CE6451Fluid Mechanics and Machinery (FMM) With QB PDF
CE6451Fluid Mechanics and Machinery (FMM) With QB PDF
A Course Material on
By
Mr. V.P.KRISHNAMURTHY
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
QUALITY CERTIFICATE
Being prepared by me and it meets the knowledge requirement of the university curriculum.
Name : V.P.KRISHNAMURTHY
This is to certify that the course material being prepared by Mr.V.P.Krishnamurthy is of adequate quality. He has
referred more than five books among them minimum one is from aboard author.
Signature of HD
Name : E.R.Sivakumar
SEAL
UNIT IV PUMPS 10
Impact of jets - Euler‟s equation - Theory of roto-dynamic machines – various efficiencies– velocity
components at entry and exit of the rotor- velocity triangles - Centrifugal pumps– working principle -
work done by the impeller - performance curves - Reciprocating pump- working principle – Rotary
pumps –classification.
UNIT V TURBINES 10
Classification of turbines – heads and efficiencies – velocity triangles. Axial, radial and mixed flow
turbines. Pelton wheel, Francis turbine and Kaplan turbines- working principles - work done by water
on the runner – draft tube. Specific speed - unit quantities – performance curves for turbines –
governing of turbines.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
Upon completion of this course, the students can able to apply
mathematical knowledge to predict the properties and characteristics
of a fluid.
Can critically analyse the performance of pumps and turbines.
TEXT BOOK:
1. Modi P.N. and Seth, S.M. "Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics", Standard
Book House, New Delhi2004.
REFERENCES:
1. Streeter, V. L. and Wylie E. B., "Fluid Mechanics", McGraw Hill
Publishing Co. 2010
2. Kumar K. L., "Engineering Fluid Mechanics", Eurasia Publishing
House(p) Ltd., New Delhi2004
UNIT-IV PUMPS
4.1 HEAD AND EFFICIANCES 33
4.2 Centrifugal Pump 33
4.2.3 Performance Characteristics Of Pumps 33
4.2.4 Characteristic Curves 34
4.3 Reciprocating Pumps 35
4.3.1 Characteristic Curves Of Reciprocating Pumps 35
4.4 Rotary Pumps 36
4.4.1 Internal-Gear Pump 37
4.4.2 Lobe Pumps 37
4.3 Selection Of Pumps 38
Review Questions 38
UNIT V TURBINES
5.1 Classification Of Hydraulic Turbines 40
5.2 Head And Efficiencies Of Pelton Wheel
5.3 Impulse Turbine 41
5.4 Tangential Flow Turbine, Radial And Axial Turbines 41
5.5 Pelton Wheel Or Pelton Turbine 42
5.5.1 Velocity Triangles, Workdone, Efficiency Of Pelton 43
Wheel Inlet And Outlet Vector Diagrams
5.6 Specific Speed 46
5.7 Francis Turbine 48
5.8 Kaplan Turbine 50
5.9 Performance Of Turbines 50
5.10 Draft Tube 51
5.11 Specific Speed 51
5.12 Governing Of Turbines 51
REVIEW QUESTIONS 53
Unit I broadly deal with units and dimensions, properties of fluids and applications
of control volume of continuity equation, energy equation, and momentum equation.
Man’s desire for knowledge of fluid phenomena began with his problems of water
supply, irrigation, navigation, and waterpower.
Matter exists in two states; the solid and the fluid, the fluid state being commonly
divided into the liquid and gaseous states. Solids differ from liquids and liquids from
gases in the spacing and latitude of motion of their molecules, these variables being large
in a gas, smaller in a liquid, and extremely small in a solid. Thus it follows that
intermolecular cohesive forces are large in a solid, smaller in a liquid, and extremely
small in a gas.
The differences between the behaviors of solids and fluids under an applied force
are as follows:
i. For a solid, the strain is a function of the applied stress, providing that the elastic
limit is not exceeded. For a fluid, the rate of strain is proportional to the applied
stress.
ii. The strain in a solid is independent of the time over which the force is applied and, if
the elastic limit is not exceeded, the deformation disappears when the force is
removed. A fluid continues to flow as long as the force is applied and will not
recover its original form when the force is removed.
FLUID MECHANICS
Fluid mechanics is that branch of science which deals with the behavior of
fluids (liquids or gases) at rest as well as in motion. Thus this branch of science deals with
the static, kinematics and dynamic aspects of fluids. The study of fluids at rest is called fluid
statics. The study of fluids in motion, where pressure forces are not considered, is called
fluid kinematics and if the pressure forces are also considered for the fluids in motion, that
branch of science is called fluid dynamics.
The word dimensions are used to describe basic concepts like mass, length, time,
temperature and force.Units are the means of expressing the value of the dimension
quantitatively or numerically.
Area L*L m2
Volume L*L*L m3
Velocity L* T-1 m/s
Acceleration L*T-2 m/s2
Force M*L*T-2 N
Pressure M*L-1*T-2 N/m2 = Pa
Work M*L2*T-2 Nm =J
Power M*L2*T-3 J/s =W
Density M*L-3 kg/m3
Viscosity M*L-1*T-1 kg/ms = N s/m2
Surface Tension M*T-1 N/m
Area A L2
Density M/L3
Force F ML/t2
Kinematic
L2/t
viscosity
Pressure P M/Lt2
Viscosity M/Lt
Volume V L3
Dimensions:
Dimensions of the primary quantities:
Fundamental
Symbol
dimension
Length L
Mass M
Time T
Temperature T
Dimensions of derived quantities can be expressed in terms of the fundamental dimensions.
