T H E W O R L D ’ S C L A S S IC S

THE BODHICARYÄVATÄRA

S ä n t id e v a w a s a n In d ia n B u d d h is t m o n k , a s c h o la r , p h ilo s o p h e r , an d
ta le n te d S a n s k r it p o e t. H e m a y h a v e liv e d s o m e tim e b e tw e e n 6 S 5 a n d 7 6 3
ce . A p a r t f ro m th a t w e h a v e no r e lia b le in fo r m a tio n c o n c e r n in g h is life
s t o r y . A s h e h a d w ritte n so m o v in g ly o f th e sp ir it u a l p a th , h o w e v e r , an d
p e r h a p s a ls o th r o u g h h a z y m e m o rie s o f a p e r so n o f re a l s p ir it u a l it y , le g e n d s
o f h is life d e v e lo p e d in th e c e n tu r ie s a f t e r h is d e a th . A c c o r d in g to t h e s e , h e
w a s b o rn a c r o w n p r in c e . H e fle d ro y a l c o n s e c ra tio n to a d o p t th e r e lig io u s
li f e , m e d ita tin g p a r t ic u la r ly o n th e B u d d h is t ‘ p a tr o n s a in t ’ o f w is d o m ,
M a n ju s r i . H a v in g re c e iv e d v is io n s a n d t e a c h in g s fro m M a n j u s r i in p e r s o n ,
S ä n t i d e v a b e c a m e a n e f fe c t iv e m in is te r to a k in g , s h o w in g b y a m ir a c le th a t
b e h in d h is o r d in a r y a p p e a r a n c e h e w a s re a lly a p o w e r fu l s p ir it u a l f ig u r e . H e
s u b s e q u e n t ly b e c a m e a f u lly - o r d a in e d m o n k at th e g r e a t m o n a s tic u n iv e r ­
s i t y o f N ä la n d ä , a n d w h ile t h e r e , a lth o u g h h e a p p e a r e d to b e t h o r o u g h ly
la z y , re a lly h e re a c h e d a v e r y h ig h lev el o f th e s p ir it u a l p a th . A l t e r d e li v e r ­
in g h is Bodhicaryävatära b e fo re th e m o n a s tic a s s e m b ly , S ä n t i d e v a d i s ­
a p p e a r e d in to th e s k y . H e is s o m e tim e s sa id to h a v e r e a p p e a r e d e ls e w h e r e
in In d ia a n d to h a v e liv e d a s a h e r m it a n d w a n d e r e r , d o in g g o o d , d e fe a t in g
re lig io u s r iv a ls in d e b a te , a n d p e r fo r m in g m ir a c le s . A lw a y s , it is s a id , h e
w o r k e d to fu lfil h is sp ir it u a l v o w s to ac t fo r th e b e n e fit o f o th e r s in e v e r y
p o s s ib le w a y . O f h is d e a th n o th in g is k n o w n . S ä n t id e v a f a d e s o u t o f le g e n d ,
b u t m a n y B u d d h i s t s a r e s u r e h e is still p r e se n t in s o m e a p p r o p r ia te f o r m ,
c o n tin u in g to la b o u r fo r o th e rs a s h e v o w e d to d o ‘ a s lo n g a s s p a c e a b id e s
a n d a s lo n g a s th e w o r ld a b id e s ’ .

K ate C r o s b y st u d ie d S a n s k r it at O x fo r d , w h e r e s h e is n o w w r i t in g a
d o c to r a l d is s e r ta tio n o n a T a n t r i c T h c r a v ä d in m e d ita tio n m a n u a l a n d h as
tu to r e d in H i n d u i s m , B u d d h is m , S a n s k r it , a n d P a li.

A n d r ew S kilton h a s ta u g h t in B u d d h is t t e a c h in g c e n t r e s , a t th e U n i v e r ­
s it ie s o f B r i s t o l a n d O x fo r d , a n d a t B a th C o lle g e o f H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n . H e
is c u r r e n t ly a J u n i o r R e s e a r c h F e llo w at W o lfs o n C o l le g e , O x f o r d , a n d is
c o m p le t in g a d o c to ra l d isse rta tio n on th e S a n s k r it te x t o f t h e S a m ä d h i r ä ja -
s ü tr a , a m a jo r M a h a y a n a B u d d h i s t s c r ip t u r e . H is p u b lic a t io n s in c lu d e A
Concise History o f Buddhism (1994).
Pa u l W il l ia m s is R e a d e r in I n d o - T ib e t a n S t u d ie s a n d C o d i r e c t o r o f th e
C e n t r e fo r B u d d h i s t S t u d ie s at th e U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i s t o l. H e h a s b e e n a
B u d d h i s t w ith in th e T ib e t a n tra d itio n fo r m a n y y e a r s , a n d is a tr u s t e e o f t h e
L a m R im B u d d h i s t C e n t r e o n th e W e ls h b o r d e r s . A m o n g D r W il lia m s ’ s
m a n y p u b lic a t io n s is Mahäyäna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations ( L o n ­
d o n , 19 8 9 ) , a b o o k w id e ly u se d in u n iv e r s it y te a c h in g .
 T H E W O R LD ’ S C L A S S IC S

S Ä N T ID E V A

The Bodhicary avatara

Translated with Introduction and Notes by

K A T E C R O S B Y and A N D R E W S K I L T O N

With a General Introduction by

P A U L W IL L IA M S

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Säntideva, pili cent.
I Bndhiraryilvatóra. English/
The Bodhicaryävalära / Stlnlideva ; translated with introduction
and notes by Kate Crosby and Andrew Skilton.
Includes bibliographical references.
1. Mahayana Buddhism—Doctrines— Early works to 1S00. I. Crosby.
Kate. IL Skilton. Andrew. III. Series.
B Q jt ^ .E s C jh ityjs itjq.j'H g— dcio y.i'-.Aw
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 CONTENTS

General Introduction: Säntideva and his World vii

Translators’ Introduction xxvii
The Structure of the Bodhicaryävatära xxix
Concerning the Translation xxxv
The Sanskrit Text and Prajnakaramati’s Commentary xl
Note on Pronunciation x^n
Acknowledgements xlv
Select Bibliography xlvi

THE BODHICARYÄVATÄRA
1 Praise of the Awakening Mind 3
2 Confession of Faults 9
3 Adopting the Awakening Mind 20
4 Vigilance regarding the Awakening Mind 23
5 The Guarding of Awareness 3°
6 The Perfection of Forbearance 45
7 The Perfection of Vigour 63
8 The Perfection of Meditative Absorption 75
9 The Perfection of Understanding I05
10 Dedication C33

Notes to the Text 145

 G E N E R A L IN T R O D U C T IO N :
S Ä N T ID E V A AND HIS WORLD

The author
I t is natural to want to know a little about the author of a great
work of literature, and a work of spirituality perhaps more than
most others stimulates curiosity about what the author was
really like, and the inner struggles which led to his or her profun­
dity. We want to know of the author as an individual, and in this
post-Freudian world perhaps we hope to see behind the wisdom
to a tortured soul. Traditionally in India— and Tibet too, where
Indian Buddhist ideals were and still are so important— this
search for the individual apart from the profundity, this fascina­
tion for the psychological truth, the real spiritual agony, is rather
alien, and psychological truth is thought to be a matter between'
the pupil and his or her spiritual master, not of concern to the
public. Indian and Tibetan commentators sometimes recognize
an interest in the life of an author, but his life story (the author
is almost always male) is told in order to show his greatness, his
almost superhuman miracles and spiritual attainments, to prove
that his work and teaching can be trusted to lead to spiritual
depths, and, of course, to justify the commentary. Thus we
learn almost nothing about the author as a psychological indi­
vidual, a real person. He is a type, an example of attainment, and
his life a story of prediction, visions, triumphs, and magic. Learn­
ing, for such great examples, is straightforward and easy. There
are no psychological torments, for most of the learning had been
completed in previous lives and the torments, if there were any,
overcome aeons ago. A recurrent theme in these life stories is
how the author was taken by others to be a mere ordinary
person before circumstances showed that actually, usually from
a very early age if not from birth, he was a Great Being of won­
drous attainment.
So it is with the traditional story of Sântideva. Even the
earliest version we possess is hundreds of years later than the
life of its subject, and is already a completely legendary
viii General Introduction

hagiography.1 It is quite possible that the story involves an amal­

gamation of two different persons, and even the claim that
Säntideva was a prince from North India who fled royal conse­
cration for fear of implication in the evils of kingship repeats a
traditional Buddhist theme and has no independent corrobora­
tion. Säntideva is generally thought to have flourished some
time between 685 and 763 CE, although the reasoning behind
this dating is by no means conclusive. It is as certain as it can be,
however, that Säntideva was a Buddhist monk, who followed
the Mahäyäna form o f Buddhism, and it is possible if we can
follow the Bodhicaryâvatâra itself that Säntideva was particu­
larly devoted to ManjusrT (or Manjughosa), a ‘celestial’ figure
who in Mahäyäna Buddhism plays a role rather like a god— or
patron saint— of wisdom.2 Säntideva is associated with the great
Buddhist monastery of Nälandä, the impressive ruins o f which
can still be seen in the state of Bihar in North India and bear
fitting testimony to an enormous monastic university which was
the pride of the Buddhist world, visited by scholar-monks and
pilgrims from as far away as China. We know that Säntideva
was extremely learned. His other great work, the Siksfi Samticcaya,
consists in the main of quotations from nearly a hundred
Mahäyäna Buddhist scriptures (siitras). Säntideva must have had
access to a large library— and used it. The ninth chapter o f the
Bodhicaryâvatâra, the difficult chapter on Wisdom, is one o f the
principal sources for Mahäyäna philosophy, written in the form
of a complex debate which must echo the debates which took
place in the refined scholastic context of Nälandä university.
We know so little of Säntideva, and yet the depth and spir­
itual profundity of the Bodhicaryâvatâra— for sentiment, inten­
tion, and direct practical meditation one of the greatest works o f
world spirituality— indicate a person of rich compassion, hon­
esty, humility, and wisdom, surely the qualities which make a

1 F o r a m o d ern re te llin g , based on the stan d ard T ib e t a n s o u r c e s , se e I .o b sa n g

N . T so n a tv a (tra n s.), Indian Buddhist Pandits from 'The Jewel Garland of Budd­
hist History' (D h a ra m sa la , 19 8 5 ) , 6 0 - 4 .
1 A lth o u g h it sh o u ld b e noted that th ere is a p r o b le m a s to h m v m u c h o f t h e
p re se n t text o f the Bodhicaryâvatâra w as c o n ta in e d in th e o rig in a l. T h e se c o n d ,
n in th , and tenth c h a p te rs h av e all h ad th e ir d e tra c to rs , an d a ll th e v e r s io n s o f
S ä n tiilc v a ’s life m en tion d isa g re e m e n ts a s to th e le n g th o f th e w o rk .
 General Introduction ix

saint. It is the Bodhicaryävatära which supplies the ideals and

practice of His Holiness the Dalai Lama, who so frequently cites
as his highest inspiration Bodhicaryävatära 10.55:
A s lo n g a s s p a c e a b i d e s a n d a s lo n g a s t h e w o r ld a b i d e s , s o l o n g m a y I
a b i d e , d e s t r o y i n g t h e s u f f e r i n g s o f t h e w o r ld .

There can perhaps be no higher human sentiment. Anyway, this

is the aspiration o f Mahäyäna Buddhism, and it is also the
aspiration of Säntideva, as a Buddhist monk trying to live the
Mahäyäna vision, and of those many since him— famous and
ordinary— who have seen in his words the most beautiful ex­
pression of their noblest ideals and intentions.
It would be pointless to try and demythologize the traditional
Life of Säntideva in order to find some historical core. Yet
throughout the story of his life there is a recurrent theme in
which he appears to be quite ordinary, quite mundane, although
actually a figure of immense spiritual development. One such
story relates to the origins of the Bodhicaryävatära itself. In the
version known to Tibetans and their followers who still practise
the religion of the Bodhicaryävatära (this is itself a corrupted
version of our earliest legendary account), the story goes that
Säntideva— although he was an advanced practitioner who had
visions of Manjusrï and received direct teachings from him—
seemed to the other monks simply to laze around doing nothing,
as Tibetans like to put it, with one o f their infectious laughs,
‘just eating, sleeping, and defecating’ . The other monks decided
to humiliate him by showing his lack o f learning, and asked him
to give a recitation before the monastery from the scriptures.
Säntideva initially refused, but assented when they insisted and
agreed to erect a teaching-seat for him to sit on. The first stage
of the humiliation was to erect the seat so high that he could not
reach it. One can imagine the monks whispering and giggling
as he approached, but it is said that with one hand— plus the
magical powers which seem to descend on saints— he lowered
the seat, sat on it, and asked what they wanted him to recite,
something old or something new. At the request for something
new he began to recite the Bodhicaryävatära. When he reached
Chapter 9 (perhaps it was verse 34} it is said that he ascended
into the air and disappeared, although his voice could still be
 General Introduction

heard. Säntideva then refused to return to a monastery which

had not understood that spiritual depth may not always be ob­
vious, and that we can never tell who may or may not be saints
working in their own way for the benefit of others.
Appearing to be ordinary when actually one is a saint, extra­
ordinary— this admittedly is a common theme in Buddhist hagio­
graphies. Yet perhaps we can combine it with the message of the
Bodhicaryüvatära itself in order to glimpse through the mists of
devotion the real Säntideva, a Säntideva who for all his learning
appeared to be an ordinary monk and yet in his humility, wis­
dom, and compassionate warmth to those who knew him showed
an inner development which maybe some guessed but few really
understood.3 We need not believe that Säntideva disappeared
into the sky, although he may well have had visions o f Manjusrl;
nor that the Bodhicaryüvatära was delivered spontaneously on a
throne before the assembled monks of Nälandä, assembled to
humiliate him. We can believe, however, that while he did not
appear to be anything special to his fellow monks, in trying with
all honesty to practise genuinely the teachings of Mahäyäna
Buddhism that he found in the scriptures cited in his earlier
St h ä Samuccaya he became something very special, and the
record of that practice— his aspirations, intentions, and medita­
tions— is the Bodhicaryüvatära itself, a testimony to its author’s
greatness not only as a poet, not only in spiritual sentiment, but
in making these teachings real/

Buddhism ami Mahayfina

Säntideva was a monk, and a Mahüyän ti Budelli ist. As a monk he
was expected to live a simple life which, in the reduction o f

•’ According to our traditional Tibetan story, Sfmtidcva's Silrsû Samuccaya

was among works found on a shelf in his room after he had left. It was no doubt
compiled for the use of himself, plus perhaps a few like-minded friends. That
same humility, I suspect, surrounded the Iimlhicaryävatära.
4 Although it is the traditional view, there is no compelling evidence that the
S i hä Samuccaya was written before the Iimlhicaryävatära. Nevertheless those
early writers who considered it was had their reasons and we have no reasons for
thinking that it was not. I prefer it on aesthetic grounds. 1 like to think of
Säntideva composing his Iimlhicaryävatära while trying to practise the life he
found in the scriptures through constructing his Sihsâ Samuccaya.
 Generai Introduction xi

distractions, left space for following the spiritual path. He prob­

ably wore an orange or faded yellow patched robe, and had no
hair. It is doubtful, if he came from the well-endowed monas­
tery of Nälandä, that Säntideva needed to go to local villages on
the alms-round, but if he had he would have kept his eyes down
and spoken little. When he did speak he would have weighed his
words carefully in order to make sure that they were suitable to
the occasion and beneficial for the person to whom they were
addressed (see Bodhicaryävatära 5.79). He would have kept his
simple, sparsely furnished room tidy and clean, seeing the clean­
ing as part of his spiritual practice, a metaphor for cleaning the
mind of taints. In one corner we can imagine a shrine, with a
statue of the Buddha, and for Säntideva perhaps a statue or
representation of Manjusrl. Possibly, as is common with T i­
betan statues, ManjusrT is portrayed seated cross-legged on a
lotus throne with the right hand holding aloft a flaming sword,
the Sword o f Gnosis, while the left hand holds the stem o f a
lotus which curls round to the left side o f his body and contains,
resting on the flower, a book— the Eight-Thousand Verse Perfec­
tion o f Wisdom scripture.5 Säntideva would sleep little, eat but
one meal a day, and as a serious practitioner devote many hours
to study, teaching, perhaps debate, but certainly devotional prac­
tices— making offerings before the Buddhas and figures like
Manjusrl and visualizing the assembly o f Buddhas, holy beings,
and saints, praising them as a means of recollecting their great
qualities and aspiring to attain the same qualities— and medita­
tion, stabilizing the mind, contemplating the teachings, regret
and purification o f previous transgressions, all the time increas­
ing his insight into the way things really are, and his aspiration
to help all other suffering sentient beings.
The Mahäyäna Buddhism which Säntideva practised was the
result of a gradual evolution, a maturation of reflection on the
message and example of Säkyamuni Buddha, the so-called ‘his­
torical Buddha’ who lived and died sometime between the sixth
and fourth centuries BCE. Modern critical scholarship has shown
that it is not possible to know very much in detail about the

5 Although as far as I know no such representation of Manjusrl has yet been

found in India from as early as the supposed lifetime of Säntideva.
xii General Introduction

actual words of Säkyamuni, although we can be reasonably clear

about the sort of spiritual perspective and path the Buddha
advocated/’ In social terms Säkyamuni was a renunciant, one o f
those who can still be seen in India today who have chosen to
renounce their families, social status, and ties in order to live a
wandering life seeking for a higher truth than that of social place
and function. This truth is commonly portrayed as the truth
which leads to freedom from all sorts of suffering and, in the
Indian context, from the round of repeated rebirth into still
further repeated unhappiness— as Buddhists put it, the end­
lessly repeated anguish of old age, sickness, and death, the state
of unenlightcnmcnt {samara). As far as we can tell, Säkyamuni’s
message in its simplest expression was that of a very deep sort of
‘letting go’. He seems to have discerned that most— he would
say all— of our unhappiness and frustration comes from holding
on, reifying, when actually things are always changing. Seeking
for a raft in the sea of change, we particularly grasp at some sort
o f self-identity for ourselves. T o hold onto all such unchanging
self-identities is a fundamental misapprehension which ends in
tears. Ourselves and others, animate and inanimate, are compos­
ite collections which come together and part again bringing life
and death, purpose and apparent uselessness. That is the nature
of things, against which we fortify ourselves through the mis­
apprehension of grasping an unchanging identity which is at
variance with the way things really are and thus invariably pro­
duces suffering. The principal dimension of this misapprehen­
sion is reifying ourselves into Selves, the feeling that somehow
I must have an unchanging core which is the ‘Real M e’ . Thus,
unlike other spiritual teachers in India, the Buddha did not
teach the search for the True Self behind the changing world,
but rather the opposite: he taught that there is no T rue S e lf
either in or behind the changing world, and grasping at such
Selves is the cause of suffering. The permanent truth is that
there is no such thing. To seek to dissolve away apparent unities
into their constituent flow of parts is a hallmark of the Buddhist
approach. Thus, as far as we can tell, the Buddha seems to have
taught that what we call ourselves is actually a construct super-

h Por an excellent short study see Michael Gtrrithers, The Buddha (Oxford,
 Getterai Intm ìuction x iii
imposed upon an ever-changing flow of physical matter, sensa­
tions, conceptions, further mental contents such as volitions and
so on, and consciousness. That is all there is. There is no un­
changing Me, my Self. To understand this deeply in a way
which truly leads to the cessation of grasping after all fixed
identities is to destroy completely the very forces which lead to
continued embodiment, rebirth into suffering. That is enlighten­
ment, nirvana.
The practice o f the Buddha and those specially adept monks
and nuns who followed him in the centuries after his death was
‘ insight’ , seeing through deep thought— meditation— beyond
the way things appear to the way they really are. This seeing the
way things really are (a common epithet of nirvana) carries with
it a change of behaviour, a letting go, an ‘existential relaxation’,
a cessation of grasping. This relaxation and cessation o f grasping
can when cultivated in a particularly sensitive way lead to great
compassion, a compassion which no longer has any egoistic in­
volvement. Such great compassion for those who still suffer was
thought to be a quality of the Buddha himself, who did not sit
alone in a forest meditating and ‘letting go’ but rather felt a need
to help others, touring North India, teaching in forests, cer­
tainly, but also in market-places and palaces.
Reflection on the compassion o f the Buddha was surely one
(but only one) o f the factors which led some centuries after
his death to the emergence of scriptural texts claiming to repre­
sent a ‘ Great Way (or Vehicle) to Enlightenment’ (Mahäyäna),
eventually to be contrasted with an identified ‘Inferior Way’
(Hlnayäna). These scriptural texts purported to be the words of
Säkyamuni Buddha himself. The origins of the Mahäyäna, and
even its exact nature, are obscure in the extreme. Mahäyäna
could not be called a ‘sect’ of Buddhism, nor, we now know,
was it the result of a schism. There might be monks holding to
Mahäyäna ideas and others holding non-Mahäyäna views living
together, as far as we can tell, quite harmoniously in the same
monastery/ Rather, Mahäyäna concerns a vision o f what the
ultimate intention o f the Buddhist practitioner should be. In

7 There is no space to deal here with the fascinating and hotly-debated issues
surrounding the historical origins of the Mahäyäna. For an extensive discussion
see my Mahäyäna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations (London, iq8g), ch. i.
XIV General Introduction

Mahâyâna this ultimate intention is said to be to attain not just

enlightenment, as some Buddhists might think— one’s own free­
dom from suffering and rebirth— but perfect Buddhahood for
the benefit of all sentient beings. One who has through great
compassion for others taken a vow to attain this Buddhahood no
matter what it may cost, no matter how many times one must be
reborn on this long and difficult path, is called a hodhisattva.8
Mahâyâna advocates the path of the bodhisattva as the highest
and final path for all or most sentient beings— all (or most) will
eventually become fully-enlightened Buddhas, and the reason
for this is the benefit of all.
Perhaps the best way to understand the nature of Mahâyâna
Buddhism is through its own self-definition reflected in a work
from three centuries after Säntideva, the Bodhipalhapradfpa
{Lamp on the Path to Enlightenment) by the great missionary to
Tibet, Atisa (982-1054). Atisa speaks o f three ‘scopes’ , three
aspirations which one might have when engaging in spiritual
practice. The first and lowest aspiration is that o f a person
whose goal is purely within the realm of unenlightenment—
religion for wealth, fame, or even a favourable future rebirth.
This aspiration— if they were honest the aspiration o f so many
people— is not particularly Buddhist, although at least in its
higher concern with future rebirths it is somewhat better than
having no spiritual aspiration whatsoever. In some o f the earlier
sections of the Bodhicaryävatära Säntideva seeks to generate in
himself (and his readers if they are interested) this aspiration,
reflecting for example on death and impermanence, which leads
to a concern with future lives (Chapter 4) governed by the
morality of actions and a need to purify misdeeds already com­
mitted (Chapter 2, verses 28 f f .). According to Atisa the second
and middling aspiration is that o f one who turns his or her back
on all concern with future pleasures and future rebirths (with
their invariable attendant sufferings) and aims for freedom. T h e

8 An expression perhaps meaning an ‘enlightenment being’ or, with the T i­

betan, an ‘enlightenment mind hero’. The name of Säntideva’s great work, the
Bodhicaryävatära, means ‘An Introduction (avatära) to the Conduct (caryä)
which leads to Enlightenment (baditi)’. There is some reason to think that the
original title may have been Bodkisattvacaryävatära, ‘ An Introduction to the
Conduct of the Bodhisattva’ .
 General Introduction xv
hallmark o f this aspiration is renunciation, and the goal is en­
lightenment, understood as freedom from suffering and rebirth.
The many verses in which Säntideva tries to inculcate in his
mind a spirit of renunciation belong to this scope. It is a stage of
a progressive path which involves an accurate assessment o f the
practitioner’s level of spiritual development, and transformation
into that which is higher through meditations, which are taken
as medicines appropriate to the particular spiritual illness. Thus
Säntideva’s many verses on the foulness of the female body
(Chapter 8), a foulness which he also perceives in his own body,
should not be read as a strange form o f misogyny or bodily
hatred. They express a specific meditation practice appropriate
to a specific stage on a clearlv-discerned spiritual path. It is mis­
leading in reading Buddhist writings— or indeed any writings
on the spiritual path— to take what is intended as counselling,
meditation instructions embedded in a particular context, as
abstract statements about the universal way things actually are.
In following this second middling scope the practitioner can
attain freedom from rebirth, enlightenment. Such a person is
called an arfuit, a Worthy One. The goal is held to be a difficult
one requiring intensive practice and great insight which will fuel
the letting go, the deep renunciation which leads to freedom.
Perhaps this was the main concern of serious Buddhist practi­
tioners in the immediate centuries after the death of the Bud­
dha. Yet from the Mahäyäna perspective, no matter how many o f
their fellows follow it, this is not the highest goal and its aspira­
tion is not the supreme aspiration. There is something higher
than simply attaining enlightenment, the state o f an arhat, and
that is the state o f a Buddha himself. What characterizes a
Buddha, the Mahäyäna urges, is not just great insight, supreme
wisdom, but his (or sometimes her) immense compassion as
well. Compassion for others is missing in the description o f the
second scope which leads to the enlightenment of the arhat.
Atisa adds that those of the third and highest scope wish in
every way— even by means of their oum sufferings— for the
complete destruction of all the sufferings o f others.9 In fact, so
H For a translation of Atisa’s liodhipathapradipa, with a commentary attrib­
uted to Atisa himself, see Richard Sherburne, SJ, Atisa: A Lamp for the Path and
Commentary (London, 1983).
xvi General Introduction

long as someone else is suffering the Mahäyäna practitioner

cannot attain peace. Superior to the arhat is the bodhisattva, one
who vows to attain perfect Buddhahood, the perfection o f in­
sight and compassion, for the benefit of all. The great poem
of the bodhisattva, embedded within a progressive path which
will lead to the cultivation of that supreme aspiration, is the
Bodhicaryävatära, in which Säntideva the bodhisattva vows (3.7):
I a m m e d ic in e fo r th e sic k . M a y I b e b o th th e d o c to r a n d t h e ir n u r s e ,
u n til t h e s i c k n e s s d o e s n o t r e c u r .

Those Buddhists who follow the path to their own personal

enlightenment— sometimes called the Hearers (srävakas) and
Solitary Buddhas ( pratyekabuddhas)— are termed by the
Mahäyäna followers of an Inferior Vehicle (Hînayâna). In the
last analysis Säntideva’s concern is to help himself and others
pass through (but without ignoring) this conception of the spir­
itual life towards what he sees as the great integration of insight,
wisdom, and compassion which is found in the bodhisattva and
eventually flowers in full Buddhahood. In aiming for Buddha-
hood the bodhisattva turns away from his or her own personal
peace, the nirvana of an arhat.111 Indeed from a Buddhist point o f
view time is infinite, and from a Mahäyäna perspective compas­
sion is so strong that surely there must also be many, infinitely
many, Buddhas still present in the infinite cosmos, and many
advanced bodhisattvas of great power, all acting for the benefit
of others. For the follower of Mahäyäna a being such as a Bud­
dha would not really have abandoned us at the age o f eighty, as
Säkyamuni Buddha is supposed to have done. The death o f a
Buddha is mere appearance. Really Buddhas remain, benefiting
sentient beings (not just human beings) in innumerable appro­
priate ways. Thus some Mahäyäna texts speak of a Buddha
having three types of body: his (or her) actual body as a Buddha
which remains in what is called a ‘Pure Land’ , a realm where a
Buddha sits in glory helping sentient beings; his emanated
bodies— one o f which was the Säkyamuni Buddha who appeared

,n L e t m e s tr e ss h ere v e ry str o n g ly that it se e m s c le a r to m e th e b o d h isa ttv a

d o es not, as b o o k s o ften h av e it, postpone n irv a n a . A little th o u g h t w o u ld sh o w
that this is in c o h e r e n t. S e e W illia m s , 19 8 9 , 5 2 - 4 .
 General Introduction XVII

to die at the age of eighty; and the ‘Dharma-body’, another

name for the ultimate truth itself as perfectly understood by a
Buddha (see i.i) ." It is therefore felt to be possible to enter into
a relationship o f devotion and prayer with these Buddhas, and
also with advanced bodhisattvas. One such advanced bodhisattva
who may well have been particularly important to Säntideva
is M anjusn, the bodhisattva o f wisdom.12 But— and this is
important— in terms o f the Mahäyäna spiritual path the real
purpose of such prayer and devotion (found, for example, in
Bodhicaryävatära 2.1-27) >s the transformation o f the mind of
the devotee towards greater wisdom and compassion. It is help­
ful for us in reading Buddhist texts, in meeting their strange­
ness, to be constantly sensitive to the practical context: ‘How
does this perspective, or this practice, transform the mind o f the
practitioner in a way which Buddhists would see as beneficial—
the cultivation of wisdom and compassion?’

The bodhisattva
Thus in terms of Mahäyäna self-understanding, to follow the
Mahäyäna is not a matter o f robes, philosophies, or sectarian
traditions and differences. It concerns the deep motivation for
leading a spiritual life. One who follows the Mahäyäna is a
bodhisattva, or truly aspires to be a bodhisattva. Säntideva has
a clear idea o f what a bodhisattva is, and of those meditation
practices which can lead to the development o f that supreme
aspiration. A bodhisattva is one w'ho has generated the ‘Awaken­
ing M ind’ (bodhicitta), that astonishingly rare but totally
transformative intention to work solely for the benefit o f others
right up to Buddhahood, the full development o f one’s own
potential.1'’ Säntidcva’s hymn to the power and significance of
this supremely altruistic intention opens the Bodhicaryävatära ,
and its implications are contained in the vow' o f 10.55 quoted

" On the bodies of the Buddha see ibid., ch. 8.

For the names of others see in particular Bmlhtctuyiîiuilûra, Cits. 2 and to.
Alongside Manjusrï the most important is Avalokitesvara, the bodhisattva held
in particular to personify compassion.
” The emphasis and praise given to the Awakening Mind remind one some­
times of the conversion experience in certain forms of Protestant Christianity.
xviii General Introduction

above— always on the Dalai Lama’s lips— with which Säntideva

ends his great poem. With a characteristically Buddhist love of
classification, Säntideva refers in general to two types of Awak­
ening Mind (1.15-16 ). The one, termed ‘the Mind resolved on
Awakening’ , is like someone really wishing to go on a journey,
really wishing from the depths of one’s heart to follow the path
of a bodhisattva. The ‘Mind proceeding towards Awakening’ is
actually embarking on the long and difficult path of insight and
altruism, the Mahäyäna journey. Thus one who truly wishes to
be an active and altruistic bodhisattva can also be said to have
the Awakening Mind— to be a bodhisattva— albeit in a derived
and lesser sense.
Tibetan writers have developed a number of meditations in­
tended to generate this supreme aspiration, and one of these
meditations is particularly associated with the eighth chapter of
the Bodhicaryävatüra, the chapter in which Säntideva gives
specific instruction on meditation practices said to lead to the
‘perfection of meditative absorption’ . This meditation is called
‘exchanging self and others’.14 Säntideva makes it clear that such
meditations presuppose that the practitioner lives in solitary,
undistracted retreat, and he offers reflections intended to en­
hance the necessary spirit of renunciation (8.1-89). After that,
he urges that we meditate on the essential equality of ourselves
and others in that we all have one fundamental quality in com­
mon: we all wish for happiness and the avoidance o f suffering.
In this fundamental respect we are all equal, and feelings of
favouritism or repulsion are, it is argued, the result of relatively
unimportant adventitious factors— a particular person was nice
to me, another harmed me, and so on. T o reflect that others, no
matter how much I may dislike them, are just like me, and in
their confused manner like me simply want to be happy, is an
interesting way to cut through the complexities of life and their
many barriers and boundaries. It is, Säntideva argues, the iden­
tification of certain sufferings as ‘mine’ which causes me such
problems. This sense o f ‘I’ brings about a perception of inequal-

14 See here also the handy commentary by His Holiness the XIVth Dalai
Lama, Aryasüra 's Aspiration and A Meditation on Compassion (Dharamsala, 1970),
122-43.
 General Introduction x ix
ity between self and others which actually causes a great deal of
unhappiness. In reality:

All those who suffer in the world do so because o f their desire for their
own happiness. All those happy in the world are so because o f their
desire for the happiness o f others. (8 .12 g )

Säntideva holds anyway that there is in reality no enduring

entity to which the term T corresponds: it is simply an imposi­
tion upon an ever-changing flow o f psycho-physical elements
(8 .10 1-2 ; cf. also Chapter 9). The notion that certain pleasures
or sufferings are somehow more important because they are
mine has no grounds in reality and is beneficial neither for my­
self nor others (8.92 ff.).
Having generated a sense o f equality between oneself and
others, the next stage in this meditation is to reflect that while I
am one, others are infinite. In terms o f the previous meditation,
since I am no more important than others, in aggregate others
are infinitely more important than I am. The rational person
who has abandoned prejudices o f egoism will thus exchange self
and others, that is, will always place others before oneself.
Säntideva states (8.105):

I f the suffering o f one ends the suffering o f m any, then one who has
compassion for others and him self m ust cause that su fferin g to arise.

Thus through deeply meditating in this way the practitioners

can begin to replace their own strong self-concern, which is
actually the cause o f unhappiness, with a pure altruism which
turns out— in an unintended way— to be the fulfilment o f their
own aspirations as well. Thereby the meditator generates the
Awakening Mind. In aiming for full Buddhahood as the perfec­
tion o f wisdom and compassion, the supreme state most com­
pletely suitable for benefiting others, the bodhisattva also finds
his or her own (unintended) fulfilment. T he very being o f the
bodhisattva is the welfare o f others. That, it is argued, is the
only source o f true happiness. T he Dalai Lama has summarized
the essence o f the whole Bodhicaryävatära and indeed all of
Mahäyäna Buddhism when he states: “ ‘The only purpose o f my
existence is to be used by others and to serve others” . T his idea,
xx General Introduction

this attitude, this determination must arise from the depths of

one’s heart, from the very depths of one’s mind.’ b And elsewhere:
W e should have this [compassion] from the depths o f our heart, as i f it
were nailed there. Such compassion is not m erely concerned with a few
sentient beings such as friends and relatives, but extends up to the
lim its o f the cosmos, in all directions and towards all beings throughout
16

Wisdom
There is no denying that Bodhicaryïivatâra Chapter 9 presents a
problem. It is not properly understandable (if at all) without a
commentary and a great deal of thought and study.15*17 Scholars
keenly debate verses and even half-verses of the text. For those
lacking the perverse intellectual masochism of scholars and monks
the details are scarcely crucial or helpful. Chapter 9 concerns
insight or wisdom ( prajnä)y and wisdom in this context refers to
an understanding of the way things really are, the ultimate truth.
For Säntideva and Indian Buddhists like him who follow what
is known as the Madhyamaka (‘Middling’) school or approach to
Buddhist philosophy, understanding that liberating ultimate truth
is not a matter of waiting for some sort of mystical influx or
sudden overwhelming vision. The ultimate truth is seen as what

15 Àryasûra's Aspiration, 140. Ift Ibid. h i .

17 There are a number of commentaries reasonably easily available in English.
Most reflect the influence of the dGe lugs (pronounced Geluk) school of T i­
betan Buddhism, and arc based on the Tibetan version, (i) The translation of
Ch. 9 with onrunning excerpts from a classical Tibetan commentary: Shantideva,
// Guide to the Dodhisattva’s Way o f Life, trans. Stephen Batchelor (Dharamsala,
1979). Also contains the verses of the other chapters, from the Tibetan, (ii)
Geshc Kclsang Gyatso, Meaningful to Behold, trans. Tcnzin Norbu (London,
1986). This is a commentary to the whole of the Bodhicaryâvatâra. (iii) H.H. the
Dalai Lama, Transcendent Wisdom, trans. B. Alan Wallace (Ithaca, N Y , 1988).
Based on an oral commentary given to Ch. 9 alone. There is also a short oral
commentary by the Dalai Lama to the whole text: A Flash o f Lightning in the
Dark o f Night, trans. Padmakara Translation Group (Boston, 1994). Another
oral commentary by the Dalai Lama to Ch. 9 is forthcoming, translated by the
Padmakara Translation Group, (iv) Two commentaries by Khcnchen Kunzang
Paldcn and Minyak Kunzang Sönam, Wisdom: Two Buddhist Commentaries,
trans, by the Padmakara Translation Group (Pcyzac-lc-Mousticr, 1993)- Por a
background commentary see Williams, 1989, chs. 2-4.
 General Introduction xxi
is ultimately true about things, and it can only be understand
through investigating things in order to find out what is the
case. Thus although he is a poet of great spiritual sensitivity,
Säntideva does not see the poetic and intuitive, spiritual faculty
as in some way opposed to sharp, incisive analytic thought.
Since the Buddhahood which the bodhisattva strives for is the
perfection of wisdom and compassion, it must employ to the full
and stretch to their limit both the nurturing warmth which
expresses compassion and a deep understanding which results
from the sharp critical investigation that leads to insight. In the
bodhisattva not only must both compassion and insight be de­
veloped fully, but they must be integrated into one spiritual
being who acts most effectively for the benefit of all sentient
beings.
In Western thought the idea that the rational and analytic is
diametrically opposed to the spiritual and intuitive goes back
many hundreds of years and is often accepted uncritically in
contemporary writing (particularly writing associated with the
so-called ‘New Age’ ). This perhaps explains the shock many
people feel when, lulled by happy sentiments o f compassion,
they reach the ninth chapter of the Bodhicaryävatära and are
required to engage their brains in philosophical analysis. Yet
Säntideva states that all that has gone before served as a prelimin­
ary to this analysis and the integration o f the results o f analysis
into one’s being (9.1). We have already seen that implicit in the
very origins of the Buddhist perspective was a distinction be­
tween the way things appear to be (things appear to have an
enduring permanent or quasi-permanent identity, a ‘s e lf’), and
the way they really are. Things are not the way they appear to
be. Actually— as a little reflective thought will show— things are
changing all the time. In particular I, a sentient being, am not
really the same as I was ten years ago, last year, yesterday, or
even a minute ago. I can investigate my own nature and dis­
cover, it is claimed, that I am no more than an ever-changing
flow o f physical matter, sensations, conceptions, further mental
contents such as volitions and so on, and consciousness (‘the
aggregates’). I come to know this through investigation, not
through simply believing it is so because I have been told, or
waiting for it to dawn upon me out of my psychological depths.
x x ii General Introduction

The more I become familiar in a very deep way through medi­

tation with the difference between the way things appear and
the way they are discovered actually to be, the more deeply that
actuality affects my behaviour. I begin to ‘let go’ , to relax, to put
things in perspective. Out of insight I become wise. T his dis­
tinction between the way things appear to be and the way they
really are is behind the distinction made by Säntideva in
Bodhicaryâvatâra 9.2 concerning the ultimate and conventional
truth. The ultimate truth is what is discovered at some stage,
through sharp analysis, to be finally, ultimately the case con­
cerning things. There is some debate among later Tibetan com­
mentators concerning what exactly is the conventional truth, but
in general we can think o f it as the things themselves. Thus the
ultimate truth is what is ultimately true about the conventional
truth. Or, to use a concrete example, the ultimate truth o f a
chair is what is ultimately true about the chair. Since conven­
tional objects are plural, we can thus speak more accurately of
conventional truths, and since ultimate truth is about conven­
tional truths we can also speak in the plural about ultimate truths.
But what, for Säntideva, is an ultimate truth? T he answer is
that it is called an ‘emptiness’ (sünyatä), and only emptinesses
are ultimate truths. An emptiness for Säntideva and his M ad-
hvamaka tradition is a very specific sort of negation. Things
appear to exist in a particular sort of way. It is claimed that
things appear to us unenlightened beings to exist as if they have
independent, fixed, inherent existence— the sort o f existence
things would have if their existence were completely contained
within themselves, if they existed not as the result o f some sort
o f combination of components or some other causal operation.
We must think that things exist this way, Säntideva wants to
say, because we think of things as inherently satisfying or inher­
ently repulsive, and fail to see the role o f our mental construc­
tions in the way things appear to be. But things are not so
inherently, they exist in dependence upon our mental projec­
tions and inevitably change and decay. The gap between our
perceptions of the inherent status of things and their actuality is
the source o f stupidity and suffering.
Sharp critical investigation shows that things do not have the
inherent status we project upon them. They are empty o f that
 General Introduction xxiii
inherent existence. The very quality o f being empty o f inherent
existence is an emptiness, a negation o f inherent existence. Thus
the chair, which is the result of a construction with a very
practical purpose, does not have inherent existence, unchanging
self-contained existence. It is empty of inherent existence. The
chair is a conventional truth (if it did have inherent existence it
would itself be an unchanging ultimate truth), and its emptiness
o f inherent existence is the ultimate truth concerning that chair.
We discover the absence o f inherent existence through inves­
tigating a subject to see whether it has inherent existence or not.
This analysis which discovers the ultimate truth is very much a
mental and conceptual activity. However, in more advanced
stages of meditation it is thought to be possible to enter a state
where the mind is held absorbed unwaveringly on the ultimate
itself, in other words the negation o f inherent existence which is
emptiness. This state, when fully developed, is said to be experi­
enced beyond the normal dualistic mind, ‘ like water entering
water’. This, according to certain Tibetan commentators, is why
Säntideva speaks of the ultimate truth in Bodhicaryävatära 9.2
as ‘beyond the scope of intellection’. Obviously he could not
mean that it is not an object of mental activity in all senses,
otherwise one could not discern the ultimate truth and become
enlightened. The meaning o f this verse was much debated in
Tibet, and serves as an example o f the difficulties involved in
interpreting Buddhist philosophy.
The claim of Madhyamaka Buddhism, of which Säntideva is
one of the most famous Indian exponents, is that absolutely
nothing, no matter how rarefied, will be found under analysis to
have inherent existence. This includes the Buddha, niroäna, and
even emptiness itself. In other words if we think o f ultimate
reality as an Absolute, the really inherently Real, the Madhyamaka
claim is that there is no such thing. There is no Absolute. Finally
we need to let go of that grasping as well. Madhyamaka thinkers
do not put forward the inherent existence of anything, but take
claims by other thinkers that something inherently exists and
investigate to see if that makes sense. Other thinkers all maintain
the inherent existence o f something: God, matter, atoms, the
Self, causality, and so on. The Madhyamaka considers it has
good arguments against these inherent existences. In particular
x x iv General Introduction

Säntideva devotes considerable space to a complex refutation of

rival Mahäyäna co-religionists who follow a tradition known as
Yogäcära and teach that while the inherent existence o f most
things can be negated, we cannot deny the inherent existence of
the flow of consciousness itself. Understood properly, according
to this teaching, consciousness is non-dual (subjects and exter­
nal objects are erroneous constructions) and is characterized
by its reflexivity, which is to say that it is a unique quality o f
consciousness that it is not only aware of things but also aware
of itself at the same time. It is the truly existing substratum to
all illusion and unenlightenment, as well as enlightenment itself.
This tradition is thus sometimes known as Cittamätra, since it
teaches mind or consciousness (citta) only (nmtra). For Säntideva
in the last analysis the Yogäcära tradition, for all its spiritual
subtlety, represents an attempt to grasp at something instead of
the complete letting go which he feels is necessary for the
bodhisattva in order to develop perfectly both insight and, most
of all, effective compassion for others.
Thus the main purpose of Chapter 9 is to refute claims by
rival traditions, mainly Buddhist but also non-Buddhist, that
something has been found which really inherently exists, and
also to defend the Madhyamaka claim to show that all things exist
only conventionally ‘like illusions’ . Later Tibetan commentators
make it quite clear that such a claim, that something does not
inherently exist, is not a rather obscure way o f saying that it does
not exist at all. Rather, it lacks the sort o f existence called ‘ inher­
ent existence’, which is a sort o f existence we tend to project
upon things. This projection of inherent existence causes us con­
siderable problems. But if things did have inherent existence that
existence could be found when analysed. The fact that analysis
shows something to be incoherent means that it does not have
inherent existence. For example, if I investigate a chair to find
out if it inherently exists, as something existing independently
of my mental operations and the functions to which the bits o f
wood are put, I will discover that such an inherently existing
chair cannot be found. Actually there is just a collection o f bits
which I employ in a particular way (and for Säntideva the bits
themselves could, o f course, be fiirther analysed ad infinitum).
This does not mean that there is no chair. T he chair does exist
 General Introduction xxv
as a conventional truth, but not in the way I thought it did. The
chair as I thought it existed is what does not exist at all. It is in
this respect that Madhyamaka writers say all things are like
illusions. There is a strong contention among many Tibetan
commentators that this should not be taken to mean that things
are literally illusions. That would be incoherent, although it is
sometimes said for dramatic impact. Rather, things are not true
but are like illusions in that they appear one wrav and actually
exist in another. Thus the Madhyamaka is ‘M iddling’ in that it
avoids the two cardinal errors o f under-negation (something
exists inherently) and over-negation (nothing exists at all, in any
sense). O f these two errors the second, an understandable mis­
understanding, is by far the worst, for it was thought to have
serious repercussions in a moral nihilism which could scarcely
be Buddhist. Madhyamaka writers urge accordingly that empti­
ness should be taught in an appropriate way and only at the
right time.
One of the principal difficulties o f Bodhicaryävatära Chapter
9 is that it presupposes a considerably sophisticated knowledge
of the details of rival schools’ tenets, and does not seem to be
easily applicable to our current situation. It is debatable whether
modern attempts to grasp at inherent existences can be fitted
into the template offered by ancient Indian ‘errors’ . It would, I
think, be unwise for most readers to try and wrestle with the
detailed complexities of this chapter. What is o f enduring value
and contemporary significance here is the critical enterprise it­
self, the employment of the analytic investigative mind in the
spiritual path in a way which refuses to be taken in by new and
often subtle forms of grasping attachment but sees relentless
critical probing as a means o f letting go, creating a more bal­
anced perspective which will aid in the project of effectively
helping others. The spiritual path is not one o f comfortable
feelings and acceptance. It is deeply uncomfortable, and one
cause of that necessary uncomfortableness is the persistent search
for truth through employing rather than denying our critical
faculties.
This integration of the analytic into a spiritual path based on
altruism and compassion is but one aspect of the BodhicaryTivatcim
which is of enduring relevance and significance. Though it was
XXVI General Introduction

composed in India over a thousand years ago by a Buddhist

monk for himself and a few like-minded friends, even allowing
for the verses concerned with a Buddhist monastic environment,
the Bodhicaryävatära nevertheless presents us with a series of
brilliant meditations directly relevant to our own present lives.
We are still sentient beings living with others, squabbling and
loving, laughing and dying. We all need compassion, altruism,
insight, and wisdom, and these qualities have not changed so
very much over the years. Nor, I suspect, have the means o f
bringing them about.
I s h o u l d d i s p e l t h e s u f f e r i n g o f o t h e r s b e c a u s e it is s u f f e r i n g l i k e m y
o w n s u ffe rin g . I sh o u ld h e lp o th e rs too b e c a u s e o f t h e ir n a tu r e a s
b e i n g s , w h i c h is lik e m y o w n b e i n g . ( 8 .9 4 )

T o heed so many of Säntideva’s wonderful verses does not re­

quire an acceptance of Buddhism or a denial of any other faith.
All that is necessary is that one is human, living an ordinary
human life. On the other hand the Bodhicaryävatära is not a
work to be devoured in our normal greedy way, nor is it a book
to be skimmed through. That changes nothing. This is a medi­
tation manual (however you do your meditation), a work for the
proverbial desert island, a work to be slowly contemplated. And
when our desert island dweller is rescued he or she will have
perceptibly changed and will henceforth, to use a Zen saying,
‘move among us with bliss-bestowing hands’ .

