activity and climate change newly emerging
fungal diseases are threatening plant, animal and ecosystems health (Fisher et al 2012).
Plant science can help to build the adaptive capacity to emerging problems by increasing
our understanding of the effects of climate change on agriculture, biodiversity and whole
ecosystems and using this knowledge to generate more resilient crop varieties such as those with
increased drought resistance, water use efficiency and increased disease resistance. This
knowledge can also be used to promote the use of alternative and orphan crops, perennial crops,
preservation of crop diversity and good agronomic practice. Plant based solutions can also help
reduce global emissions of GHG for example by producing crops that make better use of
nitrogen to reduce fertilisers use, reducing deforestation via the promotion agro-forestry and tree
cropping systems and increasing the efficiency of land use for both food and energy via second
generation biofuels and the use of crop waste for biomass.
These approaches, together with precision agriculture, reduced waste, reduced tillage and
incentives for environmental friendly farming practices, will help pave the way towards climate
smart agriculture.
Conclusion:
There are two ways to stop increasing the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
You can stop putting so many greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. You can also invent ways
to get greenhouse gases out of the atmosphere – for example, planting trees that absorb CO2
from the air is an example of one such strategy. These two methods are usually thought of in
combination.
Reduction of the amount of greenhouse gases put into the atmosphere (i.e, greenhouse
gas emissions) is usually accomplished through reducing energy use and switching to energy
sources that don’t release greenhouse gases. Frequently discussed energy conservation methods
include increasing the fuel efficiency of vehicles, making individual lifestyle changes, and
changing business practices. Technologies such as hydrogen fuel cells, solar power, tidal energy,
geothermal power, and wind power, along with the use of carbon sinks, carbon credits, and
taxation, are aimed at countering greenhouse gas emissions more directly.

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Some ideas are easy and inexpensive, such as replacing incandescent lights with compact
fluorescent bulbs that use less electricity than their conventional counterparts. Many mitigation
techniques, such as fuel cells and biofuels, are still in the development phase and will require
further research to determine their usefulness and viability. Some proposals, such as seeding the
oceans with iron to increase phytoplankton populations (and draw more CO2 out of the air),
sound more like science fiction and are unlikely to be implemented, especially when we don’t
fully know the consequences for marine life.
There doesn't appear to be a shortage of steps that we can take to reduce our carbon
emissions, but there is no single fix. The table below lists technologies that are currently
available or are expected to become available within the next 25 years and would be
implemented at the scale of governments, communities, and industries. Some of the
technologies in the table may be associated with other environmental concerns (e.g. increased
uranium mining and nuclear waste storage required by nuclear power plants).
References:
• Ainsworth EA (2008) Rice production in a changing climate: a meta-analysis of

responses to elevated carbon dioxide and elevated ozone concentration. Global Change
Biology14, 1642–1650.
• NOAA Research (2004). North Pacific Climate Regimes and Ecosystem Productivity
Science Plan. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
• (2012) Consequences of climate warming and altered precipitation patterns for plant-
insect and multitrophic interactions. Plant Physiology
• (2012) Evolutionary and ecological responses to anthropogenic climate change. Plant
Physiology

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CHANGES IN TRADITIONAL AND MODERN AGRICULTURE
Ch. Vimala, Lecturer in Computer Science, SCWDC
P. Swapna, Lecturer in Telugu, SCWDC
ABSTRACT:
Traditional or old-type farming or early farming was focused more on subsistence than
actually growing anything to sell, like with the modern farming methods. It involved much more
manual labour and for longer hours than the more modern methods of today. Cropland was
smaller, horses and oxen or steam-engines were used primarily for tilling, seeding and harvesting
fields and crops, and there were no such things as fertilizer or pesticide chemicals to use in the
fields.
Modern farming is primarily an industry that involves growing food to feed many people
from all over. The farmer is not growing food for himself, but rather for others who cannot grow
food themselves. It involves much bigger equipment and less labour requirements (or rather, less
people to hire) to cover a certain area of a field than what could be done 100 or 200 years ago.
Most scientists depict traditional knowledge as somehow unable to learn from