1. CGS Units
2. FPS Units
3. MKS Units
4. SI Units
Density or mass density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the mass of a fluid to its
8 V.P.KRISHNAMURTHY – AP/MECH 2015 - 16
volume. Thus mass per unit volume of a is called density.
Specific weight or weight density of a fluid is the ratio between the weight of a
fluid to its volume. The weight per unit volume of a fluid is called weight density.
3. Specific Volume:
Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the volume of a fluid occupied by a unit mass
or volume per unit mass of a fluid
4.Specific Gravity:
Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight density of a fluid to the weight
density of a standard fluid.
1.3 VISCOSITY
The top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent lower layer while the
lower layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent top layer. This shear stress is
proportional to the rate of change of velocity with respect to y.
The pressure at which a liquid will boil is called its vapor pressure. This
3
pressure is a function of temperature (vapor pressure increases with
temperature). In this context we usually think about the temperature at which boiling
occurs. For example, water boils at 100oC at sea-level atmospheric pressure (1 atm
abs). However, in terms of vapor pressure, we can say that by increasing the
temperature of water at sea level to 100 oC, we increase the vapor pressure to the
point at which it is equal to the atmospheric pressure (1 atm abs), so that boiling
occurs. It is easy to visualize that boiling can also occur in water at temperatures
much below 100oC if the pressure in the water is reduced to its vapor pressure. For
example, the vapor pressure of water at 10oC is 0.01 atm.
1.4.1 CAVITATION
Cavitation(flashing of the liquid into vapour) takes place when very low
pressures are produced at certain locations of a flowing liquid. Cavitation results
9 V.P.KRISHNAMURTHY – AP/MECH 2015 - 16
in the formation of vapour pockets or cavities which are carried away from the
point of origin and collapse at the high pressure zone.
1.5 COMPRESSIBILITY
Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in
contact with a gas or on the surface between two two immiscible liquids such that the
contact surface behaves like a membrane under tension.
Formula:
Pressure inside a soap bubble and surface tension () are related by,
p = 4/r
Calculations:
= pr/4 = 2 x 105 x 0.025/4 = 1250 N/m
1.7 CAPILLARITY
Capillarity is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid surface in a small
tube relative to the adjacent general level of liquid when the tube is held vertically in the
liquid. The rise of liquid surface is known as capillary rise while the fall of the liquid
surface is known as capillary depression.
1.Water has a surface tension of 0.4 N/m. In a 3 mm diameter vertical tube if the liquid
rises 6 mm above the liquid outside the tube, calculate the contact angle.
Data:
Surface tension = 0.4 N/m
Dia of tube (d) = 3 mm = 0.003 m
Capillary rise (h) = 6 mm = 0.006 m
Formula:
Capillary rise due to surface tension is given by
h = 4cos(gd), where is the contact angle.
Calculations:
cos() = hgd/(4) = 0.006 x 1000 x 9.812 x 0.003 / (4 x 0.4) = 0.11
Therfore, contact angle = 83.7o
A specified large number of fluid and thermal devices have mass flow in and
out of a system called as control volume.
Concepts
Let us make the mass balance for a fluid element as shown below: (an open-faced cube)
This is the continuity equation for every point in a fluid flow whether steady or unsteady ,
compressible or incompressible.
For steady, incompressible flow, the density is constant and the equation simplifies to
For two dimensional incompressible flow this will simplify still further to
This is known as Euler's equation, giving, in differential form the relationship between p, v,
and elevation z, along a streamline for steady flow.
Bernoulli’s Equation relates velocity, pressure and elevation changes of a fluid in motion. It
may be stated as follows “ In an ideal incompressible fluid when the flow is steady and
continuous the sum of pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy is constant
along streamline”
--> 1
This is the basic from of Bernoulli equation for steady incompressible inviscid flows. It
may be written for any two points 1 and 2 on the same streamline as
--> 2
--> 3
The total head may be regarded as the sum of the piezometric head h* = p/g + z and the
kinetic head v2/2g.
Bernoulli equation can be corrected and used in the following form for real cases.
APPLICATIONS
1.Venturimeter.
2.Orificemeter
3.Pitot Tube
p1A1-p2A2×cosθ-Fx=ρQ(v2cosθ-v1)
Fx=ρQ(v1-v2cosθ)-p2A2cosθ+p1A1
-p2A2sinθ+Fy=ρQ(v2sinθ-0)
Fy=ρQv2sinθ+p2A2 sinθ
Fr=√Fx²+Fy²
GLOSSARY
Quantity Unit
Mass in Kilogram Kg
Length in Meter M
Temperature in Kelvin K
Derived quantities:
Quantity Unit
PART A
PART B
1. (a) What are the different types fluids? Explain each type. (b) Discuss the
thermodynamic properties of fluids
2. (a) One litter of crude oil weighs 9.6 N. Calculate its Specific weight, density and
specific weight.
