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Poster A Historicist Recontextualization of The Enthymeme
Poster A Historicist Recontextualization of The Enthymeme
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Rhetoric Society Quarterly
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A Historicist Recontextualization of the
Enthymeme
Carol Poster
Despite the frequency with which the enthymeme has been discussed in
contemporary rhetorical literature (see Hood's 1984 bibliography) there seems
to be no general agreement on the precise nature of what it is that is under
discussion when the term enthymeme is used.
Were this lack of agreement merely a matter of correct and erroneous
notions of the enthymeme coexisting in the contemporary literature, the
resolution of the conflict would be a matter of straightforward scholarship,
involving analysis of the appropriate classical texts, discovery of the correct
meaning, and reporting of the results of such an investigation.
Unfortunately, any but the most cursory investigation of the problem
reveals that to provide a complete account of the enthymeme it is necessary to
examine and revise certain unspoken assumptions about the nature of
meanings and the proper methodology for investigation of classical texts that
permeate much of the thinking of the rhetorical community.
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2 Carol Poster
Textbook Examples
The logical link between the propositions is perhaps most apparent in (5), where
we detect an abbreviated syllogism-what the logicians call an enthymeme. (7)
Here we have an enthymeme, both in the sense of a truncated syllogism and in the
sense of a deductive argument based on probable premises. (63)
On the other hand, in the majority of his examples, Corbett returns to the
missing premise model:
When we are seeking to refute someone else's enthymeme, it may be the missing
premise that we should attack.... (63)
The enthymeme ... might be defined as any deductive reasoning that does not adhere
to the strict rules of formal logic.... The usual definition is that enthymemes are
syllogisms with one premise surpressed. But this seems inaccurate because no one,
with the exception possibly of a logician, consciously does any suppressing of
anything whatever with engaged in deducing conclusions. (122)
Hill, in his summary of Aristotle's Rhetoric uses both the probablistic and
the missing premise notions of the enthymeme without explicitly addressing
the issue of their difference:
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A Historicist Recontextualization of the Enthymeme 3
Ordinarily enthymemes can be restated in the form of a valid syllogism with two
premises and a conclusion.... Those premises that embody the usual value structure
are usually omitted.... (27)
If ... one believes that scientific truth is also probable ... then the Aristotelian
definition of the enthymeme as based on probabilities loses its importance .... The
really important contribution made by Aristotle's concept of the enthyymeme is,
after all, the implied injunction to look for the unstated premise.... (54)
This kind of abbreviated syllogism, in which one premise is stated and one is
implied, is called the enthymeme.... (140)
The enthymeme consists of a simple proposition and reason and omits the premise
that you can assume the reader will accept. (246)
Another form of rational appeal is the enthymeme, which, like the syllogism used
in dialectic, deduces a conclusion from a general premise. But whereas the general
premise of a syllogism is supposed to be true and its deduction therefore necessary,
the general premise of the enthymeme is merely probable, leading to a tentative
conclusion. (5)
Logical appeals ... rely either on the enthymeme, a syllogism that takes its major
premise from received wisdom ... or the example.... (29)
The enthymeme differs from the syllogisms of logic in that it is usually based on
probable, not certain, premises. (146)
[T]he enthymeme must be developed from premises that accord with the audience's
view of the world.... (146)
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4 Carol Poster
Current Scholarship
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A Historicist Recontextualization of the Enthymeme 5
For him [Aristotle], the enthymeme is a logically valid syllogistic form based on
universal premises that were only probable rather than being absolutely true. (414)
In the same issue of the same journal as Mudd, Bitzer argues for a
dialogical process model of the enthymeme:
To say that the enthymeme is an "incomplete syllogism" ... means that the speaker
does not lay down his premises but lets his audience supply them out of its stock of
opinion and knowledge.... Whether or not the premises are verbalized is of no
logical importance. What is of great rhetorical importance, however, is that the
premises of the enthymeme be supplied by the audience. (407)
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6 Carol Poster
Now everyone agrees that the syllogism as stated in full is valid and ... that
corresponding to this form of inference there exists a certain true proposition,
namely
If M and m, then C.
