Saidi Certificates
Saidi Certificates
Saidi Certificates
Abstract:- Steam turbine is an excellent prime mover to convert heat energy of steam to mechanical energy. Of
all heat engines and prime movers the steam turbine is nearest to the ideal and it is widely used in power plants
and in all industries where power is needed for process.
In power generation mostly steam turbine is used because of its greater thermal efficiency and higher
power-to-weight ratio. Because the turbine generates rotary motion, it is particularly suited to be used to drive
an electrical generator about 80% of all electricity generation in the world is by use of steam turbines.
Rotor is the heart of the steam turbine and it affects the efficiency of the steam turbine. In this project
we have mainly discussed about the working process of a steam turbine. The thermal efficiency of a steam
turbine is much higher than that of a steam engine.
I. INTRODUCTION
A steam turbine is a mechanical device that converts thermal energy in pressurized steam into useful
mechanical work. The steam turbine derives much of its better thermodynamic efficiency because of the use of
multiple stages in the expansion of the steam. This results in a 32closer approach to the ideal reversible process.
Steam turbines are made in a variety of sizes ranging from small 0.75 kW units used as mechanical drives for
pumps, compressors and other shaft driven equipment, to 150 MW turbines used to generate electricity. Steam
turbines are widely used for marine applications for vessel propulsion systems. In recent times gas turbines, as
developed for aerospace applications, are being used more and more in the field of power generation once
dominated by steam turbines.
II. PRINCIPLE
The steam energy is converted mechanical work by expansion through the turbine. The expansion takes
place through a series of fixed blades (nozzles) and moving blades each row of fixed blades and moving blades
is called a stage. The moving blades rotate on the central turbine rotor and the fixed blades are concentrically
arranged within the circular turbine casing which is substantially designed to withstand the steam pressure.
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Most of the industrial steam turbines are high speed turbines for the power output range of 1-30MW
with speed reduction by turbo gears which in turn means smaller sizes and higher efficiency for the turbine for
the output of 30MW and above the turbine speed is 3000rpm.
b) Diffuser:
It is a mechanical device that is designed to control the characteristics of steam at the entrance to a
thermodynamic open system. Diffusers are used to slow the steam's velocity and to enhance its mixing into the
surrounding steam. In contrast, a nozzle is often intended to increase the discharge velocity and to direct the
flow in one particular direction.
Flow through nozzles and diffusers may or may not be assumed to be adiabatic. Frictional effects may
sometimes be important, but usually they are neglected. However, the external work transfer is always assumed
to be zero. It is also assumed that changes in thermal energy are significantly greater than changes in potential
energy and therefore the latter can usually be neglected for the purpose of analysis.
c) Blades Or Buckets: The blades or buckets form the rotor flow passage and serves to change the direction and
hence the momentum of the steam received in the stationary nozzles.
d) Guide Or Guide blades: Often a turbine is arranged with a series of rotor flow passages. Intervening between
the blades comprising the rotor passages are rows of stationary guide blades. The purpose of this guide is to
reverse the direction of steam leaving the preceding moving blade row so that general direction of steam leaving
the preceding moving blade rows is similar. If guide blades were not provided, opposing force would be exerted
on the rotor which would largely negate each other.
e) Casing Shell Or Cylinder: The turbine enclosure is generally called the casing although the other two names
are in common use. The nozzle and guide are fixedon casing, which in addition to confining the steam serves as
support for the bearings. Sometimes the word cylinder is restricted as a cylindrical form attached to inside of the
casing to which the guides are fixed.
f) Shaft, Rotor, Spindle: These terms are applied to the rotating assembly which carries the blades.
g) Disc Or Wheel: The moving blades are attached to the disc which in turn is keyed to the shaft.
h) Diaphragm: The diaphragm which is fixed to the cylinder or casing contains the nozzle and serves to
confine the steam flow to nozzle passage.
i) Packing: Packing in the form of carbon rings minimizes the leaking in the annular space between the
diaphragm and shaft.
j) Thrust Bearings: Usually a combination of Kingsbury and collar types absorbs the axial forces.
k) Exhaust Hood: The exhaust hood is the portion of the casing which collects and delivers the exhaust steam
to exhaust pipe or condenser.
l) Steam Chest: The steam chest is the supply chamber from which steam is admitted to the nozzles.