(b) The Velocity Distribution for flow over a flat plate is given by u=(2/3)y-y2, Where u
is the point velocity in meter per second at a distance y meter above the plate.
Determine the shear stress at y=0 and y=15 cm. Assume dynamic viscosity as 8.63
poises
3. (a) A plate, 0.025 mm distant from a fixed plate, moves at 50 cm/s and requires a force
of 1.471 N/ m2 to maintain this speed. Determine the fluid viscosity between plates in
the poise.
(b) Determine the intensity of shear of an oil having viscosity =1.2 poise and is used for
lubrication in the clearance between a 10 cm diameter shaft and its journal bearing. The
clearance is 1.0 mm and Shaft rotates at 200 r.p.m
4. (a) Two plates are placed at a distance of 0.15mm apart. The lower plate is fixed while
the upper plate having surface area 1.0 m2 is pulled at 0.3 nm/s. Find the force and
power required to maintain this speed, if the fluid separating them is having viscosity
1.5 poise.
(b) An oil film of thickness 1.5 mm is used for lubrication between a square plate of
size 0.9m *0.9m and an inclined plane having an angle of inclination 200 . . The weight
of square plate is 392.4 N and its slides down the plane with a uniform velocity of 0.2
m/s. find the dynamic viscosity of the oil.
6. (a) Calculate the pressure exerted by 5kg of nitrogen gas at a temperature of 100 C.
Assume ideal gas law is applicable.
(b) Calculate the capillary effect in glass tube 5mm diameter, when immersed in (1)
water and (2) mercury. The surface tension of water and mercury in contact with air are
0.0725 N/m and 0.51 N/m respectively. The angle of contact of mercury of mercury is
130.
Unit II has an in dept dealing of laminar flow through pipes, boundary layer
concept, hydraulic and energy gradient, friction factor, minor losses, and flow through pipes
in series and parallel.
Boundary layer is the region near a solid where the fluid motion is affected by the
solid boundary. In the bulk of the fluid the flow is usually governed by the theory of ideal
fluids. By contrast, viscosity is important in the boundary layer. The division of the problem
of flow past an solid object into these two parts, as suggested by Prandtl in 1904 has proved
to be of fundamental importance in fluid mechanics.
This concept of hydraulic gradient line and total energy line is very useful in the
study of flow This concept of hydraulic gradient line and total energy line is very useful in
the study of flow of fluids through pipes. f fluids through pipes.
It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head (p/w)
and datum head (z) of a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference line or it is
the line which is obtained by joining the top of all vertical ordinates, showing the pressure
head (p/w) of a flowing fluid in a pipe from the centre of the pipe. It is briefly
written as H.G.L (Hydraulic Gradient Line).
It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head, datum head and
kinetic head of a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference line. It is also
defined as the line which is obtained by joining the tops of all vertical ordinates
showing the sum of pressure head and kinetic head from the centre of the pipe. It is briefly
written as T.E.L (Total Energy Line).
Concepts
The variation of velocity takes place in a narrow region in the vicinity of solid boundary.
The fluid layer in the vicinity of the solid boundary where the effects of fluid friction i.e.,
variation of velocity are predominant is known as the boundary layer.
For the flow of viscous fluid through circular pipe, the velocity distribution across a
section, the ratio of maximum velocity to average velocity, the shear stress distribution and
drop of pressure fora given length is to be determined. The flow through circular pipe will
be viscous or laminar, if the Reynold’s number is less than 2000.
At the initial stage i.e, near the surface of the leading edge of the plate, the thickness of
boundary layer is the small and the flow in the boundary layer is laminar though the main
stream flows turbulent. So, the layer of the fluid is said to be laminar boundary layer.
The thickness boundary layer increases with distance from the leading edge in the
down-stream direction. Due to increases in thickness of boundary layer, the laminar
boundary layer becomes unstable and the motion of the fluid is disturbed. It leads to a
transition from laminar to turbulent boundary layer.
Consider a continuous flow of fluid along the surface of a thin flat plate with its sharp
leading edge set parallel to the flow direction as shown in figure 2.7.The fluid approaches
the plate with uniform velocity U known as free stream velocity at the leading edge. As
soon as the fluid comes in contact the leading edge of the plate,its velocity is reduced to
zero as the fluid particles adhere to the plate boundary thereby satisfying no-slip condition.
Due to viscosity of the flowing fluid in a laminar flow,some losses of head take place.The
equation which gives us the value of loss of head due to viscosity in a laminar flow is
known as Hagen-Poiseuille’s law.
=128μQL/πD4
This equation is called as Hargen-Poiseuille equation for laminar flow in the circular pipes.
A pipe is a closed conduit through which the fluid flows under pressure.When the
fluid flows through the piping system,some of the potential energy is lost due to friction.
hƒ=4ƒLv²/2gD
Where,R/K=relative roughness
1. Displacements thickness(δ*)
2. Momentum thickness(θ)
3. Energy thickness(δe)
The boundary layer leaves the surface and gets separated from it. This phenomenon is
known as boundary layer separation.