If M, then C
A careful reading of all Aristotle's passages regarding the enthymeme reveals that
its persuasive power comes not from its following of abstract, external rules of
structure, but from the operation of the deductive form within the psychological
field of the listener. (146)
Yet, this bifurcation of formal and material causes is not an Aristotelian practice
Aristotle's ideas of material and formal causes are to be considered a unity of
conceptualization. In this unity, the definitive concept of the enthymeme emerges:
an incomplete syllogistic form embodying the matter of "signs and probabilities."
(209)
1 Jevons (153) assumes that the Homeric en thymos signifies "that some knowledge is held
by the mind and is supplied in the form of amn] ... understood premise." However, this projects the
forth century syllogistic model of the enthymeme back into a Homeric usage in a manner which, as
I will demonstrate later in the text, is thoroughly anachronistic.
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A Historicist Recontextualization of the Enthymeme 7
The difference between an enthymeme and a syllogism, besides the fact that an
enthymeme addresses probable truth, is that the premises which go into making it
are derived from, or contributed by, an audience which does not already share the
conclusion. The enthymeme cannot be constructed in the absence of a dialectical
relation with an audience.... (Gage 157)
The enthymeme is like a syllogism with some differences ... the major premise of
an enthymeme may be implied rather than expressed because the audience is
presumed to know it; and ... the major premise in an enthymeme may be unproved
(or even unprovable) if the audience beleives in it. (Raymond 142)
Aristotle's rhetor ... thus grounds his enthymemes in the audience's topics....
(Consigny 284)
Although Harper's inductive logic is certainly credible, her views have not
been particularly influential, nor has her methodology been widely used by
subsequent authors.
The problem with inductive definition of an enthymeme is that the
enthymeme is not an object that is defined inductively and demonstrated a
posteriori. Instead, it is defined deductively and applied a priori.
We do not find "enthymemes" in orations by Demonsthenes or Lysias or
Antiphon (see Jebb 1893 for examples of speeches); instead, we find that later
rhetoricians apply the term enthymeme to selected passages from earlier
orations in accord with some notion derived a priori of what constitutes an
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8 Carol Poster
Primary rhetoric is the conception of rhetoric as held by the Greeks when the art
was, as they put it, "invented" in the fifth century B.C. Rhetoric was "primarily"
an art of persuasion; it was primarily used in civic life; it was primarily oral.
Primary rhetoric involves an act of enunciation on a specific occasion; in itself it
has no text, though subsequently an enunciation can be treated as a text....
"Secondary" rhetoric, on the other hand, is the apparatus of rhetorical techniques
clustering around discourse or art forms.... (4-5)
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A Historicist Recontextualization of the Enthymeme 9
is a Greek rhetorical term, and that the "correct" definition ... of "enthymeme"
is that which most truly reflects the Greek meaning of the term. This
chronological displacement of definition from the contemporary text to the
Greek origin, however, merely changes the nature of an imprecise formulation
of the problem, without examining its underlying fallacies.
The extant uses of the term "enthymeme" and its direct predecessors in
Greek texts cover a period of roughly 1300 years, from Homer to the Byzantine
rhetoricians, and geographically span the entire circumference of the
Mediterranean, North Africa, Spain, Italy, Greece, Turkey, and Egypt. To
speak of a unique and correct Greek use of the term "enthymeme" is to reason
based on one of the often unstated and unquestioned assumptions in classical
studies, one cast into doubt by Havelock:
A third assumption ... controlled our use of the dictionaries, our exercises in
composition, and our style of translation. It was that the Greek language ... was
constructed out of a system of interchangeable parts.... The language in short had a
common logic, finally formalized in Aristotle s canon. ... [In standard lexicons]
what seems to be conceptually the most generic meaning is cited first, quite often
from prose authors of the fourth century. Then other uses, regardless of
chronology, are listed as emanations from the basic meaning. (221-222)
Historiographic Problems
Like Miller and Bee, though with a considerably greater degree of rigor,
Conley (1984) grounds his discussion of the enthymeme in the history of its
use. In "The Greekless Reader and Aristotle's Rhetoric" Conley states an
important methodological principle-that discussion of Aristotle must be based
on Greek texts rather than translations-and in his later article, "The
Enthymeme in Perspective," this approach proves extremely fruitful. Here,
Conley cites both Aristotelean and non-Aristotlean uses of the term
"enthymema," in order to show that the enthymeme has occupied a marginal
position in the history of rhetoric:
Indeed, nowhere outside Aristotle does any notion of the enthymeme ... play a very
important part in rhetorical theory.... [We should] conclude from the evident
ability of most rhetorical theories of Antiquity to get along quite well without the
enthymeme that the centrality of enthymematic reasoning to rhetorical theory is
questionable. (180)
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10 Carol Poster
To be sure, everyone has something to say about enthymemes but the discussions
are for the most part quite perfunctory and incidental-and as we just saw, seldom
compatible with one another. (180)
Earliest Forms
In fact, the phrase kata phrena kai kata thymon (in mind and heart),
similar in use to the Latin mens animusque (LSJ), is one of the commonly
repeated phrases in Homer. Examples from the Odyssey include:
phrazesthai de epeita kata phrena kai kata thymon
thereafter take thought in mind and heart (I:294)
mermerixe d'epeita kata phrena kai kata thymon,
and debated in mind and heart. (IV:117)
Heos ho tauth' hormaine kata phrena kai kata thymon
While he pondered thus in mind and heart (V:365)
Miller and Bee, although they do not cite specific Homeric passages, use
the origin of enthymeme from thymos, and its conjunction with phren (and its
derivative, phronesis) to argue:
2 In the body of the text, I shall abbreviate references to the 9th edition of Liddell and Scott's
Greek-English Lexicon as LSJ.