experience, fuzzy in its concepts, and closed to conceptual inputs from the outside, whereas
science is open to new thought, precise in its empirically tested progress, and responsive to the
real needs of farmers.
The reality in both cases is different from the perception. Closer consideration reveals
that the differences are indeed much smaller. Traditional knowledge that has accumulated since
ancient times and been transmitted by oral tradition has often turned out to be strikingly precise
when tested against empirical observation. Indeed, given the test of time, traditional knowledge
is verified or falsified by experiment and observation. And, in Western science, oral tradition is
certainly present: scientific communities with different views and lexicons continue to exist
regionally despite the homogenizing influences of the scientific literature and the Internet (for
instance in botanical nomenclature).
Introduction:
Traditional or old-type farming or early farming was focused more on subsistence than
actually growing anything to sell, like with the modern farming methods. It involved much more
manual labour and for longer hours than the more modern methods of today. Cropland was
smaller, horses and oxen or steam-engines were used primarily for tilling, seeding and harvesting
fields and crops, and there were no such things as fertilizer or pesticide chemicals to use in the
fields. Farmers were highly dependent on climate and the weather to be able to bring in some
profit margin or to help put food on the table. Livestock were always grazed out of doors, and
managed just enough so that the offspring could be sold for some sort of profit. Selective
breeding wasn't really started until 400 years ago (or around the 18th century).

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Modern farming is still highly dependent on climate and weather to be able to bring in a
profit. Except for greenhouses, the vast majority of farms that grow crops cannot grow them
indoors; with a vast amount of acreage to cover, it is impossible to grow cereal, oilseed or pulse
crops under a climate-controlled area. Many vegetables are and can be grown indoors, but again,
most of them are plant outdoors like they have been for hundreds or thousands of years.
Modern farming is primarily an industry that involves growing food to feed many people
from all over. The farmer is not growing food for himself, but rather for others who cannot grow
food themselves. It involves much bigger equipment and less labour requirements (or rather, less
people to hire) to cover a certain area of a field than what could be done 100 or 200 years ago.
Fertilizers and pesticides are commonly used to get a much more cleaner crop with bigger
returns per acre, and more varieties or cultivars of a certain species of plant are made available to
farmers to grow for better yields, less lodging, more robustness and durability throughout the
growing stages, and more growth or competitiveness over other plants that would be considered
weeds. Crops are not just grown for human food, but for animal feed as well. Different varieties
and cultivars are created for that purpose, and animals are selected so that they gain more
efficiently on these feeds than they were designed to in the past.
Livestock in modern farming and agriculture have been selected to grow twice as fast and
"finish" half the time that it would normally take a steer, broiler, lamb or goat to finish 200 years
ago. Livestock are selected to be more efficient according to what they are fed and how they are
managed, be it for grain or for grass. There are more options out there on how to manage
different species of livestock than in the past. Some types of livestock though are still raised as
they were in the past, such as goats, sheep, beef cattle and a fair population of horses, but their
genetics have changed over time to meet market demands and a producer's demands.
In the developed countries, food is much more readily available with the onset of modern
agriculture than in traditional agriculture. Food can easily be shipped from thousands of miles
away to a grocery store near you, enabling you to get anything you want no matter the cost.
The another notable difference between traditional and modern farming is the ability to
network information to others who are involved in farming, want to get into farming or are not
farming but involved in some form of agriculture just the same.
In the past, tips and tricks and methods to run a farm were passed down from grandfather
to father to son, hardly ever from farmer to farmer half a world away from each other or a
hundred miles away. Today, a producer can learn about how things are done around East Texas,
USA when he lives in the northern part of Alberta, Canada, or any other part of the world.
Reconciling Traditional Knowledge with Modern Agriculture
Global Trends in Biodiversity Protection
Since the adoption of the Convention on Biological Diversity in 1992 the legal status of
plant genetic resources and traditional knowledge has received increasing attention in
international fora, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and academic research. Several

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factors have stimulated this ongoing debate: the steady loss of bio-diversity in plant genetic
resources. The contrast between protected plant varieties and genetically engineered products, on
the one hand, and traditional crops and landraces in the public domain, on the other hand the
advent of the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)
under WTO; and the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Agriculture. The Doha
Agenda Ministerial Declaration explicitly endorsed the issue of traditional knowledge as a
subject for further negotiation. What was, some years ago, a concern limited to the ecological
aspects of preserving biodiversity has moved to center stage. Today, policy-makers recognize
that traditional knowledge affects the legitimacy of the multilateral trading system, in general,
and its intellectual property aspects, in particular, as well as its interface with modern agricultural
and environmental policies.
Resolving the Contrasts between traditional and scientific knowledge
Agrawal and Agrawal both claim that by distinguishing indigenous knowledge from
scientific knowledge, theorists are caught in a dilemma. Focus on indigenous knowledge has
gained indigenous peoples an audible voice in development circles. Yet, this distinction creates
and perpetuates the dichotomy between indigenous and scientific ways of knowing. This
dichotomy is especially problematic because it often hinders exchange and communication
between the two. Further, both Agrawal and Agrawal argue that the basic distinction between
indigenous and scientific knowledge is artificial.
Most scientists depict traditional knowledge as somehow unable to learn from