When a fluid flowing through a pipe, certain resistance is offered to the flowing fluid,
it results in causing a loss of energy.
1. Major losses
2. Minor losses
The major loss of energy is caused by friction in pipe. It may be computed by Darcy-
weisbach equation.
The loss of energy caused on account of the change in velocity of flowing fluid is called
minor loss of energy.
Pipes in Series
The pipes of different diamers and lengths which are connected with one
another to form a single pipeline.
Pipes in Parallel
When a main pipeline divides into two or more parallel pipes which
again join together to form a single pipe and continuous as a main line
Applications
REVIEW QUESTIONS
PART A
PART-B
1. (a) Derive an expression for the velocity distribution for viscous flow through a circular
pipe.
(b) A main pipe divides into two parallel pipes, which again forms one pipe. The length
and diameter for the first parallel pipe are 2000m and 1m respectively, while the length
and diameter of second parallel pipe are 2000 and 0.8 m respectively. Find the rate of
flow in each parallel pipe, if total flow in the main is 3 m³/s. The coefficient of friction
for each parallel pipe is same and equal to 0.005.
2. (a)Two pipes of 15 cm and 30 cm diameters are laid in parallel to pass a total discharge
of 100 liters/ second. Each pipe is 250 m long. Determine discharge through each pipe.
Now these pipes are connected in series to connect two tanks 500 m apart, to carry same
total discharge. Determine water level difference between the tanks. Neglect minor
losses in both cases, f=0.02 fn both pipes.
(b) A pipe line carrying oil of specific gravity 0.85, changes in diameter from 350 mm
at position 1 to 550 mm diameter to a position 2, which is at 6 m at a higher level. If the
pressure at position 1 and 2 are taken as 20 N/cm2 and 15 N/ cm2 respectively and
discharge through the pipe is 0.2 m³/s. determine the loss of head.
4. A flat plate 1.5 m X 1.5 m moves at 50 km / h in a stationary air density 1.15 kg/ m³. If
The coefficient of drag and lift are 0.15 and 0.75 respectively, determine (i) the lift force
(ii) the drag force (iii) the resultant force and (iv) the power required to set the plate in
motion.
5 (a). The rate of flow of water through a horizontal pipe is 0.3 m³/s. The diameter of the
pipe is suddenly enlarged from 25 cm to 50 cm. The pressure intensity in the smaller
pipe is 14N/m².
Determine (i) Loss of head due to sudden enlargement. (ii) Pressure intensity in the
large
pipe and (iii) Power lost due to enlargement.
(b) Water is flowing through a tapering pipe of length 200 m having diameters 500 mm
at the upper end and 250 mm at the lower end, the pipe has a slope of 1 in 40. The rate
of flow through the pipe is 250 lit/ sec. the pressure at the lower end and the upper end
are 20 N/cm² and 10 N/cm² respectively. Find the loss of head and direction of flow.
7. Determine the length of an equivalent pipe of diameter 20 cm and friction factor 0.02
for a given pipe system discharging 0.1m³/s. The pipe system consists of the following:
(i) A 10 m line of 20 cm dia with f=0.03
(ii) Three 90º bend, k=0.5 for each
(iii) Two sudden expansion of diameter 20 to 30 cm
(iv) A 15 m line of 30 cm diameter with f=0.025 and
(v) A global valve, fully open, k=10.
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
For example, the pressure loss from friction in a long, round, straight, smooth pipe
depends on all these variables: the length and diameter of the pipe, the flow rate of the
liquid, and the density and viscosity of the liquid. If any one of these variables is changed,
the pressure drop also changes. The empirical method of obtaining an equation relating
these factors to pressure drop requires that the effect of each separate variable be
determined in turn by systematically varying that variable while keep all others constant.
The procedure is laborious, and is difficult to organize or correlate the results so obtained
into a useful relationship for calculations.
Concepts
If the number of variables involved in a physical phenomenon are known, then the
relation among the variables can be determined by the following two methods.
1.Rayleigh’s method
2. Buckingham’s π theorem
3.1.1Rayleigh’s method
This method is used for determining the expression for a variable which depends upon
maximum three or four variables only. If the number of independent variables
becomes more than four then it is very difficult to find the expression for the dependent
variable.
Applications
Similitude is defined as the similarity between the model and its prototype in
every respect, which means that the model and prototype are completely similar. Three
types of similarities must exist between the model and prototype.
Concepts
1. Geometric similarity refers to linear dimensions. Two vessels of different sizes are
geometrically similar if the ratios of the corresponding dimensions on the two scales are the
same. If photographs of two vessels are completely super-impossible, they are
geometrically similar.
2.Kinematic similarity refers to motion and requires geometric similarity and the same
ratio of velocities for the corresponding positions in the vessels.
3.Dynamic similarity concerns forces and requires all force ratios for corresponding
positions to be equal in kinematically similar vessels.
SIGNIFICANCE
The requirement for similitude of flow between model and prototype is that the
significant dimensionless parameters must be equal for model and prototype
Since the inertia force is always present in a fluid flow, its ratio with each of the
other forces provides a dimensionless number.