P aul W il l ia m s
Centre fo r Buddhist Studies,
University o f Bristol
July 1994
 T R A N S L A T O R S ’ I N T R O D U C T IO N

S ä n t id e v a ’ s Bodhicaryävatära has a remarkable appeal and

impact. It is felt in this century as strongly as it has been in
others. Doubtless this is because he addresses spiritual issues
which are as relevant now as they were for him and his audience
over twelve centuries ago. Yet a text composed in a mediaeval
Indian monastic university cannot be presented to a general
readership without some introduction and commentary. It is our
hope that this present translation is clear, and, where possible,
self-explanatory. Even so, there is much that will only be com­
prehensible to the specialist reader and cannot be passed over in
silence by a responsible translator. We have attempted, so far as
space and our own understanding allow, to give some explana­
tion of such matters. We introduce each chapter with a discus­
sion o f its structure, along with other relevant issues. Annotations
to individual verses are provided at the back of the book. We
hope the reader will appreciate that all of this material is offered
by way of explanation for the general reader, rather than as
the exegesis of scripture for the purposes o f religious practice.
Our attempt has been to translate the work as accurately as we
can, in the belief that Säntideva is thereby enabled to speak for
himself. Some who read this translation and our explanatory
material will be Buddhists already familiar with one or another
tradition of exegesis of the Bodhicaryävatära. I f our explanations
vary from any of these received traditions, it need not be taken
amiss, but rather as evidence of the richness o f the Buddhist
tradition in general and o f Santideva’s work in particular. We
have sought to give nothing more than the simplest explanation
o f often complex matters, from a non-partisan point o f view.
We have been surprised by how much explanatory material
has seemed appropriate. In large part this is because Säntideva
practised within a religious tradition which had seen, by his day,
a millennium of uninterrupted growth and development on
Indian soil. Particularly pertinent to Santideva’s work was the
development o f the monastic university at Nälandä, where it is
said that he lived as a monk during the period at which he
x x viii Translators' Introduction
composed the Bodhicaryävatära. By this time, the early eighth
century, Nälandä was the pre-eminent educational institution of
medieval India. Tradition has it that it was first established by
King Sauräditya, otherwise known as Kumäragupta I (r.415—55
c e ). Although the work begun by Sauräditya was interrupted,
building continued at that site on a number of different monas­
teries and temples under the patronage of a succession o f later
Gupta kings, the entire complex eventually being enclosed as a
single establishment by a high wall with one main entrance. By
the time of the Chinese monk I-tsing, who resided at Nälandä
for a number of years in the second half of the seventh century,
its prestige as a centre of learning and its wealth had grown to
vast proportions. According to I-tsing, it received the revenues
o f lands containing more than 200 villages bestowed by kings o f
successive generations. There were around 3,000 students, both
monk and lay, all of whom came to Nälandä to further their
education, and had to pass an exacting entrance examination,
conducted orally. Many were said to come for this education as
a stepping-stone to a prestigious political career. In addition to
these resident scholars, others came for short visits. Patronage
came not only from local royalty, but even from abroad. For
example, in the early ninth century King Devapäla of Sumatra
donated the revenue of five villages to the maintenance o f monks
for the copying of manuscripts.
The Gupta kings were not Buddhists, but Brahmanical Hin­
dus, and were responsible for a revival of Brahmanical Hindu
culture in their empire. It would seem, therefore, that their
patronage was of learning and of general religiosity, and seen by
them as a part of their duty as righteous kings, rather than as the
expression of a personal interest in Buddhism. Not all students
at Nälandä were Buddhists. While Mahäyäna Buddhist philo­
sophy was reputedly a compulsory subject, the curriculum also
included other Buddhist literature, both Mahäyäna and Hînayâna,
as well as the Vedas (the scriptural authority o f Brahmanical
Hinduism), logic, grammar, medicine, magic, Sämkhya philo­
sophy, and a number o f other subsidiary subjects, such as art.
According to Tibetan sources, there were vast manuscript
libraries at Nälandä, but these were burnt down. Fortunately
there do survive from Nepal a few examples o f the manuscripts
that were copied there, since they were regularly taken away by
 Translators' Introduction x x ix
visiting monks to their homelands in Nepal, Tibet, China, and
South-East Asia.
The entire Nälandä complex was sacked in 119 7 by Moslem
invaders. However, modern archaeology has uncovered the foun­
dations of eleven monasteries and a number o f other features,
along with a mass of figures o f Buddhist and Hindu deities,
which substantiate the descriptions o f its glory in Chinese and
Tibetan accounts. No remains have been found o f its famous
towers, which were described as ‘cloud-licking’ in an eighth-
century inscription from the site.
The Nälandä community followed a daily programme, marked
by the striking of a bell. This included morning and evening
rituals, themselves reflected in the present work (see Introduc­
tion to Chapter 2). Studies were conducted one to one, in group
discussion or debate, and through discourses or lectures. No
mention of nuns appears to be made by the Chinese visitors, and
so we are probably justified in assuming that Nälandä was a
largely male institution— a suggestion circumstantially confirmed
by the Bodhicaiyävatära, which assumes a male audience through­
out. This is not to say that there were no women at all on the
premises; I-tsing mentions a female orchestra accompanying the
morning worship! He also describes how a woman visitor would
only be allowed to speak to monks and students in the corridor
of a monastery, after which she would have to leave.
We should not assume that the Bodhicaiyävatära was unique.
As one might imagine, in the milieu just described numerous
accounts of the Path were written, even if few survive in their
original language. As a single example, interesting comparison
can be made between the Bodhicaryävatära and the Päramitä-
samäsa, or ‘Compendium o f Perfections’, written by Äryasüra, a
near contemporary of Säntideva (see Meadows 1986). The sub­
ject of that work is the same, and yet its author, similarly an
erudite man with considerable understanding o f his subject,
deals with each perfection (excepting that of forbearance) on a
different basis from that employed by Säntideva.

The Structure of the Bodhicaryävatara

The theme o f the Bodhicaryävatära is the cultivating o f the
Awakening Mind or bodhicitta. Säntideva indicates this in the
xxx Translators' Introduction

title, an ambiguous compound term which can be unpacked in

different ways. O f the three separate terms compounded here,
the first, bodhi, means ‘ Awakening’, while the second, caryä,
means ‘the way to go or to act’, with metaphorical usages deriv­
ing from the sense of the ‘proper way’, such as ‘path’ , ‘good
conduct’ , ‘way of life’ , or ‘training’ . The final element, avatara,
means literally ‘(bringing about) a descent into’ something, but
with the metaphorical usage o f ‘entrance into’, ‘introduction to’ ,
or ‘undertaking’ . This richness of connotation allows several
interpretations, but we have adopted here the translation ‘Under­
taking the Way to Awakening’, in the hope that this captures
some at least of the ambiguity of the Sanskrit. Before we exam­
ine the structure of Säntideva’s account of ‘Undertaking the
Way to Awakening’, however, we have to address a significant
question.
Every translator of a traditional text must at some point con­
sider whether or not the text they are translating is the original,
the faithful record of the ideas and words of the author. Often
such a question is unanswerable, or at best an answer will onlv
be able to draw upon judgements of such criteria as style and
content. In the case of the Bod/iicaryävatara one is left with an
uneasy sense of an occasional lack of coherence or continuity in
a number of chapters, while the famous ninth chapter on Under­
standing is fraught with interpretational problems.
The suspicion that the text as we now have it is either a
compilation, or an edited version of an originally coherent com­
position, is confirmed by the recent identification of three manu­
scripts of a hitherto unknown Tibetan translation of Säntideva’s
classic work. These were amongst the hoard of manuscripts,
hidden away r.iooo c e , in the library at Tun-huang recovered
by Sir Aurel Stein during his expedition to Central Asia in
1906-8. Work has only recently begun on the comparison of
this early translation with the present state o f the Sanskrit text,
but the work of Prof. Akira Saito, of Mie University, Japan,
allows us to draw the following conclusions:

I. The Tun-huang manuscripts record another recension of

the Bodhicaryävatära. Saito (1993) points out that at least two
recensions of the Bodhicaiyävatära were known to medieval
 Translators ’ Introduction xxxi
Tibetan historians, anti that in all likelihood they corresponded
to the two versions that we now have. The Tibetan tradition
judged that the longer recension, represented by our present
Sanskrit text translated in this volume, was the authentic ver­
sion, and incorporated it into their canon. For this reason we
will refer to it in this discussion as the canonical recension. The
Tun-huang recension was translated into Tibetan in the early
ninth century, whereas the canonical recension was translated
twice, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries respectively.
2. This Tun-huang recension is considerably shorter than the
present version, by some 210/2 verses (701/2 as against 912).
Furthermore, a number of the verses appearing in the T un-
huang recension are not in the canonical recension. The bulk of
the internal differences between the two recensions appears from
Chapter 5 onwards.
3. The Tun-huang recension is divided into only nine chap­
ters, one less than the canonical recension.
4. The title recorded in these manuscripts, and possibly the
original title of the work, is Bodhisattvacatyävatära, ‘Undertaking
the Way of the Bodhisattva’ . This is also the title transmitted by
the canonical Tibetan translation.
5. The author is named as Aksayamati, rather than Säntideva,
although Saito concludes that this name is used as an epithet of
the latter.
6. On the basis o f internal consistency, the Tun-huang
recension can be provisionally identified as being closer to the
original composition than the present Sanskrit text, which is
now known to have been edited and added to by a later hand or
hands (see Saito 1993 and 1994, and the introductions to Chap­
ters 5 and 9 below), although there remains the unlikely possi­
bility that the second recension was a revision from the hand o f
the author himself.

Leaving aside for the moment this Tun-huang recension,

there is also a second measure against which we can test the
authenticity of the text of the present version o f the Bodhi-
caryävatära, and that is the other major work o f the putative
author to have survived in Sanskrit, the Siksä Samuccaya. This
work, identified by its title as a ‘compendium o f the training’,
x x xii Translators’ Introduction

consists of a more discursive account of the Bodhisattva’s train­

ing, based upon a set of twenty-seven core verses written by
Säntideva, but elaborated by him with prose explanations, and
illustrated extensively by often lengthy quotations from Mahâyâna
sütras, or scriptures. These quotations arc of great interest in their
own right, since they are often the only record of the original
wording of scriptures now lost in their language of composition.
It is still not clear which of these two works Säntideva com­
posed first. This is despite the evidence of Bodhicaryävatära
5.105, which recommends the study of the Siksä Samuccaya
(implying that the latter existed prior to the Bodhicaryävatära),
since this verse does not occur in the Tun-huang version and
was presumably added by a later hand. Comparison shows that
some of Säntideva’s core verses from the Siksä Samuccaya, as
well as single verses and even entire passages from these quoted
scriptures, occur without acknowledgement in the canonical
Sanskrit text of the Bodhicaryävatära (see, for example, 6 .12 0 -
34 and 8.96 et seq.). Whether these were inserted by the hand of
a later editor or by the author himself is not clear, although
further work upon the Tun-huang manuscripts may well shed
some light on the matter. In the separate introductions to each
chapter, we note which verses are shared in this way with the
Siksä Samuccaya, drawing largely upon the observations o f De
la Vallée Poussin and Bendali.
Neither the text nor a translation of the Tun-huang Bodhi-
sattvacaryävatära has yet been published. A detailed analysis o f
the early text surviving in Tun-huang is not yet available, other
than for Chapters 5 (Tun-huang ch. 4) and 9 (Tun-huang ch.
8) (see introductions to these chapters below), and so it is not
possible to determine whether all or even much of the additional
material in the present Sanskrit text has been taken from the
Siksä Samuccaya. For the mean time, we infer that this is the
likely source of much of the extra material in the canonical
recension, since Saito reports that it is from Chapter 5 o f the
canonical recension onwards that the greatest differences begin
to appear between the two recensions, and it is also from this
chapter onwards that the greatest amount of material is shared
between the Bodhicaryävatära and the Siksä Samuccaya. It is
possible that a later editor decided to integrate appropriate
 Translators' Introduction x x xiii
material from the Siksfi Samuccaya into the text of the
Bodhicaryîivatïïra. In the mean time we can now look at the
present Sanskrit text with the understanding that its original
structure may well have been obscured by later editorial activity.
That previous attempts to analyse the structure of the canonical
Bodhicaryîivatïïra seem unconvincing and strained can be put
down to this cause. Exegesis o f the Bodhicaryîivatïïra appears to
have been dominated by the commentary written in Sanskrit by
Prajnäkaramati towards the end of the tenth century, which is
also based upon this longer text, and which appears to have
superseded any pre-existing commentaries. Surviving Tibetan
exegctical traditions appear to have favoured the translation,
made by Blo-ldan-shes-rab (1059 -110 9 ), which was based upon
the present Sanskrit text.
In the light of these comments we can now look at the
Bodhicaryîivatïïra and see what structure is visible. The most
striking feature is that the present text is divided into ten chap­
ters. Some scholars have doubted the authenticity of at least two
of these: Chapter 2 on stylistic grounds, and Chapter 10 because
it has no commentary by Prajnäkaramati, suggesting that it was
not a part of the text in his day. The Tun-huang manuscripts
help allay these doubts, since they include materials which con­
stitute these two chapters. However, they also show that the
present arrangement of chapters is a later feature, since the
present Chapters 2 and 3 form one single chapter in these manu­
scripts. As will be discussed below, this makes a more coherent
plan for the work, and it may be that this subsequent division of
the original chapter two reflects a fashion for decades of chapters.

Chapter titles o f the Tun-huang recension

1. untitled (= present Ch. 1, ‘Praise of the Awakening M ind’)

2. bodhicitta-parigraha, ‘Adopting the Awakening M ind’ (=
present Chs. 2 and 3, ‘Confession of Evil’ and ‘Adopting
the Awakening Mind’ respectively)
3. nairïitmya, ‘Selflessness’ (= present Ch. 4, ‘Vigilance Re­
garding the Awakening M ind’)
4. samprajanya-raksam, ‘Guarding o f Awareness’ (= present
C h . 5)
x x x iv Translators' Introduction

5. ksänti, ‘ Forbearance’ (= present Ch. 6)

6. vîrya, ‘Vigour’ (= present Ch. 7)
7. dhyäna, ‘Meditative Absorption’ (= present Ch. 8)
8. prajnä, ‘Understanding’ (= present Ch. 9)
9. parinämanä, ‘Dedication’ (= present Ch. 10)

What of the arrangement of the chapters? For a large part o f

the Bodhicaryävatüra this has always seemed relatively easy to
understand, since if the theme of the work is the cultivation o f
the Awakening Mind, then Säntideva’s purpose is to outline the
training of the Bodhisattva. From an early period this has been
described in terms of the practice of six ‘perfections’ , päramitäs:
generosity, morality, forbearance, vigour, meditative absorption,
and understanding. O f these, the last four have each a separate
chapter, beginning with Chapter 6 on forbearance, in due order
up to Chapter 9 on understanding. The first two perfections
are not neglected, however, but are dealt with together in the
fifth chapter. Even so, this asymmetry raises a doubt. I f the per­
fections had been the original basis of the structure one would
expect a chapter on each, as, for example, is the case in the
Päramitäsamäsa of Äryasüra (Meadows 1986). Even this struc­
ture, then, may be the result o f the superimposition o f a differ­
ent scheme on the original.
Now that we know that the present Chapters 2 and 3 were
originally one, we can see that the first three chapters constitute
an extended amittarapüjä, or ‘Supreme Worship’ , a ritual usu­
ally composed of seven parts, and associated by Sântideva with
the generation of merit and the Awakening Mind. (These sec­
tions will be discussed in the introductions to these chapters.)
The fourth chapter is an extensive exhortation to uphold one’s
resolve, as the necessary basis for the training. The final chapter
consists of a lengthy series of vows, or pranidhäna.
The overall plan of the Bodhicaryävatüra is in any case a
grand sweep of action, beginning with the praise o f the subject,
the Awakening Mind (Ch. 1), then generation of merit and
adoption o f the Awakening Mind through supreme worship
(Chs. 2-3), and, via the strengthening of resolve (Ch. 4), to the
training proper, i.e. the perfections (Chs. 5-9), and finishing
with the proper undertaking o f vows, made by all Bodhisattvas
at the beginning of their active career (Ch. 10).
 Translators ’ Introduction x x xv

Concerning the Translation

Säntideva was a medieval Indian Buddhist monk, who wrote for
the benefit of his contemporaries and colleagues. T o translate
his work presents a number of challenges and problems to the
modern translator. The intention of the present translators has
been to produce a prose translation into standard British Eng­
lish, which will be accessible to the ordinary reader. Our ernpha-
• sis has been upon accuracy and clarity, attempting to give, where
possible, a literal representation of Säntideva’s text, so long as
this is compatible with the canons of standard English usage.
We have tried to eschew the clumsy and opaque hybrids which
Sanskrit often generates in English, although the technical lan­
guage of Indian Buddhism which the author employed has often
stretched our determination. At the same time we are aw’are that
there will be readers who will come to this translation with some
knowledge of both Buddhism and the Sanskrit language. With
these readers in mind we have occasionally noted the Sanskrit of
some terms, if our translation of them is not standard. Needless
to say, given the non-specialist audience for whom this trans­
lation is intended, these have been kept to a minimum.
One topical translation problem revolves around the issue of
gender. Our policy has been to translate Säntideva with the
minimum o f interpretation. It remains an unavoidable fact that
he wrote the Bodhicaryävatära for a monastic audience which
without doubt would have been predominantly male, if not ex­
clusively so. Without statistical evidence to prove this assertion,
it is all the same easily inferable from internal evidence in the
poem itself. For example, sexual craving and attachment is under­
stood entirely in terms of that of a man for a woman (e.g.
8.41 ff.). There could be little justification for translators to
change this, unless they were offering an exegesis of the wrork
for the benefit of practising Buddhists, whereby it would be very
important to explain that such attachment is seen as a danger to
both men and women, regardless o f Säntideva’s specific audi­
ence or the traditional social status of w'omen. More pertinently,
we are confronted by the problem of the gender o f the listener
addressed throughout the poem. In Sanskrit the masculine gen­
der is regarded as inclusive or universal. It may refer to males
only or to males and females inclusively, whereas a feminine
xxxvi Translators' Introduction

grammatical form refers only to females. Here, the author uses

the masculine gender alone. Given this, and that men were
probably in the majority in his audience, we have translated
accordingly. However, whenever no gender is specified we have
attempted to render the sentence into gender-neutral English,
for we are both convinced that Säntideva’s message is, and
should appear, as applicable to women as it is to men.
Some Sanskrit Buddhist terms could have been left untrans­
lated, to be understood by a Buddhist audience according to
their own received tradition, and explained to non-Buddhist
readers in notes. There is, however, a school of thought which
maintains that all terms should be translated, that not to do so is
a failure of nerve. This argument is all the more convincing
when the translation is intended for inclusion in a series such as
the ‘World’s Classics’. In trying to meet this challenge o f total
translation we have been aware that some terms require intro­
ductory comment. Single instances of this in the text are dealt
with in a note, but some terms appear so frequently and are so
important as to warrant mention here in the introduction.
The most important case is our decision to translate the term
bodhicitta, the subject of the entire work, as ‘Awakening M ind’ .
This is a very literal translation, which we thought would best
serve the range of uses to which the expression is put in the
original language. Yet no English expression is perfect in this
respect, and it remains to explain that the term citta has conno­
tations which are not shared with the standard English transla­
tion, ‘mind’. There is some sense of active mental process involved
in this term, which under some circumstances would mean that
citta would be better translated as ‘ thought, attitude’ or even
‘will’, in the sense of ‘the will to attain Awakening’ . As it is,
‘Awakening Mind’ risks the possibility of reification by the unwary
reader, and so we hope that readers will remember that the
arising o f the Awakening Mind involves the internal transforma­
tion of the individual rather than the evocation o f an external
entity. This latter is not to be confused with the sense in which
Säntidcva talks of the Awakening Mind as a force which is act­
ive within the universe. In so doing he addresses it as the single,
universal motivation shared by all who aspire to Buddhahood.
Another term appearing frequently throughout the
 Translators ’ Introduction xxxvii
Bodhicaryävatära is ‘defilement’, blesa. These are three in number:
craving, raga\ hatred, dvcsa\ and delusion, molta. They are fre­
quently described as the three ‘roots’ of all the unskilful mental
states which characterize the un-Awakened mind and bind the
un-Enlightened person in the cycle of existence, and it is from
these defilements that the Buddhist seeks liberation. In accord­
ance with their treatment in scripture, Säntideva conceives of
them as an almost active force, which at times is not conveyed
by the slightly passive sense of ‘defilement’ . Alternative trans­
lations might be ‘torments’ or ‘afflictions’ . With such important
terms as Awakening Mind and defilement, we judged it best to
maintain a single translation throughout, rather than vary it
according to context, so as to give the greatest clarity to the
referents in the text.
The state of liberation and illumination attained in Buddha-
hood is denoted by two terms in this work. Occasionally Säntideva
uses nirvana, which we have translated as ‘Enlightenment’, but
far more frequently he uses bodhi, or ‘Awakening’ . The realm of
the un-A wakened, samsara, we have given as ‘cyclic existence’,
a not very literal translation, but one which at least suggests the
view of the world as something repetitive, if not painful— a view
of the world held throughout the Buddhist tradition. The term
prajm is commonly translated as ‘insight’ or ‘wisdom’ in a Bud­
dhist context, giving emphasis to a transcendent connotation.
However, it can also refer to the realization or understanding of
any item of truth or knowledge, and we have usually translated
it as ‘ understanding’, emphasizing the sense of process. The
exception to this practice is the now well established translation
of the name Prajnäpäramitä Sütra as ‘Perfection of Wisdom Sütra’.
The term dharma has usually been translated according to con­
text, i.e. variously as ‘Teaching [of the Buddha]’, and ‘element’,
‘constituent’ , or ‘phenomenon’. The Buddha or Buddhas are
addressed by various epithets throughout the work, all o f them
traditional, and all translated, with the exception o f Tathägata
and Sugata. O f these the former means literally ‘one who has
reached such a state’ , while the latter means ‘one in a good
state’— neither very euphonious or informative, and hence they
have been left untranslated. Generally speaking, readers may
assume that any positive epithet probably refers to the Buddha(s),
x x x v iii Translators' Introduction
and we have printed such epithets with the initial letter capital­
ized: Sage, Protector, Saviour, Teacher, Guide, Omniscient One,
Compassionate One, Teacher of the Universe, Fortunate One.
These epithets sometimes occur in a formula such as ‘T he Sage
has said’ . These, and the expression ‘it is taught’ , should be
understood to introduce a quotation from or reference to scrip­
ture. It has not always been possible to identify such scriptural
sources, but where known they are explained in the notes.
Many writers on Säntideva emphasize the beauty o f his
poetry, but some qualification to this statement is undoubtedly
necessary, especially in so far as it determines the policy adopted
in this translation. Säntideva wrote his Bodhicaryävatüra in
verse, but what this means in a Sanskrit context can be some­
what different from what it is understood to mean in a Western
English-speaking context. The bulk of the Bodhicaryävatüra is
written in anustuhh. This is a simple two-line verse form o f 32
syllables, in which less than 50 per cent of the metre is fixed, i.e.
only 6 in every 16 syllables are of fixed weight, there being only
very minor exclusions for some of the remaining syllables. In
other words, it is a verse form which allows considerable flex­
ibility in comparison with others, some of which Säntideva at
times employs. The significance of this flexibility lies not in
some modern notion of fluidity, or breaking o f traditional norms,
but rather in the strict metrical principles which underlie all
Classical Sanskrit poetry. The absolute adherence to often highly
complex metrical forms was a major feature of Sanskrit poetry
and one of the canons by which its success and beauty as poetry
would be judged. The Sanskrit poet strives to achieve excellence
by employing elaborate and highly distinctive metres as a struc­
ture within which he displays other poetic devices, such as asso­
nance, dissonance, punning, and even obscure grammatical forms
(thus proving his grasp of the grammar of the language). For
those who wish to read more generally on this topic, we can
recommend J. Brough’s Introduction to Poems from the Sanskrit
(Harmondsworth, 1968), one of the most imaginative brief in­
troductions to this subject.
Much traditional literature employed the simple anustuhh verse,
not only for matter which the Western English-speaking world
regards as poetry, but for all subjects, including technical manuals
 Translators ’ Introduction x x xix
of grammar, medicine, astronomy, and even for lexicons! The
overall effect of such verse is comparable to a regulated rhyth­
mical prose.
This does not prevent Säntideva from employing other poetic-
devices even in anustubh verse, but it is undeniable that the bulk
of this text is modest in its poetic aspirations by the standards o f
Sanskrit kâvya, or high poetry. Yet one should not conclude
from this that Säntideva was incapable o f the more ambitious
poetic style. He does on occasion use elaborate kävya metres,
often at the end of a long passage of anustubh. This is a common
practice whereby the poet contrasts the bread-and-butter anustubh
with more impressive extravaganzas. For Säntideva it is an op­
portunity to provide a more elaborate, ornate counterpart to the
more plainly didactic material of the bulk o f each chapter.
Säntideva employs his fair share o f the poetic devices com­
mon to Sanskrit poetry in the Bodhicaryavat ara. We have made
a modest attempt to reflect this usage in the English, and have
favoured assonances, dissonances, and alliterations. More diffi­
cult to render have been the author’s word-plays, puns, and
(probably intentional) ambiguities. Where English has failed to
offer a parallel to a Sanskrit pun, we have sometimes resorted to
explanation in a note. There is also a varying texture to his
verse, which we have tried to preserve. Sometimes a complex
sentence with several relative clauses and subclauses stretches
over several verses. By contrast, on occasion a single verse will
contain several sentences. The offering verses of Chapter 2 are
rich and evocative, whereas the general tenor o f Chapter g is
concise, exacting, and technical. We have generally preserved
these features throughout. Another feature of the work is the
varying moods evoked from chapter to chapter, and within each
chapter. The most condensed are the stages o f the Supreme
Worship, anuttara-püjä, in Chapters 2 and 3. Remorse over past
actions, and fear of death, are repeated refrains throughout this
work, but these are alleviated and channelled by evocations of
delight, reverence, at times even humour, and, o f course, com­
passion and tranquillity.
Generally Säntideva’s language is clear, perhaps because he
eschews a more ambitious poetic style. Even so there are occa­
sional obscurities, arising as often as not from compressions
X1 Translators’ Introduction

employed to squeeze a statement into a verse of, for example,

only thirty-two syllables. Occasionally he makes allusions to
issues which would have been well understood by his fellow
monks, but which it is easy for us to miss unless we pay special
attention to the sense of what he says. Frequently his language
is technical, employing a vocabulary and conceptual world fa­
miliar to a medieval Indian Buddhist monk, but rather more
obscure today. This applies par excellence to his unashamedly
technical exposition of the perfection of Understanding in Chapter
9. Nor should we overlook the likelihood that, as an author
writing in accomplished Sanskrit verse, Säntideva was born in a
brahmin or ksatriya family (the latter implied by the story that
he had been a prince), i.e. was from a high-caste background. It
is only from this kind of background that he could have acquired
the education which is revealed by his literary achievement, a
background which in turn determines another strand of allusion
and language in his work.
The impression remains of a man writing with great sincerity.
His work succeeds in evoking strong responses, and we are
probably best advised to seek an explanation of why this should
be so by examining the way in which many such people read the
Bodhicaryävatära. Without doubt, most people who are genu­
inely affected by Säntideva’s work are affected by the senti­
ments that he expresses there. Many o f these have been
Buddhists, seeing with what can only be described as the eye o f
faith. O f course one need not be a Buddhist of any description
to appreciate Säntideva’s aspirations, but it has been those who
have read his words seeking to apply them to their own experi­
ence, enjoying his encouragement, flinching under his castiga­
tion, who have responded with the greatest sensitivity to his
thoughts and reflections on the Great Work of the Bodhisattva.

The Sanskrit Text o f the Bodhicaryävatära and

Prajhakaramati 's Commentary
Some readers may be curious to know how translators have had
access to Säntideva’s work. This translation is based upon the
critical edition of the Sanskrit text of Prajnäkaramati’s com­
mentary on the Bodhicaryävatära, the Bodhicaryäivatära-panjikä,
 Translators ' Introduction xli
prepared by Louis de la Vallée Poussin and published between
1904 and 1914. His edition was based upon a single manuscript
of* the commentary, and so he also utilized the Tibetan trans­
lation of the same work to help establish an accurate text. Since
the commentary, as published, quotes the verses of the main
text in full, De la Vallée Poussin’s work offers some advance
upon, and to some degree replaces, the pioneering edition of the
Bodhicaryävatära alone, published in 1889 by the Russian,
Minaev. De la Vallée Poussin had the advantage o f utilizing
Minaev’s work and taking account of Prajnäkaramati’s explana­
tions, a source of correction not available to Minaev. There are
a few places where the commentary omits verses because the
text of the Bodhicaryävatära which Prajnäkaramati used differed
from that which was transmitted in the manuscripts consulted
by Minaev. De la Vallée Poussin records these differences, and
we have also incorporated them.
Prajnäkaramati’s commentary is of variable helpfulness in pre­
paring a translation, despite the expectation often voiced by
friends who do not read Sanskrit that it must doubtless be of
great interest. This disappointment arises partly through the char­
acter of a pa fijihä-type commentary, which takes as its starting-
point the task of commenting upon every word of the main text.
This inevitably gives a decidedly grammatical cast to the com­
mentary, which is not without its uses for the translator, of
course, but also means that much space is taken by the rather
unimaginative provision of synonyms for every term, even (it
sometimes feels like ‘especially’) when completely unnecessary.
The fact remains, however, that for all this Prajnäkaramati is
not always convincing, and on occasion lets one down with his
supply of synonyms— usually when they are most needed. One
cannot but suspect that when a difficult term or usage appeared
in the text, he observed a discreet silence (it is tempting to
follow his example). As for his more discursive comments, it is
clear that his main interest was in Chapter 9 of the present work,
and indeed it is thought by some that this was the first part of
the Bodhicaryävatära upon which he worked. Roughly one-third
of the present bulk of his commentary, and much o f his en­
thusiasm, is devoted to this chapter, although the verses of
Chapter 9 only make up about one-sixth o f the bulk of the
x lii Translators ' Introduction

Bodhicaryâvatâra itself. For the other chapters his remarks are

in the main restricted to glosses and explanations o f a rather
scholastic character— one does not gain the impression that he
was touched by the material itself—but these are leavened by
references to Mahäyäna scriptures, almost entirely borrowed
from Säntideva’s other main work, the Siksfi Samuccaya.
There are passages of Prajnäkaramati’s commentary which
have not survived in Sanskrit; the relevant leaves o f the single
manuscript which De la Vallée Poussin used for his edition were
lost. This affected the following passages: i . i , 3.23-33, 4 .1-4 5 ,
and 8.109-86. It appears that Prajnäkaramati did not comment
upon Chapter 10, which is offered by some as an argument that
this chapter was not original. These passages are not supplied in
De la Vallée Poussin’s edition, and for these we have used the
text as printed in the rather unreliable edition of text and com­
mentary by Vaidya (1988 reprint), checking readings against a
copy of the less accessible Minaev edition held in the Bodleian
Library.
 N O T E ON T H E P R O N U N C IA T IO N
OF S A N S K R I T N A M E S

T he following may act as a guide to pronunciation, but for

detailed information on the pronunciation of Sanskrit the reader
should consult chapter i of Michael Coulson’s Sanskrit: An
Introduction to the Classical Language (Teach Yourself Books,
19 9 2 ).

Pronounce Sanskrit as in English

a CZZt
ä fV/r
i s/t
I mt’
u pzzt
Q too
r rzsk
e pr«V
ai s/'gh
0 hope
au Süf/nd
c r/zurch
V close to the English iv
s shame
s dish
h as in English, but with a faint echo
o f the preceding vowel
t etc. as in English, but with the tongue
further back in the mouth
n, n have a nasal quality
ii, cazzyon
xliv Note on the Pronunciation o f Sanskrit Naine:
Pronounce San skrit as in E nglish
kh, gh, ch, jh, th, aspirated, as in ‘ ho/Ziouse’ {not
dh, th, dh, ph, bh ‘\vi//;’), ‘she/>Z/erd’, ‘clu/;//ouse’, etc.
m nasalizes the preceding vowel
sound, as in French bon
 ACKNOW LEDGEMENTS

E v e r y translation shows a debt. In our case, we are aware of

two traditions, without which this project would not have be­
gun. The first is the Buddhist tradition which has continued to
pass down and develop the teachings proclaimed by the Buddha
nearly two and a half millennia ago. The second is the academic
tradition which has allowed us greater access to the former. We
are grateful to both. More specifically, for this translation we
have benefited from the freely shared knowledge of several indi­
viduals: Dr Sanjukta Gupta and Professor Richard Gombrich,
who generously gave their time to answer queries concerning
the interpretation of individual verses; Dharmacari Dharmapriya
(Michael Scherk), who gave constructive criticism of a draft of
the earlier chapters, and reminded us that the English language
has a grammar too; Dr Paul Harrison, whose lectures on the
translations of Lokaksema (Trinity Term, 1994) provided use­
ful information on the Ajätasatru-kaukrtya-vinodanä, who also
drew our attention to the work of Professor Akira Saito on the
Tun-huang recension of the Bodhicaryâvatâra, and who read
our finished typescript meticulously, suggesting a number of
improvements. We are indebted to all these people, and to every­
one who accepted our unsolicited offer of an opportunity to prac­
tise the päramitäs of generosity, forbearance, and understanding.
K ate C r os by and A n dr e w S k i l t o n
Oxford
May IQQ4
 S E L E C T BIBLIO G RAPH Y

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T ib e t a n W o r k s a n d A r c h iv e s , D h a r a m s a la , 19 7 9 ).
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( L ib r a r y o f T ib e t a n W o rk s a n d A r c h iv e s , D h a ra m s a la , 19 8 0 ).
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U n iv e r s it y P r e s s , U n i v e r s it y P a r k , P a ., a n d L o n d o n , 19 8 3 ) .
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C le a r y , T h o m a s ,
Avatamsaka Sutra, ii, c o n t a i n i n g t r a n s l a t io n o f t h e D a s a b h u m i k a
S u t r a , p p . 1 - 1 2 3 ( S h a m b a l a , B o s t o n , 19 8 6 ) .
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19 8 1).
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N e w Y o r k , 19 7 6 ).
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The Bodhicaryavatara
 1

P R A IS E OF
T H E A W A K E N IN G M IN D

T h e first chapter of Säntideva’s B tulli icaiyti vat am is an ex­

tended praise of his subject, the Awakening Mind. He begins,
however, with four verses, shared with his Sihsâ Samticcaya,
in which he makes his initial and traditional obeisance to the
Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, and then explains his motives for
writing. Thereafter he launches into a lengthy praise of the
Awakening Mind itself, emphasizing its rarity and its potency.
This culminates in his definition of the Awakening Mind in
verses 15 -16 :
T h a t A w a k e n i n g M i n d s h o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d to b e o f t w o k i n d s ; in
b r ie f: T h e M in d r e s o lv e d on A w a k e n in g an d th e M in d p r o c e e d in g
to w a r d s A w a k e n in g .

T h e d i s t in c t io n b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o s h o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d b y t h e w i s e in
t h e s a m e w a y a s t h e d i s t in c t io n is r e c o g n iz e d b e t w e e n a p e r s o n w h o
d e s ir e s to g o a n d o n e w h o is g o i n g , in t h a t o r d e r .