experience, fuzzy in its concepts, and closed to conceptual inputs from the outside, whereas
science is open to new thought, precise in its empirically tested progress, and responsive to the
real needs of farmers.
The reality in both cases is different from the perception. Closer consideration reveals
that the differences are indeed much smaller. Traditional knowledge that has accumulated since
ancient times and been transmitted by oral tradition has often turned out to be strikingly precise
when tested against empirical observation. Indeed, given the test of time, traditional knowledge
is verified or falsified by experiment and observation. And, in Western science, oral tradition is
certainly present: scientific communities with different views and lexicons continue to exist
regionally despite the homogenizing influences of the scientific literature and the Internet (for
instance in botanical nomenclature).
Present-day organic farming
Organic farming (including some aspects of agro ecological approaches to farming as

referred to by Altieri and Nicholls started as a heterogeneous set of alternative-management
methods in agriculture. This explains the multiple origins of organic farming and the fact that
certifications of organic-farming practices have been introduced separately in various times and
places. Organic farming is now growing rapidly and becoming a viable industry in its own right.
Harmonizing standards and regulations are being developed and imposed more or less strictly on
organic farms, both by states, like California and by national government agencies, like the U.S.
Department of Agriculture.

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Today, the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) is
serving to unite the various organic movements of the world, with members in 108 countries and
support from the UN Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). IFOAM advances basic views
on organic farming, such as the following four principles:
1. Principle of health. Organic Agriculture should sustain and enhance the health of soil,
plant, animal, human and planet as one and indivisible.
2. Principle of ecology. Organic Agriculture should be based on living ecological systems
and cycles, work with them, emulate them, and help sustain them.
3. Principle of fairness. Organic Agriculture should build on relationships that ensure
fairness with regard to the common environment and life opportunities.
4. Principle of care. Organic Agriculture should be managed in a precautionary and
responsible manner to protect the health and well-being of current and future generations
and the environment.
Specific rules for organic agriculture are still the subject of international debate, given
efforts to improve them, to find the right mix between regulatory strictness and diversity of
applications.
The main Swiss rules for organic agriculture are as follows:
Natural cycles and processes are respected.

The use of chemical-synthetic substances is avoided.
The use of GMOs is not allowed, nor their derivatives, exception: products for
veterinary medicine.
The products shall not be treated with radiation, and no products having
undergone irradiation shall be used.
Organic agriculture, as defined by IFOAM, includes all agricultural systems that promote
environmentally, socially and economically sound production of food and fibers. Recycling
nutrients and strengthening natural processes helps to maintain soil fertility and ensure successful
production. By respecting the natural capacity of plants, animals and the landscape, it aims to
optimize quality in all aspects of agriculture and the environment.
Organic Agriculture dramatically reduces external inputs by refraining from the use of
synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, Genetically Modified Organisms and pharmaceuticals. Pests
and diseases are controlled with naturally occurring means and substances according to both
traditional as well as modern scientific knowledge, increasing both agricultural yields and
disease resistance.
Organic agriculture adheres to globally accepted principles, which are implemented

within local socio-economic, climatic and cultural settings. As a logical consequence, IFOAM
stresses and supports the development of self-supporting systems on local and regional