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m) Governor: The governing system may be designated to control steam flow so as to maintain constant speed
with load fluctuations to maintain constant pressure with variation of demand for processed steam or both.
n) Throttle Or Stop Valves: The throttle and stop valves are located in the steam supply line to the turbine. The
stop valve is hydraulically operated quick opening and shutting valves designed to be either fully opened or
shut. On small turbines the stop valves may be manually operated but in any case is intended for emergency use
or when fully shut down. The throttle valve is used in smaller turbines in addition to stop valve as a means of
regulating steam flow during the starting or stopping the operation.
The steam turbine is fed with steam under temperature t1, pressure p1, and enthalpy h1. Expanding
within the turbine, steam produces work W t and goes into the condenser under conditions p2 and h2. Hence its
rejects heat Qr to cooling water and the resulted condensate with enthalpy h3<<h2, but with the same t3=t2 and
pressure p3=p2 comes to the pump. At the expense of the pump work W p, the feed water pressure and enthalpy
rise to values p4 and h4 with which feed water enters the steam generators where it is heated and evaporated due
to the heat added Qa.
Ideal Rankine cycle with superheated steam as a working fluid consists of the following
processes: 1-2 Adiabatic reversible expansion in the turbine
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2-3 Isothermal (under constant temperature) and isobaric (under constant pressure)
Heat rejection within the condenser.
3-4 Adiabatic reversible compression to the saturated liquid to the steam generator
Pressure by the pump.
4-B-C-1 Isobaric heat addition in the steam generator
4-B: Heating feed water in economizer
B-C: Heating in boiler
C-1: Heating in super heater
For saturated steam cycle the steam expansion process in the turbine begins from C, and with
complete condensation in 3 with subsequent compression by the pump.
Thermal efficiency of ideal Rankine cycle for superheated steam turbine power plant can be defined
as:
d Wnet (Wt-Wp) (h1 - h2) - (h4 - h3)
nth = = =
Qa Qa (h1 - h4)
= nth x (1-Wp/Qa)
Here nth is the gross thermal efficiency that is without regard to the expense of energy with in the
cycle. If pump working is neglected, then the efficiency,
nth = (h1-h2) / (h1-h4)
STEAM REHEAT
In the cycle with steam reheat instead of through adiabatic steam expansion from initial steam pressure
p1 to end pressure p2, steam expands within the HP turbine part to the intermediate pressure (point5) and then is
heated isothermally to steam reheat temperature (point 6) and then expands within IP-LP part to same end
pressure p2 as shown below. In this case, for ideal cycle the thermal efficiency is approximately given by:
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being the standard further based on then steam flow quantities size of the turbine is selected .in these series of
turbines the fixed blade grooves are machined directly in the outer casing and guide blades are inserted.
Different sizes of -2 types of turbines are:
G250-2 EK/K 600-2
G300-2 EK/K 800-2
G400-2 EK/K 1000-2
G500-2 EK/K 1100-2
G800-2 EK/K 1400-2
EK/K 1800-2
The number besides the letter indicates the area of the exhaust of the turbines
3 Series Turbine:
s requirements and steps involved in design, the turbine is divided into
different sections: inlet section, transition, exhaust or condensing section .these sections can be combined with
each other. The figure shows the various sections of these series and possible combinations of withy one size of
admission section. the admission sections are supplied in two versions, one for normal initial steam conditions
up to 100 bar / 510 deg C and for high steam initial steam conditions up to 140 bar /540deg C .the size of the
section is geometrically graded in the ratio to 1.25 to form different sizes of section .The parts associated with
front section as front bearing pedestal, control valves, safety devices like emergency stop valves are fixed for a
particular size. Also the same is done for the exhaust sections. With this arrangement for a particular front and
rear section selected the connecting parts to the sections are common from case to case. now the length of the
middle are transition section can varied based upon the number of blade stages required and the number of
extractions required . with this concepts, besides optimizing the flow path, the use of standard and proven
components like casings , guide blade carriers , bearing pedestals, nozzles, servo- motors, stop and governing
valves fro a particular model are ensured .unlike the -2 series the blade grooves in these turbines are made in the
guide blade carriers which is supported in outer casing .