3 I have retained Murray's translations for all cited Homeric passages.
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A Historicist Recontextualization of the Enthymeme 11
That the enthymeme, and the art of rhetoric itself, belong more to the
applied than to the theoretical realm is indeed self-evident, although the
textual support for Miller and Bee's siting of rhetoric in the realm of phronesis
is somewhat problematic, as Aristotle4 specifically refers to rhetoric as a
techne (art) in several places in the Rhetoric.5 However, an even more
questionable step in their argument is the direct appropriation of the meaning
of thymos for Aristotle's use of the term enthymema, which ignores several
earlier occurences of enthymema in the same form as it is found in Aristotle-
although with quite different uses.
4 For all cited passages (except where specifically noted) from Aristotle's Rhetoric, I shall
refer to the Loeb edition and Freese's generally accurate translations due to the convenience of the
side-by-side format. For readers interested purely in quality of translation rather than availability
of Greek text, Kennedy's new translation (Oxford 1991) is substantially superior to the other three
currently available (Cooper, Freese, Roberts).
5 Both Peters (1967) and Warnick (1989: 303) comment extensively on Aristotle's treatment
of the relations among nous, episteme, sophia, techne, and phronesis.
6 Diels and Kranz (1989)-abbreviated DK in text-collect extant fragments of Pre-Socratic
philosophers. The "A" fragments are comments about the philosophers; the "B" fragments are
actual writings of the philosophers themselves. For English versions of the DK B fragments Kirk
et. al. (1983) provide Greek texts, English translations, and commentary.
7 For example (Storr's translation):
tarbein men o geraie, tanthymemata
polle st' anagke tapo sou.
The plea thou urgest, needs must give us pause.
Set forth in weighty argument (292-3)
echeis gar ouchi baia tanthumemata
ton son aderkton ommaton tetomenos.
Thou hast, alas, to prick thy memory,
Stem monitors, these ever-sightless orbs. (1200-1)
8 See Cole for an effort to reconstruct the teachings and writings of the earliest rhetoricians,
and Sprague for translations of DK fragments of the older sophists.
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12 Carol Poster
eti de ton kairon me diamnartein, alla kai tois enthumemasi prepontos holon ton
logon katapoikilai kai tios onomasin euruthmos kai mousikos eipein ...
and also, not to miss what the occasion demands but appropriately to adorn the
whole speech with striking thoughts and to clothe it in flowing and melodious
phrase ... ("Against the Sophists" 16 in Isocrates Vol. II)
tois de peri tous logous ouden exesti ton toiouton, all' apotomos kai ton onomaton
tois politikois monon kai ton enthumematon tois peri autas tas praxeis anagkaion
esti chresthai.
Orators, on the contrary, are not permitted the use of such devices; they must
use with precision only words in current use and only such ideas [enthymemes]
as bear upon the actual facts. ('?Evagoras" 10 in Isocrates Vol. III)
ta men gar eikota kai paradeigmata kai techmeria kai enthumemata kai ai gnomai
kai ta semeja kai hoi elegchoi pisteis ex auton ton logon kai ton anthropon kai ton
pragmaton eisin, epithetoi de <doxa tou legontos>, marturiai, basanoi, horkoi.