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The Green Revolution and agricultural biotechnology
One of the key innovations that drove the Green Revolution was the genetic improvement
of plant varieties, especially the introduction of dwarf and semi-dwarf traits, in which stem
height was reduced but the size of panicles, and thus seed production was not reduced. However,
the yield gains of the Green Revolution also depended upon the application of high doses of
chemical fertilizers and copious irrigation. Abundant yields attracted a variety of pests, and,
therefore, chemical pesticides needed to be applied in greater volume. In addition, new crop
varieties were also selected for photo-insensitivity, so that they could be adapted for multiple
cropping sequences, patterns, and latitudes.
Two names are intimately linked to the Green Revolution: Norman Borlaug (who was
awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970) and Monkombu Sambasivan Swaminathan (who was
awarded the World Food Prize in 1987).
As the successes of the Green Revolution were becoming manifest together with its
detrimental effects—including the upsurge of insect pests, growing insect resistance against
widely used pesticides, and negative effects on the soil fertility—Swaminathan felt obliged to
call for an Evergreen Revolution, beginning as early as 1968, yet continuing all the way through
1990. Unfortunately, farmers’ access to free electricity to draw groundwater for irrigation, the
negligence of legumes in crop rotations, and the indiscriminate application of chemical fertilizers
and pesticides culminated in the degradation of soil and water. The damage to the ecological
foundations essential for sustainable advances in productivity led to the onset of fatigue in
agricultural systems.
Sustainability and Biodiversity
All agricultural systems must include the ability to provide an economic return to the
farmer; unprofitable agricultural systems will not survive unless they are subsidized. Today’s
farming systems must provide opportunities to produce more food on smaller acreages.
Related to this imperative are issues concerned with maintaining and enhancing output,
such as soil fertility and reducing losses to weeds and pests. It is less easy to argue that a natural
or diverse ecosystem is a critical input to sustainable agriculture.
While ecologists frequently stress the interrelationships between species, it is difficult to

see how the existence of species such as the swallowtail butterfly or a rare orchid could
contribute to a farming system’s sustainability. The degree of redundancy in ecological
communities is largely unknown and remains a rich field of investigation for ecologists.
Agricultural systems can benefit from a higher biodiversity (not necessarily within the
production surface) by presenting in the near vicinity of the production fields, biological
networks hosting highly diverse arthropod populations, making the whole region more resistant
to rapid pest invasions. This is not to say that agriculture could continue in the absence of all

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nonfarmed species. Rather, there is a suggestion that only a subset of all existing species is
essential for food and fiber production.
Biodiversity and farming systems
It is important to distinguish between overall biodiversity in a given farming-landscape

system, including the production area and biodiversity within the production system itself, the
farm fields. The latter is often illusionary. Weeds within harvested fields are to be avoided, either
by old-fashioned tilling or by various environmentally acceptable herbicides. The reason is
simple: for example, in wheat production systems some of the weeds cherished by
conservationists such as Agrostemma ghitago are highly toxic because of their saponin and
githagenin contents and can spoil the harvested grain even in low quantities.
Many of the crops growing in farming systems around the world have ancestral parents
that lived originally in natural monocultures. There are many examples of natural monocultures,
such as the classic stands of kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera, which was, in fact, analyzed by Darwin
now recognize that simple, monodominant vegetation exists throughout nature in a wide variety
of circumstances. Indeed, Fedoroff and Cohen reporting on Janzen use the term natural
monocultures as analogous with the term crops. Monodominant stands may be extensive. In one
example, Harlan recorded that for the blue grama grass (Bouteloua gracilis) “stands are often
continuous and cover many thousands of square kilometers” of the high plains of the central
United States. It is of the utmost importance to agricultural sustainability to determine how these
extensive, monodominant, natural grassland communities persist when we might expect their
collapse.
More examples are given of wild species in Wood and Lenne including Picea abies,
Spartina townsendii, Sorghum verticilliflorum, Phragmites communis, and Pteridium aquilinum.
Botanists and plant collectors have, according to Wood and Lenne, repeatedly and
emphatically noted the existence of dense stands of wild relatives of wheat. For example, in the
Near East, Harlan noted that “massive stands of wild wheats cover many square kilometers.”
Hillmann reported that wild einkorn (Triticum monococcum subsp. boeoticum) in particular
tends to form dense stands, and when harvested its yields per square meter often match those of
cultivated wheats under traditional management.
There is evidence for genetic simplifications having occurred in ancient times. According
to the analysis of Fedoroff, thousands of years ago maize underwent a streamlining of its
genome. Similar phenomena often occur in weeds like the chenopod Atriplex prostrata and are
considered to have contributed to their exceptional migration ability since the last Glacial
Maximum some 18,000 years ago.
In more-simple numbers of soybean traits: the new management conveniences associated

with the herbicide-tolerant soybeans allowed for a more-liberal use of varieties, most of them
transgenic. These include nearly 400 nematode-resistant varieties of soybean from 48 seed
companies and five universities. All but seven of the varieties listed contain nematode resistance
derived from a certain breeding line PI 88788. Of the varieties listed, 286 are resistant to the