Robust drum type rotors with integral shrouds, labyrinth glands for sealing of rotor ends and inter stage
blading, ensure greater reliability and efficiency. These turbines usually employ a gear box between turbine and
generator to achieve optimum efficiencies.
4 Series Turbines:
These types of series are called as centre admission steam turbines with counter flow for the mid range
of power, between 30MW to 150 MW. Using these concepts results in the compact single casing solution in
many cases up to 100 MW. The flow path is initially towards the front and in inner casing after being admitted
in the centre.
The steam reverses the direction on the reaching the end of inner casing to flow around inner casing and
expands towards the rear end of the turbine. This process of reverse flow of steam helps in control the axial
thrust to a large extent. The rear portion of the turbine is constructed based upon the building block principle as
explained in -3 series, front being a standard fro particular range of inlet parameters. These turbines are directly
coupled to the generator. The valve blocks in these turbines are separate and hence faster startups of the turbine
.these turbines are best suited for combined cycle plant application.
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mate C Ni Cr Mo Mn Si V
rial
X20 0.22 0.8 12-13 0.8- 0.3 0.1-
1.2 0.5
X22 0.8 0.3- 11.5- 0.8- 0.3 0.1- 0.25-
0.5 11.9 1.20 0.5 0.35
X20 and x22 are the material specification which contains the alloying elements in given percentage.
Proper selection of blade material plays a n important role in blade design. The factors that influence the
selection of blade materials are: -
1) Method of manufacture
2) Ease of machining
3) The ability to produce blade sections free from flaws.
4) Ductility both allow of rolling of shapes.
5) The capacity for being welded.
6) Ease of forging easily.
7) Condition of operations.
8) Suitable tensile strength at high temperature.
9) Resistance to creep.
10) Cost
Mechanical Properties:
All the Among the different materials typically used for blading are 403 stainless steel, 422 stainless
steel, A-286, and Haynes Stellite Alloy Number 31 and titanium alloy. The 403 stainless steel is essentially the
dard blade material and, on impulse steam turbines, it is probably found on over 90 percent of all
the stages. It is used because of its high yield strength, endurance limit, ductility, toughness, erosion and
corrosion resistance, and damping. It is used within a Brinell hardness range of 207 to 248 to maximize its
damping and corrosion resistance. The 422 stainless steel material is applied only on high temperature stages
(between 700 and 900°F or 371 and 482°C), where its higher yield, endurance, creep and rupture strengths are
needed. The A-286 material is a nickel-based super alloy that is generally used in hot gas expanders with stage
temperatures between 900 and 1150°F (482 and 621°C). The Haynes Stellite Alloy Number 31 is a cobalt-based
super alloy and is used on jet expanders when precision cast blades are needed. The Haynes Stellite Number 31
is used at stage temperatures between 900 and 1200°F (482 and 649°C). Another blade material is titanium. Its
high strength, low density, and good erosion resistance make it a good candidate for high speed or long-last
stage blading. Blades are made of alloy steel which mainly contains carbon, chromium, nickel, molybdenum
X20 and x20 are the material specification which contains the alloying elements in given percentage.
2
Tensile strength: 95 kgf/mm
2
0.2 Yield stress: 70 kgf/mm
2
Impact : 05 kg/mm .
Elongation, ( l=5d ): 15% min.
Reduction in area: 50% min
BHN: 270.
Types Of Blades:
Blades are classified on the basis of following application
1) Pressure at stages
HP BLADES (high pressure blades)
IP BLADES (intermediate pressure blades)
LP BLADES (low pressure blades)
2) Their function in the turbine
Steam turbine moving blades
Blades from the bar stock
Rhomboid blades
Curved blades
Twisted profile blades
Drawn profile blades
Forged blades
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Original forging
Precision forging blades
b) Root: The root which fixes into the turbine rotor which gives the proper anchor to the blade and transmitting
the kinetic energy of blade to the rotor.