Probabilities, examples, tokens, enthymemes, maxims, signs and refutations
are proofs drawn from actual words and persons and actions; the opinion of the
speaker, the evidence of witnesses, evidence given under torture, oaths are
supplementary. (1428al7ff)
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A Historicist Recontextualization of the Enthymeme 13
Since the term enthymema is introduced in the passage without any effort
at definition, we can assume that Anaximenes felt the term to be sufficiently
familiar to his audience as not to require explication.
Compare this to a similar, but far from identical, division in Aristotle's
Rhetoric:
Enthumemata d'estin ou monon ta to logo kai te praxei enantioumena, alla kai tois
allois apasin.
Considerations [enthymemes] are (1) facts that run counter to the speech or
action in question, and also (2) those that run counter to anything else.
(1430a23)
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14 Carol Poster
[Dians la langue il n'y a que des differences sans termes positifs. (161)
10 Given that 16 of the 21 mentions of the term enthymema occur in the phrase enthymemata
kai gnomai indicates that the two should be read as a pair. The contrast often appears to be one of
length, with the enthymeme being a long or complex argument and the "maxim" a shorter saying.
11 Kennedy's translation. Freese's "counterpart" does not evoke the significant association
with the terminology of poetics.
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A Historicist Recontextualization of the Enthymeme 15
However, this dialogue does not have only two participants; it has three.
The very term antistrophos immediately calls to mind tragedy, and thus the
Poetics:
The technique of 'saying it well' remained a partial discipline, bounded not only
from above by philosophy but laterally by other domains of discourse. One of the
fields outside rhetoric is poetics. The split between rhetoric and poetics is of
particular interest.... (Ricoeur 12)
Metaphor, however, has a foot in each domain. With respect to structure, it can
really consist in just one unique operation, the transfer of the meanings of words;
but with respect to function, it follows the divergent destinies of tragedy and
oratory. Metaphor will therefore have a unique structure but two functions: a
rhetorical function and a poetic function. (12)
esti d'apodeixis rhetorike enthumema, kai esti touto hos eipein haplos kuriotaton
ton pisteon, to d'enthumema sullogismos tis
he de metaphora poiei touto malista ... poiousi men oun kai ai ton poieton eikones
to auto. dioper an eu, asteion phainetai.... anagke de kai lexin kai enthumemata
taut' einai asteia, hosa poiei hemin mathesin taxeian.
It is metaphor, therefore, that above all produces this effect.... The similes of
the poets also have the same effect; wherefore, if they are well constructed, an
impression of smartness is produced.... Of necessity, therefore, all style and
enthymemes that give us rapid information are smart. (IILx,4)
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16 Carol Poster
appears to shift its domain in response to the necessities of the text within
which it is embedded.
When Aristotle discusses the premisses of the syllogism, he contrasts them
with the sort of premises used in dialectic:
Phaneron de ek ton eiremenon hoti anagke peri touton exein proton tas protaseis.
to gar tekmeria kai ta eikota kai ta seimeia protaseis eisi rhetorikai. holos men gar
sullogismos ek protaseon sesti, to d' enthumema sullogismos esti sunestekos ek
ton eirememon protaseon.
From what has been said it is evident that the orator must first have in
readiness the propositions on these three subjects. Now, necessary signs
[tekmeria], probabilities [eikota], and signs [seimeial are the propositions of
the rhetorician; for the syllogism ... consists of propositions, and the
enthymeme is a syllogism composed of the propositions above mentioned.
(I,iii,7)
oti men oun to enthumema sullogismos tis estin, eiretai proteron, kai pos
sullogismos, kai to diapherei ton dialektikon. oute gar porrethen oute panta dei
lambanontas sunagein. to men gar asaphes dia to mekos, to de adoleschia dia to
phanera legein.
We have already said that the enthymeme is a kind of syllogism, what makes it
so, and in what it differs from the dialectic syllogisms; for the conclusion must
neither be drawn from too far back nor should it include all the steps of the
argument. In the first case its length causes obscurity, in the second, it is
simply a waste of words, because it states much that is obvious. (ll,xxii,1-3)
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A Historicist Recontextualization of the Enthymeme 17
esti gar ton enthumematon eide duo. ta men gar deiktika estin hoti estin e ouk
estin, ta d' elegktika. kai diapherei hosper en tois dialektikois elegchos kai
sullogismos. esti de to men deiktikon enthumema to ex homologoumenon
sunagein, to de elegktikon to ta anomologoumena sunagein.