1. Reynold’s number
2. Froud’s number
3. Euler’s number
4. Weber’s number
5. Mach’s number
Dimensionless
Symbol Formula Numerator Denominator Importance
Number
Fluid flow
Reynolds Inertial involving
NRe Dv/ Viscous force
number force viscous and
inertial forces
Froude Inertial Gravitational Fluid flow with
NFr u2/gD
number force force free surface
Inertial Fluid flow with
Weber number NWe u2D/ Surface force
force interfacial forces
Local Gas flow at high
Mach number NMa u/c Sonic velocity
velocity velocity
Drag Total drag Flow around
CD FD/(u2/2) Inertial force
coefficient force solid bodies
Flow though
Friction factor f w/(u2/2) Shear force Inertial force
closed conduits
Flow though
Pressure Pressure closed conduits.
CP p/(u2/2) Inertial force
coefficient force Pressure drop
estimation
Models of automobiles and high-speed trains are also tested in wind tunnels to
predict the drag and flow patterns for the prototype. Information derived from these model
studies often indicates potential problems that can be corrected before prototype is built,
thereby saving considerable time and expense in development of the prototype.
Much time, mony and energy goes into the design construction and eradication of
hydraulic structures and machines.
To minimize the chances of failure, it is always desired that the tests to be performed
on small size models of the structures or machines. The model is the small scale replica of
the actual structure or machine. The actual structure or machine is Called prototype.
Applictions
GLOSSARY
1. Pipe diameter
2. Average velocity
3. Fluid density
4. Fluid viscosity
5. Pipe roughness
6. The frictional losses per unit mass.
Therefore, given any five of these, we can use the friction-factor charts to find the sixth.
Most often, instead of being interested in the average velocity, we are interested in the
volumetric flow rate Q = (/4)D2V
1 D, k, , , Q hf
D, k, , , hf Q
k, , hf, Q D
REVIEW QUESTIONS
PART-B
3) Find an expression for the drag force on smooth sphere of diameter D, moving with
uniform velocity v, in fluid density and dynamic viscosity .
4) Efficiency of a fan depends on the density , the dynamic viscosity of the fluid ,
the angular velocity , diameter D of the rotor and the discharge Q. Express in
terms of dimensional parameters.
7) The pressure drop ∆p in a pipe of diameter D and length l depends on the density
and viscosity of fluid flowing, mean velocity v of flow and average height of
protuberance t. Show that the pressure drop can be expressed in the form p =
v2 , , .
8) Find the expression for the drag force on smooth sphere of diameter D moving with
uniform velocity v in fluid density and dynamic viscosity .
9) The efficiency of a fan depends on the density , the dynamic viscosity , angular
velocity , diameter D of the motor and the discharge Q. Express the efficiency
in terms of dimensional parameters.
10) The pressure difference p in a pipe of diameter D and length l due to turbulent flow
depends on the velocity v, viscosity , density and roughness K. Using
Buckingham’s -theorem, obtain an expression for p.
Basic concepts of rot dynamic machines, velocity triangles for radial flow and axial
flow machines, centrifugal pumps, turbines and Positive displacement pumps and rotary
pumps its performance curves are discussed in Unit IV.
The liquids used in the chemical industries differ considerably in physical and chemical
properties. And it has been necessary to develop a wide variety of pumping equipment.
The two main forms are the positive displacement type and centrifugal pumps.
the former, the volume of liquid delivered is directly related to the displacement of
the piston and therefore increases directly with speed and is not appreciably influenced by
the pressure. In this group are the reciprocating piston pump and the rotary gear pump, both
of which are commonly used for delivery against high pressures and where nearly constant
delivery rates are required.
The centrifugal type depends on giving the liquid a high kinetic energy which is then
converted as efficiently as possible into pressure energy.
1. Gross head
2. Effective or Net head
3. Water and Bucket power
4. Hydraulic efficiency
5. Mechanical efficiency
6. Volume efficiency
7. Overall efficiency
Concepts
A pump is a device which converts the mechanical energy supplied into hydraulic energy by
lifting water to higher levels.
The fluid quantities involved in all hydraulic machines are the flow rate (Q) and the
head (H), whereas the mechanical quantities associated with the machine itself are the
power (P), speed (N), size (D) and efficiency ( ). Although they are of equal importance,
the emphasis placed on certain of these quantities is different for different pumps. The
If the speed of the impeller is increased from N1 to N2 rpm, the flow rate will increase from
Q1 to Q2 as per the given formula:
The head developed(H) will be proportional to the square of the quantity discharged, so that
These relationships, however, form only the roughest guide to the performance of
centrifugal pumps.
Pump action and the performance of a pump are defined interms of their
characteristic curves. These curves correlate the capacity of the pump in unit volume per
unit time versus discharge or differential pressures. These curves usually supplied by pump
manufacturers are for water only.
These curves usually shows the following relationships (for centrifugal pump).
A plot of capacity versus differential head. The differential head is the difference in
pressure between the suction and discharge.
The pump efficiency as a percentage versus capacity.
The break horsepower of the pump versus capacity.
The net poisitive head required by the pump versus capacity. The required NPSH for
the pump is a characteristic determined by the manufacturer.