Different kinds of roots of blades used are
T-root
Double T-root
Fork root
Firtree root
Dove tail root
c) Shroud: The dampening element which reduces the vibration the vibration occurs in the blade which forms
due to the flowing of high pressure steam through the blades. This dampening element may be integral with the
blade or that may be separate element mounted between the blades.
1. Camber Line:
If circles are drawn tangential to the suction side and pressure side profiles of a blade and their centres are
joined by a curve, this curve is called the camber line. This line is intersecting at the two points A and B of the
profile. The line joining these two points is called chord and the length of these point is called chord length.
2. Bitangent Line:
The line joining the inlet and outlet edges of the profile is called bitangent line.
3. Setting Line:
The angle which line makes with the periphery of the profile is called setting angle or profile angle.
4. Pitch:
Pitch is the circumferential distance between any point on the profile and an identical point the next
profile.
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X. CLASSIFICATION OF PROFILE
There are two types of profile one is impulse and other is reaction
Impulse profile:
In impulse type of profile the entire heat drop of steam take place in stationary blades only. Though the
theoretical impulse blades have zero pressure drop in the moving blades, practically, for the flow to take place
across the moving blades, there must be a small pressure drop across the moving blades also. Therefore, the
impulse stages in practice have a small degree of reaction. These stages are therefore more accurately, though
less widely, described as low-reaction stages. In impulse blades nozzles direct the steam towards the rotors,
which are reequipped with concave panels called buckets. The nozzles are able to project a jet of steam that
spins the rotor at a loss of roughly 10 percent energy. As the jets change their position, they can increase or
decrease the rate of rotor spin.
Reaction profile:
In the reaction type of blades, the heat drop of the stage is distributed almost equally between the guide and
moving blades. The steam nozzles are attached to the rotor blades on opposite sides. The nozzles are so
positioned that when they release jets of stream, they propel the rotor in a spinning motion that keeps it rotating
as long as the steam expelled from the jet of the nozzle.
Hp Blade Roots:
The root is a part of the blade that fixes the blade to the rotor or stator. Its design depends upon the
centrifugal and steam bending forces of the blade. It should be designed such that the material in the blade root
as well as the rotor / stator claw and any fixing element are in the safe limits to avoid failure.
The roots are T-root and Fork-root. The fork root has a higher load-carrying capacity than the T-root. It
was found that machining this T-root with side grip is more of a problem. It has to be machined by broaching,
and the broaching machine available could not handle the sizes of the root. The typical roots used for the HP
moving blades for various steam turbine applications are shown in the following figure.
SK blades have 4-fork roots for all sizes. HK blades have 4-fork roots unto 56 size, where modified profiles
are used. Beyond this size, HK blades have 3 fork roots. LK blades have 3-fork roots for all sizes. The roots of the LP
blades of preceding stages are of T-roots
SK BLADES: SK blades have large blade width in compare to its profile.
HK BLADES: HK blades have equal blade width and profile.
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3) Size Grinding:
Size grinding is the next operation of the blade in which the size of blade is maintained by grinding. In
s why we give some extra
allowance for grinding.
4) Rhomboidal Milling:
Rhomboidal milling is the operation in which material is given a rhombus shape on milling machine.
This rhomboidal shape is given to form a profile of the blade. An angular fixture is used to give a rhomboidal
shape. Rhomboidal fixture has an angular swivel arrangement which can be rotated at a certain angle in both the
direction against vertical plane. After setting at a particular given angle bar is clamped in the fixture and milling
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operation. As we set the angle to certain degree with vertical plane of the cutter it cut the bars at an angle given
on both side of the bar after completion of this operation the bars are formed into the rhomboidal shape.
Rhomboidal angle is depends upon the profile angle for different blades. It is generally used around 20 degree,
22 degree etc.