There are two kinds of enthymemes, the one demonstrative, which proves that
a thing is or is not, and the other refutative, the two differing like refutation
and syllogism in Dialectic. The demostrative enthymeme draws conclusions
from admitted premises, the refutative draws conclusions disputed by the
adversary. (II,xxii,14-16)
The contrasts introduced in Aristotle which produce meaning for his uses
of enthymema are not the only possible set of contrasts available. Cicero, for
example, in his Topica, rather than explicitly defining the enthymeme, offers
two historical models of its use:
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18 Carol Poster
The first extant passages which explicitly contrast the enthymeme and the
epicheireme occur in Dionysus of Halicarnassus:
pistoutai <te> ou kat' enthymema monon, alla kai kat' epicheirema platunon.
In his proofs he not only uses the enthymeme but expiates by means of the
epicheireme. (Vol. 2: 267)
Although these do show the existence of some difference between the two
terms, and an assumption that both terms would be familiar to most readers,
they are not particularly illuminating as to the nature of the contrast.'4
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A Historicist Recontextualization of the Enthymeme 19
Diapherei de enthumema periodou tede, hoti hn men periodos sunthesis tis esti
periegmene, aph' hes kai onomastai, to de enthumema en to dianoemati exchei ten
dunamin kai sustasin. kai estin he men periodos kuklos tou enthumematos, hoster
kai ton allon pragmaton, to d' enthumema dianoia tis etoi ek maches legomene e en
akolouthias schemati.
Semeion de. ei gar dialuseias ten sunthesin tou enthumematos, ten men periodon
ephanisas, to d' enthumema tauton menei....
The enthymeme differs from the period in that the latter is a rounded structure,
from which indeed it derives its name; while the former finds in the thought its
meaning and constitution. The period encircles the enthymeme in the same
way as other subject matter, but the enthymeme is a thought expressed either
controversially or in the form of a consequence.
A word in proof. If you break up the verbal structure of an enthymeme, you
destroy the period, but the enthymeme remains intact (I,30-31)
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20 Carol Poster
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A Historicist Recontextualization of the Enthymeme 21
Methodological Conclusions
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22 Carol Poster
The famous paradox of the village barber-a man who shaves all men who
do not shave themselves-is soluble by the simple assertion that there is no
such barber (Quine 4). In a similar fashion, it is possible to resolve the
problem of the definition of the enthymeme by asserting that there is no such
unique entity, and instead, offering, as I have attempted to do, a description of
the complex and fascinating play of synchronic and diachronic differences that
constitute the domain of use of the term.16
Carol Poster
English Department
University of Missouri
WORKS CITED
16 I would like to thank Dr. Dana Elder (English Department, Eastern Washington Univer
and Dr. David Sebberson (English Department, St. Cloud State University) for several valuable
suggestions.
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A Historicist Recontextualization of the Enthymeme 23
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24 Carol Poster
Peters, F. E. Greek Philosophical Terms: A Historical Lexicon. New York: New York
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Quine, W. V. The Ways Of Paradox. NY: Random House, 1966.
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Raymond, James C. "Enthymemes, Examples, and Rhetorical Method." Robert J.
Connors et. al. ed. Essays on Classical Rhetoric and Modern Discourse.
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Ricoeur, Paul. The Rule of Metaphor. Trans. Czerny et. al. Toronto: University of
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Saussure, Ferdinand de. Cours de linguistique generate. 3rd ed., Paris: Payot, 1967.
Simonsin, Solomon. "A Definitive Note On The Enthymeme." American Journal Of
Philology 66:3 (1945): 303-306.
Sophocles. Sophocles, Vol. 1. Trans. F. Storr. Cambridge: Harvard University
Press, Loeb Classical Library, 1962.
Sprague, Rosamond Kent, ed. The Older Sophists. Columbia: University of South
Carolina Press, 1972.
Warnick, Barbara. "Judgement, Probability, and Aristotle's Rhetoric." Quarterly
Journal of Speech 9 (1989): 299-311.
Whately, Richard. Elements of Rhetoric. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University
Press, 1963.
Wittgenstein, Ludwig. Philosophical Investigations. Trans. G. E. M. Anscombe. New
York: Macmillan, 1971.
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