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herbicide Roundup®, six are tolerant to sulfonylurea herbicides, and the remainders are
conventional, nonresistant varieties.
Several reviews contend that the negative impact of modern biotech agriculture on
biodiversity has been overestimated, and perhaps even overstated, by the organic-farming
community for the purpose of marketing its alternatives on the grounds of their environmental
characteristics. We begin to see that, contrary to the preponderance of negative views, there are
beneficial effects stemming from no-tillage, the reduction of pesticide amounts applied to fields,
and enhanced biodiversity.
Conclusions
A successful integration of present-day management systems needs a new

communication strategy. Such a strategy should embrace a dialogue with the public utilizing the
“Three E Strategy” (entertainment, emotion, and education), which, according to Osseweijer
could initiate a decision-making process along the lines of the “Systems Approach,” a discursive
decision-making process for socially contentious issues.
Modern and technological improvements have sharply increased yields from cultivation,
but at the same time have caused widespread ecological damage and negative human health
effects. Agricultural food production and water management are increasingly becoming global
issues that are fostering debate on a number of fronts. Significant degradation of land and water
resources, including the depletion of has been observed in recent decades, and the effects of
global warming on agriculture and of agriculture on global warming are still not fully
understood.
Bibliography:
• Agricultural Engineering Data Book. 2008. Central Institute of agricultural Engineering,

Bhopal.
• Rural development in India through post harvest technology and value addition activities
in the agricultural production catchment
• Blyn, G., 1966, Agricultural Trends in India, 1891-1947: Output, Availability and
Productivity, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press
• www.google.com
• http://www.indiawaterportal.org

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NANO FERTILIZERS
K.SRILATHA, Lecturer in Chemistry, SCWDC, Kothagudem.
e-mail: [email protected]
ABSTRACT:
Molecular modified or synthesized material, with the help of nano technology used to improve
the fertility of soil for a better yield and increased crop quality, are called Nano fertilizers. Nano-
science (also nanotechnology) has found applications in controlling release of nitrogen,
characterization of soil minerals, studies of weathering of soil minerals and soil development,
micro-morphology of soils, nature of soil , nutrient ion transport in soil-plant system, emission of
dusts and aerosols from agricultural soil and their nature, zeoponics, and precision water
farming.
In its stride, nanotechnology converges soil mineralogy with imaging techniques, artificial
intelligence, and encompass bio molecules and polymers with microscopic atoms and molecules,
and macroscopic properties (thermodynamics) with microscopic properties (kinetics, wave
theory, uncertainty principles, etc.), to name a few. In fact, nano-technology has opened up new
opportunities to improve nutrient use efficiency and minimize costs of environmental protection.
Nanoporous materials consist of a regular organic or inorganic framework supporting a regular
porous structure. Nanoscience has brought revolution in different fields by helping develop
processes and products that are hardly possible to evolve through conventional methods. The
nanotechnology aided applications have the potential to change agricultural production by
allowing better management and conservation of inputs of plant and animal production.
INTRODUCTION: Nanotechnology deals with the matter at nanoscale (1-100 nm)
dimensions. These materials when reduced to the nanoscale show some properties which are
different from what they exhibit on a macro scale, enabling unique applications. Nanoscience has
brought revolution in different fields by helping develop processes and products that are hardly
possible to evolve through conventional methods. The nanotechnology aided applications have
the potential to change agricultural production by allowing better management and conservation
of inputs of plant and animal production. Nanocapsules and herbicide delivery (ii) Nanosensors
for soil quality and for plant health monitoring; nanosensors for pests detection (iii)
Nanomagnets for removal of soil contaminants and (iv) Nanoparticles for new pesticides,
insecticides, and insect repellent
Nano-scale carriers Nanoscale carriers can be utilized for the efficient delivery of fertilizers,
pesticides, herbicides, plant growth regulators, etc. The mechanisms involved in the efficient
delivery, better storage and controlled release include: encapsulation and entrapment, polymers
and dendrimers, surface ionic and weak bond attachments among others. These help to improve
stability against degradation in the environment and ultimately reduce the amount to be applied,
which reduces chemical runoff and alleviates environmental problems. These carriers can be
designed in such a way that they can anchor plant roots to the surrounding soil constituents and
organic matter. This can only be possible if we unravel the molecular and conformational
mechanisms between the nanoscale delivery and targeted structures, and soil fractions. Such
advances as and when they happen will help in slowing the uptake of active ingredients, thereby
reducing the amount of inputs to be used and also the waste produced.