Once this distinction has been made, it leads naturally into a

discussion of the virtues of those beings in whom the Awaken­
ing Mind has arisen, the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas:
S u c h a b e i n g , u n p r e c e d e n t e d , a n e x c e ll e n t j e w e l, in w h o m t h e r e is b o r n
a c o n c e r n f o r t h e w e lf a r e o f o t h e r s s u c h a s o t h e r s h a v e n o t e v e n f o r
t h e m s e l v e s , h o w is h e b o r n ? ( v . 2 5 )

The only appropriate response to the magnificence of the

conception of the Awakening Mind is to go for refuge to those
who embody it, and this is Säntideva’s declaration in the final
verse (36). In so doing Säntideva recapitulates the response to
the Buddha, both spontaneous and ritualized, that is incorpor­
ated into the fundamental act of religious commitment made by
all Buddhists. This act of going for refuge to the Three Jewels,
the Buddha, Dharma, and Saiigha, has spread throughout the
Buddhist world as the definitive act whereby people declare
4 Praise o f the A wakening M in d

themselves to be Buddhists. Säntideva also implicitly explains

why it is that he and other Buddhists go for refuge to the
Buddha and Bodhisattvas: because they embody the Awakening
Mind.
 Praise of the Awakening Mind
1 In adoration I make obeisance to the Sugatas and their sons,
and to their bodies of Dharma, and to all those worthy of
praise. In brief, and in accordance with scripture, I shall
describe the undertaking of the observance of the sons o f the
Sugatas.
2 Nothing new will be said here, nor have I any skill in com­
position. Therefore I do not imagine that I can benefit others.
I have done this to perfume my own mind.
3 While doing this, the surge of my inspiration to cultivate
what is skilful increases. Moreover, should another, of the
very same humours as me, also look at this, then he too may
benefit from it.
4 This opportune moment is extremely hard to meet. Once
met, it yields the welfare of mankind. I f the advantage is
neglected now, how will this meeting come again?
5 At night in darkness thick with clouds a lightning flash gives
a moment’s brightness. So, sometime, by the power o f the
Buddha, the mind of the world might for a moment turn to
acts of merit.
6 This being so, the power of good is always weak, while the
power o f evil is vast and terrible. What other good could
conquer that, were there not the perfect Awakening Mind?
7 This is the benefit, seen by the Lords o f the Sages meditat­
ing for many aeons, whereby deep-welling happiness elates
immeasurable masses o f beings, through happiness alone.
(S Those who long to transcend the hundreds o f miseries of
existence, who long to relieve creatures o f their sorrows,
who long to enjoy many hundreds of joys, must never aban­
don the Awakening Mind.
9 When the Awakening Mind has arisen in him, a wretch,
captive in the prison o f existence, he is straightaway hailed
6 Praise o f the Awakening M in d

son o f the Sugatas, to be revered in the worlds o f gods and

men.
10 Taking this base image, it transmutes it into the priceless
image of the Buddha-gem. Grasp tightly the quicksilver elixir,
known as the Awakening Mind, which must be thoroughly
worked.
1 1 You who are accustomed to travelling abroad among the
trading towns of the realms o f rebirth, grasp tightly this gem
that is the Awakening Mind. It is precious, assayed by those
of immeasurable expertise, the unique caravan-leaders o f the
world.
12 Like the plantain stem, all other good things assuredly shed
their fruit and then wither, whereas the Awakening M ind is
a tree that constantly fruits. It does not wither, but continues
to produce.
13 In its protection, as in the protection of a hero, one immedi­
ately escapes great dangers, even after committing extremely
cruel acts o f evil. So why do ignorant beings not seek refuge
in it?
14 Like the holocaust at the end of a world age, it completely
consumes great evils in an instant. T he wise Lord M aitreya
related its unmeasured praises to Sudhana.
15 The Awakening Mind should be understood to be o f two
kinds; in brief: the Mind resolved on Awakening and the
Mind proceeding towards Awakening.
16 The distinction between these two should be understood by
the wise in the same way as the distinction is recognized
between a person who desires to go and one who is going, in
that order.
17 Even in cyclic existence great fruit comes from the M ind
resolved on Awakening, but nothing like the uninterrupted
merit that comes from that resolve when put into action.
18 From the moment that he takes on that M ind to release the
limitless realm o f beings, with a resolve that cannot be turned
back,
 Pruine o f the Awakening M in d 7

19 From that moment on, though he may cloze o ff or be dis­

tracted many times, uninterrupted streams o f merit like the
bursting sky continuously pour forth.

20 This is what the Tathägata himself explained with proof in

the Question o f Subahu, for the benefit o f beings who are
disposed toward the inferior path.

21 Immeasurable merit took hold o f the well-intentioned per­

son who thought ‘Let me dispel the headaches o f beings’ .

22 What then of the person who longs to remove the unequalled

agony of every single being and make their virtue infinite?

23 Whose mother or father ever has such a desire for their

welfare as this, what deities or sages or Brahmas have it?

24 Those beings did not conceive this desire before, even for
their own sake, even in a dream. How could they have it for
the sake of others?

25 Such a being, unprecedented, an excellent jewel, in whom

there is born a concern for the welfare of others such as
others have not even for themselves, how is he born?

26 That jewel, the Mind, which is the seed o f pure happiness in

the world and the remedy for the suffering o f the world,
how at all can its merit be measured?

27 Worship of the Buddha is surpassed merely by the desire for

the welfare of others; how much more so by the persistent
effort for the complete happiness o f every being?

28 Hoping to escape suffering, it is to suffering that they run.

In the desire for happiness, out of delusion, they destroy
their own happiness, like an enemy.

29 It satisfies with every happiness those starved of happiness,

and cuts away oppressions from those oppressed in many
ways.

30 It also drives o ff delusion. How could there be a holy man its

equal, how such a friend, or how such merit?
8 Praise o f the A wakening M ind

31 Even if someone returns a favour, he is praised. What, then,

can be said of the Bodhisattva, who does good without obli­
gation?
32 People honour someone who gives alms to a few people,
saying, ‘He does good’ , because he contemptuously supports
their life for half a day with a moment’s gift of mere food.
33 What then of the one who offers to a limitless number of
beings, throughout limitless time, the fulfilment o f all de­
sires, unending until the end of the sky and those beings?
34 The Protector has said that one who harbours in his heart a
turbid thought against such a lord of gifts, a son o f the
Conqueror, dwells in hells for aeons as numerous as the
moments of that turbid thought.
35 But fruit outweighing that flows forth for one whose mind
becomes serenely confident. For evil action against the sons
of the Conqueror requires great force, while pure action
comes effortlessly.
36 I bow down to the bodies of those in whom that excellent
jewel, the Mind, has arisen, and towards whom even harm
will lead to happiness. T o those mines o f happiness, I go for
refuge.
 C O N F E S S IO N OF F A U L T S

IN T R O D U C T IO N : CH A PTERS 2 AND 3

A s has been explained in the Translators’ Introduction in the

section ‘The Structure of the Bodhicaryâvatâra\ there is manu­
script evidence to show that Chapters 2 and 3 were originally
one. Since this is confirmed by internal evidence we shall treat
them as such here. Together, Chapters 2 and 3 (and perhaps
Chapter 1) form a text for an important and widespread
Mahäyäna liturgy, known as the anuttara-püjä or ‘Supreme Wor­
ship’. The history of this liturgy is not fully known, and since
the publication of Dayal’s study of the Bodhisattva in 1932, in
which he discusses the Supreme Worship exclusively in terms
of the Bodhicaryavatura, the assumption that Säntidcva was
responsible for its formulation has gained some ground (Dayal,
54-8). In fact, the history of this liturgy goes back several
centuries before his time. Säntidcva himself refers, in his
S i km Samuccaya, to the formulation of the Supreme Worship
embodied in the Bliadracaryâ-pranidliïina-gâthïï, ‘Verses on
the Vows of Good Conduct’ (Bhadracaryä), a section o f the
final chapter of the Gandavyüha Sütra, which also circulated
separately from its parent text. We can infer from the frequency
with which the Bhadracaryä was copied and quoted, that this
provided, for several centuries at least, a widespread model
for the Supreme Worship. The date o f composition o f the
Gandavyüha Sütra, like all Mahäyäna Sutras an anonymous
work, is not known, but we do know that it was first translated
into Chinese in the fourth century c e . However, we can push
back the use o f the Supreme Worship before even this date,
because some of its main elements are enumerated, in a ritual
context, in one of the very first Mahäyäna Sutras translated
into Chinese, in the late second century c e , by Lokaksema, i.e.
the Ajätasatru-kaukrtyavinodanä, ‘Dispelling the Regret o f
Ajätasatru’ . Säntidcva was therefore writing according to a
I0 Confession o f Faults

well-established liturgical format, for the creation o f which he

can no longer be credited, although this does not detract from
his achievement.
It appears that by tradition the Supreme Worship had seven
parts. It is clear, however, that the constitution o f these seven
parts varied, some being more stable than others, and that we
can count up to as many as nine elements used variously to make
up the Supreme Worship. The Bhadracarya, for example, records
a Supreme Worship consisting of:

1. praise (vandanä),
2. worship (püjanâ),
3. confession [of faults] (desanâ),
4. rejoicing [in merits] (madami),
5. requesting [the teaching] (adhyesam),
6. begging [the Buddhas not to abandon beings] (yacanFi),
and
7. dedication [of merit] (miniano).

The Ajätasatru-kaukrtya-vinodanü mentions: 1. going for refuge

to the Three Jewels (trisarana-gamana), 2. confession o f faults,
3. rejoicing in merit, 4. requesting the teaching, and 5. arousal o f
the Awakening Mind (bodhicittotpâda). The Dharmasamgraha, a
late Mahäyäna compendium of technical terms, follows the same
format as the Bhadracaiyä, but substitutes ‘arousal o f the Awak­
ening Mind’ (bodhicittotpâda) for ‘begging the Buddhas not to
abandon beings’.
That the form of the Supreme Worship was flexible, even to
the extent of having less or possibly more than its classical seven
parts, is o f added significance here, because Säntideva does not
state explicitly what format he had in mind for this part o f the
Bodhicaryävatära. Nevertheless, we can provisionally identify
the following elements of Supreme Worship in these two chapters:

Chapter 2
1-25 worship, ptijâ
26 going for refuge, samna-gamatia
27-45 confession o f faults, päpa-desanä
46-54 going for refuge, sarana-gamana
55—66 confession of faults, päpadesanä
 Confession o f Faults 11
Chapter 3
1-3 rejoicing in merit, anumodanä
4 requesting the teaching, adhyesanä
5 begging the Buddhas not to abandon beings, yäcanä
6 -2 1 dedication of merit, parinämanä
22-33 arousal of the Awakening Mind, bodhicittotpâda

Saito reports that the first four chapters (the first three in the
Tun-huang recension) show a close correspondence in the two
recensions of the Dodhicaryävatära, so we can only assume for
the mean time that this plan is free o f later editorial changes and
may reflect the intentions o f the author. Therefore, although he
is without doubt expanding upon the themes o f the Supreme
Worship liturgy, he has not restricted himself either to seven
elements, nor to a simple sequential presentation. I f we also look
to the chapters adjoining these, i.e. Chapters 1 and 4, the picture
is broader and more complex still. Chapter 1, standing as a
separate chapter in both recensions, is an extended ‘praise’, usu­
ally the first element in most accounts of the Supreme Worship.
The fourth chapter, concerned with strengthening the aspiring
Bodhisattva’s resolve, has an integral link with the final section
o f Chapter 3, arousal of the Awakening Mind.
What then is the Supreme Worship, and what is its function?
We have already described it as a Mahäyäna liturgy, indicating
that it is a ritual expressing the ideals o f Mahäyäna Buddhism.
More specifically it is concerned with furthering the central
religious aspiration of the Mahäyäna Buddhist, namely the aris­
ing o f the Awakening Mind. It is presumably for this reason that
this section as a whole was entitled ‘adopting’ or ‘seizing the
Awakening Mind’ in the Tun-huang recension. Säntideva, in
the Siksä Samuccaya, recommends the Supreme Worship as a
means o f developing merit, this being the necessary counterpart
to wisdom or understanding. Together, the pair form the two
‘preparations’, sambhära, without which the Bodhisattva cannot
attain full Awakening for the benefit of all beings. More specifi­
cally, the Supreme Worship is the means that Säntideva em­
ploys to engender the first of the two kinds of Awakening Mind
that he defines in Chapter 1 (vv. 15-16 ): ‘ the Mind resolved on
Awakening’. This is apparent from the final section o f Chapter
3, following his dedication of merit, which begins:
I2 Confession o f Faults
I n t h e s a m e w a y a s b y g o n e S u g a t a s t o o k u p t h e A w a k e n i n g M i n d , in
t h e s a m e w a y a s t h e y p r o g r e s s e d in t h e B o d h i s a t t v a t r a i n i n g

S o to o , I m y s e lf s h a ll g e n e r a te th e A w a k e n in g M i n d fo r th e w e lf a r e o f
t h e w o r l d ; a n d j u s t s o s h a ll I t r a i n in t h o s e p r e c e p t s in d u e o r d e r .

T h e w is e o n e w h o h a s t a k e n u p t h e A w a k e n i n g M i n d in t h i s w a y w i t h
a s e r e n e c o n f i d e n c e s h o u l d c o n t i n u e to e n c o u r a g e h i s r e s o l v e a s f o l l o w s ,
in o r d e r t o f u lf i l h i s w is h . ( v v . 2 2 - 4 )

Thereafter, having strengthened his resolve, he is able to put it

into practice in the Bodhisattva training, and to cultivate the
second kind of Awakening Mind; ‘the Mind proceeding towards
Awakening’ .
The various elements of the Supreme Worship represent or
invoke a sequence of spiritual moods through which the ritual
participant is drawn. Despite minor variations in different sources,
the sequence of these moods is not arbitrary. One begins with
praise (Chapter 1), because this involves reflection upon and
appreciation of the virtues of the Awakening Mind. On the basis
of this appreciation, one then engages in worship, the active
response to what is good, particularly in the form o f making
offerings to that which is worshipped. Since the Awakening
Mind is of incalculable worth, the aspiring Bodhisattva offers
everything of value in the universe. A natural extension o f this
positive response to the Awakening Mind is that one should go
to it for refuge (2.26), i.e. commit oneself to its realization.
However, the active appreciation and valuation o f the Awaken­
ing Mind resulting in this act o f commitment has a reflexive
effect upon the individual, namely the perception o f one’s own
shortcomings. This results in the confession o f one’s evil, as
accumulated in this and previous lives. In part relieved and
lightened by this confession, and partly able now to appreciate
the good which is achieved by others, one naturally rejoices in
their merits. Freed from remorse, and appreciative o f others,
one can turn one’s attention to the teachings o f the Buddha
which enable one to acquire the Awakening Mind, and so one
requests to receive the teaching, indicating one’s openness to
receive instruction in the Bodhisattva path. At the same time
one realizes that the teaching is derived from the Buddhas, and
so one begs that they should help oneself and others. Knowing
 Con fession o f Faults i3
that these actions are themselves productive of much merit, and
also aware that this can form a subtle basis for greed and acquisi­
tiveness, one then gives away, in the fullest Bodhisattva spirit,
even this merit, dedicating it to the benefit o f all beings. Finally,
one strengthens one’s resolve so as to encourage the arising of
the Awakening Mind.
It is of interest to note that the description of the worship
in Chapter 2 (vv. 1-25) corresponds closely to that recorded
by the Chinese pilgrim monk, I-tsing, when he visited Nälandä
in the late seventh century, furnishing us with further evidence
for the extent to which life at Nälandä is reflected in the Bodhi-
caryävatära, and for the nature of Mahäyäna ritual at this period.
 C o n fe s s io n o f F a u lts

1 That I may fully grasp that jewel, the Mind, I worship here
the Tathägatas, and the flawless jewel, the true Dharnva, and
the sons of the Buddhas, who are oceans o f virtue.
2 As many blossoms and fruits and medicinal herbs as there
are, as many jewels as there are in the world, and clear
refreshing waters;
3 Along with jewel-formed mountains and other places de­
lightful in solitude, the forest groves, creepers brilliant with
beautiful flowers their ornaments, and trees, boughs bowed
low under the weight of full fruit;
4 And, from the worlds of gods and celestials, scent and in­
cense, magical trees that fulfil every wish and trees laden
with gems, lakes adorned with lotuses, where the calls o f the
geese steal the heart beyond bounds;
5 Plants which grow wild and those which are sown, and what­
ever else might adorn the honourable, and all those things
unowned within the boundaries of the breadth o f space;
6 See, in my mind I take hold of all these, and present them to
the Bulls amongst Sages, and their sons. With great com­
passion, tender toward me, may those most worthy o f gifts
accept these from me.
7 I have no merit, I am completely destitute. I have nothing
else to offer in worship. So, through their power, may the
Lords resolved on the well-being of others accept this for
my well-being.
8 I give my entire self wholly to the Conquerors and to their
sons. Take possession of me, sublime beings; out o f devo­
tion, I am your slave.
g You take possession of me. I become fearless. I act for the
benefit of beings. I leave behind previous wrongdoing com­
pletely; never again shall I do another wrong.
 Confession o f Faults 15

10 In those sweet-smelling bath-houses, where canopies gleam

with pearls, over delightful pillars, brilliant with gems, rising
up from mosaic floors of clear, brilliant crystal,
11 From many pots, encrusted with enormous gems, filled with
exquisitely fragrant water and flowers, see, I bathe the
Tathägatas and their sons, to the accompaniment of songs
and music.
12 I wipe down their bodies with cloths beyond compare,
scented, cleansed of impurities; then I present them with the
finest robes, richly dyed and fragrant.
13 With each and every celestial garment, soft, smooth, of many-
coloured splendour, and with choice ornaments, I adorn
Samantabhadra, Ajita, Manjughosa, Lokesvara, and other
Bodhisattvas.
14 With the costliest perfumes, their fragrance pervading the
entire universe of three thousand worlds, I anoint the bodies
of all the Lords of Sages brilliant with the lustre o f gold
well-heated, polished, and cleansed.
15 I glorify the most glorious Lords of Sages with all sweetly
scented blossoms, delightful to the mind: celestial flowers,
jasmine, blue lotus, and others; and with garlands, alluringly
arranged.
16 I envelop them in heady clouds o f incense, rich, pervading,
and aromatic. I make them an offering o f foods, soft and
hard, and many kinds of drink.
17 I offer bejewelled lamps, arrayed in rows on golden lotuses,
and on the mosaic floors sprinkled with perfume, I strew
lovely drifts of flowers.
18 T o those formed of goodwill I also offer those shining clouds
that are celestial palaces, ornamented at the entrances in the
four directions, splendid with pendulous ropes o f pearls and
precious stones, entrancing with songs and poems o f praise.
Ig Now, for the Great Sages, I set up splendid, bejewelled
umbrellas, encrusted with pearls, fully raised on beautifully
formed shafts of gold.
16 Confession o f Faults

20 Hereafter, may heady clouds o f worship arise, and clouds of

instrumental music, thrilling every being.
21 May flowers and jewels and other offerings rain down inces­
santly upon the caityasy images, and all the jewels which
make up the true Dharma.
22 Just as Manjughosa and others following him have wor­
shipped the Conquerors, so I, too, worship the Tathägatas,
who are Protectors, and their sons.
23 I praise the Oceans of Virtue with hymns that are a sea of
notes and harmonies. Let clouds o f chanted praise arise no
differently among them.
24 With as many prostrations as there are atoms in all the
Buddha-fields, I throw myself down before the Buddhas of
all three times, before the Dharma, and before the highest
assembly.

25 I worship all caityas and places associated with the Bodhi-

sattva. I bow down to my teachers, and to spiritual aspirants
who are worthy of praise.
26 As far as the seat of the Awakening, I go to the Buddha for
refuge; I go for refuge to the Dharma, and to the assembly
o f Bodhisattvas.

27 T o the perfect Buddhas arrayed in all directions, and also to

the Bodhisattvas of great compassion, holding m y hands
together in reverence, I declare:

28 Throughout the beginningless cycle of existence, and again

in this very birth, the evil I, a brute, have done or caused,
29 Or anything I, deluded, have rejoiced in to my own detri­
ment, I confess that transgression, tormented by remorse.
30 The harm I have done, in arrogance, to the Three Jew els, or
to my mothers or fathers, or to others worthy o f respect,
with body, speech, and mind;

31 T he cruel evil I have wickedly done, corrupted by many

faults; O Leaders, I confess it all.
 Confession o f Faults 17
32 How can I escape it? I am continually in a state o f alarm, O
Leaders. Let death not come too soon to me, before my mass
of evil is destroyed!
33 How can I escape it? Rescue me quickly, lest death come
swiftly, before my evil is destroyed!
34 This death pays no heed to what is done or undone; a killer
o f security; not to be trusted by those sick or well; a shatter­
ing thunderbolt from nowhere.
35 I did evil in many ways on account o f friends and enemies.
This I did not understand: I must abandon all and go.
36 Those I loathe will die; those I love will die; I too will die;
and all will die.
37 Everything experienced fades to memory. Everything is like
an image in a dream. It is gone and is not seen again.
38 Even in this life, as I have stood by, many loved and loathed
have gone. But the evil occasioned by them remains, ghastly,
before me.
39 Just like them I am a fleeting wraith. This I failed to recog­
nize. In delusion, yearning, and aversion, I did evil many
times.
40 Night and day, without respite, more o f life is lost. It never
gets longer. Surely, will I not die?
41 Though here laid on my bed, though in the midst o f family,
it is alone that I must endure the agony of the throes of
death.
42 For one seized bv the messengers of Death, what good is a
relative, what good a friend? At that time, merit alone is a
defence and I have not acquired it.
43 By clinging to this transient life, not recognizing this danger,
heedless, O Lords, I have acquired great evil.
44 Even someone, taken away today to have a limb cut o ff
withers, throat parched, gaze wretched. He sees the world in
a completely different way.
 Confession o f Faults

45 B u t th a t is n o t h in g to th e fe v e r is h h o rr o r w h ic h g rip s m e,
c o v e r e d in m y o w n u n c o n t r o lle d e x c r e m e n t , a s D e a t h ’ s te r­

rify in g m e sse n g e rs sta n d o v e r m e.

46 With cowering glances I search the fo.ur directions for deliv­

erance. What saint will deliver me from this great fearr'
47 Seeing the directions devoid of deliverance, I fall into total
confusion once again. What will I do then in that state of
great fear?
48 R ig h t n o w 1 g o fo r r e fu g e to th e m ig h t y P r o t e c t o r s o f th e
w o r ld , w h o h a v e u n d e rt a k e n th e c a r e o f t h e w o r ld , t h e C o n ­
q u e r o r s w h o r e m o v e a ll fe a r .

49 I also go whole-heartedly for refuge to the Dharma they

have realized, which destroys the danger o f cyclic existence,
and to the assembly of Bodhisattvas.
50 Trembling with fear I give myself to Samantabhadra, and
again freely I give myself to Manjughosa.
51 Terrified I cry out in anguish to the Protector Avalokita
whose conduct overflows with compassion. I have done evil.
May he protect me.

52 Seeking deliverance with all my heart I cry out to noble

Äkäsagarbha, too, and Ksitigarbha, and all those of great
compassion.

53 I bow down to the Holder of the Vajra. As soon as they see

him the ministers of Death and all malign creatures flee,
quaking, in the four directions.
54 I have transgressed your command. Now, at seeing the dan­
ger, terrified, l’’ go to you for refuge. Destroy the danger,
quickly!
55 Even one afraid of passing illness would not ignore the doc­
tor’s advice; how much more so one in the grip of the four
• hundred and four diseases,
56 O f w h ic h ju s t o n e c a n w ip e o u t a ll t h e p e o p l e in J a m b u d v l p a ;
f o r w h i c h n o r e m e d y is f o u n d in a n y r e g i o n .
 Con fession o f Faults ig
57 Yet on this I ignore the advice of the omniscient doctor who
removes all barbs. Oh, there is no end to my stupidity!
58 I stand with exceeding care even on an ordinary cliff. How
much more so above a precipice of a thousand leagues through
great expanses of time?
59 Death may not come this very day, but my complacency is
ill-founded. Inevitably the time approaches when I shall die.
60 Who has granted me impunity? How shall I escape? It is
certain I shall die. How can my mind be at ease?
61 What essence has remained mine from things I once en­
joyed, now perished, for which my infatuation led me to
ignore the advice of my teachers?
62 Leaving behind this world of the living, along with relatives
and intimates, wherever I go I shall go alone. What to me are
all those I love or loathe?
63 Rather, at all times night and day, my sole concern should be
this: suffering is the inevitable result of wrong. How can I
escape it?
64 Whatever evil I, a deluded fool, have amassed, what is wrong
by nature and what is wrong by convention,
65 See, I confess all that as I stand before the Protectors, my
palms together in reverence, terrified o f suffering, prostrat­
ing myself again and again.
66 Let the Leaders accept my transgression for what it is. It is
not good, O Protectors. I must not do it again.
 3
a d o p t in g the a w a k e n in g m in d

1 I rejoice with delight at the good done by all beings, which

abates the suffering of,hell. May those who are suffering
abide in happiness.
2 I rejoice at the deliverance of embodied beings from the
suffering of cyclic existence. I rejoice at the Bodhisattva- and
Buddha-nature of the Saviours.
3 I also rejoice at the resolutions of the Teachers, which are
oceans bearing happiness to every being, bestowing well­
being on all creatures.

4 Holding my hands together in reverence, I beseech the per­

fect Buddhas in every direction, ‘Set up the light o f the
Dharma for those hilling into suffering in the darkness of
delusion’ .
5 Holding my hands together in reverence, I implore the Con­
querors who wish to leave cyclic existence, ‘Remain for end­
less aeons. Do not let this world become blind!’
6 With the good acquired by doing all this as described, may
I allay all the suffering of every living being.
7 I am medicine for the sick. May I be both the doctor and
their nurse, until the sickness does not recur.
8 May I avert the pain of hunger and thirst with showers of
food and drink. May I become both drink and food in the
intermediate aeons of famine.

q May I be an inexhaustible treasure for impoverished beings.

Mav I wait upon them with various forms o f offering.
io See, I give up without regret my bodies, my pleasures, and
mv good acquired in all three times, to accomplish good for
every being.
 Adopting the Awakening M in d 21
11 Abandonment of all is Enlightenment and Enlightenment is
my heart’s goal. If I must give up everything, better it be
given to sentient beings.
12 I make over this body to all embodied beings to do with as
they please. Let them continually beat it, insult it, and splat­
ter it with filth.
13 Let them play with my body; let them be derisive and amuse
themselves. I have given this body to them. What point has
this concern of mine?
14 Let them have me do whatever brings them pleasure. Let
there never be harm to anyone on account of me.
1 5 Should their mind become angry or displeased on account of
me, may even that be the cause of their always achieving
every goal.
16 Those who will falsely accuse me, and others who will do me
harm, and others still who will degrade me, may they all
share in Awakening.
17 I am the protector of the unprotected and the caravan-leader
for travellers. I have become the boat, the causeway, and the
bridge for those who long to reach the further shore.
18 May I be a light for those in need o f light. May I be a bed
for those in need of rest. May I be a servant for those in need
of service, for all embodied beings.
19 For embodied beings may I be the wish-fulfilling jewel, the
pot of plenty, the spell that always works, the potent healing
herb, the magical tree that grants every wish, and the milch-
cow that supplies all wants.
20 Just as earth and the other elements are profitable in many
ways to the immeasurable beings dwelling throughout space,
21 So may I be sustenance of many kinds for the realm of
beings throughout space, until all have attained release.
22 In the same way as bygone Sugatas took up the Awakening
Mind, in the same way as they progressed in the Bodhisattva
training,
 22 Adopting the Awakening Mind
23 So too, I myself shall generate the Awakening Mind for the
welfare of the world; and just so shall I train in those pre­
cepts in due order.
24 The wise one, who has taken up the Awakening Mind with
a serene confidence in this way, should continue to encour­
age his resolve as follows, in order to fulfil his wish:
25 ‘Today my birth is fruitful. My human life is justified. T o­
day I am born into the family of the Buddha. Now I am the
Buddha’s son.
26 ‘So that there may be no blemish upon this spotless family,
I must now act as becomes my family.
27 ‘As a blind man might find a jewel in heaps o f rubbish, so
too this Awakening Mind has somehow appeared in me.
28 ‘This is the elixir of life, born to end death in the world.
This is the inexhaustible treasure, alleviating poverty in the
world.
29 ‘This is the supreme medicine, curing the sickness of the
world, a tree of shelter for weary creatures staggering along
the road of existence.
30 ‘The causeway to cross over bad rebirths, open to all who
travel. It is the rising moon of the mind, mitigating the
defilements of the world.
31 ‘It is the brilliant sun, dispelling the mist of ignorance from
the world. It is the fresh butter risen up from churning the
milk of the true Dharma.
32 ‘For the caravan of humanity travelling the road o f exist­
ence, hungry for the enjoyment of happiness, this is a feast
o f happiness offered as refreshment to all beings who
approach.
33 ‘Today I summon the world to Buddhahood and to worldly
happiness meanwhile. In the presence of all the Saviours,
may gods, titans, and all rejoice.’
 4
V IG ILA N C E R E G A R D IN G
T H E A W A K E N IN G M IN D

‘S t r i v e with vigilance’ were the Buddha’s dying words to his

disciples, encouraging them to keep going on the spiritual path,
reminding them that vigilance is fundamental to progress. ‘Vigil­
ance’ , apramada, is the opposite of ‘negligence’ , ‘intoxication’,
or ‘ lack o f awareness’ , pramäda. In the previous chapter the
aspiring Bodhisattva passionately pledges to become everything
needful for all beings and proclaims, ‘Today I summon the
world to Buddhahood and to worldly happiness meanwhile.’
After making such a promise he must not neglect those whose
happiness and salvation depend on him.
This chapter, then, takes on a more realistic tone: ‘At that
time I was intoxicated, speaking without realizing my own limi­
tations’ (v. 42); ‘I have promised to liberate the universe from
the defilements, to the limit of space in the ten directions, but
even my own self is not freed from the defilements!’ (v. 41). He
realizes that, unless he goes on to perfect the Bodhisattva train­
ing and persists in his efforts, he will not reach the first stage,
binimi, for a long time (v. 11). Yet it is at that stage that he will
have sufficient merit to make vows to transform and liberate the
universe (see Introduction to Chapter 10).
Having made the promise to liberate all, he cannot turn back.
Though it is appropriate to reconsider rash promises, this under­
taking is approved by the Buddhas, who know best. Besides, he
would be destined for hell, for having failed so many people,
and because hell is inevitable anyway if one does not make the
best of this fleeting chance to do good. Once in hell there is little
hope of having the mental clarity to do good, so dreadful are
conditions there. I f this rare opportunity is neglected, it may
well be lost for ever.
It is characteristic of Indian religious works designed to in­
spire the aspiring that they use an array of persuasions. Here the
greatest persuasion is the threat o f the impending miseries o f
24 Vigilance regarding the A wakening M in d

hellish rebirths, a theme which continues throughout the chap­

ter. One is reminded of the enormity o f one’s responsibilities
not only was the greatest promise possible made, but it was
made to an infinitely vast number of living beings. One is shamed:
by the embarrassment of breaking an oath taken publicly; by
one’ s repeated inability to benefit from the help offered by the
infinite Buddhas who have gone before; by the knowledge that
even the lowest castes endure more difficulties just for their own
livelihood than one is prepared to undergo for the most impor­
tant goal of all. There are repeated reminders o f the rarity of this
opportunity: one must act now. It is no good making sporadic
efforts, for one’s progress will be exceedingly slow. T h e reason
one is so far from one’s goal is that one is defiled by the moral
vices, greed, hatred, and delusion. The destructiveness o f these
defilements is emphasized: they lead to the Avici hell whose fire
destroys even the mighty Mount Meru on touch.
A more positive mood is engendered in the second part of the
chapter. Despair is pointless (v. 24), especially when the ‘en­
emies’ who bring one to such straits are, ironically, the vices in
one’s own mind (v. 29) and will be completely destroyed, never
to return, if one can just dislodge them from there the once (vv.
45~7)- One must show them no mercy, since they are only more
dangerous if indulged (v. 33). Besides, they are mere illusion,
‘weaklings to be subdued by wisdom’s glare’ (v. 46). So, one
overcomes the nightmarish horror of being unable to escape
approaching hell (v. 27), by stirring up the spirit o f an impetu­
ous warrior (vv. 36 -7, 42—4). Ultimately, one must realize one
has no option: following the Buddha’s prescription is the one
way to be cured of cyclic existence (v. 48).
The aspiring Bodhisattva persuades himself that he must and
can fulfil the vows undertaken in the preceding chapter, and this
will lead him to begin, in Chapter 5, his training in the six
perfections necessary for Buddhahood.
Saito indicates that there are no major differences between
the two recensions of this chapter, and that they both consist of
48 verses. The title of this chapter is given as nairâtmya, ‘ Selfless­
ness’, in the Tun-huang manuscript in the India Office Library,
London.
 Vigilance regarding the Awakening Mind
1 The son of the Conqueror who has adopted the Awakening
Mind with great resolve in this way should, ever tireless,
strive hard not to transgress the training.
2 It is proper to reconsider whether or not one should carry
out any rash undertaking, or anything not thoroughly thought
through, even if one has already promised to do it.
3 But why hang back from what has been thought through by
the Buddhas and their sons, who are great in wisdom, and
by me, too, as far as I am able?
4 Moreover, after making a promise o f this kind, if I were not
to fulfil it in practice and broke my word to all these beings,
what would be my future birth?
5 It is taught that a man who has only thought about giving in
his mind, but does not actually do so, becomes a hungry
ghost, even if the gift were only small.
6 How much worse will it be for me, having proclaimed aloud
the unsurpassed happiness with great enthusiasm? After
breaking my word to the entire world, what would be my
future birth?
7 Only the Omniscient One knows the inconceivable course o f
action which can still liberate people even when they have
abandoned the Awakening Mind.
8 Therefore every error o f this kind is all the more serious for
. a Bodhisattva, since when he errs he deprives every being of
benefit;
9 And anyone else who hinders his meritorious actions, even
momentarily, will undergo unlimited bad rebirths, because
he destroys the benefit for living beings.
io He would certainly be destroyed, destroying the welfare of
just one being; how much more so of the embodied beings
dwelling throughout the expanse of space?
26 Vigilance regarding the A wakening M in d

11 Swinging back and forth like this in cyclic existence, now

under the sway of errors, now under the sway o f the Awak­
ening Mind, it takes a long time to gain ground.
12 Therefore I must diligently fulfil what I have promised. If I
make no effort today I shall sink to lower and lower levels.

13 Innumerable Buddhas have gone seeking out all sentient

beings. Through my own fault I was beyond the reach of
their healing care.
14 If even today I continue in such a way that I shall repeatedly
attain bad rebirths, disease, and death, have limbs cut ofi,
and be cleaved apart,

15 When shall I find such rare circumstances again: the arising

of a Tathägata, faith, the human state itself, the capacity to
practise skilful deeds,

16 Health, and this day, with food and freedom from disaster:'
In a moment life breaks its word. The body is like an object
on loan.

17 The human state is never achieved again by such acts as

mine. When the human state is lost there is only evil. How
could there be good?

18 If I do not behave skilfully even when I am capable o f skilful

deeds, what then will I do when stupefied by the sufferings
of the lower realms?

I9 For one who does not act skilfully and heaps up evil too,
even the idea o f a good rebirth is lost for hundreds o f billions
o f aeons.

20 That is why the Fortunate One declared that the human

state is so hard to attain: as likely as a turtle poking its neck
through the hole o f a yoke floating on the mighty ocean.

21 Through an act o f evil committed in a single instant, an aeon

is endured in the Avici hell. In the light o f evil heaped up
through time without beginning, what talk can there be o f a
good rebirth?
 Vigilance regarding the Awakening M in d 27
22 Yet having experienced that, one is still not released, since,
while experiencing it, one begets more evil still.
23 There is no greater waste of time than this, nor is there
greater folly: that after attaining such a fleeting opportunity
I do not practise skilful deeds.
24 And if I am sensible of this but, confused, sink down in
despair, for a long time I shall lament still more, when sum­
moned by Yama’s messengers.
25 Long the intolerable roasting of my body in hell-fire. Long
the burning of the untrained mind in the flame o f self-
reproach.
26 Though I have somehow come to a nigh unattainable place
of advantage, and though I understand this, still I am led
back to those selfsame hells once more.
27 I have no will in this matter, as if bewildered by spells. I do
not understand. By what am I perplexed? Who dwells here
within me?
28 Enemies such as greed and hate lack hands and feet and
other limbs. They are not brave, nor are they wise. How is
it they enslave me?
29 Lodged within my own mind, it is me that they strike down,
themselves unshaken. Yet I do not boil with rage at this. Oh,
such ill-placed forbearance!
30 If every god and human being were my enemy, even they
could not deliver me to the fire of the Avici hell.
31 Once that has taken hold, not even ash is left, even from
Mount Meni. In an instant my mighty enemies, the defile­
ments, cast me there.
32 For the long life of all other foes together is not of such
length as that of my enemies, the defilements, which is inter­
minably long, without beginning or end.
33 Everyone becomes well-disposed when they are treated with
kindness, but when these defilements are honoured they
cause suffering all the more.
28 Vigilance regarding the Awakening M in d
34 With all this in mind, while such long-standing enemies, the
sole cause of the flowing flood of misfortunes, dwell fear­
lessly within my heart, how can I take pleasure in cyclic
existence?
35 I f these gaolers of the prison of existence, who are also the
executioners of the condemned in hells and like places, re­
main in the house of my mind, the cage o f greed, how can I
be happy?
36 For this reason I shall not cast off the burden here, until
these enemies are struck down before my eyes. Once their
anger has been aroused, people who are inflated with pride
do not sleep until their enemy has been slain, even it he
caused only a slight offence.
37 In the vanguard of the battle, violently passionate to kill
bringers of darkness destined by nature to suffer death, not
counting the pain from blows of arrows and spears, they do
not turn away until they have achieved this end.
38 What then when I am striving to kill my natural enemies,
who are eternal causes of every pain? Today, even if I suffer
a hundred afflictions, what reason do I have to feel the
misery of despair?

39 Without cause they display the wounds from the enemy on

their limbs, as if they were decorations. Why then, when I
am striving to fulfil the Great Cause, do I let my sufferings
oppress me?
40 Their minds set only on their own livelihood, fishermen,
Candidas, ploughmen, and the like withstand such distress as
extreme heat and cold. Why have I no endurance though it
is for the advantage and well-being of the universe?
41 I have promised to liberate the universe from the defile­
ments, to the limit o f space in the ten directions, but even
my own self is not freed from the defilements!
42 At that time I was intoxicated, speaking without realizing
my own limitations. After that I can never turn back from
destroying the defilements.
 Vigilance regarding the Awakening M in d 29
43 I shall be tenacious in this, and wage war sworn to enmity,
except against the kind of defilement that comes from mur­
dering the defilements.
44 I do not care if my guts ooze out! Let my head fall off! But
never shall I bow down before the enemy, the defilements!
45 Even if banished, an enemy may acquire retinue and support
in another country, and return from there with gathered
strength. But there is no such resort for this enemy, the
defilements.
46 Based in my mind, where might it go once cast out? Where
might it stay and work towards my destruction? I make no
effort simply because my mind is dull. The defilements are
weaklings to be subdued by wisdom’s glare.
47 The defilements do not dwell in objects, nor in the collection
of the senses, nor in the space in between. There is nowhere
else for them to dwell, and yet they churn up the entire
universe. This is but illusion! So, heart, free yourself from
fear, devote yourself to striving for wisdom. Why, quite
needlessly, do you torment yourself in hells?
48 Making a firm resolve in this way, I shall strive to follow the
training as it has been taught. How can someone who could
be cured by medicine get well if he does not follow the
doctor’s advice?
 5
the gu ard in g of aw areness

I n this chapter Säntideva begins his exposition o f the Bodhi-

sattva’s perfections or päramitäs, the means whereby the Bodhi-
sattva attains his goal of Awakening for the sake o f all beings.
T he perfections are six in number: generosity, morality, for­
bearance, vigour, meditative absorption, and understanding or
wisdom, and since their relationship is seen as a progressive one,
they are invariably expounded in this order. Since Chapter 6 is
Säntideva’s exposition o f forbearance, we can look to the fifth
chapter for his account of generosity and morality. What we
find, however, is a fairly summary definition o f these two virtues:
T h e p e r f e c t i o n o f g e n e r o s it y is s a id t o r e s u l t f r o m t h e m e n t a l a t t i t u d e
o f r e l i n q u i s h i n g a ll th a t o n e h a s to a ll p e o p l e , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e f r u i t o f
t h a t a c t. T h e r e f o r e t h e p e r f e c t i o n is t h e m e n t a l a t t i t u d e i t s e l f .

W h e r e c a n fis h a n d o t h e r c r e a t u r e s b e t a k e n w h e r e 1 m i g h t n o t k ill
th em ? Yet w hen t h e m e n t a l a t t it u d e to c e a s e f r o m w o rld ly a c t s is
a c h i e v e d , t h a t is a g r e e d to b e t h e p e r f e c t i o n o f m o r a l i t y , ( v v . io - i i)

These are followed by a lengthy account of the qualities of

mindfulness and awareness.
Säntideva maintains that the perfection of generosity is a
mental state, rather than necessarily giving anything or every­
thing away. He dwells upon generosity in three places: Chapter
2, the offerings; and Chapters 3 and 10, the dedication o f all his
merit. All three instances have some connection with the Su­
preme Worship (see Introductions to these chapters). Since he
deals with this virtue in such detail there, perhaps he felt it
unnecessary to elaborate further here, and therefore offered only
a definition. It would be wrong to assume, therefore, because ol
his summary treatment in this chapter, that he has neglected
this virtue. In a similar manner, the perfection o f morality is
defined as the mental attitude of withdrawing from all worldly
actions. Both definitions underline the central importance o f the
mind, and so Säntideva concentrates thereafter on exhortation
 Guarding o f Awareness 31
and advice on protecting one’s mind. This is confirmed by
the parallel chapter in the Siksi1 Samuccaya, which is entitled
‘Protection of the Person’ . The core of this protection is the
practice of mindfulness and awareness.

L e t m y p o s s e s s io n s f r e e ly p e r is h , m y h o n o u r , m y b o d y a n d li f e , a n d le t
o t h e r g o o d t h in g s p e r is h , b u t n e v e r th e m in d .

I m a k e t h is s a lu t a t io n w it h m y h a n d s to t h o s e w h o w is h to g u a r d t h e i r
m in d . W it h a ll y o u r e f f o r t , g u a r d b o t h m in d f u ln e s s a n d a w a r e n e s s .