Working principle
If the mechanical energy is converted into hydraulic energy (or pressure energy) by
sucking
the liquid into a cylinder in which a piston is reciprocating (moving backwards and
forwards), which
exerts the thrust on the liquid and increases its hydraulic energy (pressure energy), the pump
is known as reciprocating pump
1.A cylinder with a piston, piston rod, connecting rod and a crank, 2. Suction pipe
Slip of a reciprocating pump is defined as the difference between the theoretical discharge
and the actual discharge of the pump.
1.According to the water being on contact with one side or both sides of the piston
(i.) Single acting pump (ii.) Double-acting pump
1. The simplest centrifugal pumps are cheaper than the simplest reciprocating pumps.
2. Centrifugal pumps deliver liquid at uniform pressure without shocks or pulsations.
The rotary pump is good for handling viscous liquids, nut because of the close
tolerances needed, it can not be manufactured large enough to compete with centrifugal
pumps for coping with very high flow rates.
Rotary pumps are available in a variety of configurations.
Double lobe pump
Trible lobe pumps
Gear pump
Gear Pumps
Spur Gear or External-gear pump
External-gear pumps are used for flow rates up to about 400 m 3/hr working
against pressures as high as 170 atm. The volumetric efficiency of gear pumps is in
the order of 96 percent at pressures of about 40 atm but decreases as the pressure
rises.
The above figure shows the operation of a internal gear pump. In the
internal-gear pump a spur gear, or pinion, meshes with a ring gear with internal
teeth. Both gears are inside the casing. The ring gear is coaxial with the inside of the
casing, but the pinion, which is externally driven, is mounted eccentrically with
respect to the center of the casing. A stationary metal crescent fills the space
between the two gears. Liquid is carried from inlet to discharge by both gears, in the
spaces between the gear teeth and the crescent.
In principle the lobe pump is similar to the external gear pump; liquid flows into the
region created as the counter-rotating lobes unmesh. Displacement volumes are formed
between the surfaces of each lobe and the casing, and the liquid is displaced by meshing of
the lobes. Relatively large displacement volumes enable large solids (nonabrasive) to be
handled. They also tend to keep liquid velocities and shear low, making the pump type
suitable for high viscosity, shear-sensitive liquids.
The following factors influence the choice of pump for a particular operation:
1. The quantity of liquid to be handled: This primarily affects the size of the pump and
determines whether it is desirable to use a number of pumps in parallel.
2. The head against which the liquid is to be pumped. This will be determined by the
difference in pressure, the vertical height of the downstream and upstream reservoirs
and by the frictional losses which occur in the delivery line. The suitability of a
centrifugal pump and the number of stages required will largely be determined by
this factor.
3. The nature of the liquid to be pumped. For a given throughput, the viscosity largely
determines the frictional losses and hence the power required. The corrosive nature
will determine the material of construction both for the pump and the packing. With
suspensions, the clearance in the pump must be large compared with the size of the
particles.
4. The nature of power supply. If the pump is to be driven by an electric motor or
internal combustion engine, a high-speed centrifugal or rotary pump will be
preferred as it can be coupled directly to the motor.
5. If the pump is used only intermittently, corrosion troubles are more likely than with
continuous working.
Applications
The handling of liquids which are particularly corrosive or contain abrasive solids in
suspension, compressed air is used as the motive force instead of a mechanical pump.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
PART A
1. Write short notes on the following (1) Cavitations in hydraulic machines their causes,
effects and remedies. (2) Type of rotary pumps.
2. Draw a neat sketch of centrifugal pump and explain the working principle of the
centrifugal pump.
3. Draw a neat sketch of Reciprocating pump and explain the working principle of single
acing and double acting Reciprocating pump.
4. A radial flow impeller has a diameter 25 cm and width 7.5 cm at exit. It delivers 120
liters of water per second against a head of 24 m at 1440 rpm. Assuming the vanes block
the flow area by 5% and hydraulic efficiency of 0.8, estimate the vane angle at exit.
Also calculate the torque exerted on the driving shaft if the mechanical efficiency is
95%.
5. Find the power required to drive a centrifugal pump which to drive a centrifugal pump
which delivers 0.04 m3 /s of water to a height of 20 m through a 15 cm diameter pipe
and 100 m long. The over all efficiency of the pump is 70% and coefficient of friction is
0.15 in the formula hf=4flv2/2gd.
6. A Centrifugal pump having outer diameter equal to 2 times the inner diameter and
running at 1200 rpm works against a total head of 75 m. The Velocity of flow through
the impeller is constant and equal to 3 m/s. The vanes are set back at an angle of 30º at
out let. If the outer diameter of impeller is 600 mm and width at outlet is 50 mm.
Determine (i) Vane angle at inlet (ii) Work done per second on impeller
(iii) Manometric efficiency.
7. The diameter and stroke of a single acting reciprocating pump are 200 mm and 400 mm
respectively, the pump runs at 60 rpm and lifts 12 liters of water per second through a
height of 25 m. The delivery pipe is 20m long and 150mm in diameter. Find (i)
Theoretical power required to run the pump. (ii) Percentage of slip. (iii) Acceleration
head at the beginning and middle of the delivery stroke.