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Agricultural Engineering Issues: Nanotechnology has many applications in the field of
agricultural machinery. These application in machine structure and agricultural tools to increase
their resistance against wear and corrosion and ultraviolet rays; producing strong mechanical
components with use of Nano-coating and use of bio-sensors in smart machines for mechanical-
chemical weed control; production of Nano-cover for bearings to reduce friction. The use of
Nanotechnology in production of alternative fuels and reduction of environmental pollution are
also worth mentioning.
Wireless nanosensors for precision agriculture:

Crop growth and field conditions like moisture level, soil fertility, temperature, crop nutrient
status, insects, plant diseases, weeds, etc. can be monitored through advancement in
nanotechnology. Such real-time monitoring is done by employing networks of wireless nano-
sensors across the cultivated fields, providing essential data for agronomic processes like optimal
time of planting and harvesting of the crops. It is also helpful for monitoring the time and amount
of water application, fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides and other treatments. This has moved
precision agriculture to a much higher level of control, for instance, in water usage, leading
eventually to conservation of water. More precise water delivery systems are likely to be
developed in the near future. The factors critical for such development include water storage, in
situ water holding capacity, water distribution near roots, water absorption efficiency of plants,
encapsulated water released on demand, and interaction with field intelligence through nano-
sensor systems.
Nano porous Zeolite

They usually help in slow release of the fertilizer to the plant, this way of doing makes the plant
to grab entire amount area many molecules can fit into it and get released whenever the plant
requires Zeolite was made nano sized particles with ball mill. 1 g of this was taken in a
centrifuge and stirred with 1.5M 50 ml of calcium sulphate solution for 8 hours, filtered and
washed with de-ionized water, air dried. Solid: liquid ratio was maintained up to 1: 10 for
synthesis purpose. Nitrogen fertilizers are very important but due to its high solubility nature it
causes severe damage to the pants and the surroundings therefore a nano porous zeolite was used
with urea and there was considerable increase in the uptake of nitrogen efficient urea with
controlled release Aluminium zeolites are also used because they are highly porous and allow
the retention of the soil. These zeolites help the dry soil also to retain all the moisture content and
help to grab nutrients from the soil.
ADVANTAGES OF NANO FERTILIZERS

Nano coatings and technology can help in numerous ways to reduce costs and increase
productivity around the farm. Insulation can be a major issue for farmers, keeping products
chilled or livestock at safe temperature. Even bee hives can be protected. Cold rooms can be
coated to reduce temperature loss by 40%, reducing the need to run refrigerators. Condensers can
be coated to also run much more efficiently. Here nano coatings can offer compelling value. By
simply coating the stone, wood, glass, metal, plastic (almost any surface) around the farm, one
can create an "easy-clean" and anti-corrosive coating to the surface without the need to apply
detergents and aggressive cleaning materials. Cleaning cycles become much easier with around
40% less water usage and labor. Farm buildings, fences and assets can be badly damaged by

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mildew, mold and corrosion. Nano technology can help here too by preventing surfaces
becoming spoiled by rain, bacteria & environmental corrosion. Painted surfaces can remain
perfect for up to 21 years and more using environmentally friendly nano solutions. All electrical
connections can be nano minimized to operate safely in wet and damp conditions. Some sheep
farmers complain about loss of wool caused by dirt on healthy sheep. Nanomaterials could even
be used to control the release of the fertilizer such that the nutrients are only taken up by the
plant, and not lost to unintended targets like soil, water, or microorganisms. These days’ nano
particles are almost used in all the products like room fresheners, shampoos, laundry objects.
DISADVANTAGESDISADVANTAGES OF NANOTECHNOLOGY
The Catchy term 'Nanotechnology' also poses some risks and problem towards the health and
also towards environment. When considering risk and safety in term of the same will be relevant
to only certain area. The initial studies performed for nano materials have caused serious health
hazards and also showed toxic effects, also when entered into human body caused tissue damage
reaching all the vital organs. Another emerging technique is utilizing silver nano particles for the
delivery of fertilizers to plants because of their antimicrobial properties, but studies have
considered that it poses serious threat to ecosystem causing membrane damage, reducing the
annual growth of grass, depletion photosynthesis in alga (Chlamydomonas reinnardtii). Silver
nano particles are usually difficult to recover; some plant species tends to use this nano particle
maximum and accumulates in its tissue exceeding the limit. Soybean an important cash crop in
most of the country was produced using manufactured nano materials with fossil fuel equipment
that will allow NNM to locally deposit on the crop. With routine waste water treatment plants,
Results were impacts on plant - microbe interaction affecting N2 fixing symbiosis for which
some metals are sensitive.
CONCLUSION
Nanotechnology in many fields is in its primary stage, seeing all such new innovations it clearly
tells that it has a great scope and for any new technology to that matter there will be objection
and rejections, overcoming all the myths and ethics this will reach heights in its own manner.
While comparing it to the ancient assay techniques there is huge difference in the accuracy,
smart nature, effectiveness, cost for operation, ease of construction and many others. But still
when it comes to agriculture sector it is behind from all other existing techniques. The only way
is to educate people of interest and provide them few sample products and make them use it and
get the satisfaction of the same pupil for the technology to rise. If there is equal supports from
both public and private sectors more novel techniques and more researches can be carried out but
because of lack of knowledge in common man many dreams of reputed institutions and young
budding research fellows innovative ideas are shattered. This technology will help in feeding
generations and not a single one. There is awareness created on the risks of consuming and
performing few operations rather than the benefits and effectiveness of the technology. In spite
of all these drawbacks there is continuous research carried out in nanotechnology, there will be a
day which will come in near future for an accepted nanotechnology.