J u s t a s a m a n w e a k w it h il ln e s s is n o t fit f o r a n y w o r k , s o a m in d
d i s t r a c t e d f r o m t h e s e t w o is n o t fit f o r a n y w o r k . ( v v . 2 2 - 4 )

Mindfulness, smrti, and awareness, sawprajanya, are two im­

portant technical terms found in all phases of Buddhist teaching
on meditation. Both are linked to ‘calming’, samatiui, and ‘in­
sight’, vipasyanä, meditation practice (on which see Introduc­
tion to Chapter 8 below). It is possible that the terms sniffi and
samprajanya were synonymous in the earliest tradition, but to
some extent they have been defined apart by later tradition,
doubtless as the need for a more subtle and precise vocabulary
for meditation practice became necessary. Starti is cognate with
the verbal root sm>\ to remember, and involves an awareness of
the body, one’s feelings, one’s mental states, and of dltarmas, the
fundamental elements of existence (on which see 5.17 note, and
Introduction to Chapter 9), with greater stress upon the faculty
of memory, and upon continuity and a sense of the individual’s
purpose (see Siksä Samuccaya, Bendali and Rouse, 117-20).
Samprajanya, cognate with the verbal root samprajnä, to know
accurately or clearly, covers a similar domain, but with an em­
phasis more on the immediate awareness and assessment of the
position, activity, and so on of the body, the mind, and one’s
situation (see Bendali and Rouse, 120). Both terms feature fre­
quently in canonical scriptures, the locus classicus being the
Satipattjmna Sutta ‘Discourse on the Foundations of Mindfulness’
(Rhys Davids 1910, ii. 327 ff., and Horner 1954, i. 70 ff.; both
versions o f this sutta are also translated with commentary by
Nyanaponika Thera, 1975).
As we have already noted above, this chapter is the first to
show substantial differences between the canonical and Tun-huang
32 Guarding o f Awareness

recensions. It is also one of two which have received detailed

comparative attention, and the results o f this were published
by Chikö Ishida in 1988. He was able to establish that the canon­
ical recension contains some fifteen verses not present in the
Tun-huang recension: 40, 81, 85, 88-98, and 105. We can see
that each of these insertions, with the possible exception of the
last, interrupts the flow of the argument of the chapter as a
whole:

Verse 40 returns, out of context, to the simile o f the mind as an

elephant, introduced in vv. 2-3. A very similar line, employing
some vocabulary in common, occurs in the Siksfi Somuccaya, as
the tenth of twelve mindfulnesses given there (pp. 117 -18 ).
Since the following statement in both texts concerns watching
the state of one’s mind, it may be that the simile in verse 40 was
introduced into the Bodliicaryävatära by association with its
context in the Siksä Samuccaya.

Verse 81, the next insertion in the canonical version, once again
is out of context. We have not been able to identify its source.
Verses 85 and 88-98 incorporate a number of rules taken from
the monastic rule book, the pmtimoksa. The pmtimoksa lists all
the regulations enjoined upon the members o f the monastic
community. As such it is therefore the one piece o f scripture
which every Buddhist monk should know by heart, not least
because it is an integral part of the monastic ritual cycle for the
monks to gather on the full moon day of each month, and to
recite together this rule book. Individuals would then have the
opportunity to confess any lapses upon their part, or indeed, to
have lapses brought to their attention. T his institution, together
with the text of the pmtimoksa, is attributed to the instigation of
the Buddha himself. However, with the passage o f time, and
under the pressures of geographical dispersal and even schism,
there arose a number of distinct pmtimoksa traditions, preserved
and observed by mutually exclusive ordination lineages. The
most easily accessible of these is that of the Thcraväda school
o f South-East Asia, but the texts o f those o f the Sarvästiväda,
M öla-Sarvästiväda, and Mahäsanghika schools have been
discovered in ancient manuscripts. Those o f some other schools,
 Guarding o f Awareness 33

such as the Dharmaguptakas, survive only in translation into

other languages, such as Chinese. Not all prätinwksas have
necessarily survived.
We have not been able to identify every rule mentioned, nor
the particular prätimoksa from which, as a whole, they are drawn.
A number of them are given in the Siksä Samuccaya, drawing
from various scriptures, and it is possible that they were intro­
duced from that source because Säntideva included them in his
exposition o f the general theme o f this chapter in the Siksä
Samuccaya. (Individual instances are mentioned in the notes.)
This reference to the monastic rules, directly or indirectly at­
tributable to Säntideva, seems the least accessible part o f this
chapter to the non-monastic reader; even more so when one
realizes that they are drawn from the section of rules concerned
entirely with etiquette, and hence the farthest removed from any
issues of morality. Yet, although Säntideva uses the terms of the
monastic discipline, he is not merely quoting rules which must
be obeyed mechanically. By emphasizing that this code of disci­
pline is a means of developing mindfulness, in a sense he is
bringing these rules to life, both for the monk, for whom they
may have become banal from familiarity, and for the layman
who has no obligation to observe them. By bringing out their
character as a means to a desired end, the guarding o f the mind,
Säntideva reveals how the monastic life, as defined by such
rules, was solely designed to facilitate the cultivation o f parti­
cular mental states, and in this way implies the primacy of
practice and attainment over and above mere clerical hierarchy
and formalism.
Verse 105, recommending the study of the Siksä Samuccaya,
could well have been supplied by the same hançl which appears
to have incorporated so much of the text of that work into the
Bodh icaryâ va tära.
Although present in the Tun-huang version, verses 55 and 57
are also given in the Siksä Samuccaya, but consecutively and
with a slight variant in the first verse. Verse 74 also appears in
that text, with slight variants.
 T h e G u a r d in g o f A w a r e n e s s

1 One who wishes to guard his training must scrupulously

guard his mind. It is impossible to guard one’s training
without guarding the wandering mind.

2 Rutting elephants roaming wild do not cause as much de­

vastation in this world as the roaming elephant, the mind,
let free, creates in Avici and other hells.
3 But if the roaming elephant, the mind, is tethered on every
side by the cord of mindfulness, every danger subsides,
complete prosperity ensues.

4 So too tigers, lions, elephants, bears, serpents, and all ma­

lign beings, and all the guards of hell, ogresses, demons,

5 All these are bound through the binding o f a single mind,

and through the taming of a single mind, all are tamed,
6 Since all fears and incomparable sufferings arise from the
mind alone. So it was taught by the Teacher o f Reality.

7 Who fashioned the weapons in hell so industriously? Who

the pavement of scalding iron? And who sired those sirens?

8 Every single thing arises from the evil mind, sang the Sage.
So there is nothing dangerous in the three worlds other
than the mind.
9 I f the perfection o f generosity consists in making the uni­
verse free from poverty, how can previous Protectors have
acquired it, when the world is still poor, even today?

10 The perfection o f generosity is said to result from the men­

tal attitude of relinquishing all that one has to all people,
together with the fruit of that act. Therefore the perfection
is the mental attitude itself.

11 Where can fish and other creatures be taken where I might

not kill them? Yet when the mental attitude to cease from
 Guarding o f Awareness 35
worldly acts is achieved, that is agreed to be the perfection
of morality.
12 How many wicked people, as unending as the sky, can I
kill? But when the mental attitude of anger is slain, slain is
every enemy.
13 Where is there hide to cover the whole world? The wide
world can be covered with hide enough for a pair of shoes
alone.
14 In the same way, since I cannot control external events, I
will control my own mind. What concern is it of mine
whether other things are controlled?
15 Even with the help of body and speech, no fruit comes
from a dull mind that bears comparison with that from a
sharp mind on its own, such as reaching the state of the
Brahma gods.
16 The Omniscient One declared that all recitation and aus­
terity, even though performed over a long time, is com­
pletely useless if the mind is on something else or is dull.
17 Those who have not developed this mind, which is hidden
and contains the whole sum o f dharmas, wander the
compass in vain trying to attain happiness and destroy
suffering.
18 Therefore I should manage and guard my mind well. I f I
let go of the vow to guard my mind, what will become of
my many other vows?
19 In the same way that someone in the midst o f a rough
crowd guards a wound with great care, so in the midst of
bad company should one always guard the wound that is
the mind.
20 Fearing slight pain from a wound, I guard the wound with
great care. Why not the wound that is the mind, in fear o f
the blows from the crushing mountains of hell?
21 The resolute aspirant who maintains this attitude, even
when moving in bad company, even amongst young and
wanton women, is not broken.
36 Guarding o f Awareness

22 Let my possessions freely perish, my honour, my body

and life, and let other good things perish, but never the
mind.
23 I make this salutation with my hands to those who wish to
guard their mind. With all your effort, guard both
mindfulness and awareness.

24 Just as a man weak with illness is not fit for any work, so a
mind distracted from these two is not fit for any work.
25 What is heard, reflected upon, or cultivated in meditation,
like water in a leaky jar, does not stay in the memory o f a
mind which lacks awareness.
26 M any, though learned, possessing faith, and though
absorbed in effort, are befouled by offences due to the fault
of lacking awareness.

27 Though they have amassed meritorious deeds, they end up

in an evil realm, plundered by the thief, lack o f awareness,
who comes after the theft of mindfulness.
28 This band of robbers, the defilements, seeks out a point of
access. When it has found one, it plunders and destroys life
in a good realm.

29 Therefore mindfulness should never be taken from the door

to the mind, and, if it does go, it should be reinstated,
remembering the torment of hell.

30 Mindfulness comes easily to those fortunate people who

practise wholeheartedly, through the instruction o f their
preceptor, because they live with their teacher, and out of
fear.

31 The Buddhas and Bodhisattvas have unobstructed vision in

all directions. Every single thing is before them. Before
them I stand.

32 Meditating thus, one should remain possessed o f shame,

respect, and fear. One should recollect the Buddhas in this
way at every moment.
 Guarding o f Awareness 37

33 Awareness comes and, once come, does not go again, if

mindfulness remains at the door to the mind in order to act
as guard.
34 At first then, I should continually generate such a state of
mind as this: I should act at all times as if lacking senses,
like a block of wood.
35 One should never cast the eyes to and fro for no purpose.
The gaze should be bent low as if continually absorbed in
meditation.
36 However, one might occasionally look to the horizon in
order to rest the eyes, and if one notices someone within
one’s field of vision, one should look up to greet them.
37 In order to spot danger on the road and so forth, one may
look to the four quarters for a moment. Standing at ease,
one may look to the distance, looking behind only after
turning right round.
38 One should go ahead or turn back only after looking for­
ward or behind. Likewise, in all situations one should pro­
ceed only after ascertaining what is to be done.
39 Having once initiated an action with the intention o f keep­
ing one’s body in a particular position, thereafter one should
from time to time observe how the body is positioned.
40 In this way the rutting elephant, the mind, should be watched
with all one’s effort, so that, bound to the great post of
reflection on the Dharma, it does not break loose.
41 One should so observe the mind, thinking ‘Where is mine
wandering to?’, as never to abandon the responsibility of
concentration, even for a moment.
42 I f one is not able to do so, in connection with some danger
or elation, then one should act at will. For it is taught that
the code of moral conduct may be overlooked at a time o f
giving.
43 One should think of nothing else other than that which one
has decided to undertake, with heart fully involved there,
until it is completed.
38 Guarding o f Awareness
44 For in this way everything is done well. Otherwise neither
this thing nor the other would be. Moreover, in that case,
the defilement, lack of awareness, would certainly increase
as well.
45 One should quell the eagerness that arises for the various
kinds of idle chat that often take place, and for all objects ot
curiosity.
46 Mindful of the teaching of the Tathägata, fearful, one should
abandon immediately any such actions as breaking up clods
of earth, ripping grass, and drawing lines in the earth with­
out any purpose.
47 When one wishes to move or to speak, first one should
examine one’s own mind, and then act appropriately and
with self-possession.

48 When one notices that one’s own mind is attracted or re­

pelled, one should neither act nor speak, but remain like a
block of wood.
49 When the mind is inflated or derisive, full o f arrogance and
vanity, exceedingly jocose, evasive, or deceiving,
50 When, seeming to advance oneself, it is only deprecating
others, contemptuous and scornful, one should remain like
a block of wood.
51 M y mind seeks acquisitions, reverence, or renown, or again
wants an audience and attention. Therefore I remain like a
block of wood.
52 M y mind longs to hold forth, averse to the good o f others,
seeking my own advantage, longing only for a congregation.
Therefore I remain like a block of wood.
53 It is intolerant, idle, cowardly, impudent, also foul-mouthed,
and biased in my own favour. Therefore I remain like a
block o f wood.
54 Noticing in this way that his mind is defiled or engaged in
a fruitless activity, the hero should always firmly curb it
with the antidote to that condition.
 Guarding o f Awareness 39

55 Determined, full of serene confidence, steady, full of appli­

cation and respect, with humility and timidity, calm, eager
to help others,

56 Unwearied by the mutually conflicting desires of the puer­

ile, full of pity, knowing that they are like this as a result of
the arising of defilement,

57 See, always in blameless matters I shall keep my mind at

the will of myself and other beings, free from delusion, like
a magical display!

58 At every moment continuously mindful that it has taken so

long to gain the best of opportunities, this is how I shall
keep my mind, as unshakeable as Mount Sumeru.

59 Why else does the body offer no resistance when dragged

this way and that by vultures greedy for flesh?

60 Why, mind, do you protect this carcass, identifying with it?

I f it is really separate from you, then what loss is its decay
to you?

61 O Fool! You do not identify with a wooden doll even when

it is pure. So why do you guard this festering contraption
made o f filth?

62 First, just in your mind, pull apart this bag of skin. With
the knife o f wisdom loosen the flesh from the cage of bones.

63 Cracking open the bones, too, look at the marrow within.

Work out for yourself what essence is there.

64 Searching hard like this, you have found no essence here.

Now explain why it is that you still continue to guard the
body.

65 You will not eat it, unclean as it is, nor drink the blood, nor
suck out the entrails. What will you do with your body?

66 O f course it is right to protect this wretched body, but as

food for vultures and jackals, or as the implement o f action
for the benefit of humankind.
o G uarding o f Awareness

67 Even as you protect it so, ruthless death will snatch away

vour body and give it to the vultures. Then what will you
do?
68 You do not give clothes and such to a servant if you think
he is not going to stay. The body will eat and then go. Why
do you make the outlay?

69 On that account, having given the body its wages, Mind,

now look to your own needs, for a labourer does not receive
all of the wealth he creates.
70 Apply to the body the notion of a ship, on account of the
way it comes and goes. At your own command, set the
body on course to fulfil the needs of beings.

71 One’s own nature mastered in this way, one should always

have a smiling face. One should give up frowning and grim­
acing, be the first to speak, a friend to the universe.
72 One should not throw down stools and other furniture
violently with a crash, nor should one pound on doors. One
should always delight in silence.
73 The crane, the cat, or the thief achieves his intended goal
by moving quietly and gently. The aspirant should move in
such a way at all times.

74 One should accept respectfully the advice o f those who arc

able to direct others, who offer unsolicited aid. One s h o u l d
be the pupil of everyone all the time.
75 One should express one’s appreciation o f all that is well
said. When one sees someone doing something meritorious,
one should encourage them with praises.

76 One should speak of others’ virtues in their absence, and

repeat them with pleasure, and when one’s own praise is
spoken, one should reflect on that person’s recognition of
virtue.
77 Surely everything is undertaken for the sake o f satisfaction,
and yet even with money that is hard to find. Therefore I
 Guarding o f Awareness 41

shall enjoy the pleasure of finding satisfaction in the virtues

acquired by others through their hard work.
78 I lose nothing in this world and gain great bliss in the next,
whereas animosities lead to the misery of enmity and in the
next world great suffering.

79 One should speak confident, measured words, clear in mean­

ing, delighting the mind, pleasing to the ear, soft and slow,
and stemming from compassion.
80 One should always look at people directly, as if drinking
them in with the eye: depending upon them alone, Bud-
dhahood will be mine.

81 Great good arises from continuous devotion towards the

fertile fields that are the Virtuous and our benefactors, and
from the application of an antidote in the case of one who
suffers.
82 One should be able and energetic, at all times acting upon
one’s own initiative. In all actions one should not leave any
work to another.
83 Each of the perfections, beginning with generosity, is more
excellent than its predecessor. One should not neglect a
higher one for the sake of a lower, unless because of a fixed
rule o f conduct.

84 Realizing this, one should always be striving for others’

well-being. Even what is proscribed is permitted for a com­
passionate person who sees it will be o f benefit.
85 One should consume in moderation and share with those in
difficulty, the helpless, and those observing the vows, and,
apart from one’s three robes, give away everything.

86 The body serves the True Dharma. One should not harm
it for some inferior reason. For it is the only way that one
can quickly fulfil the hopes of living beings.

87 Therefore one should not relinquish one’s life for someone

whose disposition to compassion is not as pure. But for
42 Guarding o f A wareness

someone whose disposition is comparable, one should re­

linquish it. That way, there is no overall loss.
88-9 One should not speak about the Dharm a, which is pro­
found and magnificent, to someone who is disrespectful,
who, when healthy, wears a turban on his head, or who
holds an umbrella, stick or knife, or whose head is veiled;
nor to those who are inadequate, or to women without a
man present. T o the lesser and higher teachings one should
show equal respect.
90 O ne sh o u ld not re s tric t so m e o n e w ho is w o rth y o f th e
h ig h e r t e a c h in g to t h e le s s e r t e a c h in g , n o r , d i s r e g a r d i n g th e
m a tte r o f g o o d c o n d u c t , b e g u ile th e m w it h th e S c r ip t u r e s
a n d s p e lls .

91 It is not desirable to spit out tooth-cleaning sticks and

phlegm in public, and it is also forbidden to urinate and so
forth on land or into water that is usable.
92 One should not eat with a mouth overfull, noisily, nor w ith
mouth wide open. One should not sit with a leg hanging
dow'n, likewise one should not rub both arms at the same
time.

93 One should not travel with another’s wife if unaccom­

panied, nor lie down with her, nor sit with her. One should
notice and ask about what displeases people and avoid it all.

94 One should not indicate with a finger something that is to

be done, but respectfully with the whole of the right hand.
One should also point out the road in this wav.
95 One should not throw up one’s arms and shout at anyone
when worked up over some trifle, but instead snap the
fingers or the like. Otherwise one would be showing lack of
restraint.

96 One should lie down to rest in the preferred direction, in

the position in which the Protector passed away. Full of
awareness, one should get up promptly, before one is told
to do so without fail.
 Guarding o f Awareness 43
97 The conduct of the Bodhisattvas has been described as
immeasurable. In the first place it is essential to engage in
conduct that purifies the mind.

98 Three times, day and night, one should recite the Triskandha,
so that, through recourse to the Conquerors and the
Bodhisattvas, one’s remaining transgressions cease.

99 One should apply oneself industriously to the trainings

appropriate to the various situations in which one finds
oneself, whether there at will, or subject to another.

100 For there is nothing from which the sons of the Conqueror
cannot learn. There is nothing which is not an act of merit
for the good person who conducts himself in this way.

io I One should do nothing other than what is either directly or

indirectly of benefit to living beings, and for the benefit
of living beings alone one should dedicate everything to
Awakening.

102 Never, even at the cost of one’s life, should one forsake a
spiritual friend who upholds the Bodhisattva vow and is
skilled in the meaning o f the iMahäyäna.

103 One should also practise towards teachers the correct con­
duct according to the SrTsambhava-vimoksa. Both this and
other things taught by the Buddha should be understood
from the recitation of the Scriptures.

104 The principles of the training are found in the Scriptures.

Therefore one should recite the Scriptures, and one should
study the fundamental transgressions in the Äkasagarbha
Sütra.

105 The Compendium o f the Training, the Siksä Samuccaya,

should definitely be looked at repeatedly, since correct con­
duct is explained there in some detail.

106 Alternatively, one should just look at it briefly, and then

with great care at the companion Compendium o f Scriptures,
the S ütra Samuccaya, compiled by the noble Nägärjuna.
44 Guarding o f Awareness

107 One should look in those works at the training, that from
which one is prohibited and that which is enjoined, and one
should practise it thoroughly in order to guard the mind in
the world.
108 In brief, this alone is the definition o f awareness: the obser­
vation at every moment o f the state o f one’s body and one’s
mind.
109 I shall express this by means of my body, for what use
would there be in the expression o f words? For someone
who is sick what use could there be in the mere expression
of medical knowledge?
 6

T H E P E R F E C T I O N OF
F O R BE A R A N C E

F r o m this point onwards in the Bodhicaryävatära Säntideva

allots a complete chapter to each remaining perfection, and in
the sixth chapter we come to his treatment o f the perfection of
forbearance, ksänti-püramitä.
There is an underlying structure to the chapter, and Säntideva’s
argument follows a number of distinct phases. The core of the
chapter consists o f an exposition of forbearance, hauti, in three
aspects or applications. This is indicated in the S ih ä Samuccaya,
where Säntideva quotes the Dharmasamgjti Sütra to the effect
that forbearance is threefold in character: forbearance towards
the endurance of suffering (vv. 1 1- 2 1 ) ; forbearance as a result
of reflection upon the teaching (vv. 22-32); and forbearance of
the endurance o f injuries from others (vv. 33-75). However,
Säntideva’s account of the threefold character of forbearance is
set within a larger framework: How does one cope with anger?
And why should one avoid it?
Much o f his discussion of forbearance revolves around the
inappropriateness o f anger, for in his view anger and forbear­
ance are to be paired as opposites, as one might an ailment and
its antidote. As he points out in the first verse, all the good of all
the actions so far described can be destroyed by anger. He is
very concerned to make clear the dangers of hatred and the
value o f patience as its antidote. If the terms of his discussion
seem extreme, then perhaps this juxtaposition reflects some
insight into human nature on his part. Be this as it may, the first
stage o f his discussion of forbearance deals with forbearance
towards suffering, particularly with physical endurance. A natural
extension of this practice is the attempt to understand how it is
that one comes to suffer. This leads to the second stage of his
exposition, forbearance as a result of reflecting upon the teach­
ing. This takes the form of a discussion of causality, which
appears in vv. 22-33. is immediately apparent, even to a
46 Perfection o f Forbearance

reader unversed in Classical Indian philosophy, that the writer

is dealing here with technical arguments, which cannot be
understood without some background knowledge. M ore, much
more, of this type of material appears in Chapter 9, which deals
with the perfection of understanding, but something should be
said here so as to clarify the lines of his argument.
Säntideva’s main concern is to explain, in fact prove (albeit
briefly), that all phenomena, including those things which give
pain, arise upon conditions. This is of course the main axiom of
Buddhism, the crucial insight by which Enlightenment might be
defined. Moreover it is used here as the main axiom o f Säntideva’s
discussion of forbearance, for as he seeks to prove in the follow­
ing verse, if the actions of people and objects are determined by
a network of other conditions, how can any individual person or
object be held to blame for the consequence, and, in that light,
how can anger be justified?
His argument in these crucial verses is, in brief, as follows:

22-3 Other beings are motivated as impersonally as are ill­

nesses by conditions outside of themselves.
24 We know from experience that we do not decide to become
angry, but find ourselves becoming so. This is a reflection o f the
fact that this anger is conditioned by factors other than our will.
25 Nothing possesses the power of self-willed generation— i.e.
all things are conditioned by other, external factors.
26 Nor can we say that the totality of conditions possesses
such independent self-willed existence. Therefore, no suffering
that we experience is the result of the volition of a discrete
micro- or macro-cosmic entity.
27-8 Addressing the fundamental existents o f the Sämkhya
school, Säntideva points out that the purusa (ätman, or self) and
pnikrti, the primal substance (or physical universe in the broad­
est sense), which are regarded as ultimates because in them­
selves uncaused, are illogical concepts— something uncaused
obviously does not function within the realm of causality, and
could be responsible neither for our sufferings, nor for the exist­
ence o f the phenomenal world, as maintained by the Sämkhya.
29-30 Turning to the Vaisesika concept of an ultimately real
and permanent self, Säntideva argues that this too is illogical. As
 Perfection o f Forbearance 47

before, something that is permanent does not operate upon the

level of causality. Furthermore, something permanent cannot
bring about changes, because to be permanent surely implies
being unchanging, yet to meet with other factors and interact
with them requires change.
3 1—3 Therefore we can now appreciate that everything is con­
ditioned by other factors, and thereby is not responsible for its
functioning, rather like a magical illusion. Knowing this reality
of conditionality, we are free to give rise to conditions now,
which in the future will allow us to overcome suffering. Fur­
thermore, we are also able to understand and cope with the
provocative behaviour of other people.

These general matters aside, the most ubiquitous object of

frustration and anger for most people most o f the time is other
people, which brings us to the third stage o f Säntideva’s expo­
sition of forbearance. In a Buddhist context, especially in a
Mahäyäna context, the eschewing of anger must surely seem so
fundamental that it hardly needs comment. Yet when we think
about it, righteous indignation and the desire for retaliation
appear as frequently, if not more so, in a religious context as in
any other, and for this reason it is appropriate to note Säntideva’s
express concern to deny a toehold for these emotions, both in
relation to the topical issue of blasphemy (v. 64), for which
Buddhism has no equivalent, and in connection with the per­
ceived inhibition of one’s own capacity to practise one’s religion
(v. 102 ff.).
Undoubtedly the primary reason for the length of Säntideva’s
discourse upon the subject of forbearance is the fact that its
opposite, anger, is that emotion which most clearly undermines
the performance of the Bodhisattva’s vow to save all beings.
More radically than any other built, anger alienates one from the
very beings whom one has undertaken to save. That this was
recognized, and an object of deep concern, in Mahäyäna circles
is evinced by an early but important and influential Mahäyäna
sütra, the Upäli-pariprcchä, in which comparison is made of the
relative danger to one’s fulfilment of the Bodhisattva aspiration
in faults based in greed and faults' based in hatred. Judgement
comes down firmly in favour of greed as the lesser of the two
4$ Perfection o f Forbearance

failings, for at the very least, when motivated by this, one is left
with the possibility o f being drawn to other beings, whereas
hatred consists in their rejection.
I f w h ile p ra c tis in g th e iM a h ä y ä n a a B o d h i s a t t v a c o n t i n u e s to b reak
p r e c e p t s o u t o f d e s ir e f o r k a l p a s a s n u m e r o u s a s t h e s a n d s o f th e
G a n g e s , h i s o f f e n c e is s t i ll m in o r . I f a B o d h i s a t t v a b r e a k s p r e c e p t s o u t
o f h a t r e d , e v e n ju s t o n c e , h i s o f f e n c e is v e r y s e r i o u s . W h y ? B e c a u s e a
B o d h i s a t t v a w h o b r e a k s p r e c e p t s o u t o f d e s i r e [ s t i l l ] h o l d s s e n t ie n t
b e i n g s in h i s e m b r a c e , w h e r e a s a B o d h i s a t t v a w h o b r e a k s p r e c e p t s o u t
o f h a t r e d f o r s a k e s b e i n g s a lt o g e t h e r . . . . i f h e b r e a k s p r e c e p t s o u t o f
h a t r e d , it is a g r a v e o f f e n s e , a g r o s s f a u l t , a s e r i o u s , d e g e n e r a t e a c t ,
w h i c h c a u s e s t r e m e n d o u s h i n d r a n c e s to t h e B u d d h a - D h a r m a . ( Upâli-
pariprcchä Sütra, C h a n g 19 8 3, 270 )

Having dealt with the immediate difficulty of interaction with

others, namely accepting injuries that they cause, Säntideva
broadens his discussion so as to address the need to overcome
envy o f one’s fellows— in this case particularly fellow monks
(vv. 76-98). He even goes so far as to argue that one’s opponents
offer one the opportunity to develop this necessary virtue (vv.
99-108) and that for this reason they should be honoured on a
par with the Buddhas themselves (vv. 109-18). He concludes
this chapter with a lengthy and unacknowledged quotation of
material in support of this view drawn from the Tathägataguhya
Sütra (vv. 119 -3 4 ).
No detailed comparative analysis of this chapter in the two
recensions has been made, although Saito indicates that the
canonical recension has seven more verses than that from Tun-
huang. We do know, however, that the following verses are
shared with the Siksä Samnccaya: 94, 95a, 115 , and 119 -34 - The
following verses have partial correspondences in the same text:
10a, 14a, and 19b (the letters ‘a’ and ‘b’ refer to the first and
second halves o f a verse respectively).
There remain a few observations to be made upon more mis­
cellaneous matters. The first of these concerns the terminology
that Säntideva employs in this chapter. The chapter deals with
what is known as the perfection o f forbearance, ksänti-päramitä,
as it is usually designated. It comes as a surprise, therefore, to
find that Säntideva does not refer to ksänti-päramitä even once,
and further that, out o f the sixteen times he explicitly mentions
 Perfection o f Forbearance 49
the virtue of forbearance, on twelve occasions the word he chooses
to use is ksaniä, rather than ksänti. One wonders whether this
usage reflects what has come to be understood as a certain am­
biguity of denotation with the latter term. It appears that, de­
spite the traditional association of the term ksänti with the verbal
root ksam, ‘ to be patient, to endure, etc.’ from which ksaniä itself
is derived, the term ksänti probably results from an incorrect
‘back-formation’ o f a Prakrit term, khanti, into Sanskrit. This
not uncommon phenomenon meant that the connotations o f the
root ksam were thereby mingled with those o f the true root of
khanti, khani, meaning ‘to be pleased, to be willing to’ , with the
result that one frequently finds ksänti employed in contexts
where connotations of willingness seem more appropriate than
those of forbearance. The term ksaniä, however, remains firmly
unambiguous, and perhaps recommended itself to the author for
this reason. In order to distinguish (perhaps unnecessarily) be­
tween these two terms when they appear in the text, we have
adopted ‘ forbearance’ as a translation of ksänti, and ‘patience’
for ksaniä.
One example of word-play which has just about survived ‘the
great leap’ between languages occurs in v. 44, where Säntideva
exploits the primary sense of the root kup, to swell or heave with
anger, etc., to liken the human body to a swollen boil!
 T h e P e r fe c t io n o f F o r b e a r a n c e

1 T his worship of the Sugatas, generosity, and good conduct

performed throughout thousands of aeons— hatred destroys
it all.
2 There is no evil equal to hatred, and no spiritual practice
equal to forbearance. Therefore one should develop for­
bearance by various means, with great effort.

3 One’s mind finds no peace, neither enjoys pleasure or de­

light, nor goes to sleep, nor feels secure while the dart of
hatred is stuck in the heart.

4 Those whom one honours with wealth and respect, and

also one’s dependents, even they long to destroy the master
who is disfigured by hatred.

5 Even friends shrink from him. He gives, but is not hon­

oured. In short, there is no sense in which someone prone
to anger is well off.

6 The person who realizes that hatred is an enemy, since it

creates such sufferings as these, and who persistently strikes
it down, is happy in this world and the next.

7 Consuming the food o f dejection prepared by doing the

undesirable and thwarting the desirable, biting hatred strikes
me down.
8 Therefore I shall destroy the food o f this deceiver, since
this hatred has no purpose other than my murder.

C) I must not disturb the feeling of sympathetic joy, even at

the arrival o f something extremely unwelcome. T here is
nothing desirable in the state of dejection; on the contrary,
the skilful is neglected.

io I f there is a solution, then what is the point o f dejection?

What is the point o f dejection if there is no solution?
 Perfection of Forbearance 51
11 Suffering, humiliation, harsh words, and disgrace: these we
desire neither for ourselves nor our loved ones; but for our
enemies it is the reverse.
12 Happiness is scarce. Suffering persists with no effort; but
only through suffering is there escape. Therefore, mind, be
strong!

13 In Karnäta the devotees of Durgä willingly endure to no

purpose the pain of burns, cuts, and worse. Why then am
I a coward when my goal is liberation?
14 There is nothing which remains difficult if it is practised.
So, through practice with minor discomforts, even major
discomfort becomes bearable.

15 The irritation of bugs, gnats, and mosquitoes, of hunger

and thirst, and suffering such as an enormous itch: why do
you not see them as insignificant?
16 Cold, heat, rain and wind, journeying and sickness, impris­
onment and beatings: one should not be too squeamish
about them. Otherwise the distress becomes worse.
17 Their own blood for some is valour’s boon;
While others’ for others produces a swoon.

18 This comes from the bravery or cowardice of the mind.

Therefore one should become invincible to suffering, and
overpower discomfort.
19 Not even in suffering should a wise person allow his serene
confidence of mind to be disturbed, for the battle is with
the defilements, and in warfare pain is easily won.

20 Those who conquer the enemy taking the blows of their

adversary on the chest, they are the triumphant heroes,
while the rest kill what is already dead.

21 The virtue of suffering has no rival, since, from the shock

it causes, intoxication falls away and there arises compas­
sion for those in cyclic existence, fear of evil, and a longing
for the Conqueror.
2 Perfection o f Forbearance

22 I feel no anger towards bile and the like, even though they
cause intense suffering. Why am I angry with the sentient?
T hey too have reasons for their anger.
23 As this sharp pain wells up, though unsought for, so, though
unsought for, wrath wells up against one’s will.

24 A person does not get angry at will, having decided shall

get angry’, nor does anger well up after deciding ‘ I shall
well up’ .
25 Whatever transgressions and evil deeds o f various kinds
there are, all arise through the power o f conditioning fac­
tors, while there is nothing that arises independently.

26 Neither does the assemblage of conditioning factors have

the thought, ‘I shall produce’ ; nor does what is produced
have the thought, ‘I am produced’ .

27 The much-sought-for ‘primal matter’, or the imagined ‘Self’,

even that does not come into being after deciding ‘ I shall
become’ .

28 Since what has not arisen does not exist, who would then
form the wish to come into existence? And since it would
be occupied with its sphere of action it cannot attempt to
cease to exist either.

29 If the Se lf is eternal and without thought processes, then it

is evidently inactive, like space. Even in contact with other
conditioning factors, what activity can there be o f some­
thing which is unchanging?

30 What part does something play in an action if, at the time

of the action, it remains exactly as it was prior to it? If the
relationship is that the action is part of it, then which of the
two is the cause o f the other?

31 In this way everything is dependent upon something else.

Even that thing upon which each is dependent is not inde­
pendent. Since, like a magical display, phenomena do not
initiate activity, at what does one get angry like this?
 Perfection o f Forbearance 53

32 I f it is argued that to resist anger is inappropriate, for ‘who

is it that resists what?’, our view is that it is appropriate:
since there is dependent origination there can be cessation
o f suffering.
33 Therefore, even if one sees a friend or an enemy behaving
badly, one can reflect that there are specific conditioning
factors that determine this, and thereby remain happy.
34 Were all embodied beings to have their wish fulfilled, no
one would suffer. No one wishes for suffering.
35 People cause themselves torment, with thorns and other
instruments in a state of intoxication, by refusing food and
the like out of anger, and with things that they wish to
obtain, such as unattainable women.
36 Some people kill themselves, by hanging themselves, by
throwing themselves off cliffs, by taking poison or other
unwholesome substances, and by conduct that is devoid of
merit.
37 When, under the power of the defilements in this way, they
injure even their own dear selves, how could they have a
care for the persons of other people?
38 When, driven insane by their defilements, they resort to
killing themselves, how is it that not only have you no pity
but you become angry?
39 I f it is their very nature to cause others distress, my anger
towards those fools is as inappropriate as it would be to­
wards fire for its nature to burn.
40 In fact, this fault is adventitious. Beings are by nature pleas­
ant. So anger towards them is as inappropriate as it would
be towards the sky if full of acrid smoke.
41 If, disregarding the principal cause, such as a stick or other
weapon, I become angry with the person who impels it, he
too is impelled by hatred. It is better that I hate that hatred.
42 Previously, I too caused just such pain to living beings.
Therefore this is just what I deserve, I who have caused
distress to other beings.
;4 Perfection o f Forbearance

43 His the knife, and mine the body— the twofold cause of
suffering. He has grasped the knife, I my body. At which is
there anger?
44 Blinded by craving I have grasped this boil in the likeness
of a human figure, which cannot bear to be touched. In that
case, when there is pain, at which is there anger?
45 I do not wish for suffering. Being a simpleton, I do wish for
the cause of suffering. When suffering has arisen through
my own wrongdoing, how can I become angry with some­
one else?
46 Just as the infernal forest of razor leaves, just as the winged
creatures from hell are really brought into being by my
actions, so is this. At which is there anger?
47 Those who injure me are really impelled by my actions.
For this they will go to the realms o f hell. Surely it is they
who are harmed by me?
48 On account of them, because I am patient, my evil is con­
siderably decreased. While on account of me they experi­
ence the long-lasting agonies of hell.
49 Really it is I who am harmful to them, and they who aid
me! So why, slippery mind, do you turn it the wrong way
round and become angry?

50 I f I am not to go to the realms of hell, I must possess the

virtue of determination. If I protect myself, what in that
case is the effect on them?
51 I f I did retaliate, they would not be protected and I would
fail in my practice, with the result that those in torment
would be lost.
52 Since it lacks physical form, the mind can never be harmed
by anything, but because it clings to the body it is op­
pressed by the body’s suffering.
53 ‘Humiliation, harsh speech, and disgrace’ , this collection
does not oppress the body. Why then, mind, do you get
angry?
 Perfection o f Forbearance 55
54 Will the disfavour that others show me devour me, here or
in another birth, that I avoid it so?

55 It may he that I avoid it because it gets in the way o f my

material gain, but that will be lost in this life alone, whereas
my evil will certainly persist.

56 Better that I die right now than have a long life lived
improperly, since, even if I remain here for a long time, the
same pain o f death awaits me.

57 In a dream one person enjoys one hundred years o f happi­

ness and then awakes, while another awakes after being
happy for just a moment.

58 Surely the happiness of both ceases once they have awak­

ened. That is what it is like at the time o f death for the one
who lives long and for the one whose life is short.

59 And though I acquire many possessions, though I enjoy

many pleasures over a long time, I shall go empty-handed
and naked, like someone who has been robbed.

60 Suppose I destroy evil and perform good while living off

my gains? There is no doubt but that someone who grows
angry on account o f gain acquires evil and destroys good.

61 I f that for which I live comes to nothing, what is the point

of living, performing only unlovely deeds?

62 I f you argue that your dislike of one who speaks ill o f you
is because he is harming living beings, why then do you feel
no anger when he defames others in the same way?

63 You tolerate those showing disfavour when others are the

subject o f it, but you show no tolerance towards someone
speaking ill of you when he is subject to the arising o f
defilements.

64 And my hatred towards those who damage sacred images

and stupas or who abuse the true teaching is inappropriate,
since the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas are not distressed.
ft Perfection o f Forbearance

65 When people harm one’s teachers, relatives, and others

dear to us, one should, as above, regard it as arising on the
basis o f conditioning factors and refrain from anger to­
wards them.
66 Whether the cause possesses consciousness or not, distress
is inevitable for embodied beings. That distress appears m
what is conscious. Tolerate that pain therefore.
67 Some commit offences out of delusion. Others, deluded,
grow angry. Who among them should we say is free from
blame, or who should we say is guilty?
68 Why did you behave before in such a way that others now
trouble you in this way? Everybody is subject to the force
of prior actions. Who am I to change this?
69 But realizing this I shall make the effort to perform good
actions in such a way that everyone will develop an attitude
of friendship, each towards the other.
70 When a house is burning down and the fire has spread
towards the next house, any grass or such in which it might
spread is dragged o ff and taken away.
71 So, when the mind is catching alight with the fire o f hatred
as a result of contact with something, it must be cast aside
immediately for fear that one’s body of merit might go up
in flames.
72 If a man condemned to death has his hand cut o ff and is
spared, is it not good? I f through human sufferings one is
spared from hell, is it not good?
73 If even this small measure of suffering cannot be tolerated
now, then why is anger, the cause of torment in hell, not
restrained?
74 In this very same way, on account of anger, I have been
placed in hells thousands of times, and I have benefited
neither myself nor others.
75 But this suffering is not of that kind, and it will produce
great benefit. Delight is the only appropriate response to
suffering which takes away the suffering o f the universe.
 Perfection o f Forbearance 57
76 I f others take pleasure and joy in praising the strength of
someone’s virtues, why, mind, do you not similarly rejoice
in praising it?
77 Such pleasure from your rejoicing is a blameless source
of pleasure, not prohibited by the virtuous, attractive to
others in the highest degree.
78 What if you do not like it because it is a pleasure only for
him? I f you were to stop giving wages and the like, both
visible and unseen benefit would be lost.
79 When vour own virtues are being praised, you want others
to be pleased as well. When the virtues of others are being
praised, you do not even want to be pleased yourself.
80 After arousing the Awakening Mind out of the desire for
the happiness of every being, why are you angry at them
now that they have found happiness for themselves?
81 You desire Buddhahood, which is worthy o f worship
throughout the three worlds, expressly for living beings.
Why do you burn inside on seeing them have some slight
honour?
82 The person who nourishes someone whom you should nour­
ish is really giving to you. On finding him supporting your
family, you do not rejoice, you become irate!
83 What does the person who wishes Awakening upon living
beings not wish for them? How can one who is angry at the
good fortune of others possess the Awakening Mind?
84 If he had not received that gift it would have remained in
the donor’s house. In any case it is not yours, so what
matters it whether it was given or not?
85 What! Have him suppress acts of merit, and those who are
faithful, and even his own virtues? Let him not accept
when he is being given donations? Tell, with what are you
not angry?
86 Not only do you not grieve at the evil you yourself have
done, you seek to compete with others who have performed
acts o f merit.
58 Perfection o f Forbearance

87 Suppose something unpleasant does befall your rival. Would

your satisfaction make it happen again? It will not happen
without a cause, merely by your wishing it.
88 I f your wish was fulfilled, what pleasure would there be for
you in his suffering? But even were there some advantage
in this, what disadvantage would ensue!
89 For this is the horrific hook cast by the anglers, the defile­
ments, from whom you will be bought by the warders of
hell and stewed in cauldrons.
90 Praise, good repute, and honour lead neither to merit nor
long life, are no advantage to strength or to freedom from
disease, nor do they bring me physical pleasure.
91 And this is the kind of thing that would benefit the wise
person who knows what is best for himself. One desiring
pleasure for the mind could resort to drunkenness, gam­
bling, and the other vices.
92 For the benefit o f renown they deprive themselves o f bene­
fit. They even kill themselves. Are words fit for food? In
death who feels their pleasure?
93 Like a child that howls a wail o f distress when his sandcastle
is broken, so my own mind appears to me at the loss of
praise or renown.