Turbines are defined as the hydraulic machines which convert hydraulic energy into
mechanical energy. This mechanical energy is used in running an electric generator which is
directly coupled to the shaft of the turbine. Thus the mechanical energy is converted
into electrical energy. The electric power which is obtained from the hydraulic energy
(energy of water) is known as Hydro- electro power.
In our subject point of view, the following turbines are important and will be
discussed one by one.
1. Pelton wheel
2. Francis turbine
3. Kaplan turbine
Concept
Turbines are defined as the hydraulic machines which convert hydraulic energy into
mechanical energy. This mechanical energy is used in running an electric generator which is
directly coupled to the shaft of the turbine
1. Gross head
2. Effective or Net head
3. Water and Bucket power
4. Hydraulic efficiency
5. Mechanical efficiency
6. Volume efficiency
7. Overall efficiency
In an impulse turbine, all the energy available by water is converted into kinetic
energy by passing a nozzle. The high velocity jet coming out of the nozzle then impinges on
a series of buckets fixed around the rim of a wheel.
In a tangential flow turbine, water flows along the tangent to the path of runner. E.g. Pelton
wheel
In a radial flow turbine, water flows along the radial direction and mainly in the plane
normal to the axis of rotation, as it passes through the runner. It may be either inward radial
flow type or outward radial flow type.
In axial flow turbines, water flows parallel to the axis of the turbine shaft. E.g. kaplan
turbine
In a mixed flow turbine, the water enters the blades radiallsy and comes out axially and
parallel to the turbine shaft .E.g. Modern Francis turbine.
In our subject point of view, the following turbines are important and will be discussed one
by one
1. Pelton wheel
2. Francis turbine
3. Kaplan turbine
41 V.P.KRISHNAMURTHY – AP/MECH 2015 - 16
5.5 PELTON WHEEL OR PELTON TURBINE
The Pelton wheel is a tangential flow impulse turbine and now in common use.
Leston A Pelton, an American engineer during 1880,develops this turbines. A pelton
wheel consists of following main parts.
1. Penstock
4. Brake nozzle
5. Outer casing
6. Governing mechanism
Hence for the condition of maximum hydraulic efficiency, the peripheral speed of
the turbine should reach one half the jet speed.
[ The speed of any water turbine is represented by N rpm. A turbine has speed,
known as specific speed and is represented by N
‘ Specific speed of a water turbine in the speed at which a geometrically similar
turbine would run if producing unit power (1 kW) and working under a net head of
1 m. Such a turbine would be an imaginary one and is called specific turbine.
Francis turbine is an inward flow reaction turbine. It is developed by the American engineer
James B. Francis. In the earlier stages, Francis turbine had a purely radial floe runner. But the
modern Francis turbine is a mixed flow reaction turbine in which the water enters the runner
radially at its outer periphery and leaves axially at its centre. This arrangement provides larger
discharge area with prescribed diameter of the runner. The main parts such as
1. Penstock
6. Draft tube
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A Kaplan turbine is an axial flow reaction turbine which was developed by Austrian
engineer V. Kaplan. It is suitable for relatively low heads. Hence, it requires a large quantity of
water to develop large power. The main parts of Kaplan turbine, they are
1. Scroll casing
2. Stay ring
3. Guide vanes
4. Runner
5. Draft tube
Turbines are often required to work under varying conditions of head, speed, output and gate
opening. In order to predict their behavior, it is essential to study the performance of the turbines
under the varying conditions. The concept of unit quantities and specific quantities are required to
The pressure at the exit of the runner of a reaction turbine is generally less than atmospheric
pressure. Thus the water at the exit of the runner cannot be directly discharged to the tail race. A
pipe o gradually increasing area is used for discharging water form the exit of the turbine to the tail
race. This pipe of gradually increasing area is called a draft tube.
Homologus units are required in governing dimensionless groups to use scaled models in
designing turbomachines, based geometric similitude.
Specific speed is the speed of a geometrically similar turbine, which will develop unit
power when working under a unit head. The specific speed is used in comparing the different types
of turbines as every type of turbine has different specific speed. In S.I. units, unit power is taken as
one Kw and unit as one meter.
All the modern hydraulic turbines are directly coupled to the electric generators. The
generators are always required to run at constant speed irrespective of the variations in the load. It
is usually done by regulating the quantity of water flowing through the runner in accordance with
the variations in the load. Such an operation of regulation of speed of turbine runner is known as
governing of turbine and is usually done automatically by means of a governor.
Applications
GLOSSARY
HP –Horse power
KW- Kilo watts
REVIEW QUESTIONS
PART B
1. Obtain en expression for the work done per second by water on the runner of a pelton wheel.
Hence derive an expression for maximum efficiency of the pelton wheel giving the relationship
between the jet speed and bucket speed.
2. (a) A pelton wheel is having a mean bucket diameter of 1 m and is running at 1000 rpm. The
net head on the pelton wheel is 700 m. If the side clearance angle is 15º and discharge through
nozzle is 0.1 m³/s, find (1) power available at nozzle and (2) hydraulic efficiency of the turbine.
Take Cv=1 (b) A turbine is to operate under a head of 25 m
at 200 rpm. The discharge is 9 m³/s. If the efficiency is 90% determine, Specific speed of the
machine, Power generated and type of turbine.