Steps Of Rhomboidal Milling:
Adjust the fixture at given rhomboidal angle
Check the angle with bevel protractor
Clamp the blade bars in the fixture
Give depth of cut
Start the machine and coolant supply
Give feed to the machine.
Repeat depth of cut till the required size is produced
5) Rhomboidal Grinding:
Rhomboidal grinding is the operation same as size grinding in this operation the bar is maintained at its
size of rhomboidal grinding. This is finishing operation of the blade. Allowance for grinding is given around 0.5
to 0.8 mm.
7) Root Milling
In the machining of the rotor a form cutter is used which has the same form which is to be produced on
the blade. For this purpose a special type of machine used. four spindle or two spindle root milling machine is
used. Root milling machine consist of two or four spindles and table which is moves in longitudinal direction.
Upper two spindles are attached to the upper head and lower spindle attached to the lower head. A special type
of fixture is used for this is mounted on the table of the machine. The root width is maintained by keeping
distance equal to the width of the blade between cutters. The extra metal is removed by the cutter. Depth of cut
is given in vertical direction for giving depth of cut cutters initially touches the bar and then depth of cut is
given. There two depth of cut is given in case of blade which has the higher thickness.
Depth of cut= (blade width root width)/2
8) Root Radius:
Blades are assembled in the rotor for forming a turbine. To assemble these blades these blades should
form a circle of radius equal to the rotor as its diameter increases as per the row of blades. Root radius helps in
the assembly of blades in the rotor by giving a radius on the root on the lower face of root. This radius should be
correct to assemble neither it will create a problem while assembly. In root radius end mill cutter is used on
CNC machine in which it moves in all three axis
In starting it moves in Z-axis for depth of cut after that it moves in radially for this it moves in two-axis
simultaneously at a time to form a radius in X-axis and Y-axis.
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9) Taper Milling:
Taper milling is also a milling operation which is done over a milling machine. This operation also
help in the forming a circle of radius equal to the rotor. Taper is given on the blades when these blades are
connected to each other they form a circle of diameter equal to the diameter of rotor. For tapering sine bars are
used. Taper is given in Y axis. The value of taper which is given in the drawing we select the sine bar and adjust
the fixture by placing the sine bar which gives the taper which is to be produced.
Polishing is usually a multistage process. The first stage starts with a rough abrasive and each subsequent stage
uses a finer abrasive until the desired finish is achieved. The rough pass removes surface defects like pits, nicks,
lines and scratches. The finer abrasives leave very thin lines that are not visible to the naked eye. Lubricants like
wax and kerosene are used as lubricating and cooling media during these operations. Polishing operations for
items such as chisels, hammers, screwdrivers, wrenches, etc., are given a fine finish but not plated. In order to
achieve this finish four operations are required: roughing, dry fining, greasing, and coloring. For an extra fine
polish the greasing operation may be broken up into two operati ons: rough greasing and fine greasing.
Much higher speed may be developed and a far greater range of speed is possible than in the case of Reciprocating
Engine.
There are some frictional losses in Reciprocating Engine as some arrangements are required for conversion
of Reciprocating Motion into circular motion. But in Steam Turbine no friction losses are there.
Steam Turbine are quite suitable for large Thermal Power Plant as they can be built in size from few Horse Power to
over 200000 HP in signal unit.
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XVI. CONCLUSION
I have finally acquired knowledge over Steam turbines and its manufacturing process which had led
me know many unknown things that actually be followed during the production procedure and also about the
various materials used. This paper has attempted to cover some of the issues related to Steam turbines which a
designer should be aware of. It is hoped that this notes helps a working Engineer have a better insight into the
various aspects of the Steam turbines, so that the related issues can be tackled with better knowledge and
confidence.
REFERENCE
[1]. A handbook on the steam engine, with especial reference to small and medium-sized engines, for the
use of engine makers, mechanical draughtsman, engineering students, and users of steam power (1902)
[2]. http://archive.org/details/handbookonsteame00haeduoft
[3]. Thermal engineering by R.K. RAJPUT
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