94 Because it lacks consciousness, I must admit that a word

cannot praise me. Undoubtedly, the cause o f my delight is
that another is delighted with me.
95 But what does it matter to me whether another’s delight is
in me or someone else? His alone is the pleasure o f that
delight. Not even a trifling part o f it is mine.
96 I f I take pleasure in his pleasure, let me take it in every
single case. Why do I take no pleasure in people who are
made happy through their faith in another?
97 Therefore, it is because I am praised that delight is pro­
duced in me. In this case, too, because of such absurdity, it
is simply the behaviour o f a child.
 Perfection o f Forbearance 59
98 Praise and so on give me security. They destroy my sense
of urgency. They create jealousy towards those who possess
virtue, and anger at success.

99 Therefore those conspiring to destroy things such as my

praise, are really engaged in preserving me from descent
into hell.

100 The shackle o f acquisition and honour is unfitting for me

who longs for liberation. How can I hate those who liberate
me from that shackle?

101 How can I hate those who have become, as if by the Bud­
dha’s blessing, a door closed to me as I seek to enter upon
suffering?

102 Nor is anger appropriate in the case o f someone who hin­

ders acts o f merit. There is no spiritual practice equal to
forbearance. Without doubt, this is accomplished through
him.

103 In fact, it is through my own deficiency that I fail to prac­

tise forbearance here. In this instance I alone create the
hindrance when grounds for an act o f merit have been
provided.

104 If one thing does not exist without another, and does exist
when that also exists, then that other thing is really its
cause. How can that be called an obstacle?

105 After all, a person in need who turns up at a suitable time

is not a hindrance to generosity, nor can it be called a
hindrance to going forth when one meets someone who has
gone forth!

106 Beggars are easy to find in this world but those who will
cause harm are not, because, if I do no wrong, no one
wrongs me.

107 Therefore, since he helps me on the path to Awakening, I

should long for an enemy like a treasure discovered in the
home, acquired without effort.
50 Perfection o f Forbearance

108 Both he and I, therefore, receive the reward o f this forbear­

ance. It should be given to him first, since the forbearance
was first occasioned by him.
109 I f an enemy deserves no honour, because he did not intend
you to achieve forbearance, then why is the T ru e Dharma
honoured? It too is the unconscious cause o f achievement.

n o I f an enemy is not honoured because his intention is to

hurt, for what other reason will I be patient with him, as
with a doctor who is intent on my well-being?
in In that case, it is really in dependence upon his malign
intention that forbearance is produced, and in that case it is
really he that is the cause of my forbearance. I must wor­
ship him as the True Dharma.

1 12 For this reason the Sage has said that the fertile field of
living beings is thü fertile field of the Conquerors, because
many have reached success and spiritual perfection by pro­
pitiating them.

1 13 When the transmission of Buddha-qualities comes equally

from both ordinary beings and from the Conquerors, what
logic is there in not paying that respect to ordinary beings
which one pays to the Conquerors?

1 14 The greatness o f the intent comes not from itself but rather
from its effect, and so the greatness is equal. In which case
ordinary beings are the equals of the Conquerors.
1 15 It is greatness on the part of beings that someone with a
kindly disposition is honourable, just as it is greatness on
the part o f the Buddhas that merit comes from serene con­
fidence in the Buddhas.
1 16 Therefore in one aspect o f the transmission o f Buddha-
qualities, ordinary beings are equal to the Buddhas. O f
course, none are fully equal to the Buddhas, who are oceans
o f virtues with unlimited aspects.

1 17 I f a virtue appears anywhere which is even an atom o f those

who are a unique mass o f the very essence o f virtue, then
 Perfection o f Forbearance 61
even the three worlds are not adequate for the purpose of
worshipping it.
118 Yet the very best aspect of the development of Buddha-
qualities is found in relation to ordinary beings. One should
worship ordinary beings in accordance with this aspect.

IiQ Moreover, for those friends who give immeasurable help

without pretext what better recompense could there be than
propitiating beings?

120 One should do it for those for whose sake they dismember
their own bodies, and enter into the Avici hell. For that
reason, even if people are extremely malignant, all that is
skilful should be done for them.

12 1 How can I act with arrogance rather than servitude towards

those very same masters for the sake of whom my Masters,
o f their own accord, have such lack o f regard for themselves?

122 At whose happiness the Lords of Sages become joyful; at

whose distress they are sorrowful: to satisfy these creatures
is to satisfy the Lords of Sages; to offend them is to offend
the Sages, too.

123 Just as no bodily pleasure at all can gladden the mind of one
whose body is engulfed in flames, so too those full o f com­
passion cannot come near to feeling joy when living beings
are in distress.

124 Therefore, today, I confess as evil the suffering I have

caused to all o f those of Great Compassion by causing
suffering to those people. May the Sages forgive that which
has oppressed them.

125 Now, to propitiate the Tathägatas, with my entire self I

become a servant to the world. Let streams of people place
their foot upon my head or strike me down. Let the Lord
of the World be satisfied.

126 There is no doubt that those whose selfhood is compassion

have taken this entire world for themselves. Is it not the
62 Perfection o f Forbearance
case that they appear in the form o f these good people! It is
these people who arc the Lords. How can I be disrespectfu .
127 T his alone is the propitiation of the Tathâgatas; this alone
is the fulfilment of my own goal; this alone beats back the
suffering of the world; so, let this alone be my vow.
128 When a single servant of the king tyrannizes the entire
populace, the far-sighted populace has no power to effect
change,
1 29 Because he is not really alone: his potency is the potency of
the king. So one should refrain from slighting any impotent
person who has caused offence,
130 Since his potency is that of the warders o f hell and o f the
Compassionate Ones. For that reason one should propitiate
living beings, just as a servant would a cruel king.
1 3 1 What could a wrathful king do that would equal the agony
of hell, experienced as a result o f causing misery to living
beings?
132 W h a t c o u ld a g r a t ifie d k in g g iv e t h a t w o u ld e q u a l B u d d h a -
h o o d , e x p e r ie n c e d a s a r e s u lt o f c a u s in g h a p p i n e s s to liv in g
b e in g s?

133 Never mind future Buddhahood arising from the propitia­

tion of living beings! Do you not see good fortune, renown,
and well-being right here and now?
134 Serenity, freedom from disease, joy and long life, the hap­
piness of an emperor, prosperity: these the patient person
receives while continuing in cyclic existence.
 7

T H E P E R F E C T I O N OF V IG O U R

IN Chapter 7 Santideva presents his instruction in the perfec­

tion o f vigour, vlrya-päramitä. His account falls into two sec­
tions, the first (vv. 2-30) explaining the opposites of vigour and
how to overcome them, and the second dealing with the means
for increasing the vigour with which one practises. In so doing
he follows the traditional teaching on the ‘ four correct efforts’—
(1) to avoid unskilful mental states arising in the mind; (2) to
overcome unskilful states that have arisen in the mind; (3) to
develop skilful mental states; and (4) to sustain such skilful
states— by dividing his instruction between the unskilful states
which drain one’s vigour, and the positive or skilful states which
reinforce it.
He defines the opposites of vigour: ‘Sloth, clinging to what
is vile, despondency, and self-contempt’ (v. 2), and counters
them, from v. 3 to v. 2g, with ‘the powers of desire, persev­
erance, delight, and letting go’ (v. 31). Säntideva’s discussion
of the cultivation o f vigour hinges upon a six-fold classification
in terms o f desire (eliantia), pride (mäna), delight (rati), renun­
ciation (tyâga), dedication (tätparya), and self-mastery (vasita).
Here desire is, o f course, righteous desire, desire for what
is good, dharma-chanda. Pride makes one willing to act, even
alone; it is expressed as a revulsion against the influence of
the secondary defilements (upaklesa), which incapacitate others;
and it determines one’s perception of what one is capable of.
Delight is an intense pleasure derived from the very actions
of the Bodhisattva; and renunciation involves the cessation of
activity when one cannot be effective (showing the need for
a balanced effort). Dedication is maintained through the prac­
tice o f mindfulness, and self-mastery is the fulfilment o f
‘power’ (rddhi) that is achieved through a successful cultivation
of vigour.
Readers familiar with pre-existing translations of this text and
its traditional interpretation may have noted that this analysis
(Ì4 Perfection o f Vigour
departs from the usual interpretation o f S ä n tid e v a ’s account of
vigour. T h is is usually expressed in term s of desire, persever­
ance {s tim m a ) , delight, and letting go ( m u k t i ). T h e cru cial pas­
sage in the text is:
T h e p o w e r s o f d e s i r e , p e r s e v e r a n c e , d e l i g h t , a n d l e t t i n g g o , a l l le a d to
th e fu lfilm e n t o f t h e n e e d s o f li v i n g b e in g s . O u t o f t h e fe a r o f s u f fe r in g ,
a n d w h ile m e d ita tin g o n th e p r a is e s , o n e s h o u ld c r e a t e d e s ir e .

U p r o o t i n g t h e o p p o s i t e in t h i s w a y , o n e s h o u l d e n d e a v o u r t o i n c r e a s e
o n e ’ s e x e r t io n t h r o u g h th e p o w e r s o f d e s ir e , p r id e , d e li g h t , r e n u n c ia ­
t io n , d e d ic a t io n , a n d s e lf - m a s te r y , ( v v . 3 1 - 2 )

T he first of these verses has been taken by commentators,

including Prajnäkaramati, to indicate Säntideva’s intended plan
for his further exposition of vigour, i.e. the remainder o f this
chapter. I f v. 31 contains a plan for the rest o f the chapter, then
it is difficult to understand why Säntideva included v. 32, for it
would seem to be only repetitious and confusing. However,
close attention to each reveals that the two lists are concerned
with different issues. The former explains the positive counter­
parts of the four antitheses to vigour, listed in v. 2, i.e. sloth,
clinging to what is vile, despondency, and self-contempt. Thus,
sloth is countered by desire; clinging to what is vile, by letting
go; despondency, by perseverance; and self-contempt, by de­
light. From v. 3 to v. 28 the author details the manner in which
the opposites of vigour should be dealt with, as negative factors
in the mind. In this verse, 3 1, he retrospectively summarizes
their positive countermeasures or antidotes.
Verse 32 clearly states that up to this point one has been
concerned with eradicating the opposites of vigour, and also
identifies its own list as the powers by which one cultivates
‘exertion’ or utsäha (Säntideva’s preferred synonym for vlrya).
T his interpretation is confirmed in so far as the plan outlined in
v. 32 fits the remainder of the chapter perfectly, in ways which
the traditional view does not. The ‘plan’ in v. 31 mentions
perseverance, stimma, as its second item, yet this virtue is never
referred to again in the remainder of the chapter. T he subject of
vv. 4 6 -6 1 is pride, the second item of the plan in v. 32, but not
mentioned in v. 3 1. T he final two items o f the second plan are
 Perfection o f Vigour 65
clearly reflected in the concluding verses of the chapter (67-75),
which do not lit into the plan in v. 31 at all.
How could this confusion have occurred? One possibility lies
in the misperception of clues to the structure in the language of
the text. The lists appear similar. Both include desire and de­
light as their first and third items. The fourth items of each are
the synonymous ‘ letting go’, mukti, and ‘renunciation’ , tyäga.
Furthermore, the reference to ‘letting go’, miikti, in v. 3 1, inter­
preted in its transitive sense as the ‘quitting’ o f an action which
cannot be fulfilled, may have been presumed to be echoed in
v. 66, which describes this process, and uses the cognate verb
muc ‘to loosen’ to do so, and thus might have been seen as estab­
lishing a link between the two.
The canonical Tibetan translation o f the Bodhicaryävatära
contains an extra verse in this chapter, not appearing in the
original Sanskrit, and which forms v. 64 of translations from
that language. T he Tun-huang recension is nine verses longer
than the canonical recension. There has been no comparative
study o f this chapter in the two recensions. We identified no
material in this chapter shared with the Siksâ Samuccaya.
An interesting feature o f Chapter 7 is the differentiation of
positive and negative aspects of emotions, or motives, which one
might suppose should properly be rejected. Säntideva explains
the positive nature o f desire (vitanda), delight or pleasure (rati),
and pride (móna), all reviled in their negative forms, but here
explored as sources o f the vigour by which the practice o f the
Bodhisattva’s perfections may be fulfilled. Clearly, Säntideva
wishes to show how certain ‘base metal’ poisons can be subli­
mated in the service o f one’s spiritual practice. One might even
wonder if Säntideva wished to shock a little in this respect, for
his description o f delight in one’s spiritual practice borders upon
the profane: the Bodhisattva is said to be literally intoxicated
and addicted to his actions, and to savour them as does a lover
his carnal pleasures, or the gambler the game (v. 62).
We should also note that Säntideva recognizes a crucial ‘gap’
between righteous desire and the pride which fuels the
Bodhisattva’s actions. Thus, in vv. 47-8, he tries to make it
clear that, though one may have cultivated considerable righteous
66 Perfection o f Vigour
desire, one still needs to make a conscious commitment to the
Bodhisattva path:
A f t e r fir s t a s s e s s in g th e fu ll im p lic a t io n s , o n e s h o u ld e it h e r b e g in o r not
b e g i n . S u r e l y , n o t b e g i n n i n g is b e t t e r t h a n t u r n i n g b a c k o n c e o n e h a s

begun .

T h i s i s a h a b i t t h a t c o n t i n u e s e v e n in a n o t h e r l i f e , a n d fro m it s e v il
s u f f e r i n g i n c r e a s e s . A n o t h e r l i f e a n d o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a c t i o n , b o t h lo s t ,
a n d th e ta sk n o t a c c o m p lis h e d , ( v v . 4 7 - 8 )

T he awesome picture of the Bodhisattva’s task painted in the

Vajradhvaja Sutra (a section of the Avatanmka Sutra, and quoted
by Santideva in his S i km Samuccaya, Bendali and Rouse, pp-
24 ff. and 255 ff.) is clearly something that requires many lifetimes
of effort. T o undertake it and then back out sets up a pattern of
behaviour that is itself productive of further suffering. Only
when one has ascertained the ‘means’ at one’s disposal can one
be sure of making a skilful and productive commitment. Here,
no doubt, pride, as explained in the following verses, will play
its own crucial part in one’s conviction that such a task is possible
to achieve.
 Perfection o f Vigour 67

The Perfection of Vigour

1 Patient in this way one should cultivate vigour, because Awak­
ening depends on vigour. For without vigour there is no
merit, just as there is no movement without wind.

2 What is vigour? The endeavour to do what is skilful. What

is its antithesis called? Sloth, clinging to what is vile, de­
spondency, and self-contempt.

3 Sloth comes from idleness, indulging in pleasures, sleep, the

longing to lean on others, and from apathy for the sufferings
of cyclic existence.

4 Scented out by the trappers, the defilements, you have walked

into the trap o f birth. Do you not rçalize even now that you
have entered the mouth of death?

5 You do not see those o f your own herd as they are killed one
by one? You even go to sleep like a buffalo at the butcher.

6 When Yama is sizing you up and at every turn the way is

blocked, how can it please you to eat? How can you sleep?
How make love?

7 Even if you abandon your sloth as death is swiftly approach­

ing, his implements prepared, it will be too late. What will
you do?

8 ‘I have not started this! This I started, but it remains half-

done! Death has come from nowhere! Oh no, I am stricken!’;
thinking this,

g Beholding faces, those of hopeless relatives, eyes red from

shedding tears and swollen in the shock of their grief, and
those of the messengers of Yama,

10 Tormented by the memory o f your own evil, and hearing

the hellish bcllowings, quaking, from terror your body caked
in excrement, what will you do?
68 Perfection o f Vigour

11 Realizing you are like a captive fish, how right it is for you
to be afraid right now. How much more so when you have
committed evil actions and are faced with the intense
agonies of hellr
12 So sensitive, touched only by hot water you are scalded.
How can you rest at ease like this, when you have committed
acts worthy of hell?
13 Hey you, expecting results without effort! So sensitive! So
long-suffering! You, in the elutchcs of death, acting like an
immortal! Hey, sufferer, you are destroying yourself!
14 Now that you have met with the boat of human life, cross
over the mighty river of suffering. Fool, there is no time to
sleep! It is hard to catch this boat again.
15 How can you, after letting go of the most splendid delight,
the Dharma, which is an unending stream of joy, find joy in
a cause of suffering such as arrogance or ridicule?
16 Freedom from despair, the array of powers including dedi­
cation and self-mastery, regarding oneself and others as equal,
and the exchange o f self and others
17 Should be practised, and not defeatism from thinking ‘How
could I possibly achieve Buddhahood?’ For the Tathägata,
Speaker of the Truth, spoke this truth:
18 ‘Even those who were gnats, mosquitoes, wasps, or worms,
have reached the highest Awakening, hard to reach, through
the strength of their exertion.’
19 How about me, born a human being, able to know good
from bad? I f I do not forsake the guidance o f the Omni­
scient, why should I not attain Buddhahood?
20 Then again I may be fearful, thinking, ‘I shall have to sacri­
fice a hand or a foot or something’; through lack o f judge­
ment, I may confuse the significant with the insignificant in
this way!
21 I shall be cut up, split apart, burned, and split open for
innumerable billions o f aeons, and still there will be no
Awakening.
 Perfection o f Vigour 69
22 But this limited suffering of mine, the means to perfect
Buddhahood, is like the pain of extraction when getting rid
of the agony of an embedded thorn.
23 All doctors use painful treatments to restore health. It fol­
lows that to put an end to many sufferings, a slight one must
he endured.
24 Though such treatment is appropriate, it is not what the best
doctor prescribed: he cures by sweet conduct those with the
greatest illness.
25 The Guide enjoins giving only vegetables and the like at
first. Later, by degrees, one acts in such a way that one is
even able to give up one’s own flesh!

26 When the understanding arises that one’s own flesh is no

more than a vegetable, what difficulty is there in giving away
one’s flesh and bones?
27 One does not suffer from relinquishing evils, nor ail in mind
from becoming wise, since affliction in the mind is due to
false projections and affliction in the body is due to evil
action.
28 The body experiences pleasure as a result o f acts of merit.
The mind is pleased through learning. When he remains in
cyclic existence for the benefit o f others what can weary the
Compassionate One?
29 Destroying previous evil actions, receiving oceans o f merit,
by the power of the Awakening Mind alone he progresses
more quickly even than the Srävakas.
30 Proceeding in this way from happiness to happiness, what
thinking person would despair, after mounting the carriage,
the Awakening Mind, which carries away all weariness and
effort?

31 The powers o f desire, perseverance, delight, and letting go,

all lead to the fulfilment of the needs o f living beings. Out of
the fear o f suffering, and while meditating on the praises,
one should create desire.
 Perfection o f Vigour
32 Uprooting the opposite in this way, one should endeavour to
increase one’s exertion through the powers o f desire, pride,
delight, renunciation, dedication, and self-mastery.
33 I must destroy immeasurable faults, both for myself and for
others. T he destruction of a single one of those faults takes
an ocean of aeons.

34 Yet no trace of an effort is seen on my part to destroy those

faults. How does my heart not burst when I am to be allotted
immeasurable pain?

35 I must acquire many virtues, both for m yself and for others.
The discipline of a single one of those virtues might not
succeed even in an ocean of aeons.

36 I have never made an effort towards even a trace o f virtue.

Somehow miraculously attained, I lead my existence point-
lessly.

37 I have not found happiness in the great festivals o f worship

for the Fortunate One, nor have I performed my duties
towards the Dispensation, nor have I fulfilled the wants of
the destitute.

38 I have not given fearlessness to the fearful, nor have I com­

forted the afflicted. I became a barb in the womb solely to
my mother’s suffering.

39 Through my former lack of righteous desire, such misfor­

tunes as these befall me now. Who would reject righteous
desire?

40 The Sage has sung that desire is the root o f all skilful deeds;
in turn, the root of that is ever meditation upon the resulting
consequences.

41 Sufferings, feelings of dejection, and many different fears

and impediments to their desires befall those who do evil.

42 The heart’s delight o f those who do good is worshipped with

a welcoming reception o f fruit wheresoever it goes, as a
consequence o f their meritorious deeds.
 Perfection o f Vigour 7i
43 But the desire for pleasure of those who do evil is smitten by
the weapons o f suffering wheresoever it goes, as a conse­
quence o f their evil deeds.
44 Born in the womb of lake-growing lotuses, expansive, sweet­
smelling, and cool, with thriving splendour granted by the
sustenance of the Conqueror’s melodious voice, their beau­
tiful forms emerging from the water-born lotuses as they
blossom in the rays of light from the Sage, the Sons o f the
Sugata appear before him in consequence of their skilful
deeds.
45 Screaming in agony as his entire skin is ripped away by
Yama’s minions, his body infused in copper molten in the
heat of the oblation-bearing fire, segments of his flesh cleaved
away by the hundredfold blows of blazing swords and pikes,
he drops repeatedly onto the red-hot ground o f iron in con­
sequence o f his wrong deeds.
46 So, desire for what is good must be created, meditating
carefully on these things. Then one should undertake and
develop pride in accordance with the method in the
Vajradhvuja Sütra.
47 After first assessing the full implications, one should either
begin or not begin. Surely, not beginning is better than
turning back once one has begun.
48 This is a habit that continues even in another life, and from
its evil suffering increases. Another life and opportunity for
action, both lost, and the task not accomplished.
49- One should strive for pride in three areas: action, the sec­
ondary defilements, and ability. ‘It is I alone who can do it’ ,
expresses pride in action.
50 This world is totally subject to the defilements, incapable of
accomplishing its own benefit. Therefore I must do it for
them. I am not incapable, as is mankind.
51 How is it that another does despised work while I stand by?
I f I do not do it because of pride, better to let mv pride be
destroyed.
■ j2 Perfection o f Vigour
52 Even a crow acts like Garuda when attacking a dead lizard.
I f my mind is weak? even a minor difficulty is oppressive.
53 When one is made passive by defeatism, without doubt dif­
ficulties easily take effect, but exerting one’s self and invig­
orated, one is hard to defeat even for great calamities.

54 So, with a firm mind, I shall make difficulty for difficulty.

For so long as difficulties conquer me, my desire to conquer
the three worlds is laughable.
55 For I must conquer everything. Nothing should conquer
me. This pride should be wedded to me, for I am a son of
the lionlike Conqueror.

56 Those beings who are conquered by pride are wretches who

have no pride! A person with pride does not fall under the
control of a rival. They are under the control o f the rival,
pride.

57 Led by pride to a bad rebirth, even as a human being their

jubilation is destroyed— slaves, eating food scrounged from
others, stupid, ugly, and thin.

58 And despised on all sides, sustained by pride, the mortified,

even those wretched in the midst of the proud, pray tell of
what kind are they?

59 They have pride and are victorious. They truly are the her­
oes, who bear their pride to victory over the enemy pride;
who, slaying the enemy pride though he is ubiquitous, read­
ily present the fruit of their victory to the people.
60 Stood in the midst of the hosts of defilements, one should be
a thousand times more hotly proud, invincible to the hosts
o f defilements, as a lion to herds of deer.

61 Surely, even in great difficulties, the eye will not see a fla­
vour. In the same way too, meeting difficulty, one must not
fall under the control of the defilements.

62 One should be addicted solely to the task that one is under­

taking. One should be intoxicated by that task, insatiable,
 Perfection o f Vigour 73

like someone hankering for the pleasure and the fruit of

love-play.
63 A task is performed for the sake of satisfaction, notwith­
standing that there may or may not be satisfaction. But how
can one, for whom the task itself is satisfaction, be satisfied
without a task?
64 One cannot get enough o f the sensual pleasures in cyclic
existence, that are like honey on a razor’s edge. How can one
get enough o f the benign, ambrosial acts o f merit, sweet in
their result?
65 So, even at the conclusion of one task, one should plunge
straight away into the next, as does a tusker, inflamed by the
midday heat, immediately on coming to a pool.
66 But when one’s energy begins to flag, one should put it aside
to take up again, and, when it is completely finished, one
should let it go with a thirst for the next and then the next.
67 One should guard against attacks from the defilements, and
resolutely attack them, as if engaged in a sword fight with a
well-trained enemy.
68 As, then, one would hastily snatch up one’s sword in fear did
one drop it, so should one snatch up the sword o f mindfulness
when it drops, remembering the hells.
69 As poison, finding the blood, spreads throughout the body,
so, finding a weak point, a fault will spread throughout the
mind.
70 One who has undertaken the Vow should be like someone
superintended by swordsmen, who is carrying a jar o f oil,
wholly intent upon it, out of fear of death if he stumbles.
71 So, on the approach of drowsiness or lethargy one should
immediately counteract it, as one would jump up immedi­
ately were a snake to slide into one’s lap.
72 At every single lapse one should burn befittingly with re­
morse, then reflect, ‘How might I act so that this might not
happen to me again?’
74 Perfection o f Vigour

73 One should look forward to society or a given task with this

motive: ‘How may I practise the discipline o f mindfulness in
these circumstances?’
74 Remembering the teaching on vigilance, one should make
oneself versatile, as one always prepares oneself prior to
undertaking a task.
75 In the very same way that cotton is swayed to the direction
o f the wind as it comes and goes, one should be directed by
one’s endeavour, and in this way one’s spiritual power grows
strong.
 8

T H E P E R F E C T I O N OF
M E D I T A T I V E ABSORPTION

T he eighth chapter o f the Bodhicaryâvatâra deals with the

penultimate perfection, that o f meditative absorption, dhyTina.
Meditative absorption is a technical term, used by the historical
Buddha himself to describe the higher levels o f consciousness
attained through calming or samathä meditation. From the time
of the Buddha, meditation has been a, if not the, major tool used
for the task of self-transformation in Buddhism. The English
term, meditation, introduces an ambiguity not necessary with
the wide vocabulary of meditation used by the Indian Buddhist
tradition, for it must do duty covering both the meditational
exercises, o f which Buddhism employs a large array, and the
mental states achieved by the use of these techniques. While
attempting to differentiate between these two referents, we also
need to understand that Buddhist meditation is said to have
two functions: calming, samathä; and insight, vipasyami, each
with their preferred, but also with some shared, techniques of
development.
Samathä meditation is generally concerned with calming and
stabilizing the mind, and cultivating positive emotions such as
friendliness and compassion. Characteristic techniques employed
to achieve these states are the ‘mindfulness while breathing’
(iänäpäna-smrti) and the ‘development of friendliness’ ( maitrl-

bhävanä) respectively. The successful practice of any technique

involves a sustained effort to suppress any of the five possible
‘hindrances’ (ntvarami) which might arise and distract the mind
of the meditator, and for which task an array of meditations is
available. Progress in calming meditation results in the ‘rising’
of the mind through successively more refined and purified
levels of consciousness, known technically as ‘meditative absorp­
tions’, dhyäna. T he dhyänas are four in number, and are charac­
terized by the successive simplification and purification o f the
contents o f consciousness. The first such meditative absorption
76 Perfection o f M editative Absorption

is described, in a common formula found in the scriptuies, as

the mental state which is accompanied by discursive thinking
(vitarka-vicära), bliss ipriti), and happiness (subha), and is ‘born
o f isolation’ (viveka-ja). The second is described as arising when
discursive thinking dies away, whereupon one’s mind becomes
tranquil and one-pointed, and one gains meditative concentration
{sanuidhi). The third meditative absorption is entered when bliss,
which is relatively coarse, dies away and one becomes equanim-
ous, mindful, and aware. In the fourth absorption, awareness of
pleasure and pain have subsided and one’s mind is ‘purified’ by
mindfulness and equanimity.
By contrast, insight or vipasyanä meditation is concerned
with the development of those insights by which the individual
is Awakened. The Buddha and all his Enlightened disciples,
throughout the ages, have Awakened to a realization o f ‘the way
things really are’. The precise formulation of ‘ the way things
really are’ has developed over the course of the centuries (of
which more below), but all schools of Buddhism have accepted
the realization of this understanding or wisdom as the central
and crucial goal of Buddhist practice. Insight meditation is con­
cerned with inculcating a realization in the meditator o f just this
‘way things really are’. It employs mindfulness {suini) and aware­
ness {samprajanya) as the basis for the analytical investigation of
the person and the perceived world, according to any of the
standard formulations o f the Buddha’s understanding. Such
analysis might, for example, employ reflection upon the fact that
all material and mental phenomena are characterized by three
‘marks’, laksam, i.e. impermanence, dissatisfaction, and insub­
stantiality (sometimes a fourth is added to these, that o f foul­
ness, asubha). T he desired result of such insight meditation is
the direct understanding by experience that this is indeed the
case.
T he classic account of Buddhist meditation, common to
Mahäyäna and non-Mahäyäna forms of Buddhism, enjoins a
judicious balance o f these two kinds of meditation. T he practi­
tioner must acquire some considerable experience o f calming
meditation, so as to purify and concentrate the mind. However,
meditative absorption o f the second stage or higher eschews
discursive thought, a form of mental activity which is essential
 Perfection o f M editative Absorption 77
for the practice o f insight meditation. The meditator therefore
trains so as to he able to stay in the first meditative absorption,
where discursive thought is still possible, and there engage in
the discursive thinking o f insight meditation, thus combining
the two forms. Combined with the effect of calming meditation,
which, as it were, deepens the meditators’ experience of them­
selves and allows them access to a broader spectrum of their
psycho-physical being, the insight meditation is able to initiate
a radical transformation in the consciousness o f the individual.
Without the experience o f meditative absorption, the reflective
process of insight meditation is too liable to distraction, and the
meditator’s mind is, as it were, too superficial to sustain a trans­
forming insight.
We can now turn to examine Chapter 8 itself, to see how
Säntideva deals with this perfection. However, we should be
wary o f attributing too much o f any analysis o f this text of
Chapter 8 to the authorship of Säntideva, since Saito reports
that the Tun-huang recension o f this chapter has only 58 (one
manuscript has 59) verses, compared to the 186 in the canonical
recension. In fact it is this chapter alone which accounts for
almost 60 per cent o f the difference in length between the two
recensions. T his enormous difference begs further comparative
investigation, but this has yet to be done. For the mean time, we
shall proceed, taking Chapter 8 as it stands in the canonical
recension, and, for ease of reference, taking Säntideva as the
author o f the whole.
Since this is Säntideva’s chapter on the perfection o f medita­
tive absorption it would be reasonable to expect an account of
the techniques and technicalities of calming meditation in the
sense just outlined. However, rather than discuss in detail the
character and methods for the induction o f meditative absorp­
tion, he emphasizes the basic principles involved, such as the
need truly to leave the world behind, and illustrates them with
the most pressing examples. His silence on the technicalities of
meditative absorption begs the question of the degree to which
calming meditation was practised in his milieu. It would be
wrong to assume that this silence implied that his audience was
familiar with these techniques and needed no instruction, for
the same should also apply to the other practices of the path
7g Perfection o f M editative Absorption

which he expounds in the Bodhicaryâvatâra. It is clear from the

accounts o f visiting Chinese monks ol the period that N älanda,
the monastic university where Säntideva is said to have com­
posed this work, was very much a competitive worldly environ­
ment, open to lay scholars, and used by many as a springboard
for a secular career. T o be a monk there could not, therefore,
entail the life o f seclusion which one might associate with
monkhood. Achieving the necessary environment and attitude
for calming meditation would therefore have required a personal
decision and commitment on the part of the individual monk.
It is quite possible that the practice of calming meditation was
rare, as it is today, for example, amongst the Buddhist monastic
communities of Sri Lanka. The idealized descriptions o f life in
the wilderness that Säntideva gives support this conjecture.
He begins by pointing out in vv. 1-4 that, unless one gains
some degree of meditative absorption, one will not be able to
gain insight, and since it is insight which frees one from the
influence of the defilements, without absorption one is still their
victim.
I n c r e a s in g o n e ’ s e n d e a v o u r in t h i s w a y , o n e s h o u l d s t a b i l i z e t h e m i n d in
m e d i t a t i v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n , s i n c e a p e r s o n w h o s e m in d is d i s t r a c t e d s t a n d s
b e t w e e n t h e f a n g s o f t h e d e f i l e m e n t s , ( v . 1)

He continues by stressing the need for the isolation or seques­

tering of the trainee Bodhisattva’s body and mind.
Distraction does not occur if body and mind are kept sequestered.
Therefore, one should renounce the world and disregard distracting
thoughts.

T h e w o r l d i s n o t t r u l y r e n o u n c e d b e c a u s e o f a t t a c h m e n t a n d t h e t h ir s t
fo r a c q u is itio n s a n d o th e r r e w a rd s . T h e r e f o r e , to r e n o u n c e th e s e , a n y ­
o n e w it h s e n s e w o u l d r e fl e c t a s f o llo w s :

R e a l i z i n g t h a t o n e w e l l - a t t u n e d to in s i g h t t h r o u g h t r a n q u i l l i t y c a n d e ­
s t r o y th e d e file m e n t s , o n e s h o u ld fir s tly se e k t r a n q u illit y , a n d th a t b y
d i s r e g a r d i n g o n e ’ s d e l i g h t in t h e w o r l d , ( v v . 2 - 4 )

In this he is thoroughly traditional and in keeping with the

principles o f calming meditation, for ‘isolation’ or viveka is also
an inherent quality o f and indispensable condition for meditative
absorption, w hich is described time and again as viveka-ja, ‘born
 Perfection o f M editative Absorption 79

of isolation’ . T he purpose of this isolation is to free oneself from

the greatest distraction, desire (the first of the hindrances).
With this in mind Säntideva fills his instruction on the isola­
tion of the body (vv. 5-38) with exhortation to give up attach­
ment to loved ones, foolish companions, and competitiveness. It
is interesting to note that while the former categories are described
in terms appropriate to layman or monk, the terms o f the last
(vv. 17-25) are strongly redolent o f the rivalries which can grow
within the monastic community. While he emphasizes the mild
asceticism o f the forest life (vv. 27-9 ), he sees the state of bodily
isolation as happy and free, and concludes this section by saying:

T h e r e f o r e I s h a l l a l w a y s f o l l o w t h e s o l i t a r y l i f e , w h i c h is d e l i g h t f u l a n d
fre e f r o m s t r i f e , l e a d i n g t o t h e a u s p i c i o u s a n d c a l m i n g a ll d i s t r a c t io n s .

(v. 38)
With this preliminary established he then moves on to the
next phase o f meditative training, which involves the isolation or
withdrawal o f the mind (vv. 39-89):

F re e d fro m a ll o t h e r c o n c e r n s , m y o w n m in d in a s t a t e o f s i n g l e -
p o in t e d th o u g h t, I s h a ll a p p ly m y s e l f to t a m i n g a n d in c r e a s in g th e
m e d ita tiv e c o n c e n tr a t io n o f m y m in d . (v . 3 9 )

Since it is the passions, kämt!, that Säntideva identifies here as

the chief danger for the mind (v. 40), this section is entirely
devoted to attacking mental attachment, particularly that o f a
man for a woman. Apart from demonstrating that the assumed
audience for this work was male (the passion of a woman for a
man is not mentioned), this passage offers a sustained medita­
tion upon the foulness o f the human body, the asubha-bhâvanâ.
This was not an invention o f the author, but rather one of a
number o f standard meditations devised for the specific purpose
of counteracting particular hindrances to meditation. As is clear
from even a cursory reading of this passage, the asubha-bhävanä
is designed to eradicate passion and sensuous longing. Säntideva
begins by imagining the body o f the beloved as a corpse (vv. 4 1 -
8), but soon graduates to reflecting upon the filthiness o f the
human body (vv. 49-69). This is, of course, repugnant in Western
eyes too, but the unpleasant impact of such reflection is doubled
in traditional Indian caste society, where the polluting products
8o Perfection o f M editative Absorption

of the body are avoided at all cost, and where regular contact
with them, for example through laundry or leather work, can
relegate an entire class o f people to the very lowest social status.
Equally significant, and poignant and amusing by turns in its
authenticity, is the final stage o f this section (vv. 70 -8 3 ), in
which Säntideva expands upon the sheer effort that one has to
make if one decides to pander to one’s passions. He concludes
his account o f the practice of isolation with some o f the most
beautifully evocative verses of the entire work (vv. 85-8).
At this point Säntideva begins instruction in Mahä yäna medi­
tations specifically concerned with the cultivation o f the
Awakening Mind, with the words:

By developing the virtues of solitude in such forms as these, distracted

thoughts being calmed, one should now develop the Awakening Mind.