3. A pelton turbine is required to develop 9000 KW when working under a head of 300 m the
impeller may rotate at 500 rpm. Assuming a jet ratio of 10 And an overall efficiency of 85%
calculate (1) Quantity of water required. (2) Diameter of the wheel (3) Number of jets (4)
Number and size of the bucket vanes on the runner.
4. An Outward flow reaction turbine has internal and external diameters of the runner as 0.5 m and
1.0 m respectively. The turbine is running at 250 rpm and rate of flow of water through the
turbine is 8 m³/s. The width of the runner is constant at inlet and out let and is equal to 30 cm.
The head on the turbine is 10 m and discharge at outlet6 is radial, determine (1) Vane angle at
inlet and outlet. (2) Velocity of flow at inlet and outlet.
5. The Nozzle of a pelton Wheel gives a jet of 9 cm diameter and velocity 75 m/s. Coefficient of
velocity is 0.978. The pitch circle diameter is 1.5 m and the deflection angle of the bucket is
170º. The wheel velocity is 0.46 times the jet velocity. Estimate the speed of the pelton wheel
turbine in rpm, theoretical power developed and also the efficiency of the turbine.
6. (a)A turbine is to operate a head of a 25 m at 200 rpm; the available discharge is 9 m³/s
assuming an efficiency of 90%. Determine (1) Specific speed (2) Power generated (3)
Performance under a head of 20 m (4) The type of turbine. ) (b) A vertical reaction
turbine under 6m head at 400 rpm the area and diameter of runner at inlet are 0.7 m² and 1m
respective the absolute and relative velocities of fluid entering are 15ºand 60º to the tangential
direction. Calculate hydraulic efficiency.
7. A Francis turbine has an inlet diameter of 2.0 m and an outlet diameter of 1.2m. The width of
the blades is constant at 0.2 m. The runner rotates at a speed of 250 rpm with a discharge of 8
m³/s .The vanes are radial at the inlet and the discharge is radially outwards at the outlet.
Calculate the angle of guide vane at inlet and blade angle at the outlet.
UNIT- I
FLUID PROPERTIES AND FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
PART – A
1. Define fluids.
Fluid may be defined as a substance which is capable of flowing. It has no definite shape
of its own, but confirms to the shape of the containing vessel.
W = pg
8.Define Viscosity.
It is defined as the property of a liquid due to which it offers resistance to the movement of
one layer of liquid over another adjacent layer.
12. Give the importance of viscosity on fluid motion and its effect on temperature.
Viscosity is the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement of one
layer of fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid. The viscosity is an important
property which offers the fluid motion.
The viscosity of liquid decreases with increase in temperature and for gas it
Increases with increase in temperature.
2.`
3.
4.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
UNIT II
FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS
PART – A
1. Define viscosity (u).
Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the
movement of one layer of fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid.Viscosity is
78 V.P.KRISHNAMURTHY – AP/MECH 2015 - 16
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also defined as the shear stress required to produce unit rate of shear strain.
15.What are the factors influencing the frictional loss in pipe flow ?
Frictional resistance for the turbulent flow is
i. Proportional to vn where v varies from 1.5 to 2.0 . ii.
Proportional to the density of fluid .
iii. Proportional to the area of surface in contact . iv.
Independent of pressure .
v. Depend on the nature of the surface in contact .
16. What is the expression for head loss due to friction in Darcy formula ?
hf = 4fLV2 / 2gD
Where f = Coefficient of friction in pipe L = Length of the pipe
D = Diameter of pipe V = velocity of the fluid
he = (V1-V2)2 /2g
Wherehe = Loss of head due to sudden enlargement of pipe .
V1 = Velocity of flow at section 1-1
V2 = Velocity of flow at section 2-2
20. Give an expression for loss of head at the entrance of the pipe
hi =0.5V2/2g
where hi = Loss of head at entrance of pipe .
V = Velocity of liquid at inlet and outlet of the pipe .
PART-B
1.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
UNIT III
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
PART – A
1. What are the methods of dimensional analysis
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There are two methods of dimensional analysis. They are,
a. Rayleigh - Retz method
b. Buckingham's theotem method.
Nowadays Buckingham's theorem method is only used.
7. Define Similitude
Similitude is defined as the complete similarity between the model and
prototype.
PART-B
100 V.P.KRISHNAMURTHY – AP/MECH 2015 - 16
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
UNIT-IV
PUMPS
PART – A (2 Marks)
1. What is meant by Pump?
A pump is device which converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
12. Why are centrifugal pumps used sometimes in series and sometimes in parallel?
The centrifugal pumps used sometimes in series because for high heads and in
parallel for high discharge
17.. Define Slip of reciprocating pump. When the negative slip does occur?
The difference between the theoretical discharge and actual discharge is called slip of
the pump.
But in sometimes actual discharge may be higher then theoretical discharge, in such a
case coefficient of discharge is greater then unity and the slip will be negative called
as negative slip.
PART-B
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
UNIT-V
TURBINES
PART – A
2. Give example for a low head, medium head and high head turbine.
Low head turbine – Kaplan turbine
Medium head turbine – Modern Francis turbine
High head turbine – Pelton wheel
PART-B
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.