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REFERENCES
• Chinnamuthu, C. R. and Kokiladevi, E. (2007). Weed management through nanoherbicides.

In: Application of nanotechnology in agriculture.
• C.R. Chinnamuthu, B. Chandrasekaran, and C. Ramasamy (Eds.) Tamil Nadu Agricultural

University, Coimbatore, India. Hillie, amine, A., Mohammadi, H., Bourais, I. and Palleschi, G.
(2006). Enzyme inhibitionbased biosensors.
• Hlophe, M. (2007). Nanotechnology and the challenge of clean water. Nature

Nanotechnology 2, 663–664.
• H., Bourais, I. and Palleschi, G. (2006). Enzyme inhibition based biosensors. and Hlophe, M.
Hong, S., Leroueil, P. R., Majoros, I. J., Orr, B. G., Baker, J. R. and Banaszak Holl, M. M.
(2007). The binding avidity of a nanoparticle based multivalent targeted drug delivery platform.
Chemical Biology 14, 107-115.
• Hu, Y., Shen, G., Zhu, H. and. Jiang, G. (2010). A class-specific enzymelinked
immunosorbent assay based on magnetic particles for multiresidue organophosphorus
pesticides. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 58, 2801–2806.
• Corradini, M. R. de Moura, L. K. C. Mattoso, “A Preliminary Study of the Incorporation of

NPK Fertilizer into Chitosan Nanoparticles”, DOI: 10.3144/expresspolymlett.2010.6, express
polymer letters vol.4, no.8 (2010) 509–515, 30 April 2010 [2] O. A. Sadik, A. L. Zhou, S.
Kikandi, N. Environme Du, Q. Wang and K. Varner “ Sensors As Tools For Quantitation,
Nanotoxicity And Nano Monitoring Assessment Of Engineered Nanomaterials”.

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About The Editors
Dr (Mrs) Venkata Ramana Voleti M.Sc, M.Phil (Central Univ. of HYD)

Ph.D. (O.U)Fellow of Indian Botanical Society, presently heading department
of Botany, Singareni Collieries Women’s Degree & P.G.college,
Kothagudem, is a well known Botanist with an experience of more than three
decades of teaching and research. She attended various National and
International seminars and presented number of papers .She has several
research papers published in reputed journals to her credit. She has been the
organizing Secretary for three National seminars and two symposia. She has been the Co-
author for A.P.Telugu Academy Microbiology Text Book, Plant Pathology & Plant Protection
and Singareni Arboretum. She is an associate Editor for “Khanithra”in-house Research Journal.
She is Functional Area Expert in Ecology& Biodiversity, approved by QCI& NABET (New
Delhi) for studying the EIA for coal mining projects for Singareni Collieries Company Ltd a
major PSU in South India. She is the Recipient of A.P.State Best Teacher Award and Best NSS
Pogramme Officer Award at Kakatiya University levelin 2009. She is an inspiring teacher and
has motivated many students to pursue career in plant sciences and excel in their fields.
Principal
Dr.M.Kamala Rani, M.Com,MBA,MCJ,MA(Appl.Psy), M.Phil,PGDGC,