At first one should meditate intently on the equality of oneself and

others as follows: ‘All equally experience suffering and happiness. I
should look after them as I do myself.’ (vv. 89-90)

The central thrust of this meditation, which takes up the next

thirty verses (vv. 9 0 -119 ), is that the meditator should reflect
upon the equality o f oneself and other people, so that one ceases
to differentiate between the needs and concerns o f cither. Al­
though this practice is popularly associated with Säntideva, it
seems to have been overlooked that this meditation incorporates
some eight verses from a passage of the Tatlulgataglili}1a Sutra
which is quoted at length in the Siksä Samuccaya. It also in­
cludes, as v. 96, the first of Sântideva’s root verses from the
same text, and a partial paraphrase in v. 89 o f another verse from
the Tat hägat ag uhya Siitra which reads: ‘One should make firm
the Awakening Mind by practising the equality o f self and others’
(cf. Bendali and Rouse, p. 315).
The final stage of this specifically Mahäyänist meditation begins
with the enigmatic injunction:

Whoever longs to rescue quickly both himself and others should prac­
tise the supreme mystery: exchange of self and other, (v. 120)
In fact, this is exactly what it says it is: a meditation in which
one substitutes one’s own identity with that o f another person.
 Perfection o f M editative Absorption 81
Taking up the bulk o f the remainder of the chapter (vv. 1 2 0 -
73), this passage contains some o f the most bizarre and even
amusing reflections. Like many Buddhist meditation practices,
this involves an act o f imagination, but in this case it is em­
ployed for remarkable effect. While there is no doubt that
Säntideva expects that the trainee Bodhisattva should really
engage in this practice, it is also clear that to some extent the
scenario he envisages is purely theoretical and salutary in inten­
tion, for the extremes of negative emotion involved, such as
envy and pride (v. 140), would surely be detrimental in them­
selves. One might counter this with the suggestion that his
recommendation represents a strong medicine offered to coun­
ter a powerful sickness— the sickness of self-identity. One could
also interpret this as evidence of the character o f the community
amongst which the author lived and worked, witnessing the
need to counteract a complacency reinforced by the security and
social prestige enjoyed by the membership o f a major national
institution such as Nälandä in the eighth century c e . Whether
this is the case or not, the reflections once again take on a
monastic colouring, when the spiteful taunts that Säntideva
addresses towards himself from the perspective of another per­
son make frequent reference to jealousy over alms gifts. Most
outrageous o f all is his suggestion:

Even if he is given alms we must snatch them from him by force, giving
him only enough to live by if he does some work for us. (v. 153)
Did this ever happen between monks in real life, or was it just
some twist o f the author’s imagination?
The latter part o f the author’s exposition o f the exchange o f
self and others demands that the trainee Bodhisattva envisages
himself as a young, newly married wife— a remarkable sugges­
tion in itself (vv. 166 ff.). However, the full impact o f this pass­
age could easily be lost on a modern audience. That, in a
traditional society, women have a lower status than men is not
unusual. T h e position o f the newly married bride in India, how­
ever, can be particularly vulnerable to abuse. The ideal bride is
completely modest, submissive, and obedient. Often incorporated
into the extended household o f her husband at the very lowest
level, and completely isolated from her own family, she can be
82 Perfection o f M editative Absorption

subject to the potentially hostile scrutiny o f several generations

of other women, including her mother-in-law, all o f whom she
must now serve as well as her husband. T he murder and suicide
of such unfortunate women still occur in the present day. The
treatment that Säntideva envisages giving himself is the very
worst that a husband could offer— bullying, intolerance, selling
to others, and physical violence.
T he chapter concludes with a short passage on the restraint of
one’s appetites and the abandonment of interest in one’s body
(vv. 174-84), followed by a resolve to meditate effectively and to
gain insight (vv. 185-6).
T his concludes a simple descriptive account of Chapter 8, the
perfection of meditative absorption. Our account has shown that
the chapter can be understood as falling into two sections; the
first dealing with calming meditation, under the heading of the
isolation of body and mind, as generally understood in Mahäväna
and non-Mahäyäna forms of Buddhism; the second expounding
meditations explicitly concerned with developing the Awaken­
ing Mind, and hence exclusively Mahäyäna in orientation. The
possibilities o f interpretation are not, however, exhausted. The
evidence o f the Tun-huang recension o f the Bodhicarydvatdra
suggests that this chapter, more than any other, has been devel­
oped at the hand of an editor, and this may account for another
layer of interpretation which it is possible to draw from it. For
it is also the case that this chapter describes a progressive sequence
of insight or vipasyand meditation. More specifically, it describes
meditations concerned with cultivating the liberating insights
associated with the non-Mahäyäna and Cittamätra schools of
Buddhism. How and why is this so?
In the non-Mahäyäna tradition insight involves the direct
realization that the entities of the ordinary world are composite
and conditioned, i.e. made up of irreducible elements known as
dharmas, which mutually condition one another. Insight medita­
tion was therefore geared to the deconstruction o f ordinary
entities, especially that entity with which we have the greatest
problems as non-Awakened beings, the person. Techniques
employed for this include the analysis of the human body, and
reflections upon its impermanence, insubstantiality, and foul­
ness. In this light, we can see that some of Säntidcva’s reflection
 Perfection o f M editative Absorption 83
in the first section o f Chapter 8, concerning the isolation of body
and mind, amount to insight meditation of this sort.
In some respects the Mahäyäna form o f Buddhism arose in
contrast to the non-Mahäyäna, and this is especially clear in its
concept o f the insight which gives rise to liberation. The dis­
courses on the Perfection of Wisdom, the Prajnä-päramitä Sutras,
expound a realization that not only are the entities o f the ordin­
ary world composite and conditioned and therefore imper­
manent and so on, but so too are the elements, the dharmas, into
which they could be analysed. I f one does not pursue one’s
analysis to this depth, they argue, one cannot gain the liberating
insight o f full Awakening.
The M ahäyäna, however, was not itself a single entity, and
produced two major ‘ philosophical’ schools in India. T he
Madhyamaka school identified itself with the historical figure
of Nägärjuna (second century c e ), albeit retrospectively, and
took the Perfection o f Wisdom Sutras as its highest scriptural
authority. T his retrospective self-definition was made partly by
way of contradistinction to the Cittamätra school. The latter saw
itself in chronological succession to the Madhyamaka, and as
compensating for certain distortions or inappropriate emphases
upon the negative character o f ultimate truth as described by
that school. T h e Cittamätra refers to itself as ‘the third turning
of the Dharma wheel’, alluding to the alleged ‘first discourse’ of
the Buddha, delivered soon after his Awakening and known to
the tradition as ‘ the first turning o f the Dharma wheel’ . The
Perfection o f Wisdom Sutras, the scriptural focus for the
Madhyamaka school, describe themselves as ‘the second turning
of the Dharma wheel’. For the Cittamätra the ultimate truth
was expressed by its own teachings concerning the nature of
mind. While it accepted the analysis o f most entities and ele­
ments, it maintained that the flow o f consciousness is itself real,
and cannot be analysed into insubstantiality. Although the flow
of consciousness is real, the world of subject and objects is a
false projection, which can be eradicated by correct analysis.
They regarded the absence o f duality, i.e. the lack of difference
between self and other, as the ultimate truth, their understanding
of ‘the way things really are’ . It is therefore not difficult to see
that the meditations offered in the second part o f this chapter,
84 Perfection o f M editative Absorption

concerning the equality and the exchange o f self and others,

constitute insight meditations leading to just this sort o f realiza­
tion. T h e obvious ideological context for these practices is the
Cittamätra identification of self and other, on the basis of the
absence o f duality in the flow of consciousness.
I f this interpretation is valid, we can conclude that the author(s)
o f this present chapter used it to describe various insight medi­
tations leading to the realization of deeper and deeper degrees
of understanding, prajiïâ, associated with various systems of
Buddhist thought. I f this has established how our original con­
tention could be correct, it remains to explain why Säntideva
would have done this.
For the Madhyamaka the model of ultimate truth adopted by
the Cittamätra was not acceptable, and, ignoring the issue of
chronological development, the position adopted by many rep­
resentatives of this school, of whom Säntideva was one, was that
while the Madhyamaka account of ‘the way things really are’
was the ultimate truth, the account given by the Cittamätra had
a provisional truth, and a functional value. The same attitude is
applied to the realizations and ultimate truth about the way
things really are held by the non-Mahäyäna. T he Madhyamaka
therefore accepted the validity o f the analyses o f the non-
Mahäyäna and Cittamätra schools, and organized them as a
hierarchy of truths, placing their own view of the way things
are at the top of the heap.
This; was a predictable resolution of a problem which arose
wherever Buddhism was accessible in its greater diversity. Such
a scenario required thinkers to develop some system whereby
diverse teachings could be synthesized. T he usual response, and
a characteristically Indian one, was to create a hierarchy, ranking
the preferred account of ‘the way things really are’ as the high­
est, as ultimate truth. It appears that the non-Mahäyäna schools
largely ignored the Mahäyäna developments in scripture and
doctrine, but for the Mahäyäna itself, with its inclusive attitude
to scripture and doctrine, matters were different. T he Mahäyäna
schools were aware o f their own chronological development,
as we have already seen. All Mahäyäna schools accepted the
scriptures preserved by the non-Mahäyäna schools. However,
they did not accept them as offering a literal account o f ‘ the way
 Perfection o f M editative Absorption 85
things really are’, and instead used them as an ideological and
practical foundation-stone upon which to build their own ac­
counts o f ‘the way things really are’ and the practices needed to
realize that truth for oneself. Such a structure reflects the posi­
tion in the Buddhist monastic universities, where complex syn­
thetic systems and accounts of the Path to Awakening were
developed, incorporating other Buddhist systems and accounts
of ultimate truth, but seeing them as only conventional truth
(see 9.2 f. and notes).
Therefore the chapter that one expects to be concerned with
calming meditation alone involves insight meditation too, but
leading to the insights o f inferior systems of Buddhist thought,
and this is the clue to why Säntideva included them here. They
cannot be included in Chapter 9, in which he expounds his view
of the perfection of understanding, because for Säntideva the
perfection o f understanding is the Madhyamaka viewpoint alone.
Where they are mentioned in Chapter 9 it is to establish their
inferiority. Neither the non-Mahäväna nor the Cittamätra offer
the real ultimate truth, but they do offer insights which are
preparatory to it. Though an account of the ultimate truth of
other schools is inappropriate in his chapter on understand­
ing, they do have a function in his synthetic view o f the path,
which is a progressive realization of deepening degrees o f in­
sight. Hence these inferior truths are expounded within the
context o f meditative absorption. For Säntideva the realization
of lesser ultimate truths is an aspect o f the perfection of medit­
ative absorption, or rather functions as the object o f meditative
concentration, samädhi.
A further reason for Säntideva to place his meditation upon
the equality and exchange of self and other here is to be found
in the Madhyamaka understanding o f compassion. All schools
agreed that the Buddha experienced and gave expression to the
highest degree o f compassion. Within the Mahäyäna, Enlighten­
ment is universally described in terms o f a profound wisdom
and a far-reaching compassion. However, the relationship of
these two was understood in different ways. From the Cittamätra
perspective, compassion arises naturally from the realization of
the absence o f duality at the level o f ultimate truth, that is, the
realization o f the equality and interconnectedness o f self and
86 Perfection o f M editative Absorption
other. For the Madhyamaka the picture is different, in that the
realization of the equality of self and other was not regarded as
the ultimate truth, and therefore this natural entrance into com­
passion is not inherent in their understanding of Enlightenment.
For this reason, in the Madhyamaka system, compassion is a
virtue in which the Bodhisattva must train, prior to his
Enlightenment, so that as a Buddha he is properly equipped.
T his idea is not so surprising, especially when one remembers
the currency of stories concerning pratycka-buddhas, or solitary
Buddhas, who were understood to be Enlightened, but who did
not teach, presumably from a lack of compassion. Nor is the idea
of cultivating compassion foreign to the milieu of the ftitaka
stories, one of the most popular and widespread teaching medi­
ums used throughout the Buddhist tradition, wherein the
Bodhisattva (the historical Buddha-to-be) is shown repeatedly
sacrificing life and limb out of a compassionate interest in other
creatures (see Cowell et al. 189 5-19 07). T herefore, as a
Mädhyamika (i.e. a follower of the Madhyamaka), Säntideva
must build into the Bodhisattva training which he describes a
fail-safe method of developing compassion. The connection with
compassion is made explicit in the following verses:
W it h o u t e x c e p t i o n , n o . s u f f e r i n g s b e l o n g to a n y o n e . T h e y m u st be
w a r d e d o f f s i m p l y b e c a u s e t h e y a r e s u f f e r i n g . W h y is a n y li m i t a t i o n p u t
o n t h is ?

I f o n e a s k s w h y s u ffe r in g sh o u ld b e p r e v e n te d , n o o n e d is p u te s th at! I f
it m u s t b e p r e v e n t e d , t h e n a ll o f it m u s t b e . I f n o t , t h e n t h i s g o e s f o r
o n e s e lf a s fo r e v e ry o n e .

Y o u m a y a r g u e : c o m p a s s i o n c a u s e s u s s o m u c h s u f f e r i n g , w h y f o r c e it
t o a r is e ? Y e t w h e n o n e s e e s h o w m u c h t h e w o r ld s u f f e r s , h o w c a n t h is
s u f f e r i n g f r o m c o m p a s s i o n b e c o n s id e r e d g r e a t ?

I f th e s u ffe r in g o f o n e e n d s th e s u ffe r in g o f m a n y , th e n o n e w h o h a s
c o m p a s s io n f o r o t h e r s a n d h i m s e l f m u s t c a u s e t h a t s u f f e r i n g t o a r is e ,
(v v. 10 2 - 5 )

The need for an object of compassion to help the Bodhisattva

complete his training is stated by Säntideva in the next chapter
(see 9.75 and note). T his results in the strange inversion by
which compassion no longers exists for the sake o f beings, but
 Perfection o f M editative Absorption 87
beings are regarded as existing for the sake of the compassion
that the Bodhisattva needs to perfect:
If you argue: for whom is there compassion if no being is to be found?

[Our response is] For anyone projected through the delusion which is
embraced for the sake o f what has to be done. (9.75)

Unlike the insight o f Chapter 9, which is mainly concerned

with philosophical debate, the insights inculcated in this chapter
have a strong affective and moral significance.
 T h e P e r fe c t io n o f M e d ita tiv e A b s o r p tio n

1 Increasing one’s endeavour in this way, one should stabil­

ize the mind in meditative concentration, since a person
whose mind is distracted stands between the fangs of the
defilements.
2 Distraction does not occur if body and mind are kept se­
questered. Therefore, one should renounce the world and
disregard distracting thoughts.
3 The world is not truly renounced because o f attachment
and the thirst for acquisitions and other rewards. There­
fore, to renounce these, anyone with sense would reflect as
follows:

4 Realizing that one well-attuned to insight through tran­

quillity can destroy the defilements, one should firstly seek
tranquillity, and that by disregarding one’ s delight in the
world.
5 For what person is it appropriate to be attached to imper­
manent beings, when that person is impermanent, when a
loved one may no.t be seen again for thousands o f lives?
6 Not seeing them one finds no pleasure and cannot remain
in meditative concentration, and even when one does see
them one is not satisfied. One is tormented by longing, just
as before.
7 One does not see things as they really are. One loses the
sense o f spiritual urgency. One is consumed by that grief,
by hankering after contact with the one who is loved.
8 While uselessly preoccupied w'ith that person, life gets
shorter by the minute. For a friend who does not last, the
everlasting Dharma is lost.
g Someone who associates with fools invariably goes to a bad
rebirth, and someone w'ho disassociates himself is not liked.
What is gained from contact with fools?
 Perfection of M editative Absorption 89
10 They are friends in a moment, enemies the next. At an
occasion for being pleased they get angry. The multitude of
people are impossible to satisfy.
11 When given good advice they get angry, and they prevent
me from taking good advice. I f they are not listened to they
get angry and go to a bad rebirth.

12 Superiority causes jealousy. Equality causes rivalry. Inferi­

ority causes arrogance. Praise causes intoxication and criti­
cism causes enmity. When could there be any benefit from
a fool?
13 Between one fool and another something detrimental is inevit­
able, such as self-advancement, complaining about others,
or conversation about the pleasures of cyclic existence.

14 So in this wav contact with a fool brings harm to the other

person too. I shall live apart, happily, my mind undefiled.
15 One should flee far from a fool. One met one should gratify
with things that please— not with the intention of intimacy,
but rather as would a person who is well disposed but
impartial.

16 Taking only what serves the Dharma, as the bumble-bee

the nectar from the flower, I shall dwell without acquaint­
ance in any place, as if I had not been before.

17 ‘I receive plenty o f alms, I am honoured and many ask for

me’ : one who thinks this will still die and fears death when
it comes.

18 Wherever the mind, deluded about happiness, goes for pleas­

ure, a thousandfold suffering will arise and attend it.

19 Therefore a wise person would not desire it. Fear arises

from desire, yet it goes of its own accord. Be firm and bear
it impartially.

20 There have been many who have received alms-gifts and

many have been popular. It is not known where they have
gone with their alm s-gifts and popularity.
io Perfection o j M editative Absorption

21 Som e detest me. Why am I exultant when praised? Some

extol me. Why am I depressed when criticized?
22 Beings have different dispositions. They are not satisfied
even by the Conquerors, let alone by the ignorant likes of
me. So what’ s the point of worrying about the world?
23 T hey blame a person who does not receive alms. They
begrudge a person who does. How can there be any pleas­
ure with those who by their nature dwell in misery?
24 T h e Tathägatas taught that a fool is a friend to no one,
because a fool is not pleased unless his own purpose is
served.
25 Joy at the means to one’s own good is simply joy at one’s
own good, just as distress at the destruction o f material
goods is really caused by the loss of comforts.
26 Trees do not bear grudges nor is any effort required to
please them. When might I dwell with those who dwell
together happily?
27 Staying in an empty shrine, at the foot of a tree, or in caves,
when shall I go, free from concern, without looking back?
28 When shall I dwell in vast regions owned by none, in their
natural state, taking my rest or wandering as I please?
29 When shall I live free from fear, without protecting my
body, a clay bowl my only luxury, in a robe that thieves
would not use?
30 When shall I go to the local charnel ground and c o m p a re
m y own rotting body with other c o r p s e s ?

3 1 For this body o f mine will also turn putrid in that way, its
stench so vile even the jackals will not slink near.
32 Even the bits o f bone born together in this single body will
be scattered apart; how much more so other people one
holds dear?
33 Man is born alone and alone he dies. No one else shares his
agony. What help are those one loves, creators o f obstacles?
 Perfection o f M editative Absorption 9i
34 As one travelling a road takes lodging on his way, so too
one on the path o f existence takes lodging in each birth.

' 35 Before four men bear him out from there with the world
lamenting him, he should go forth to the forest.

36 Free from acquaintance, free from conflict, he is quite alone

in his body. Having already died to the world, he does not
grieve as he dies.

37 Neither do any cause him distress, staying close by him,

grieving, nor are there any to distract him from the Buddha
and the other recollections.

38 Therefore I shall always follow the solitary life, which is

delightful and free from strife, leading to the auspicious
and calming all distractions.

39 Freed from all other concerns, my own mind in a state of

single-pointed thought, I shall apply myself to taming and
increasing the meditative concentration of my mind.

40 For passions bring forth misfortunes in this world and the

next: through imprisonment, beatings, and dismemberment
in this world; in hells and other lower realms in the next.

41 For whose sake you respectfully greeted messengers and

go-betweens many times; for whose sake you hitherto
counted the cost o f neither misdeed nor disrepute,

42 And even threw yourself into danger and wasted your wealth;
on embracing whom you experienced the highest bliss;

43 She is nothing but bones, independent and indifferent. Why

do you not willingly cuddle them and feel bliss?

44 You saw that face before; you tried to lift it up when it was
lowered in modesty; or maybe it was covered by a veil and
you did not see.

45 Now that face is stripped by vultures as if they can no

longer bear your frustration. Look at it! Why do you recoil
now?
|2 . Perfection o f M editative Absorption
46 Why do you not jealously shield what was shielded even
from the glancing eyes of others, now that it is being
devoured?
47 Seeing this pile of meat being devoured by vultures and
other scavengers, is what is food for others to be wor­
shipped with garlands, sandalwood scent, and jewellery?

48 Although it does not move, you are terrified o f a skeleton

when it is seen like this. Why have you no fear o f it when
it moves as if animated by a vampire?

49 They produce both spit and shit from the single source of
food. You do not want the shit from it. Why are you so
fond of drinking the spit?

50 Taking no pleasure from silky pillows stuffed with cotton

because they do not ooze a dreadful stench, those in love
are entranced by filth.

51 You had this passion for it when it was covered over, so

why dislike it now uncovered? I f you have no use for
why do you rub against the cover?

52 I f you have no passion for what is foul, why do you em­

brace another, a cage of bones bound by sinew, smeared
with slime and flesh?

53 You have plenty of filth of your own. Satisfy yourself with

that! Glutton for crap! Forget her, that other pouch o f filth!

54 You want to see and touch it because you think you like its
flesh. How can you desire flesh, which is by its own nature
devoid o f any consciousness?

55 That mind that you desire can be neither seen nor to u c h e d ,

and what can be is not conscious, so why embrace it point-
lessly?
56 It is no wonder that you do not see that the body o f another
is formed from filth. That you do not understand your own
body to be formed from filth is astonishing!
 Perfection o f M editative Absorption 93

57 Aside from the delieate lotus, born in muck, opening up in

the ntvs o f a cloudless sun, what is the pleasure in a cage of
crap for a mind addicted to filth?

58 I f you do not want to touch something such as soil because

it is smeared with excrement, how can you long to touch
the body which excreted it?

59 I f you have no passion for what is foul, why do you em­

brace another, born in a field of filth, seeded by filth, nour­
ished by filth?

60 Is it that you do not like a dirty worm born in filth because

it’s only tiny? It must be that you desire a body, likewise
born in filth, because it is formed from such a large amount!

61 Not only are you not disgusted at your own foulness, you
glutton for crap, you yearn for other vats of filth!

62 Even the ground is considered impure when pleasant things

such as camphor or rice and curries are dripped or spat out
onto it.

63 I f you are not convinced that this is filth even though it is

right before your eyes, look at other bodies, too, discarded
and gruesome in the charnel ground.

64 Great is your fear when the skin has been ripped from it.
Knowing this how can you still take delight in that very
same thing again?

65 Though applied to the body this scent comes from the

sandalwood alone, not from anything else. Why are you
attracted towards one thing bv the scent of something else?

66 Surely it is good if its own natural stench prevents passion

towards it. Why do people take delight in what is worthless
and smear it with scent?

67 What if the sandalwood smells good? How does that affect

the body? Why are you attracted towards one thing by the
scent o f something else?
,4 Perfection o f M editative Absorption

68 If, with its long hair and nails, its teeth stained and yellow,
bearing blemishes and grime, the naked body is revolting in
its natural state,
69 Why is such an effort made to dress it like a weapon, for
one’ s own destruction? T h e world is a confusion of insane
people striving to delude themselves.
70 Apparently you were horrified when you saw a few corpses
in the charnel ground. Yet you delight in your village,
which is a charnel-ground thronging with moving corpses.
71 Moreover, even though this body is such filth, it is not
acquired without a price: the trouble o f earning for its sake
and torment in hells and other lower realms.

72 An infant is not able to earn money. With what can he get

pleasure as a young man? His youth is spent in earning.
What can an old man do with pleasures of the flesh?
73 Some who are prey to unwholesome desires, exhausted by
a full day’s work, on coming home at the end o f day just
sleep like the dead.

74 Others, on military expeditions, suffer the hardships of

living far from home. Though the years pass they do not
see the wife and children for whose sake they strive.

75 Deluded by their desires, they sell themselves to get what

they never receive. Instead, their life is uselessly wasted
doing work for someone else.

76 T h e wives o f others who have sold themselves to carry out

commissions have to give birth in places like the jungle and
scrubland.

77 In order to live, it seems, they enter battle at the risk of

their lives. For the sake of their pride they enter servitude.
They are fools made ridiculous by their passions.

78 Some, prey to passion, have limbs cut off. Others are struck
bv arrows. They are seen being burned to death and slain
with spears.
 Perfection o f M editative Absorption 95
79 Understand that a fortune is an unending misfortune with
earning and protecting it and the misery o f its loss. In their
distracted state those whose thoughts are fixed on wealth
have no opportunity to find release from the suffering of
existence.
80 For those prey to passion such misery is abundant, whereas
enjoyment is paltry, like snatches at bits of grass made by a
beast as it draws a cart.
81 For the sake o f that snatch o f enjoyment which is easy to
find even for a beast, this momentary good fortune which is
extremely hard to find is lost by one lost to their destiny.
82 T his exhausting effort is made for all time for the sake o f a
puny body which inevitably dies, which falls into hells and
other low realms.
83 With a fraction even one hundredth of a billionth o f that
effort one obtains Buddhahood. For those who follow their
passions the suffering involved is greater than the suffering
on the Path, and there is no Awakening.
84 No sword, no poison, no fire, no precipice, no enemies can
compare with the passions when one remembers the tor­
ments in hell and other lower realms.
85 T hus one should recoil from sensual desires and cultivate
delight in solitude, in tranquil woodlands empty of conten­
tion and strife.
86 On delightful rock surfaces cooled by the sandal balm of
the moon’s rays, stretching wide as palaces, the fortunate
pace, fanned by the silent, gentle forest breezes, as they
contemplate for the well-being o f others.
87 Passing what time one pleases anywhere, in an empty dwell­
ing, at the foot o f a tree, or in caves, free from the exhaus­
tion o f safeguarding a household, one lives as one pleases,
free from care,
88 One’s conduct and dwelling are one’s own choice. Bound to
none, one enjoys that happiness and contentment which
even for a king is hard to find.
96 Perfection o f M editative Absorption

89 By developing the virtues o f solitude in such forms as these,

distracted thoughts being calmed, one should now develop
the Awakening Mind.
90 At first one should meditate intently on the equality of
oneself and others as follows: ‘ All equally experience suf­
fering and happiness. I should look after them as I do
myself.’
91 Just as the body, with its many parts from division into
hands and other limbs, should be protected as a single
entity, so too should this entire world which is divided, but
undivided in its nature to suffer and be happy.
92 Even though suffering in me does not cause distress in the
bodies of others, I should nevertheless find their suffering
intolerable because o f the affection I have for myself,
93 In the same way that, though I cannot experience another’s
suffering in myself, his suffering is hard for him to bear
because of his affection for himself.
94 I should dispel the suffering o f others because it is suffering
like my own suffering. I should help others too because of
their nature as beings, which is like my own being.
95 When happiness is liked by me and others equally, what is
so special about me that I strive after happiness only for
myself?
96 When fear and suffering are disliked by me and others
equally, what is so special about me that I protect myself
and not the other?
97 I f I give them no protection because their suffering does
not afflict me, why do I protect my body against future
suffering when it does not afflict me?
98 The notion ‘it is the same me even then’ is a false construc­
tion, since it is one person who dies, quite another who is
born.
99 I f you think that it is for the person who has the pain to
guard against it, a pain in the foot is not o f the hand, so
why is the one protected by the other?
 Perfection o f M editative Absorption 97
100 I f you argue that, even though this conduct is inappropriate,
it proceeds from the sense o f self-identity, [our response is
that] one should avoid what is inappropriate in respect o f
self and others as far as one can.
101 The continuum o f consciousnesses, like a queue, and the
combination o f constituents, like an army, are not real. The
person who experiences suffering does not exist. T o whom
will that suffering belong?
102 Without exception, no sufferings belong to anyone. They
must be warded o ff simply because they are suffering. Why
is any limitation put on this?
103 I f one asks why suffering should be prevented, no one
disputes that! I f it must be prevented, then all o f it must be.
If not, then this goes for oneself as for everyone.
104 You may argue: compassion causes us so much suffering,
why force it to arise? Yet when one sees how much the
world suffers, how can this suffering from compassion be
considered great?
105 I f the suffering o f one ends the suffering of many, then one
who has compassion for others and himself must cause that
suffering to arise.

106 That is why Supuspacandra, though undergoing torture at

the hands o f the king, did nothing to prevent his own
suffering out o f sacrifice for many sufferers.
107 Those who have developed the continuum of their mind in
this way, to whom the suffering o f others is as important as
the things they themselves hold dear, plunge down into the
Avici hell as geese into a cluster o f lotus blossoms.
108 Those who become oceans of sympathetic joy when living
beings are released, surely it is they who achieve fulfilment.
What would be the point in a liberation without sweetness?

109 In fact, though acting for the good of others, there is nei­
ther intoxication nor dismay, nor desire for the resulting
reward, with a thirst solely for the well-being of others.
 Perfection o f M editative Absorption

n o Therefore, just as I protect myself to the last against criti­

cism, let me develop in this way an attitude of protective­
ness and of generosity towards others as well.
11 Through habituation there is the understanding o f ‘ I’ re­
garding the drops of sperm and blood o f two other people,
even though there is in fact no such thing.

12 Why can I not also accept another’s body as my self in the

same way, since the otherness of my own body has been
settled and is not hard to accept?
113 One should acknowledge oneself as having faults and others
as oceans of virtues. Then one should meditate on renounc­
ing one’s own self-identity and accepting other people.

1 14 In the same way that the hands and other limbs are loved
because they form part of the body, why are embodied
creatures not likewise loved because they form part o f the
universe?

1 1 5 In the same way that, with practice, the idea o f a self arose
towards this, one’s own body, though it is without a self,
with practice will not the same idea of a self develop to­
wards others too?

1 16 Though acting like this for the good of others, there is

neither intoxication nor dismay. Even after giving oneself
as food, there arises no hope for reward.

1 17 Therefore, in the same way that one desires to protect

oneself from affliction, grief, and the like, so an attitude of
protectiveness and of compassion should be practised to­
wards the world.

118 That is why the Protector, Avalokita, empowered even his

own name to drive away even such fear as the shyness
people have in front of an audience.

ih ; One should not turn away from difficulty, because by the

power o f practice the very thing one once feared to hear
becomes something without which one has no delight.
 Perfection o f M editative Absorption 99

120 Whoever longs to rescue quickly both himself and others

should practise the supreme mystery: exchange of self and
other.
121 I f even slight danger causes fear because o f overfondness
for oneself, who would not detest that self like a fear-
inspiring enemy?
122 One who, wishing to fend o ff hunger, thirst, and weakness,
kills birds, fish and animals, or lurks in wait on the highway,
123 One who, motivated by possessions and honour, would
even kill his parents, or would take the property of the
Three Jew els, who would thereby become fuel in the Avici
hell, •
124 What wise person would want such a self, protect it, wor­
ship it, and not see it as an enemy? Who would treat it with
regard?
125 ‘I f I give, what shall I enjoy?’ Such concern for one’s own
welfare is fiendish. ‘ I f I enjoy, what shall I give?’ Such
concern for the welfare o f others is divine.
126 By oppressing another for one’s own sake, one is roasted in
hells, but by oppressing oneself for the sake o f another, one
meets with success in everything.
127 A bad rebirth, inferiority, and stupidity result from the
mere desire for self-advancement. By transferring that same
desire to others, one achieves a good rebirth, honour, and
intelligence.
128 By commanding another to one’s own end one attains po­
sitions o f servitude, whereas by commanding oneself to the
benefit o f others one attains positions o f power.
129 All those who suffer in the world do so because o f their
desire for their own happiness. All those happy in the world
are so because o f their desire for the happiness o f others.
130 Why say more? Observe this distinction: between the fool
who longs for his own advantage and the sage who acts for
the advantage o f others.
100 Perfection oj M editative Absorption

1 3 1 For one who fails to exchange his own happiness for the
suffering of others, Buddhahood is certainly impossible
how could there even be happiness in cyclic existence.'
132 Never mind the next life! Even right here and now the
objective of a servant who does not work or of a master who
does not pay the wages cannot be achieved.
133 Having forsaken the promotion of one another’s happiness,
the fountain of happiness now and in the future, by causing
mutual distress, the deluded seize upon gruesome suffering.
134 The calamities which happen in the world, the sufferings
and fears, many as they are, they all result from clinging
onto the notion of self, so what good is this clinging of
mine?

135 I f one does not let go of self one cannot let go o f suffering,
as one who does not let go of fire cannot let go o f burning.
136 Therefore, in order to allay my own suffering and to allay
the suffering of others, I devote myself to others and accept
them as myself.
137 Hey Mind, make the resolve, ‘I am bound to others’ ! From
now on you must have no other concern than the welfare of
all beings.

138 It is not right to look to one’s own good with others’ eyes
and other senses. It is not right to set in motion one’s own
good with others’ hands and other limbs.
139 So having become devoted to others, remove from this
body everything you see in it, and use that to benefit others.
140 Creating a sense of self in respect of inferiors and others,
and a sense o f other in oneself, imagine envy and pride with
a mind free from false notions!

141 He is honoured, not I. I do not receive such alms as he. He

is praised. I am criticized. I suffer. He is happy.
142 I do chores while he remains at ease. He, it seems, is great
in the world. I, it seems, am inferior, without virtues.
 Perfection o f M editative Absorption io i

143 What can he clone by one without virtues? Each person has
his own virtues. There are those among whom I am the
worst. There are those among whom I am the best.

144 Such things as the failings in my conduct and views, as

result from the power of the defilements, are not in my
control. I should be cured as far as possible. I agree even to
painful treatment.

145 If he cannot cure me, why does he despise me? What use
are his qualities to me, when he is the one possessing the
qualities?

146 He has no compassion for people who stand in the vicious

jaws of an evil rebirth. Moreover, out of pride in his virtues
he longs to have victory over the learned.

147 If he regards himself as being on the same level as someone,

he will obtain alms-gifts and honour for himself to increase
his own advantage, even at the cost o f contention.

148 Suppose my virtues were to become apparent to everyone

in the world, then no one would even hear o f his virtues.

149 Were my faults to be concealed there would be worship for

me, not for him. Now I receive gifts o f alms easily. I am
honoured while he is not.

150 Delighted we shall watch while at last he is crushed, the

object o f everyone’s ridicule, criticized from all sides.

151 Indeed, it seems this wretch even vied with me! Does he
have this much learning, wisdom, beauty, good breeding,
or wealth?

152 Hearing my own virtues being related on all sides in this

way, tingling with delight, I shall drink from the fountain
of happiness.

153 Even if he is given alms we must snatch them from him by

force, giving him only enough to live by if he does some
work for us.
102 Perfection o f M editative Absorption

154 We must make him fall from happiness and involve him in
continual pain. Because o f him we have all suffered the
afflictions of cyclic existence hundreds of times.

155 Immeasurable aeons have passed while you sought to real­

ize your own well-being. T his mighty effort of yours has
led only to suffering.

156 At my entreaty proceed in this way right now without

delay. Later you will see the virtues of this, for the word of
the Sage is true.
157 This condition, without success, happiness, or Buddha-
hood, would not have come to pass if you had done this
before.

158 Therefore, just as you have formed the notion T regarding

others’ drops of sperm and blood, you must also develop
that notion regarding other people.

159 Acting as the other person, take away from this body every
useful thing you see in it, and use that to benefit others.

160 ‘He is well-situated, another badly off. The other is lowly.

He is exalted. T he other works. He does not.’ In this way
engender jealousy towards yourself.

161 Make yourself fall from happiness and involve yourself in

the suffering of others. Saying, ‘When does he do any­
thing?’ , point out his pretence.

162 Even if a mistake is made by someone else, on his head

alone let it fall, and, even if his error is only minor, inform
on him to the ‘great sage’ .

163 Tarnish his reputation with reports of the superior repute

o f others and set him to do tasks for people as if he were a
despised slave.

164 He should not be praised for his chance share o f virtues, for
he is full o f faults. Act so that no one might know o f his
virtue.
 Perfection o f M editative Absorption 103

165 In brief, whatever malicious act you performed upon others

in order to benefit yourself, cause that same predicament to
befall yourself for the benefit of living beings.

166 He should be given no encouragement at all which might

make him talkative. He should be made to behave like a
new bride: modest, timid, and guarded.

167 ‘Do this! Stay like that! You must not do this!’ This is how
he should be subjugated and punished if he disobeys.

168 If, despite being instructed in this way, you do not do it,
you it is, M ind, that I shall punish. All faults rest with you.

169 Where are you o ff to? I can see you. I shall knock all the
insolence out o f you. Things were different before, when I
was ruined bv you.

170 Give up now any hope that you may still get your own way.
Unworried as you are by repeated molestation, I have sold
you to others!

171 I f I do not give you away joyfully to living beings, you will
hand me over to the guards of hell. There is no doubt.

172 Long have I been tormented, handed over by you in that

way many times. Recalling those iniquities I shall strike you
down, you slave to your own wants.

173 I f you are pleased with yourself you should take no pleasure
in yourself. I f the self needs protection it is inappropriate to
protect it.

174 The more this body is protected, the more fragile it be­
comes, the more it degenerates.

175 And when it has degenerated in this way, even the entire
wealth-bearing earth is not adequate to fulfil its longings.
So, who will grant its desire?

176 One who longs for the impossible is tormented and his
hopes are shattered. Whereas, for one who does not hope
for anything, there is fulfilment unimpaired.
io 4 Perfection o f M editative Absorption

_ Therefore do not give rein to the ever increasing desires of

the body. I t is really good not to take something when one
wants it.
178 T his ghastly impure form, which is devoid of motion and is
impelled by another, is to end up lost in ashes. Why do I
cling to it?
179 What do I want with this contraption, whether it is dead or
alive? What is so special about its clay and other elements?
Hah! You do not violate your identification of it as your­
self!
180 One partial to the body earns suffering to no purpose.
What purpose has hostility or kindness for something equal
to a block of wood?

18 1 Whether protected by me in this way, or devoured by vul­

tures and other scavengers, it feels neither affection nor
dislike. Why do I create affection for it?
182 At its ill-treatment, rage; at its worship, pleasure; if it knows
neither for itself, for whose sake my exertion?
183 Those who are fond o f this body are said to be my friends.
Why are those who are fond of their own body not also dear
to me?
184 Therefore, without regret, I abandon my body to the bene­
fit of the world. For this reason, though it has many faults,
I carry it as a tool for the task.
185 So enough of worldly affairs! I shall follow the learned
ones, remembering the teaching on vigilance, warding off
sloth and torpor.
186 Therefore, in order to tear down the obscuring veil, I shall
concentrate my mind in meditation, constantly on the proper
object, dragging it from false paths.
 9

T H E P E R F E C T I O N OF
U N D ERST AN D IN G

A l l other teaching was in preparation for the perfection of

Understanding— so Säntideva explains in the first verse o f the
chapter by that name. Understanding o f the ultimate truth is,
then, the most important o f the perfections, and also, o f course,
the most difficult, if not impossible, to define. In recognition of
the ineffabili tv o f the salvific ‘omniscience’ of Buddhas, pro­
ponents o f the Madhyamaka school of Buddhist philosophy, to
which Säntideva adhered, refused to make any philosophical
statements o f their own. All intellection and verbalization are
part o f conventional truth or reality, rather than o f ultimate
truth. What one must realize is the emptiness, sünyatä, o f all
phenomena, including everything perceived as constituting the
universe. It includes philosophical views and statements of truth
not only o f other religions, but even those o f Buddhism itself,
such as the Four Truths o f the Nobles, found in the teaching o f
the historical Buddha’s first sermon (see v. 40). It even includes
Enlightenment.
The teaching o f sünyatä is propounded by the Prajm-pâramitâ
Sutras, the Perfection o f Wisdom Sutras, which are accepted.by
the Madhyamaka school as the highest scriptural authority. The
Prajnä-päramitä Sutras propound the ‘emptiness’ o f all phe­
nomena, but pay particular attention to the categories o f con­
stituents into which the psycho-physical organism called man is
analysed. These constituents, dharmas, their arising and cessa­
tion, were initially set forth by the pre-Mahäyäna tradition as
suitable objects o f meditation in order to develop the Under­
standing that there is no permanent, unchanging, entirely satis­
factory entity with which to identify. T o realize this was to
realize the truth. T h e regularization and organization o f these
teachings was the object o f a secondary body o f scripture, known
as the Abhidharma, or ‘ancillary doctrine’ . However, these cat­
egories and this truth seem themselves to have become the objects
io 6 Perfection o f Understanding
of reification, and to have been perceived as ultimates, particu­
larly by Äbhidharmikas, those who expounded the Abhidharma,
and who maintained that the lists o f such categories contained
the ultimate truth. The Prajnä-päramitä Sutras seem to have
arisen in reaction to such tendencies, attempting to rectify such
wrong views by reasserting exhaustively the emptiness o f all
phenomena. For something ‘to exist really’ it must be permanent,
unchanging, and independent of other factors. T he Madhyamaka
continued this tradition of asserting sünyatä, emptiness, by
demonstrating the inherent inconsistencies o f all statements
purporting to be true.
T he chapter on the perfection of Understanding in the
Bodhicaryävatära is a deluge of such refutation. A number of
opponents are lined up, each to be rebutted in turn as their
particular views become relevant to Säntidcva’s line of argu­
ment. It is the nature of such works as this that one knows the
winner from the outset. For the audience it is just a matter of
watching how skilfully each opponent is rebutted, how smooth
the turn to the next. No opponent is taken all the way through
the argument. Each is dismissed once he has served Sântideva’s
purpose. Opponents are refuted on their own grounds, their
theories shown to be flawed and often made laughable; or they
are taken under the wing o f the author and shown that, did they
but understand their own theories properly, they would realize
they were in agreement with the Madhyamaka in what is really
relevant.
Even to refute is to make a statement and take a position of
some kind. The statements most characteristic o f the Mad­
hyamaka are such as these:
. . . n o t h in g e x i s t s w i t h o u t a c a u s e , n o r c o n t a in e d in i n d i v i d u a l o r c o m ­
b in e d c a u se s.

N e i t h e r h a s a n y t h i n g c o m e f r o m a n o t h e r , n o r d o c s it r e m a i n , n o r d o e s
it g o . . . ( v v . 1 4 1 - 2 )

I t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e r e is n o c e s s a t i o n a n d t h e r e is n o c o m i n g in t o e x i s t ­
e n c e a t a n y t i m e . T h e r e f o r e n o n e o f t h is e n t i r e u n i v e r s e h a s c o m e in t o
e x is t e n c e o r c e a se d , (v . 14 9 )

T he arguments which lead to these conclusions are, in places,

extremely difficult to understand, especially as it is not possible
 Perfection o f Understanding 107

to be sure o f the original line of reasoning: there is debate within

the Buddhist tradition over the interpretation of individual verses
and even disagreement whether some arguments are put for­
ward bv the opponent or the Mädhyamika. Moreover, the ex­
acting style of this chapter derives from the competitive scholastic'
debates which took place daily at such monastic universities as
Nälandä. According to the Chinese monk Hsiian-tsang, who
visited Nälandä in the first half o f the seventh century CE, even
monks o f moderate renown who had managed to pass the exact­
ing entrance examination were certain to be humbled and to
forfeit their renown at such debates (Dutt 1962, 328 f'f.). The
abstruse character of this chapter is therefore deliberate and a
mark of its success.
In some places in our translation we have chosen to differ
from the interpretation of received tradition, especially where
that interpretation seems far-fetched. For example, the argu­
ment o f the Cittamätra (‘ M ind-only’) opponent in v. 24 is tra­
ditionally understood to refer to mind-reading, which is one of
the supernormal powers o f a Buddha. The debate at this point
is whether or not the mind can perceive itself. According to the
Cittamätra there must be a real mind which is the basis of the
illusory world and that illusion is the product o f and perceived
by the unenlightened mind. ‘ I f someone with the necessary causal
conditions such as concentration can see the consciousness of
others from alar, therefore it must be possible to clearly behold
one’s own consciousness which is so near’ (Batchelor 1979, 131).
Taken in this way, the argument in the verse is that, if the mind
of a Buddha can perceive the mind of another, mind must be able
to perceive mind, thus proving that the mind can perceive itself.
H o w ever, we u n d e rsta n d th e a rg u m e n t as an a s s e r tio n th at
th e m in d is a w a r e o f i t s e l f b y i n f e r e n c e : it k n o w s t h a t it e x i s t s
b e c a u s e it p e r c e i v e s , o t h e r w i s e w h a t w o u ld b e p e r c e iv in g ?

It illuminates itself by seeing what is in indirect contact with the cause. .

YVe think that our interpretation makes better sense of the San­
skrit, fits the flow o f the debate, and better justifies the refuta­
tion by the Mädhyamika. Yet there is no support for our
interpretation in the commentarial tradition on this verse and it
is radically different from the traditional interpretation. Is it
108 Perfection o f Understanding

really possible for the tradition to have ‘got it wrong’ ? Can we be

justified in rejecting the interpretation offered by Prajnâkaramati?
T o answer this we shall look at that tradition.
T he earliest commentaries on the Bodhicaryävutära known to
us were probably written in the tenth to eleventh centuries CE,
that is, three centuries after its composition. These commentar­
ies are based on the canonical version. However, the substantially
different and shorter version of the Bodhicmyavat am recovered
from Tun-huang seems to have been mentioned in a ninth-
century Tibetan catalogue (see Saito 1993, 13). T he Tun-huang
version contains some verses identical to those in the canonical
version, some additional to them, and some which are similar
but not identical, as well as excluding many verses present in the
canonical version (sec below). By the time of the commentaries
available to us, then, there was already considerable discrepancy
between the two versions of the text.
Although these commentaries show no awareness o f the exist­
ence of another version and the canonical version is accepted as
the product o f a single author, uncertainty is expressed regard­
ing certain verses in this chapter: Prajnâkaramati gives two vari­
ant readings for v. 52, and denies the authenticity o f a series of
verses: 4 9 -5 1. Even if Prajnâkaramati and the later commenta­
tors had access to an unbroken tradition o f commentary on the
text reaching back to its original composition, the text clearly
underwent a great deal of change, as did its interpretation.
Commentaries were composed for a combination of reasons.
They preserved the text and provided it with meaning at differ­
ent levels, from the grammatical to the spiritual. T he text was,
and is, used as the basis for spiritual instruction, but the meaning
given to the text was coloured by the religious perspective o f the
individual commentator and of his milieu. This led to the inclu­
sion in the main body of the text of additional material, perhaps
originally commentarmi, considered important or relevant by
that tradition. T hus, for example, the canonical recension of the
Bodhicaryävatära contains a section, not found in that from
Tun-huang, refuting the existence of a creator god (vv. 118 -2 5 ),
and possibly indicating the increased importance o f monotheis­
tic beliefs in the centuries after Sântideva’s time or in the geo­
graphical region where such material was incorporated.
 Perfection o f Understanding 109
It is characteristic o f the Indian commentami style to read as
much as possible into the basic text. Some types of commentary
on Hindu scriptures even read entire words, sentiments, and
references into the individual letters o f a word. While no such
extreme occurs here, it remains true that the tradition has pro­
vided a considerable amount o f material, which may be far
removed from the intentions of the original author. At the same
time, though one may attempt to recover his intention, one can
at best make an informed guess and cannot be certain that any
conclusions are correct. (No autograph manuscript o f a medieval
Indian Buddhist text has survived to the present day.) So, as far
as Säntideva’s intention is concerned, an absolute ‘ truth’ cannot
be reached. Yet the interpretations o f different traditions are
true for them, because they are relevant to the aims and world
view o f those traditions. In making this translation we are not
representing any particular Buddhist tradition, and our approach
has been to try to provide the simplest possible reading of the
text in the hope that this also corresponds most closely to the
author’s intent.
Existing translations o f this chapter into English, French, and
German supply varying, sometimes copious, amounts o f addi­
tional commentami material within the translation itself, without
which the verses o f the text are deemed to be incomprehensible.
(Verse 24 quoted above is a mild example of this method.) With
the exception o f stage directions, we have avoided such addi­
tional material in our translation, since we feel it can distort
and sometimes confuse the line o f argument. It also totally ob­
scures the literary character of the original text. Though terse,
the verses do, in our opinion, contain all the arguments and
these do make sense by themselves. This terseness is charac­
teristic o f texts o f Indian philosophical debate. A word or two
referring to a particular argument, belief, or analogy would
conjure up the whole in its entirety for a scholar familiar with
contemporary philosophical positions and their rebuttal. This
terseness, combined with the fact that it deals with philosophical
issues, explains why most o f the difficulties and differences o f
interpretation o f the Bodhicaryävatära relate to this chapter.
While we feel that the additional material provided by exist­
ing translations does on occasion distort the line o f argument, it
x jo Perfection o f Understanding
is undeniable that the line of argument has in any case become
distorted in transmission. From comparison with the Tun-huang
version it is clear that in places the argument would flow more
smoothly without the additions present in the canonical recension.
T he general structure is untidy. For example, there is debate
with the Sämkhya school in two different places in the current
recension. Admittedly, this is only an aesthetic failing, but one
which we suspect the author would have preferred not to allow.
Furthermore, there is confusion as to whether certain argu­
ments expressed are those of the Mädhyamika philosopher, i.e.
Säntideva, or of his Cittamätra opponent. T he Cittamätra school
of Buddhist philosophy is closely related to the Madhyamaka
school, responding to its perceived shortcomings (see Introduc­
tion to Chapter 8), and it is, therefore, understandable that they
are difficult to distinguish. Nevertheless, it seems likely that
matters were clearer prior to some of the additions made to the
canonical recension. It is in any case interesting to compare and
speculate. Since Saito’s work on this chapter is not easily
accessible, we reproduce below a summary of part o f the table in
which he compares this chapter from the two recensions by
listing which verses have equivalents, approximate equivalents,
or are absent from the other version (Saito 1994, 9 -13 ). He uses
the numbering of the Sanskrit editions, which we have taken the
liberty o f readjusting (on the numbering, see below). We are
assuming that his mention of the canonical version’s 20cd to
2iab is a reference to the verse included in error by Minaev.
Thus our ‘ 2 1 ’ is Saito’s ‘ 22’, etc., whereas our numbering prior
to 21 is the same as his. In our lists the letters a and b refer to
the two halves of a Sanskrit verse.
T h e f o l l o w i n g v e r s e s o f t h e c a n o n i c a l v e r s io n h a v e e q u i v a l e n t s in th e
T u n - h u a n g v e r s io n :

3 5 7a g b -io a n a 12 -14 3 15 1 8 a 19 a 2 1 2 3 a 3 0 - 3 1 3 3 4 3 6 —3 7 5 3 ~ 5 4
5 6 -5 9 74 8 1 83 85 87 99a io o b - io i 10 3 - 10 4 14 1b 14 3 14 5 8 b i 4 7 _ I 48
15 1-15 2 16 4 a .

T h e f o l l o w i n g v e r s e s o f t h e c a n o n i c a l v e r s io n h a v e a p p r o x i m a t e e q u i v a ­
le n t s in t h e T u n - h u a n g v e r s i o n :

1 2 4 6 9a Io b I ib 1 4 b i b a i 7 a * 8 b 1 9 b 2 0 b 2 2 2 4 - 2 5 3 2 a 3 3 3 5 4 2 55
68a 7 5 78 79 b 80 82 84 86 9 9 b - !0 0 a 10 2 14 2 14 9 -15 0 15 3 -15 5 lf ) 7 -
 Perfection o f Understanding 111
T h e f o l l o w i n g v e r s e s o f t h e c a n o n i c a l v e r s i o n h a v e n o e q u i v a l e n t s in t h e
T u n - h u a n g v e r s io n :

7 b -8 16 b 17 b 20a 2 3b 26 -29 3 1b 32b 3 8 -4 1 4 3 -5 2 6 0 -6 7 6 8b -7 3

7 6 - 7 7 79a 8 8 - 9 8 10 5 -14 12 14 4 I 4 5 b - i 4 6 15 6 -16 3 16 4 6 - 16 6 ..

Saito also gives the reverse information for the Tun-huang

recension o f this chapter, which reveals that it in turn contains
verses not in the canonical recension. Most o f these come in the
section to which Saito gives the subheading ‘Examination of
Selflessness’ (vv. 57 -7 7 in the canonical recension). The total
number o f verses in the Tun-huang recension of this chapter is
92, making it much shorter than the canonical recension, which
has 167 verses.
An outline o f the structure o f this chapter in the canonical
recension, the basis o f our translation, is given below. We have
given more detailed assistance and explanation in the notes to
this chapter:

Introduction o f topic: Understanding v. 1

The existence o f two levels o f truths or reality vv. 2-8
Refutation o f Hïnayânist (non-Mahäyäna) re process o f gaining
merit vv. 9 - 10
Refutation o f M ind-only vv. 1 1- 3 4
Refutation o f Hïnayânist vv. 35-56
Refutation o f an entity T , vv. 57-87:
on basis o f analysis, accepted by Hïnayânist, o f body into
teeth, hair, blood, etc. vv. 57-9
against Sam khya theory o f a Se lf characterized by conscious­
ness vv. 6 0 -7
against Nyäya definition o f S e lf vv. 68—9
concerning moral consequences in absence of a S e lf vv. 70 -1
as the mind vv. 7 3 -4
concerning the problem o f the practice of compassion vv.
75-6
by analysis o f the body down to atoms which are also analysed
vv. 7 7 -8 7
Refutation o f an entity ‘sensation’ vv. 8 8 -10 1
i !2 Perfection o f Understanding
Refutation o f an entity ‘ mind’ vv. i02~5a
Conclusion that no entities really exist v. 105b
Nature of the existence o f two truths vv. 106—n a
Impossibility of establishing causality or non-causality, vv.
11 ib-49:
between consciousness and object of consciousness vv.
11 ib - 1 5
including impossibility o f existence without causes vv.
1 16 - 17
of God vv. 1 18 -25
of atoms v. 126a
of the Sämkhya theories of the three constituents of primal
matter and the consequence being present in the cause vv.
i26b-37
concluded, and taken as proof of emptiness vv. 138-49
Spiritual relevance of the established emptiness vv. 15 0 -3
Resolve that all beings should understand emptiness v. 154a
The horrors of cyclic existence, the result of not realizing empti­
ness vv. i54b-Ó5
Resolve to bring all beings to the understanding o f emptiness
vv. 166 -7
The refutation of the ultimate existence of a personal entity,
‘I ’, or o f any other entity, contained in vv. 5 7 -10 5 , follows the
structure o f the four ‘ foundations o f Mindfulness’ , the sati-
patthäna (in Pali). These are the subject of the two Sati-patthäna
Suttas in the Pali Buddhist canon and form one o f the most
fundamental Buddhist meditation practices for the development
o f mindfulness and Understanding. The four are the body (käya),
sensations (vedano.), mind (citta), and all phenomena or possible
objects o f the mind (dharnta). Though this last category is stated
in v. 105b, it could be taken as the subject o f the entire remain­
ing debate.
According to the Sati-patthäna Suttas, by observing each cat­
egory and applying various analyses to them, one realizes that
they are not fixed entities, that they all arise and cease. In
Säntideva’s work various opponents are refuted through the
analyses o f these four categories. Moreover he takes the analyses
 Perfection o f Understanding 113
beyond the traditional limit to their logical extreme. He estab­
lishes that even the resulting products of analysis can be reduced
to nothing by further analysis and are therefore ‘empty’. Even
their arising and cessation will be stated to be ultimately empty
later on in the argument (v. 14g). Thus Säntideva takes a tradi­
tional Buddhist analysis and uses its own methods to draw out
from it the Madhyamaka truth o f ‘emptiness’ (sünyatä).
The main opponents in this chapter are either fellow Bud­
dhists o f other schools o f Buddhist philosophy: the Hînayânist
(i.e. the non-Mahäyäna), including the Äbhidharmika, and the
Mind-only; or proponents of orthodox schools of Brahmanical
Hindu philosophy: the Sâmkhya and the Nyäya-vaisesika. Most
attention is given to the Hînayânist, the Mind-only, and the
Sâmkhya. Madhyamaka developed in reaction to the Hînayânists,
who do not accept realization of emptiness as the liberating
Understanding. Mind-only accepts emptiness, but, in reaction
to Madhyamaka, posits the real existence of a mind which under­
lies both cyclic existence and Enlightenment. The Madhyamaka
did not accept this development (see the Introduction to Chapter
8). The argument probably engages with those opponents most
strongly represented in the monastic university environment.
We have identified the speaker as the Mädhyamika or as an
opponent with the help of stage directions in square brackets.
There are exceptions to this when Säntideva makes it clear in
his text that he is presenting the opponent’s view by such phrases
as ‘if you argue th a t. . .’, ‘ if you claim that’, or ‘What if. .
The Sanskrit editions accessible to us (see p. xl) contain vari­
ous errors in the numbering of the verses. There are 167 verses,
but the final number counted by all of them is 168. This results
from a mistake, reproduced by Minaev (1890) from the text
recorded in a manuscript before him, which had copied the
equivalent o f a single verse twice— a common scribal error.
Verses 20b and 21a of his edition are not found in some manu­
scripts or in the Tibetan translation. Although De la Vallée
Poussin ( ig o i-14 ) and Vaidya (1988) point out this error (albeit
with a rather confused regurgitation of De la Vallée Poussin on
the part o f Vaidya), they both retain the numbering originally
provided by Minaev. We have not. Nor have we retained the
occasional numbering o f three-line and one-line verses that they
1 14 Perfection o f Understanding

offer in an attempt to redress the marked limp, where sentences

straddle verses, created by the insertion o f verses and half verses
into the text during the course o f its history (see Saito 1994, pp.
2-3). We begin at the beginning, counting each verse as one
verse until we reach the end. T hus we finish at v. 167, and with
the advantage that our numeration corresponds to that of trans­
lations from the Tibetan.
A few other works have been published on, or including, this
chapter (see the General Introduction, n. 17). T h e most read­
able of them is H.H. the Dalai Lama, Transcendent Wisdom
(1988). Additionally, available in facsimile is Michael Sweet’s
Ph.D. thesis Santideva and the Madhyamika: The Prajnäpäranulä-
pariccheda oj the Bodhicary avatar a, University o f Wisconsin
(U.M .I. Dissertation Services, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1976).
T his provides the most material, including a translation o f the
commentary by Prajnäkaramati.
 T h e P e r fe c t io n o f U n d e r s t a n d in g

1 It is for the sake o f understanding that the Sage taught this

entire collection o f preparations. Therefore, in the desire to
put an end to suffering, one should develop understanding.

2 It is agreed that there are these two truths: the conventional

and the ultimate. Reality is beyond the scope o f intellec­
tion. Intellection is said to be the conventional.

3 In the light o f this, people are seen to be of two types:

namely, the spiritually developed and the spiritually unde­
veloped. O f these, the world-view of the undeveloped is
invalidated bv the world-view o f the spiritually developed.

4 Even the views o f the spiritually developed are invalidated

by the superior understanding of those at successively higher
levels, by means o f an analogy which is accepted by both
parties, irrespective o f what they intend to prove.

5 Ordinary people see existent things and also imagine them

to be real, that is to say, not as an illusion. It is in this
regard that there is disagreement between the ordinary
person and the spiritually developed.

6 Even the objects o f direct perception, such as visible form,

are only established by popular consensus and not by a
valid means o f knowledge. That consensus is wrong, like,
for example, the popular view that impure things are pure.

7 T he Protector taught in terms of existent things in order to

guide people.
I f it is objected on the basis of conventional usage that in
reality these entities are not momentary,

8 [the fact is that] there is no fault in the use o f conventional

truth by the spiritually developed. They understand reality
better than ordinary people do. Otherwise ordinary people
would invalidate the definition o f women as impure.
j ! (j Perfection o f Understanding

g Merit comes from a Conqueror who is like an illusion in

the same way as it would if he was truly existent.
[Hïnayânist] I f a living being is like an illusion, how then is
it reborn once dead?
10 [Mädhyamika] Even an illusion persists for as long as the
concurrence of its causes.
How does a being truly exist simply because there is a
continuum of states that last a long time?

11 [Cittamätra] I f consciousness does not exist, then there is

no evil in, for example, murdering an illusory man.
[Mädhyamika] On the contrary, good and evil arise when
one is endowed with the illusion of consciousness.

12 [Cittamätra] An illusory conscious mind is not possible,

since spells and the like cannot produce such an illusion.
[Mädhyamika] Illusion is also of different kinds, arising
from different causes.

13 Nowhere is there a single cause which has the power to

produce everything.
[Cittamätra] I f one liberated according to ultimate truth
remains subject to cyclic existence according to conven­
tional truth,

14 Then, in that case, even a Buddha would be subject to

cyclic existence. So what is the point of the path o f conduct
leading to Awakening?
[Mädhyamika] Because illusion is not stopped unless its
causes are stopped,

15 Whereas, even according to conventional truth, it is not

possible when its causes are destroyed.
[Cittamätra] When even false perception does not exist, by
what is illusion perceived?

16 [Mädhyamika] When, according to you, illusion itself does

not exist, what is perceived?
[Cittamätra] It is an aspect of the mind itself, even if it is
different from reality.
 Perfection o f Understanding 1 17
17 [Mfidhyamika] I f illusion is the same as the mind, what is
seen by what? Moreover, it is taught by the Protector of the
world that mind does not perceive mind.
18 As a knife blade cannot cut itself, so it is with the mind. If
you object that it illuminates itself, as does a light,

19 [our response is that] a light-source itself is not illumin­

ated, because it is not concealed by darkness.
[Cittamätra] Unlike clear crystal, a blue object is not de­
pendent on anything else for its blueness.
20 T his shows that something is either dependent on another
or independent.
[Mädhyamika] When something is not blue it cannot make
itself blue by itself.

21 A light is said to illuminate once this action is cognized by

a cognition. Intellection is said to illuminate once this is
cognized by what?
22 Whether the mind is luminous or not, talking about it is
pointless since it is never seen by anything, like the beauty
o f a barren woman’s daughter.
23 [Cittamätra] I f there is no self-perception, how is conscious­
ness remembered?
[Mfidhyamika] Memory comes from connection with an­
other experience, as with the shrew’s poison.
24 [Cittamätra] It illuminates itself by seeing what is in in­
direct contact with the cause.
[Mädhyamika] A jar seen by applying sight-restoring lotion
would still not be the lotion itself.
25 How something is seen, heard, or cognized is not what is
contested here, but it is refuted here that projection is real,
as that is the cause o f suffering.

26 [Mädhyamika] I f illusion is the same as the mind it is false

to claim that it is also different. I f it exists as a thing in its
own right, how is it the same? I f it is the same, then it does
not exist in its own right.
n g Perfection o f Understanding

27 Just as illusion can be seen even though it does not really

exist, so it must be with the thing that sees, the mind. If
you claim that cyclic existence must be based on something
real or else it would be just like space,

28 [our reply is] How could something non-existent gain causal

efficiency by being based on something real? For, according
to you, the mind is reduced to isolation, accompanied by
things which do not exist.

29 I f the mind is without external objects, then everyone is a

Tathägata. That being so, what virtue is gained even if
‘ mind-only’ is posited?

30 [Cittamàtra] Even if the similarity to illusion is recognized,

how does defilement cease, when lust for a woman who is
an illusion still arises in the one who created her?

31 [Mädhyamika] That happens because the influence of the

defilements and what is cognized has not been destroyed in
her creator, so that at the time of seeing her the influence of
emptiness in him is weak.

32 The influence of phenomena is removed by employing the

influence o f emptiness, and even that is later eradicated by
inculcating the realization, ‘nothing really exists’ .

33 [Cittamàtra] I f it is concluded that the entity which does

not really exist cannot be perceived, then how does a non­
entity which is without basis remain before the mind?

34 [Mädhyamika] When neither entity nor non-entity remains

before the mind, since there is no other mode of operation,
grasping no objects, it becomes tranquil.

35 As the wishing-gem and the magical tree fulfil desires, so

the appearance o f the Conqueror is seen because o f his vow
and the people who need to be trained.

36 Ju st as a pillar empowered by an expert on poisons, who

then dies, will continue to neutralize venom and other
poisons even when he is long dead,
 Perfection o f Understanding 119
37 So too the ‘ pillar’ that is the Conqueror, empowered by
following the path to Awakening, continues to achieve all
ends even after that Bodhisattva has attained Enlightenment.
38 [Hlnayänist] How could worship offered to something which
has no consciousness be fruitful?
[Mädhyamika] Because it is taught that it is the same whether
he is present or has attained Enlightenment,
39 And, according to scripture, fruit comes from that worship,
whether it is conventionally true or ultimately true, in the
same way that worship offered to an existing Buddha is said
to be fruitful.
40 [Hlnayänist] Liberation comes from understanding the
Truths. What is the point of understanding emptiness?
[Mädhyamika] T he reason is that scripture states that there
is no Awakening without this path.
41 [Hrnayänist] Surely Mahäväna scripture is not established!
[Mädhyamika] In what way is your scripture established?
[Hrnayänist] Because it is established for both of us.
[Mädhyamika] It was not established for you at first!
42 Apply your criterion for the acceptance o f it to Mahäyäna
scripture also. I f something is true because accepted by two
different parties even texts such as the Vedas would be
true.
43 I f your objection is that Mahäyäna scripture is controver­
sial, reject your own scripture since it is contested by non-
Buddhists, and any part in that scripture contested by your
own people or others.
44 T he dispensation is rooted in the monkhood and the
monkhood itself is imperfectly established. Even the En­
lightenment o f those whose minds grasp onto entities is
imperfectly established.
45 I f your objection is that liberation results from the destruc­
tion o f the defilements, then it should happen immediately
afterwards. Yet one can see the power over them even o f
undefiled action.
120 Perfection o f Understanding

46 I f you put forward the argument that they have no craving

leading to grasping,
[our response is:] Even if their craving is undcfiled, does it
not exist as delusion?
47 Feeling causes craving, and they do have feeling. A mind
which has objects will get stuck on one or another.
48 Without emptiness a mind is fettered and arises again, as in
the meditative attainment of non-perception. Therefore one
should meditate on emptiness.
49 You accept that whatever text might be in accordance with
the Discourses was spoken by the Buddha. So why are the
Mahäyäna scriptures not accepted as equal in value to your
own Discourses?
50 I f the whole lot is faulted because one part is not accepted,
why not treat the lot as spoken by the Conqueror because
a single part is the same as in the Discourses?
51 Who will bar acceptance of the teaching over which those
led by the Great Käsyapa hesitated, simply because you do
not understand it?
52 Remaining in cyclic existence for the benefit o f those suf­
fering through delusion is achieved through freedom from
the two extremes, attachment and fear. T his is the fruit of
emptiness.
53 So, that being the case, there is no valid objection to the
emptiness position. Therefore, emptiness should be medi­
tated upon without reservation.
54 Since emptiness is the countermeasure to the darkness of
the obscuration o f what is cognized and the obscuration by
the defilements, how is it that one who desires Omniscience
does not make haste to meditate upon it?
55 Granted that something which causes suffering causes fear—
but emptiness allays suffering! So why does it cause fear?
56 Granted, too, fear may come from any quarter whatsoever
if there is something called ‘ I’ . I f your position is that there
is no T , who can be afraid?
 Perfection o f Understanding 12 1

57 T he teeth, hair, or nails are not I, nor is the bone, nor am

I the blood, neither the mucus nor the phlegm, not the pus
nor the synovial fluid.

58 I am neither the marrow nor the sweat. I am neither the

lymph nor the intestines. I am not the rectum, nor am I the
excrement or the urine.

59 I am neither the flesh nor the sinews. I am neither heat nor

wind. I am neither the orifices nor, in any way, the six
consciousnesses.

60 I f I were consciousness o f sound, then sound would be

perceived at all times. But without something to be con­
scious of, what does it perceive on account of which there
is said to be consciousness?

61 I f not being conscious o f anything is consciousness, it fol­

lows that a block o f wood is consciousness. This proves that
there is no consciousness in the absence of something to be
cognized.

62 Why does what is conscious of a colour not also hear it at

the same time? [If you argue that] When it has no connec­
tion with sound there is also no consciousness of such from
that,

63 [we respond:] How can something whose nature is to per­

ceive sound perceive colour?
[Sämkhya] One person is regarded both as a father and a
son.
[Mädhyamika] But they do not really exist,
64 Since neither ‘ goodness’, nor ‘passion’, nor ‘darkness’ are
either the son or the father. Moreover, its essential nature
is not observed in connection with the perception of sound.

65 I f you argue: It is the same thing taking on a different

guise, like an actor. He too does not remain constant. The
one thing has different natures.
[W c respond that] It has an unprecedented kind o f uni­
formity.
22 Perfection o f Understanding

66 I f the different nature is not the true nature, then please

describe what its own form is. I f it is the nature o f con­
sciousness, then it follows that all people are one and the
same.
67 What is conscious and what is unconscious would also be
one and the same thing because both arc equally existent.
After all, if difference is false, then on what basis is there
similarity?
68 That which is not conscious is not ‘I’ because it lacks con­
sciousness like an object such as a cloth. I f it is a conscious
thing because it possesses consciousness it follows that when
it stops being conscious of something it perishes.
69 I f the Self is in fact unchanged, what is achieved by its
having consciousness? It is agreed that the nature of some­
thing which is unconscious and does not partake in any
activity in this way is the same as space.
70 If you argue that the connection of action and consequence
is not possible without a Self, for ‘If the agent o f the action
has perished who experiences the consequence?’ ,
71 [our response is:] For both of us it is established that the
action and the consequence of the action have a different
location. Moreover, since the self does not have any func­
tion in this, surely arguing this point is irrelevant here.
72 The one who provides the cause is connected with the con­
sequence? Such an occurrence is never seen. It is taught that
there is an agent and an experiencer of the consequence in
terms of a unity of the continuum of consciousnesses.
73 T he past or future mind is not T since that does not exist.
I f the present mind is ‘I’ then, when it has ceased, the T
does not exist any more.
74 Just as the trunk of a banana tree is nothing when split into
pieces, in the same way too, the ‘I’ is not a real entity when
hunted out analytically.
75 I f you argue: for whom is there compassion if no being
exists?,
 Perfection o f Understanding 123
[our response is] For anyone projected through the delu­
sion which is embraced for the sake o f what has to be done.
76 [Objection] Whose is the task to be done, if there is no
being?
[Mädhyamika] True. Moreover, the effort is made in delu­
sion, but, in order to bring about an end to suffering, the
delusion o f what has to be done is not prevented.
77 However, egotism, which is the cause o f suffering, increases
from the delusion that there is a Self, and, if this is the
unavoidable result o f that, it is better to meditate on no-
Self.
78 T h e body is not the feet, not the calves, not the thighs, and
the body is not the buttocks. It is not the stomach nor the
back either, nor is it the chest nor arms.
79 It is not the hands nor the sides either, nor the armpits, nor
is it the shoulder area. T he body is not the neck nor the
head. What among these, then, is the body?
80 I f you argue that the body is present in part in all o f these,
[our response is that] it is only the parts that are present in
the parts, so where does it occur itself?
81 I f the body did exist in its entirety in the hands and all
these other parts, then there would be just as many bodies
as there are hands and other parts.
82 T h e body is not inside. It is not outside. How can the body
be in the hands and other parts? It is not separate from the
hands and other parts. How, then, is it to be found?
83 So there is no body. Yet, under the influence o f delusion,
there is the belief in a body regarding the hands and other
parts, because o f their particular configuration, just as one
might believe there is a person when looking at a post.

84 As long as the combination o f causes lasts, that post looks

like a person. In the same way, as long as it lasts in respect
o f the hands and other parts, the body continues to be seen
in them.
24 Perfection o f Understanding
85 In the same way, since it is an assemblage of toes, which
one is the foot? T he same goes for a toe, since it is an
assemblage of joints. A joint can also be analysed into its
own constituents.
86 Even the constituents can be analysed down to atoms. The
atom too can be divided according to the directions. The
division of a direction, since it is without parts, leaves space.
Therefore the atom does not exist.
87 What person who analyses things thoroughly would take
delight in a form which, as has been demonstrated, is like a
dream? And since the body, as demonstrated, does not
exist, then what woman or what man is there?

88 If suffering really exists, why does it not afflict people when

they are cheerful? I f tasty food or the like is a pleasure, why
does it not please someone afflicted by grief, for example?

89 I f it is not experienced because it is overcome by something

stronger, how can the nature of a sensation be attributed to
that which does not have the nature of an experience?

90 [Objection] Surely suffering continues at a subtle level, its

grossness removed?
[Mädhyamika] I f the next sensation is purely one of
contentment, then that subtlety must also be subtlety of
contentment.

91 I f suffering does not arise when causes of the opposite have

arisen, surely the resulting notion of ‘ a sensation’ is in fact
a superimposition of our imagination?
92 For that reason this analysis is practised as an antidote to
that superimposition. For spiritual practitioners arc nour­
ished by the meditative absorptions which grow in the field
of false imagination.

93 I f a sense organ and an object are separated by a space, how

can there be contact between the two? Furthermore, if they
are not separate they are one, so what is in contact with
what?
 Perfection o f Understanding 125
94 One atom cannot enter another atom because each is the
same, without free space. I f one thing does not enter the
other they cannot combine. I f they do not combine there is
no contact.
95 How can there be contact for something which has no
parts? If you understand how there can be contact without
parts, demonstrate it.
96 Moreover, it is impossible for consciousness, which has no
physical form, to have contact, nor for an assemblage since
it is not a real thing, as was concluded from earlier analysis.
97 When, as this shows, there is no contact, how can sensation
arise? For what purpose is this vexation? From what and
for whom is there affliction?
98 Since there is no one to experience sensation and sensation
does not exist, why, after realizing that this is the case, O
craving, do you not burst asunder?
99 There is seeing and touching by a self which is like a dream
or illusion. Sensation is not perceived by the mind because
it is produced simultaneously with it.
100 What happens earlier is remembered by what arose later,
not experienced. It does not experience itself and it is not
experienced by another.
io I M oreover, there is no one who experiences sensation, there­
fore, in reality, there is no sensation. So who, in this bundle
devoid o f self, can be afflicted by it?
102 T h e mind is not positioned in the sense faculties, nor in
form or the other aggregates, nor in the space in between.
T he mind is found neither internally nor externally, nor
anywhere else either.
103 What is not in the body nor elsewhere, neither inter­
mingled nor separate anywhere, that is nothing. Therefore
living beings are inherently liberated.
104 I f consciousness exists prior to what is cognized, on what
basis does it come into existence? I f you argue that
i2 6 Perfection o f Understanding

consciousness arises simultaneously with the object per­

ceived, on what basis does it come into existence?
105 I f it arises after the thing to be cognized, then from what
does the consciousness arise? In this way, it is demon­
strated that no phenomenon comes into existence.
106 [Objection] If, this being the case, conventional truth does
not exist, then how can there be two truths?
[Mädhyamika] In fact it does exist according to the conven­
tional truth of another.
[Objection] How can there exist a liberated being?
107 [Mädhyamika] He is false imagination in the mind of an­
other, but he does not exist because of conventional truth
on his own part. After something has been established it
exists; if not, it does not even exist as a conventional truth.
108 The pair imagination and what is imagined are mutually
dependent, just as all analysis is expressed in terms that are
commonly understood.
109 [Objection] But when, as a result of analysis, there is further
analysis by means of analysis, there is no end to it, since
that analysis can also be analysed.
1 10 [Mädhyamika] But when the thing which is to be analysed
has been analysed there is no basis left for analysis. Since
there is no basis it does not continue and that is said to be
Enlightenment.
hi But whoever holds that these two both truly exist is on
extremely shaky ground. I f an object does exist on the
strength of consciousness, how docs one arrive at the exist­
ence o f consciousness?
1 1 2 If the existence of consciousness is established on the strength
of the existence of the object of which it is conscious, how
does one arrive at the existence of the object? I f they exist
on the strength of each other’s existence, neither o f the two
can exist.
1 13 If there is no father without a son, how can there be a son?
I f there is no son there is no hither, so neither of them exist.
 Perfect io n .o f Understanding 127

1 14 [Objection] A shoot grows from a seed. The seed is indi­

cated by that shoot. Why is the existence of an object of
consciousness not verified by the consciousness which re­
sults from it?

115 [Mädhyamika] T he existence of the seed is verified by a

consciousness which is not the same as the shoot. How is
the existence o f consciousness cognized so that it verifies
the object o f consciousness?

1 16 Ordinary people, through direct perception, observe all sorts

of causes, since the distinct parts o f a lotus, such as the
stalk, result from distinct causes.

1 17 I f you ask what caused the variety of the causes, [the an­
swer is:] it results from the variety in the preceding causes.
I f you ask how the cause results in its consequence, [the
answer is:] they resulted through the power o f the preced­
ing causes.

1 18 [Nyäya-Vaisesika] God is the cause o f the world.

[Mädhyamika] Then explain what God is. I f he is ‘the
elements’ , so be it, but then why the fuss over a mere
name?

1 19 M oreover, the earth and other elements are not one, nor
permanent. T h ey are inert and not divine. One can walk on
them. T hey are impure. That is not God.

120 Space cannot be God, because it is inert. Nor is the Self,

because its existence was disproved above. I f creativity be­
longs to what is beyond conception, what can be said o f the
inconceivable?
12 1 What does he want to create? I f a Self, surely that is some­
thing eternal? God, consciousness resulting from a cogniz­
able object, and the nature of earth and other elements, are
without beginning.

122 Suffering and happiness are the result of action. So say

what he created. I f you argue that the cause has no begin­
ning, how could there be a beginning to its effect?
i 28 Perfection o f Understanding

123 How come he does not create continuously, if he is not

dependent on anything else? There is nothing else whatso­
ever which was not made by him, so on what might he
depend?
124 I f you argue that God is dependent on a combination of
conditions, then again he is not the cause. He would have
the power neither to refrain from creating if the combina­
tion of conditions were present, nor to create if they were
absent.
125 I f you argue that God creates without desiring to create, it
follows that he is subject to something other than himself.
Even if he creates out of the desire to create, he is subject
to desire. In what way does this creator have omnipotence?

126 Those who claim that atoms are permanent have also been
refuted above. Followers of Sämkhya maintain that primal
matter is the permanent cause of the world:
127 The constituents of nature, that is, goodness, passion, and
darkness, present in equilibrium are called primal matter.
The universe is explained by their disequilibrium.

128 But it is not possible for a single thing to have three separ­
ate natures, so it does not exist. Likewise the constituents
do not exist, since they too would each be made up of three
constituents.

129 Furthermore, in the absence of the constituents, the exist­

ence of sound and other sense objects is beyond possibility.
Moreover, sensations such as pleasure are not possible in
something which has no consciousness, such as cloth.

130 I f you argue that it is o f the nature of existent entities to

cause those sensations, surely existent entities have already
been analysed away? Moreover, you hold that it is pleasure
and the like which are the cause and not, therefore, cloth
and other material objects.

1 3 1 I f sensations such as pleasure came from things such as

cloth, in the absence o f those things there would be no
 Perfection o f Understanding 129
sensations such as pleasure. Furthermore, feelings such as
pleasure are never seen to have any permanence.
132 I f the manifestation o f pleasure really exists, why is the
feeling not perceived?
[Objection] That same sensation becomes subtle.
[Mädhyamika] How can it be both gross and subtle?
133 [Objection] Relinquishing the state o f grossness it becomes
subtle. It is the state o f grossness or subtlety which is
impermanent.
[Mädhyamika] Why not accept the impermanence of every­
thing, as o f them?
134 I f you argue that the grossness is not separate from the
feeling o f pleasure, it is evident that pleasure is imperman­
ent. I f you accept that something non-existent cannot come
into existence because o f its non-existence,
135 You accept, even against your will, the coming into exist­
ence o f something manifest which does not exist. I f you
accept that the result is in the cause, someone eating rice is
eating dung!
136 Cotton seed would be bought at the price o f cloth and worn
as clothing! I f you argue that ordinary people do not see
this because o f ignorance, one who understands this reality
is in the same position.
137 Anyway, even ordinary people know about that. In what
way do they not see it? I f you argue that there is no validity
in the knowledge o f ordinary people, even the direct per­
ception o f something manifest is not real.
138 [Objection] I f a means of knowledge is not a means of
knowledge, surely knowledge gained by that means is false.
Therefore, the emptiness o f phenomena is not in reality
ascertained.
139 [Mädhyamika] When there is no perception o f something
falsely projected as existent, there is no understanding o f
the non-existence o f that entity. For it follows that, if an
entity is not real, the negation o f it is clearly not real.
Î30 Perfection o f Understanding

140 Therefore, in a dream, when a son dies, it is the projection

‘he does not exist’ that prevents the projection o f his exist­
ence from arising, but that is also false.
141 Therefore, with this kind of analysis, nothing exists with­
out a cause, nor contained in individual or combined causes.

142 Neither has anything come from another, nor does it re­
main, nor does it go. What is the difference between an
illusion and this which is taken by fools to be real.'

143 Reflect on this: What is created by illusion and what is

created by causes? Where does each come from and where
does it go?

144 How can there be real existence in something factitious like

a reflection, which is only seen in conjunction with some­
thing else and not seen in its absence?

145 For a phenomenon which already exists, what purpose would

be served by a cause? Also for something which does not
exist, what purpose would be served by a cause?

146 Even hundreds of billions of causes will not produce any

change in something which does not exist. How can some­
thing in that state become existent? And what else can
come into existence?

147 I f something is not an existent thing at the time when it is

a non-existent thing, when does the existent thing become
existent? For that non-existent thing does not go away while
the existent thing has not been produced.

148 And while the non-existent thing is not gone there can be
no opportunity for the existent thing. Something which
exists does not become non-existent, since this would have
the contradictory consequence that one entity would have
two natures.

149 It follows that there is no cessation and there is no coming

into existence at any time. Therefore none o f this entire
universe has come into existence or ceased.
 Perfection o f Understanding 131
150 Rather, the states o f existence are like dreams, on analysis
the same as the trunk of a banana tree. There is in sub­
stance no difference between those who have attained Lib­
eration and those who have not.
15 1 When all things are empty in this wav, what can be re­
ceived, what taken away? Who can be honoured or humil­
iated bv whom?
152 From what can there be happiness or misery, what can be
liked and what loathed? What craving can there be? For
what is that craving, when examined as to its true nature?
153 On analysis, what world o f living beings is there? Who,
then, will die in it? Who will come to exist? Who has
existed? Who is a relative? Who is whose friend?
154 M ay all o f my kind accept that everything is like space.
They get angry in disputes and delight in celebrations.
155 With feelings o f grief, vexation, and despair; with mutually
inflicted lacerations and amputations’ because of their evil
actions, they lead their lives miserably, longing for their
own happiness.
156 After coming again and again to a good rebirth and enjoy­
ing pleasures again and again, they die and fall into hells
and long, severe afflictions.
157 There are many pitfalls in existence, but there is not this
truth there. There is mutual contradiction between the two.
Reality could not be like this.
158 There, too, are oceans of misery, unending and savage,
beyond compare. Likewise strength is meagre there. There,
too, life is short.
159 There, too, because of the concerns of livelihood and health,
in hunger, fatigue, and exhaustion, in sleep, in misfortunes,
and in fruitless association with fools,
160 L ife passes quickly, pointlessly, while solitude is hard to
find. There, too, how could there be a way o f preventing
habitual distraction?
132 Perfection o f Understanding

16 1 There, too, Mara strives to make us fall into great misfor­

tune. There, because of the profusion of false paths, doubt
is hard to overcome,
162 And the opportune moment is difficult to obtain again. The
appearance o f Buddhas is exceedingly rare and the flood
of defilements hard to check. Oh, what a succession of
suffering!
163 Oh misery! The extremely grievous condition ol these
beings who stay in the oceans of sufferings, who do not
see their own wretched state though they stand in such
extreme wretchedness!
164 Just like one who dowses himself with water again and
again but must each time re-enter the fire again, so they
consider themselves fortunate, though they are also ex­
tremely wretched.
165 As people live like this, pretending they will not grow old
or die, horrific misfortunes approach, with death the fore­
most of them.
1 66 When shall I provide relief for those tormented in the fire
o f such suffering, with offerings of happiness flowing from
the clouds o f my merit?

167 When shall I teach emptiness and the accumulation of merit,

by means o f conventional truth, without reliance on pro­
jection, respectfully to those whose views are based on
projection?
 10
D E D I C A T IO N

I n s t r u c t i o n has been given in all six perfections in the pre­

ceding chapters. Säntideva now concludes the Bodhicaryüvatära
with a series o f vows or pranidhäna, in which he dedicates to the
benefit o f all beings the merit that he has generated through the
training.

B y t h e g o o d t h a t is m i n e f r o m c o n s i d e r i n g ‘ U n d e r t a k i n g t h e W a y to
A w a k e n in g ’ , th e Bodhicaryüvatära, m a y a ll p e o p l e a d o r n t h e w a y to
A w a k e n in g , ( i o . i)

The sequence o f vows which follows this opening declaration is

not the first that he has made, however, for the bulk o f Chapter
3 consists o f similar dedications, introduced by the avowal:

W it h t h e g o o d a c q u i r e d b y d o i n g a ll t h is a s d e s c r i b e d , m a y I a ll a y a ll
th e s u f f e r i n g o f e v e r y l i v i n g b e i n g . ( 3 .6 )

Whereupon Säntideva gives a further fifteen verses of dedica­

tion o f merit. T his section o f Chapter 3 in fact constitutes the
penultimate section o f the liturgy o f the Supreme Worship, and
the ‘good’ referred to there is that arising from his performance
of the previous sections o f that ritual. Should we see the vows of
Chapter 10 as needless duplication, resulting from the pious if
repetitive excesses o f a devout poet?
The key to understanding this second, and indeed the first,
section o f dedication lies in Säntideva’s definition o f the Awak­
ening M ind. In the first chapter he explains that the Awakening
Mind is twofold:
T h a t A w a k e n i n g M i n d s h o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d to b e o f t w o k i n d s ; in
b r ie f : t h e M i n d r e s o l v e d o n A w a k e n i n g a n d t h e M i n d p r o c e e d i n g t o ­
w ard s A w a k e n in g .

T h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o s h o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d b y t h e w i s e in
th e s a m e w a y a s t h e d i s t i n c t i o n is r e c o g n iz e d b e t w e e n a p e r s o n w h o
d e s ir e s t o g o a n d o n e w h o is g o i n g , in t h a t o r d e r . ( 1 . 1 5 - 1 6 )
 134 Dedication

The merit produced by the former is great, but not as great as

that produced by the latter:
E v e n in c y c l ic e x is t e n c e g re a t fru it c o m e s fro m th e M i n d re s o lv e d on
A w a k e n in g , b u t n o th in g lik e th e u n in te r ru p te d m e r it th a t c o m e s fro m
th a t re s o lv e w h e n p u t in to a c tio n . ( 1 . 1 7 )

VVe can see therefore that the first section of dedication, in

Chapter 3, involves the dedication of the merit which Säntideva
has generated through the arising of the first kind of Awakening
Mind, ‘the Mind resolved on Awakening’. When he reflects that
he has now been born in the family of the Buddha (3.25) it is .
through the arising of this resolve. The second section of dedi­
cation, here in Chapter 10, involves the dedication of the merit
generated through the second kind of Awakening Mind, ‘the
Mind proceeding towards Awakening’. As we have already
explained, the dedication in Chapter 3 occurs as a part of the
liturgy of the Supreme Worship, and so we can now see that
Säntideva employs this liturgy as the means whereby he encour­
ages the first kind of Awakening Mind to arise. It follows from
this that the merit he dedicates in Chapter 10 is the ‘uninter­
rupted’ merit that comes from the second kind of Awakening
Mind, and that the means of its ‘proceeding’ towards Awaken­
ing is the practice of the perfections by the aspiring Bodhisattva.
The character of the two sets of vows reflects this difference.
In Chapter 3 the vows are of a more limited scope: Säntideva
offers his own body to all creatures; he vows to provide susten­
ance, assistance, and guidance to all. Yet these vows remain very
much in the realm of cyclic existence. He offers help to beings
within the world. In Chapter 10, on the other hand, the
Bodhisattva’s vows are on a far grander scale, because he can
dedicate the far greater merit acquired by putting his resolve for
Awakening into action:

Through my merit may all those in any o f the directions suffering

distress in body or mind find oceans o f happiness and delight. (10.2)

Now he even has the power to transform the hells of cyclic

existence with the glory of the various celestial Bodhisattvas,
such as Samantabhadra, Manjughosa, and Ksitigarbha, and to
transform cyclic existence itself into a Pure Land.
 Dedication 135
The grandeur o f these vows reflects the grandeur of the
Bodhisattva ideal in the Buddhist tradition and echoes vows
made by previous Bodhisattvas earlier in their careers, particu­
larly those o f Dharmäkara, the Bodhisattva who became the
Buddha Amitäbha. Amitàbha is the Buddha of Sukhâvatî, the
‘land of happiness’, also known as the ‘Pure Land’ (see 10.4 and
note). T he larger Suk/iävatT-vyüha Sütra (Cowell, Müller, and
Takakusu 1969) relates how, in a previous life as the Bodhisattva
Dharmäkara, he made a scries o f vows describing the character­
istics o f Sukhâvatî. It was the realization o f these vows that
enabled him, through the power of his merit, to create Sukhâ-
vatT, and it is interesting to note that a few of those vows occur
here in Chapter 10, such as the vows that women become men
(v. 30), and that all beings have immeasurable life (v. 33).
The making o f such vows has then an added significance, for
they are not only the expression of pious wishes, but the seeds
of a spiritual reality which for many Mahäyäna Buddhists formed
an important dimension of their own religious world. It is pos­
sible that the shorter Suk/iâvatï-vyüha Sütra was composed as
early as the first century bce, and it is known that Amitäbha was
the centre o f a popular cult from the early centuries of the
common era. In the form o f the Pure Land schools of China and
Japan, the power o f Sukhâvatî and of Dharmäkara’s vows are
felt even today. However, the significance o f making such vows
was not limited to the perspective of the Sukhüvatï-vyüha Sutras
alone, for the Dasabhümika Sütra also gives a list o f ten such
vows, quoted by Säntidcva in the S ibsä Samuccaya, which are
undertaken by the Bodhisattva when he enters upon the ‘stage
of delight’ , pramuditâ-bhümi, the first pf the stages o f the
Bodhisattva’s career (Bendali and Rouse, 265 fif.). In other words,
the making o f vows in this way came to be incorporated into the
description o f the Bodhisatçva’s career. The implication here is
that Säntideva envisages at this point that the aspiring Bodhisattva
has finally entered upon the first of the Bodhisattva stages, i.e.
through his training in the perfections he has become a
Bodhisattva. In the account o f the Bodhisattva stages given in
the Dasabhümika Sütra each stage involves, amongst other things,
the perfection o f each perfection, beginning with that o f gener­
osity in the first stage, the stage o f ‘delight’. How appropriate
136 Dedication

that it is here that the Bodhisattva makes his vows by the power
of his own merit, i.e. he dedicates or gives away all the merit that
he has accumulated in his training.
T his interpretation is consistent with the concern he expresses
in Chapter 4 that, without sufficient merit and not strengthen­
ing his resolve, he will take too long to reach the first of the
Bodhisattva stages, or blulmis:
S w i n g i n g b a c k a n d f o r t h li k e t h is in c y c l i c e x i s t e n c e , n o w u n d e r th e
s w a y o f e r r o r s , n o w u n d e r t h e s w a y o f t h e A w a k e n i n g M i n d , it ta k e s a
l o n g t i m e t o g a in t h e g r o u n d . ( 4 . 1 1 )

T he sense of the verse depends upon a double meaning, for both

‘stage’ and ‘ground’ translate the single term binimi.
As a further reflection of the extent to which Säntideva was
working within his milieu, we should note that other images in
this chapter come from other Buddhist sfttras. T h e appearance
of Ksitigarbha (v. 13) conjures up the vows that he had made, as
an aspiring Bodhisattva, to save all those in hell, as described in
the Ksitigarbha Sütra. The streams gushing from Avalokitesvara
to satisfy the hungry ghosts (v. 18) are also described in the
second chapter of the Kärandavyüha Sütra.
After the culmination of the dedication of his merit with the
wishes for the welfare of the Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, Pratyeka-
buddhas, and Srävakas in vv. 48-50, the author begins a separate
section in vv. 5 1-8 , the final part of the work. Here he turns to
his own concerns and makes repeated requests for his own
welfare and progress. This explains why he refers here to the
‘stage o f delight’ which is assumed for the preceding part of the
chapter:

T h r o u g h a d o p t i o n b y M a n j u g h o s a , m a y I a l w a y s g a in e n t r y in t o th e
s p i r i t u a l c o m m u n i t y a n d t h e r e c o lle c t io n o f f o r m e r b i r t h s , u n t i l I r e a c h
th e ‘ sta g e o f d e lig h t’ . ( 1 0 .5 1 )

In Chapter 1 Säntideva explained that he was compiling the

Bodhicaryâvatàra ‘in order to perfume’ his own mind; in other
words, by contemplating the Bodhisattva’s training and the aris­
ing o f the Awakening Mind, he hoped that he would influence
his own mind, and dispose himself to follow the same training.
He has now finished this contemplation, and makes a personal
 Dedication 137
plea that he himself should realize this training, as he has de­
scribed it. For, as he exclaims at the end of Chapter 5, what is
the point o f advice if one does not act upon it?
These verses also differ from the rest in that they introduce
Manjughosa in a distinctly emphatic manner. Manjughosa is
mentioned individually here four times, whereas previously he
was just one o f several Bodhisattvas, usually headed by
Samantabhadra. T he Siksä Samuccaya also ends with devotional
verses to ManjusrT, and, until comparison is made with the
Tun-huang recension, there remains the possibility that these
final verses o f the Bodhicaryävatära were added on the model of
the Siksä Samuccaya. The Tun-huang recension is eight verses
longer than this recension.
 D e d ic a tio n

1 By the good that is mine from considering ‘ Undertaking the

Way to Awakening’, the Bodhicaryävatära, may all people
adorn the path to Awakening.