Ph.D presently Pricipal, SCWD College has an experience of teaching and
administration spanning more than three and half decades. She has
attended and presented papers in National and International seminars and
has published papers in journals.UGC sponsored minor Research Project is
in process. She is the recipient of A.P.State Best Teacher Award, Best NSS
Programme Officer Award, Eminent Educationist Award and Broad
Outlook Learner Teacher Award. Under her stewardship the college is Re-
Accreditated with A grade by NAAC. Founder director of MBA College

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Proceedings of the Two-Day UGC

Re-Accreditated with ‘A’ grade by NAAC

Dr.V.V.Ramana, HOD, Botany & Dr.M.Kamala Rani, Principal

Dr.V.V. Ramana, HOD, Botany & Dr. M. Kamala Rani, Pricipal

Singareni Collieries Women’s Degree College, Kothagudem

Dr. M. Kamala Rani

Kothagudem March 2015 Dr.V.V.Ramana, Organizing Secretary

Head, Department of Botany

5. POTENTIALS OF A.A.Haleem Khan, Prof. Naseem*, 47

13. Ethnobotanical study of Folk Md. Ghani1, V. Suresh1, K. 126

17. MICROBIAL CONSORTIA B.Aruna, L.Rathna silviya, 154

19. Medicinal plants used by the G.Ravi, Ch.Saidi Reddy, 170

21. Phytochemical Analysis of B.Karunakar*,G.Nagaraju.T.Rajesh 204

25. Medicinal plants used to cure Dr. Ratna Manjula, R. 232

29. PLANT-MADE G.Sailaja 259

32. A Study of Algal Diversity B. Saroja 270

33. PLANT ADAPTATIONS TO G.MANJULA 274

Green Plants in Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)

1.1 Origin of the Green Plants:

Eukaryotic microbes appear Plants and

Proceedings of National Seminar on “Recent Advances in Plant Sciences” 1

Proceedings of National Seminar on “Recent Advances in Plant Sciences” 2

6 CO2 + 12 H20 ---------------- C6H1206 + 6 O2 + 6 H20

1.4 Dynamics of Radiation:

Proceedings of National Seminar on “Recent Advances in Plant Sciences” 3

Direct reflection from clouds

Absorbed by Land, Oceans,

Energy stored in clouds(

Lindeman concept of community dynamics

Proceedings of National Seminar on “Recent Advances in Plant Sciences” 4

Proceedings of National Seminar on “Recent Advances in Plant Sciences” 5

2. Effective carbon sink,

3. Green lungs of the city,

4. Supplier of much needed vital oxygen,

5. Nature’s air conditioners as well as purifier of air,

6. Soil and water conserver,

7. Potential areas for conservation of bio-diversity.

1.6 Green plants in pollution control:

1.7 Green plants in carbon dioxide reduction:

Community trees reduce atmospheric CO2 by storing it or by reducing demand for

Proceedings of National Seminar on “Recent Advances in Plant Sciences” 6

Proceedings of National Seminar on “Recent Advances in Plant Sciences” 7

The Tree Factor – “Green cleans”

1. Trees absorb, bind, intercept, and sequester pollutants.

1.8 Carbon sequestration:

Proceedings of National Seminar on “Recent Advances in Plant Sciences” 8

An ability to understand, predict, assess, measure, and implement substantially

Carbon sequestration is accomplished by , 1) increasing photosynthetic carbon fixation

Management strategies for carbon sequestration:

• To restore soil organic matter levels in carbon degraded soils

• Enlarging soil organic matter pools by improving soil fertility.

There are two fundamental approaches to sequester carbon in terrestrial ecosystems:

1) Protection of ecosystems that store carbon so that sequestration can be maintained

2) Manipulation of ecosystems to increase carbon sequestration beyond current

Proceedings of National Seminar on “Recent Advances in Plant Sciences” 9

• Carbon-dioxide (CO2), once thought to be the product of perfect combustion, is

Genetic engineering for carbon sequestration: There is a need to discover genes in

1.9 Plants as bio-indicators:

A bio-indicator is defined as a plant which reveals the presence of a substance in its

The advantages in using plants as bio-indicators:

1. Inexpensive device to serve as indicators of environmental quality on as semi-

Proceedings of National Seminar on “Recent Advances in Plant Sciences” 10

1.10 Tree species as indicators of air pollution