2 Through my merit may all those in any ol the directions

suffering distress in body or mind find oceans of happiness
and delight.

3 As long as the round of rebirth remains, may their happiness

never fade. Let the world receive uninterrupted happiness
from the Bodhisattvas.

4 Let the embodied beings, in however many hellish states are

found in the world spheres, enjoy the happiness and delight
of SukhävatT.

5 Let those afflicted by cold find warmth; let those afflicted by

heat be cooled by oceans of water pouring from the great
cloud o f Bodhisattvas.

6 May they experience the sword-leaved forest as the splen­

dour o f the divine grove, and may the thickets of torturing
thorns grow into magical trees that fulfil every wish.

7 May the regions of hell become glades o f delight, with lakes

scented by a profusion of lotuses, splendid and delightful
with the chorus of song from grey geese, ducks, aikmvdkas,
swans, and other water-birds.

8 Let the heap o f hot coals be a heap o f jewels, and let the red-
hot earth be a crystal mosaic, and the ‘crushing’ mountains
o f hell become celestial palaces of worship filled with Sugatas.

g Let the rain o f burning coals, heated rocks, and daggers

from this day forth be a shower o f flowers; and let the
warring with these weapons, one against the other, now be
merely playful— a tussle with flowers.
 Dedication 139
10 Let those who are overwhelmed by the ‘torrential’ river of
hell whose waters burn like fire, all their flesh fallen away,
their bones the colour o f the jasmine flower, attain divine
bodies and come to stand with celestial damsels in the ‘slow-
curving’ river o f heaven, by the power of my skilful deeds.
11 May the servants of Yama, and the gruesome crows and
vultures, watch in fear as, without warning, here the dark­
ness disperses on all sides. ‘Whose is this gentle radiance
bringing forth happiness and pleasure?’ Wondering this,
gazing upwards, may they see in the sky the blazing Vajrapäni
and, their vileness vanished from the force of his delightful­
ness, may they go to join him.
12 A shower o f red lotuses fills mingled with fragrant waters. It
is seen to quell the unquenched fires of hell. ‘What is this?’
they think, suddenly refreshed by joy. May those in hell see
the one who holds a red lotus in his hand.
13 ‘Come, come quickly! Put away fear, brothers! We are alive!
See, some prince in the robes of a monk has come to us,
resplendent, bringing fearlessness.’ By his power all afflic­
tion is removed, streams of bliss gush forth, the perfect
Awakening Mind is born, so too compassion, the mother of
protection for all beings.
14 ‘Look at that one! His lotus feet are honoured by the crowns
of hundreds o f deities. His gaze is moist with compassion.
On his head rains down a stream of many flowers let fall
from the upper storeys, delightful with the singing of a
thousand divine damsels, eloquent with praise.’ On seeing
Manjughosa before them, may those in hell immediately
send up a roar o f delight.
15 In this way, through my skilful deeds, may those in hell
rejoice at beholding these clouds, bearing cool, sweet-scented
breezes and showers of well-being, on which Bodhisattvas
are revealed, with Samantabhadra at their head.
16 May the intense pains and fears of those in hell be allayed.
May those dwelling in all evil realms be freed from those
states o f woe.
!40 Dedication
17 May the risk for animals of being eaten by each othei go
away. May the hungry ghosts be as satisfied as the men of
Uttarakuru.
18 May the hungry ghosts be fed, may they be bathed, ma\
they always be refreshed by the streams of milk flowing from
noble Avalokitesvara.
19 M a y th e b lin d se e fo r m s , m a y th e d e a f a lw a y s h e a r , a n d m ay
e xp ectan t m o th e rs g iv e b irth as d id M äyädevT , tree fro m
p a in .

20 May they receive clothing, food and drink, garlands, sandal­

wood balm, and ornaments, and everything the heart desires
conducive to well-being.
21 May the fearful become fearless and those oppressed by
grief find joy. May those who are anxious be rid of their
anxiety and feel secure.
22 May health come to the sick. May they be freed from every
fetter. May those weak find strength, their minds tender
toward each other.
23 M ay every region be hospitable to all those who travel
the roads. With whatever aim they set out, may their plan
succeed.

24 May those embarked on sea voyages succeed in their heart’s

desire. May they come safely to shore and rejoice with their
families.
25 May those who fall upon the wrong path in the wilderness
meet with a merchant caravan and, free from weariness,
may they proceed without fear of thieves, tigers, or other
predators.
26 May gods provide protection for the young and elderly who
are without protector, and for those asleep, drunk, or heed­
less, at risk o f illness, or in a jungle.
27 Freed from all inopportune births, full o f faith, wisdom, and
compassion, perfect in appearance and conduct, may they
always be able to recall their former births.
 Dedication H 1
28 May they possess inexhaustible treasure like Gaganaganja,
‘Sky-treasure’ . M ay they be free o f extremes, free from irri­
tation, and their actions self-directed.

29 May those beings lacking in vigour be greatly invigorated.

May those wretches who are deformed attain perfect beauty.

30 May all those in the world as women make progress, becom­

ing men. M ay the lowly gain high status, but remain tree
from pride.

31 By this merit o f mine may all beings without exception

desist from every evil deed and always act skilfully.

32 Never lacking the Awakening Mind, concerned solely with

the path to Awakening, adopted by Buddhas, not subject to
M ara’s tricks,

33 May all beings have immeasurable life. May they always live
happily. M ay the very word ‘death’ perish.

34 May every quarter become a place o f delight with gardens of

magical trees that grant every wish, teeming with Buddhas
and the heirs o f the Buddhas, enthralling with the sound of
the Dharma.

35 May the ground in every place be smooth and level like the
palm o f a hand, free from grit and stones, and made of beryl.

36 May the circles o f the great assembly of Bodhisattvas be

seated all around. May they emblazon the surface of the
earth each with their own radiant hue.

37 Let embodied beings hear, unwearied, the sound o f the

Dharma from winged birds, from every tree, from light rays,
and from the sky.

38 May they constantly meet with Buddhas and the Buddhas’

kin. M ay they worship the Teacher of the Universe with
unending clouds o f worship.

39 M ay the god send timely rain, and may crops flourish. May
the populace prosper, and may the king be righteous.
I42 Dedication
40 May medicines be potent, and the spells of the mutteiers be
effective. May ogresses, demons, and their like be over­
whelmed with compassion.

41 M ay no being suffer, nor be wicked, nor diseased, neither

contemptible nor despised. May no one be dejected.

42 May the monasteries be well appointed, humming with reci­

tation and study. May the Sailg ha always remain undivided
and may the purpose of the Saiigha be fulfilled.

43 May monks experience solitude and take pleasure in their

precepts. Their minds supple, devoid of all distraction, may
they experience meditative absorption.

44 May nuns receive support, be free of bickering and harass­

ment, and may the ethical conduct of all those who enter the
spiritual community remain unbroken.

45 May those whose conduct is wrong be shaken up by the

need to change. May they always delight in putting an end
to evil action. May they reach a good rebirth, and once there
may their resolve remain unbroken.

46 May they be learned and cultured, receive support, and be

given food. May the flow of their mental states be pure, and
their renown be proclaimed in every direction.

47 May the universe attain Buddhahood in a single, divine em­

bodiment, without tasting the torment o f hell, without the
need for laborious effort.

48 May all Perfect Buddhas be worshipped in many wavs by

every living being. May they be happy to the highest degree
in the inconceivable bliss of Buddhahood.

49 May the desires of the Bodhisattvas for the welfare of the

world meet with success. May what the Protectors intend
for living beings be completely fulfilled.

50 M ay Pratyekabuddhas and Snlvakas be happy, ever wor­

shipped with great respect by gods, titans, and men.
 Dedication M3
51 Through adoption by Manjughosa, may I always gain entry
into the spiritual community and the recollection of former
births, until I reach the ‘stage of delight’ .
52 May I remain full o f strength whatever the posture I adopt.
In all my lives may I acquire the means for the solitary life.
53 When I desire to see or ask anything, may I see without
obstruction the Protector Manjunätha himself.
54 May my own conduct emulate that o f ManjusrT, who works
to achieve the welfare o f all living beings throughout the ten
directions o f space.
55 As long as space abides and as long as the world abides, so
long may I abide, destroying the sufferings o f the world.
56 Whatever suffering is in store for the world, may it all ripen
in me. M ay the world find happiness through all the pure
deeds o f the Bodhisattvas.
57 The sole medicine for the ailments o f the world, the mine of
all success and happiness, let the Dispensation long endure,
attended by support and honour.
58 I bow down to Manjughosa through whose inspiration my
mind turns to good. I honour the spiritual friend through
whose inspiration it grows strong.
 N O T E S TO T H E T E X T

CH APTER 1

1.1 The te rm S u g a ta is a n e p ith e t o f a B u d d h a , an ‘aw akened

b e i n g ’ , o n e w h o is n o lo n g e r s u b je c t to th e c y c l ic e x is te n c e o f
r e b ir t h a n d s u lT e r in g , samsara. T h e tru th a w a k e n e d to a n d ta u g h t
b y a B u d d h a is c a lle d th e D h a r m a . T h e s p ir it u a l c o m m u n it y o f
th o s e a s p ir in g to a c h ie v e B u d d h a h o o d b y p r a c tis in g th e se te a c h ­
in g s is t e r m e d t h e Sangha. C o l le c t iv e l y th e s e a re k n o w n a s th e
T h r e e J e w e l s ( triratna) o r t h e t h r e e r e f u g e s ( trisaratia). B y t r a ­
d i t i o n , a n a u t h o r p a y s h o m a g e to t h e s e a t th e b e g in n in g o f h is
w o rk .

Dharmakäya, ‘ t h e b o d y o f D h a r m a ( s ) ’ , c a n b e in t e r p r e t e d at
d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s . A t o n e l e v e l , it i s t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e t r u t h s
t h a t t h e B u d d h a r e a l i z e d a n d t a u g h t . I n a p h y s i c a l s e n s e t h is is
th e b o d y o f th e sütras, th e t e x ts re c o r d in g th e B u d d h a ’s te ac h ­
in g s , in c o n tra st to th e B u d d h a’s p h y sic a l body. But th e
Dharmakäya is a ls o t h e c o lle c t io n o f q u a lit ie s e x e m p lifie d b y
t h e B u d d h a . F u r t h e r s t ill, a s a r e s u lt o f h is w is d o m h e is fre e
fro m d e lu s io n , an d t h e re fo re re p re se n ts th e tru e n a tu re o f
t h in g s .

‘ S c r ip t u r e ’ tra n sla te s th e w o rd àgama, w h i c h i s u s e d a s t h e

te rm f o r e a c h s e c t io n o f th e sütrapitaka, o r ‘ c o l l e c t i o n o f d i s ­
c o u r s e s ’ , in t h e B u d d h i s t c a n o n . Agama a ls o m e a n s ‘ t r a d i t i o n ’ ,
in t h e s e n s e o f ‘ w h a t h a s c o m e d o w n ( i .e . h a s b e e n i n h e r it e d )
[fro m th e B u d d h a ] ’ .

1.2 T h e e x p r e s s i o n ‘ p e r f u m e ’ is n o t o n l y a p o e t i c a l m e t a p h o r . I t is
a ls o a t e c h n ic a l t e r m u s e d to e x p la in th e m e a n s w h e r e b y th e
e th ic a l c h a r a c t e r o f a c tio n s , karma, c a n in flu e n c e f u t u r e e x p e r i­
e n c e a n d b e h a v io u r . S e e 9 .3 1.

1.3 E t h i c a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e a c t i o n s a r e c o n s i d e r e d to b e ‘ s k i l f u l ’ , kusala,
b e c a u s e t h e y i n v o lv e ju d g e m e n t a n d u n d e r s ta n d in g a s w e ll a s
good i n t e n t i o n , a n d t h e y le a d t o w a r d e v e r g r e a t e r d e g r e e s o f
s p ir it u a l c o m p e te n c e .

1.4 ‘ T h e o p p o r t u n e m o m e n t ’ is b ir t h a s a h u m a n b e in g a n d c o n ta c t
w i t h t h e B u d d h a ’ s t e a c h i n g . S e e 4 . 1 5 —1 6 .
 Notes to the Text
1.5 The c o n c e p t o f ‘ m e r i t ’ is f o u n d th ro u g h o u t In d ia n r e lig io u s
c u l t u r e . I t is a k i n d o f g o o d f o r t u n e , a c q u i r e d , in a B u d d h i s t
c o n t e x t , t h r o u g h s k i l f u l a c t i o n s o f t h r e e k i n d s : g e n e r o s i t y , goo d
o r e th ic a l c o n d u c t, a n d m e d ita tio n .

I.t o T h e same m etaphor occurs in the G am favyüha Sü tra (see 1.14

note), where the Awakening M ind is said to transmute the
ordinary being into a Buddha, in the sam e way that an elixir
transm utes copper into gold. Q uicksilver, used in alchem y, has
first to be worked (vedhaniya ‘ m ust be stru ck’ ), as does the
Awakening M ind, for the process o f transmutation to take place.
1.12 After the banana plant has fruited it dies and is replaced by
another sucker growing from the underground stem.
1.14 I n d i a n c o s m o g o n y d e s c r i b e s a n e n d l e s s s e q u e n c e o f e v o lu t io n
a n d d e v o l u t i o n o f t h e u n i v e r s e . ‘ A w o r l d a g e ’ is a s i n g l e su c h
c y c l e , w h i c h is b r o u g h t t o it s c o n c l u s i o n b y a n a l l - c o n s u m i n g
c o n fla g ra t io n .

I n t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e v e r s e , t h e a u t h o r r e f e r s t o t h e t a le o f
S u d h a n a ’ s s p i r i t u a l q u e s t d e s c r ib e d in t h e G aiidavyùha Sutra,
t h e fin a l b o o k o f t h e Avatamsaka Sutra ( s e e C l e a r y 1 9 8 9 ) . In h is
q u e s t S u d h a n a m e e t s w it h a n u m b e r o f s p i r i t u a l f r i e n d s in c l u d ­
in g M a it r e y a , th e f u t u r e B u d d h a a n d u ltim a te p e r s o n ific a tio n o f
s p ir it u a l fr ie n d s h ip . M a it r e y a g iv e s S u d h a n a a le n g t h y ac co u n t
o f th e q u a litie s o f th e A w a k e n in g M in d (ib id . 3 5 2 - 6 5 ) .

1.2 0 The Question of Subähu, or Su bàhuparipredio, is a c a n o n ic a l

s c r i p t u r e to b e f o u n d in t h e Ratnaküta c o l l e c t i o n o f M a h ä v ä n a
sü tr a s . ‘ T h e in fe r io r p a th ’ , o r HmayTma, is t h e t e r m g iv e n b y
t h e M a h â y â n a to n o n - M a h ä y ä n a B u d d h i s m .

1.2 3 T h e B r a h m a s a r e a m o n g s t t h e h i g h e s t g o d s in B u d d h i s t c o s ­
m o g o n y , b u t , s i n c e t h e y a r e s t i ll s u b j e c t to d e a t h a n d r e b ir t h ,
t h e y a r e s p i r i t u a l l y i n f e r i o r to a B u d d h a .

1.2 9 ‘ I t ’ is t h e A w a k e n i n g M i n d .

1.3 6 S ä n tid e v a u se s a te rm f o r ‘ b o d i e s ’ w h i c h a l s o m e a n s ‘ b o d ily

r e l i c s ’ , i. e . t h e p h y s i c a l r e m a i n s o f e a r t h l y B u d d h a s a n d B o d h i-
s a t t v a s w h o h a v e d i e d . T h e s e w e r e a n d s t i ll a r e w o r s h ip p e d .

F u r t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h h a r m to a B o d h i s a t t v a c a n le a d to
h a p p i n e s s , s e e t h e s t o r y o f S u p u s p a c a n d r a , s u m m a r i z e d in 8 .1 0 6
n o t e . G o i n g f o r r e f u g e , u s u a ll y to t h e T h r e e J e w e l s ( s e e 1 . 1 n o te ),
is a f u n d a m e n t a l e x p r e s s i o n o f r e l i g i o u s c o m m i t m e n t m a d e b y
B u d d h i s t s ( o n w h i c h s e e I n t r o d u c t i o n to C h s . 2 a n d 3 ) .
 Notes to the Text 147

CH APTER 2

2 .6 I n S a n s k r it lit e r a t u r e t e r m s f o r p o w e r f u l a n im a ls , s u c h a s b u ll,
lio n , a n d e le p h a n t, a r e u s e d to e x p r e s s m a je s ty a n d s u p e r io r it y .
H e re S ä n tid e v a u s e s th e te rm muni-pumgava ‘ s a g e - b u l l ’ , i.e .
‘ t h e b e s t o f s a g e s ’ , w h i c h is a c o m m o n e p i t h e t f o r a B u d d h a .

2 . 1 1 —1 9 T h i s s e q u e n c e o f v i s u a l i z e d o f f e r i n g s f o l l o w s r i t u a ls p e r f o r m e d
w i t h i n a t e m p l e , in w h i c h a B u d d h a i m a g e is f i r s t b a t h e d , d r ie d ,
c l o t h e d , a n d p e r f u m e d , a n d t h e n o f f e r e d f l o w e r s , in c e n s e , a n d
la m p s .

2 .13 S a m a n t a b h a d r a , ‘ U n i v e r s a l G o o d ’ , is a B o d h i s a t t v a a s s o c i a t e d
w it h c o m p a s s io n . He is th e p ro te c to r o f th e Lotus Sütra
(Saddharmapundarlka Sutra), and h e a s sists S u d h a n a in t h e
f in a l s t a g e o f h i s p r o g r e s s t o E n l i g h t e n m e n t in t h e Gandavyüha
Sütra, o n w h ic h se e 1 . 1 4 n o te .

A j i t a , ‘ t h e U n c o n q u e r e d ’ , is a n e p i t h e t o f M a i t r e y a , o n w h o m
s e e ib id .

M a n j u g h o s a , ‘ G e n t l e - V o i c e d ’ , is a f o r m o f M a n j u s r ï , o n w h o m
s e e G e n e r a l In t r o d u c tio n , p . x i.

L o k c s v a r a , ‘ L o r d o f t h e W o r l d ’ , is a n e p i t h e t o f A v a l o k i t e s v a r a ,
‘ T h e L o r d w h o lo o k s d o w n [to s e c th e s u f fe r in g o f t h e w o r ld ] ’ .
He is th e u ltim a te p e r s o n ific a t io n o f c o m p a s s io n . H e is t h e
Heart Sütra (Prajnä-päramitä-hrdaya Sütra)
c e n t r a l f i g u r e in t h e
a n d th e Kürandavyüha Sütra. T h e Lotus Sütra d e v o t e s a c h a p ­
te r to th e b e n e fit s th a t h e b e s to w s u p o n t h o s e in im m i n e n t
d an ger.

2 .2 1 A cattya is a n o b je c t o f v e n e r a t io n , s u c h a s a r e lic m o u n d ,
s a c r e d t r e e , o r h o l y s i t e c o n n e c t e d w i t h a n i n c i d e n t in t h e l i f e o f
th e B u d d h a o r h is d is c ip le s . T h e im a g e s r e fe r r e d to h e r e a r e
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f B u d d h a s o r B o d h i s a t t v a s . T h e ‘ j e w e l s w -h ich
m a k e u p t h e t r u e D h a r m a ’ a r e u n d e r s t o o d b y P r a j n ä k a r a m a t i to
b e t h e tw ’e l v e d i v i s i o n s o f t h e B u d d h i s t s c r i p t u r e s . T h e s e a r e a n
a n c i e n t a n a l y s i s o f t h e s c r i p t u r e s a c c o r d i n g to l i t e r a r y f o r m .

2 .2 2 In a p r e v i o u s lif e a s k in g A m b a r a n lja , M a n ju s r ! d e v o te d h is
t im e a n d h is k in g d o m to m a k in g u n lim ite d o ffe r in g s to th e
B u d d h a s , a n d e n c o u r a g e d a ll h i s s u b j e c t s t o d o l i k e w i s e . T h e
e p iso d e is d e s c r ib e d in th e Manjusnbuddhaksetragunavyüha
Sütra. (C h a n g 19 8 3 , 17 2 - 6 )

2 .2 3 T h e O c e a n s o f V i r t u e a r e th e B u d d h a s a n d B o d h is a t tv a s .
I4 8 Notes to the Text
2.24 A Buddha-field is the area o f a B u d d h a’s spiritu al influence.
B ein gs in a particular Bu dd ha-field may benefit from that Bud­
dha’ s spiritual guidance and accum ulated m erit. In Mahäyäna
B uddhism there are an infinite num ber of B u dd has, each \wt
his own Buddha-field. See also 5 .8 1 and note, and Introduction
to C h . 10.

T h e h i g h e s t a s s e m b l y s t a n d s f o r t h e t h i r d o f t h e ‘ j e w e l s ’ , the
S a i i g h a ( s e c 1 . 1 n o t e ) . P r a j n ä k a r a m a t i t a k e s t h i s to b e a r e fe r ­
e n c e to t h e a s s e m b l y o f B o d h i s a t t v a s a l o n e .

-2.25 ‘Bodhisattva’ here refers to the historical B uddha before his

Awakening. Hence the places referred to are identifiable sites
mentioned in connection with his early life and also in the
Jdtaku stories, i.e. the tales o f the B u d d h a’s form er lives, which
became sites o f pilgrimage.

2 .2 6 ‘ T h e sc a t o f th e A w a k e n in g ’ is a t r a n s la t io n of hoilhimtuuk,
li t e r a l l y ‘ e s s e n c e o f A w a k e n i n g ’ . T h e t e r m r e f e r s t o t h e p l a c e o r
s e a t o f t h e h i s t o r ic a l B u d d h a ’ s A w a k e n i n g a t B o d h G a y a , in th e
m o d e r n I n d ia n sta te o f B ih a r . T r a d it i o n h a s it t h a t B u d d h a s
a lw a y s a t t a in E n lig h t e n m e n t at th e sam e lo c a tio n , a n d so
S a n rid e v a im p lie s , ‘ U n t il I b e c o m e a B u d d h a . .

2.27 ‘H olding hands in reverence’ is the atljali, the Indian gesture of

salutation and greeting, made with hands held, palm s together,
in front o f the chest.

2 .3 0 S a n r i d e v a r e f e r s to h i s ‘ m o t h e r s a n d fa th e r s ’ fro m t h is a n d
p r e v i o u s li v e s .

2 .3 2 T h e s k ilfu ln e s s o r u n s k ilfu ln e s s o f a n y a c tio n , karma, d e te r­

m in e s g o o d o r b a d c o n s e q u e n c e s fo r th e p e r s o n w h o p e r fo r m e d
i t . I f d e a t h o c c u r s b e f o r e o n e h a s ‘ u s e d u p ’ t h e a c c u m u l a t e d e v il
c o n s e q u e n c e s o f o n e ’s p a st a c tio n s, th e y w il l d e t e r m i n e th e
c h a r a c t e r o f t h e n e x t r e b ir t h w h i c h is e x p e r i e n c e d , p r o je c t in g
o n e in t o a r e a lm o f s u f f e r i n g , s u c h a s h e l l.

T h e authenticity o f this verse is disputed by m odern editors,

because it is m issing from one o f the Sanskrit manuscripts
o f the lio d h k a ryüvalâra and also from the canonical Tibetan
translation.

2 .4 2 Y a n i a , o r D e a t h , is t h e p a n - I n d i a n lo r d o f t h e r e a l m s o f th e
d e a d . H e is a g r i m f i g u r e , d e p i c t e d a s a n a n g r y m a le , d a r k -
s k i n n e d a n d r e d - e y e d , h o l d i n g a n o o s e w it h w h i c h h e d r a w s
a w a v t h e d e a d . H e is a ls o t h e j u d g e w h o d i s p e n s e s p u n is h m e n t
 Notes to the Text 149
in t h e h e l l r e a l m s , a n d is u s u a l l y d e p i c t e d a s s u c h in r e p r e s e n ­
ta t io n s o f th e ‘ w h e e l o f li f e ’ .

2 .4 6 ‘ S a i n t ’ , n o t in t h e s e n s e o f a c a n o n i z e d p e r s o n , b u t o f a g o o d o r
h o ly p e r s o n , a sädhu.
2 .5 1 A v a lo k ita is a n o t h e r e p i t h e t o f A v a l o k i t e s v a r a , o n w h o m se e
. 2 .1 3 n o te a b o v e .

2 .5 2 Ä k ä s a g a r b h a , ‘ s p a c e - s t o r e ’ , is a B o d h i s a t t v a a s so c ia te d w it h
g e n e r o s i t y . K s i t i g a r b h a , ‘ e a r t h - s t o r e ’ , is t h e u l t i m a t e e m b o d i ­
m e n t o f a l t r u i s m , b y v i r t u e o f t h e v o w h e m a d e in e a r l i e r l i v e s
t o s a v e a ll t h o s e t o r m e n t e d in h e l l s . I n o n e l i f e h e m a d e t h is
v o w w h e n h e w a s a p i o u s w o m a n d i s t r e s s e d b y t h e a g o n ie s h e r
la t e m o t h e r w a s u n d e r g o i n g in h e ll a s a r e s u l t o f l a c k o f f a i t h . I n
a n o t h e r lif e h e m a d e th e v o w a s a p io u s k in g w o r r ie d a b o u t th e
s u f f e r i n g s in s t o r e f o r h i s u n r u l y s u b j e c t s . A t p r e s e n t h e h a s
t a k e n o n n u m e r o u s e m b o d i m e n t s a n d a p p e a r s in h e l l s to h e lp
t h e b e i n g s t h e r e t o w a r d s E n l i g h t e n m e n t . H e w il l c o n t i n u e d o ­
in g s o u n til th e a r r iv a l o f th e fu t u r e B u d d h a , M a it r e y a .

2 .5 3 T h e ‘ H o l d e r o f t h e V a j r a ’ is a s y n o n y m f o r V a jr a p ä n i , t h e B o d h i ­
sa ttv a a s s o c ia te d w ith v ig o u r. H e h as p e a c e fu l an d w ra th fu l
f o r m s , a n d in t h e l a t t e r h e is d e p i c t e d a s a h e a v i l y b u i l t d a r k
b l u e - b l a c k s t r i d i n g m a l e f i g u r e , s u r r o u n d e d b y f ir e . H e h o l d s in
one han d a vajra, a t y p e o f r e l i g i o u s im p l e m e n t r e p r e s e n t i n g a
t h u n d e r b o lt , w h ic h s y m b o liz e s h is a b ility to r e m o v e o b s ta c le s —
h e n c e h is n a m e .

2 .5 5 A c c o r d in g to P r a jn ä k a r a m a ti, t h e r e a r e o n e h u n d re d w a y s o f
d y i n g p r e m a t u r e l y a p a r t f r o m d e a t h f r o m o ld a g e . E a c h o f t h e s e
one h u n d re d and o n e m a n n e rs o f d eath can b e c a u se d b y a
s i n g le o n e o f t h e t h r e e h u m o u r s , w in d , b ile , a n d p h le g m , o r a
c o m b in a tio n o f th e se , h e n ce th e n u m b e r fo u r h u n d re d and
f o u r . A n y o n e s t u c k in t h e in f i n i t e c y c l i c e x i s t e n c e w i l l n a t u r a l l y
b e a f f l i c t e d b y a ll o f t h e s e a t o n e t i m e o r a n o t h e r .

2 .5 6 J a m b u d v T p a is th e n a m e g iv e n to th e s o u th e r n c o n tin e n t, w h ic h
i n c l u d e s I n d i a . T h i s w o r l d is m a d e u p o f f o u r c o n t i n e n t s , a c ­
c o r d in g to t r a d it io n a l In d ia n c o s m o g o n y .

2 .6 4 P r a j n ä k a r a m a t i u n d e r s t a n d s w h a t is ‘ w r o n g b y n a t u r e ’ t o b e
t r a n s g r e s s i o n s o f t h e m o r a l p r e c e p t s , s u c h a s a b s te n tio n fr o m
r a k i n g l i f e o r s t e a l i n g , a n d w h a t is w r o n g ‘ b y c o n v e n t i o n ’ to b e
t r a n s g r e s s i o n s o f th e r u le s o f m o n a s tic d is c ip lin e u n d e r ta k e n
by B u d d h i s t m o n k s . S ä n t i d e v a c o u l d w e l l h a v e h a d in m in d
a b ro ad er u n d e rs ta n d in g o f w h a t c o n s t it u t e s c o n v e n tio n a l
 Notes to the Text
m o r a lit y , s u c h a s th e la w s o f t h e s o c ie t y w it h i n w h ic h th e B u d ­
d h is t c o m m u n it y o p e r a t e s .

CH APTER 3

3.3 T h e ‘ resolution’ o f a B uddha is the initial resolution to attain

Aw akening for all heings, which occurs when the Awakening
M ind arises.
3 .8 A n ‘ i n t e r m e d i a t e a e o n ’ is a p e r i o d o f f a m i n e a n d d e s t r u c t i o n
o c c u r r i n g e i t h e r d u r i n g o r b e t w e e n m a j o r w o r l d a g e s . O n ‘ w o r ld
a g e ’ s e e 1 . 1 4 n o te .

3 .10 ‘ A l l t h r e e t i m e s ’ , i. e . p a s t , p r e s e n t , a n d f u t u r e .

3 .15 T h e phrase ‘achieving every goal’ im m ediately evokes the per­

sonal name o f the historical B uddha, Sarvärth asid dh a, which
means ‘one who has accomplished every goal’ . T h is is the name
used in some accounts o f his life rather than the name Siddhärtha,
which means ‘ one who has accom plished his goal’ .
3 .17 E a c h o f t h e s e m e t a p h o r s is w e l l u s e d w i t h i n s c r i p t u r e : p r o t e c t o r
a n d c a r a v a n - l e a d e r f o r t h e B u d d h a ; b o a t , c a u s e w a y , a n d b r id g e
fo r th e D h a rm a .

3 .19 E a c h o f t h e s e m y t h i c a l it e m s is s a id t o f u l f i l e v e r y w i s h , b e i n g
s i m i l a r in c o n n o t a t i o n to A l a d d i n ’ s la m p .

3 .2 0 T h e r e a r e f o u r ‘ b a s ic e le m e n t s ’ , mahähhüta: e a r t h , w a t e r , f ir e ,
w in d .

3 .2 2 - 3 E a r l y in t h e h i s t o r y o f B u d d h i s m a s t a n d a r d s c h e m e o f th e
h is to r ic a l B u d d h a ’ s c a r e e r a s a B o d h is a t tv a h a d b e e n d e v e lo p e d .
T h i s w a s t h o u g h t to a p p l y to a ll B u d d h a s , p a s t a n d f u t u r e . A ll
B u d d h a s - t o - b e i n it i a lly ta k e t h e v o w t o b e c o m e a B u d d h a in th e
p r e s e n c e o f a n o t h e r B u d d h a , a n d t h e n s p e n d i n n u m e r a b l e li f e ­
t i m e s p e r f e c t i n g t h e q u a li t ie s o f a B u d d h a . T h e s t o r y o f th e
• h i s t o r ic a l B u d d h a fir s t m a k i n g t h is v o w is t o ld in t h e Cariytivaima
o f t h e P a li c a n o n (s e e H o r n e r 1 9 7 5 ) . T h e Jataka t a le s d e s c r ib e
e p i s o d e s f r o m p a s t l i v e s in t h e t r a i n i n g c a r e e r o f t h e h i s t o r ic a l
Buddha (s e e C o w e ll et a i 1 8 9 5 ) . A l l t h e b i o g r a p h i e s o f th e
B u d d h a e m p l o y t h e m a in f e a t u r e s o f t h is s t a n d a r d iz e d b i o g r a p h y .
See Budilhacariia (Jo h n s to n 19 8 4 ) , Lalitavistaru ( B a y s 1 9 8 3 ) ,
Maluivastu ( J o n e s 19 4 9 , 19 5 2 , 19 5 6 ), Nidâmihitlm ( R h y s D a v i d s
HJ73)-
3 30 T h e lig h t o f t h e m o o n is tra d it io n a lly c o n s id e r e d s o o t h in g a fte r
th e in te n s e h e a t o f th e s u n d u r in g th e d a y .
 Notes to the Text 151

CH APTER 4

44 T h e prom ise referred to here is that o f the Bodhisattva to

achieve p erfect Buddhahood in order to help all beings.
4 .5 T h i s a n d t h e f o l l o w i n g v e r s e a r e a r e f e r e n c e to t h e Saddharma-
smrty-upasthäna Sütra, q u o t e d in t h e Siksä Samuccaya ( B e n d a li
an d R o u se 19 2 2 , p. 13 ). T h e h u n g r y g h o s t s , o r prêtas, a r e t h e
o c c u p a n t s o f o n e o f t h e s i x r e a l m s o f e x i s t e n c e in B u d d h i s t
c o s m o l o g y . ( S e e n o t e t o v . 1 8 b e l o w .) T h i s is a r e a lm o f a c u t e
s u f f e r i n g , t h e h u n g r y g h o s t s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y b e l lie s s w o lle n
w it h h u n g e r , t h e ir m o u t h s a n d th r o a ts th e s iz e o f a p in - h o le .
T h e y a r e t o r t u r e d b y in c e s s a n t a n d in s a t i a b l e g r e e d . A n y fo o d
o r l i q u i d t h a t t h e y d o m a n a g e t o o b t a in t u r n s t o e x c r e m e n t o r
liq u id fir e .

4 .6 T h e ‘ u n s u r p a s s e d h a p p i n e s s ’ is E n l i g h t e n m e n t f o r a ll.

4 .1 1 S ä n tid e v a p u n s h e r e w ith th e te rm bhftmi. M e a n i n g li t e r a l ly

‘ g r o u n d ’ , it is a l s o u sed in M ahäyäna B u d d h is m to d e n o t e
s p e c i f i c s t a g e s o f a t t a i n m e n t in t h e c a r e e r o f t h e B o d h i s a t t v a .
H a v in g u n d e rta k e n t h e v o w t o a c h i e v e f u ll B u d d h a h o o d , t h e
B o d h is a t t v a m u s t p r o g r e s s t h r o u g h s u c c e s s iv e ly h ig h e r hhttmis
o r s t a g e s w h i c h b r i n g h i m c l o s e r t o t h a t g o a l. T h e r e a r e d i f f e r ­
in g s y s t e m a t iz a t io n s o f th ese sta g e s, b u t th at fo llo w e d by
S ä n t i d e v a i s t h e t e n - s t a g e s y s t e m , a s g i v e n in t h e Dasabhiirnika
7
Sütra, The Discourse on the en Stages ( s e e C l e a r y 1 9 8 6 ) . T h e
f i r s t s t a g e is t h e praniuditâ s t a g e o f ‘ d e l i g h t ’ a t t h e r e a li z a t io n
t h a t o n e w i l l a c h i e v e B u d d h a h o o d a n d s a v e in f i n i t e b e i n g s f r o m
s u f f e r in g ( s e e 1 0 . 5 1 a n d I n t r o d u c tio n to C h a p t e r 10 ; s e e fu r th e r
D a v a l 19 3 2 ).

4 .16 T h e l a s t t w o o f t h e f a v o u r a b l e c ir c u m s t a n c e s , h a v i n g f o o d a n d
fre e d o m f r o m d is a s t e r , a r e p a r t ic u la r ly r e le v a n t fo r th e m o n a s ­
t ic c o m m u n it y w ho depended on la y p a t r o n a g e fo r fo o d . I f
t h e r e w a s a d i s a s t e r s u c h a s a f il m in e o r w a r , la y p e o p l e w o u ld
b e t o o c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e i r o w n p h y s i c a l s u r v i v a l t o b e a b l e to
s u p p o r t t h e m o n a s t i c c o m m u n i t y in t h e i r s p i r i t u a l li f e .

W e h a v e tak en th e re a d in g kayo yâcitakopamah, g i v i n g ‘ T h e

kâyopâcitakopamah
b o d y is lik e a n o b je c t o n lo a n ’ , ra th e r th a n th e
o f D e la V a l l é e P o u s s i n ’ s e d i t i o n , f o r w h i c h w e s e e n o m e a n i n g .

4 .18 ‘ T h e lo w e r r e a lm s ’ t ra n s la te s th e te rm apâya, a n d re fe r s to th e
r e a l m s o f t h e a n i m a l s , t h e h u n g r y g h o s t s , t h e b e i n g s in h e l l, a n d
t h e t i t a n s . T h e r e a r e r e c k o n e d in a ll to b e s i x , s o m e t i m e s f iv e ,
r e a l m s o f e x i s t e n c e in B u d d h i s t c o s m o l o g y . I n a d d i t i o n to t h o s e
152
Notes to the Text

a b o v e t h e r e a r c a l s o t h e h e a v e n l y r e a l m s a n d t h e h u m a n re a lm .
T h e d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n t h e t w o t o t a l s o c c u r s w h e n t h e re a lm
o f t h e t i t a n s i s i n c l u d e d a s a p a r t o f t h e h e a v e n l y r e a l m , ra th e r
th a n a s s e p a r a te fro m it . T h e c y c le o f e x iste n c e , somara, is
m a d e u p o f t h e s e r e a l m s , a n d b e i n g s a r e r e b o r n i n o n e o r the
o t h e r o f t h e m a c c o r d i n g t o t h e e t h i c a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h e i r a c tio n s
in p r e v io u s b ir t h s .

4 .2 0 T h e s im ile o f th e tu r tle is c o m m o n fo r th e ra rity o f hum an

b i r t h . It a p p e a r s in t h e e a r l y B u d d h i s t c a n o n , w h e r e it is s o m e ­
t i m e s m o r e f u l l y e la b o r a t e d . F o r e x a m p l e , in v e r s e 5 0 0 o f the
Tlurlgüthû o f th e P a li c a n o n th e t u r tle is a ls o b lin d (s e e N o r­
m a n 19 6 9 ).

4 .2 1 The A v i c i h e l l is t h e m o s t f e a r f u l o f t h e h e l l s o f B u d d h i s t
c o s m o lo g y . B y p o p u la r e t y m o lo g y it s nam e m e a n s ‘ w ith o u t
i n t e r m i s s io n ’ , p e r h a p s a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e t o r t u r e s e x p e r i e n c e d
th e r e a r e c e a se le ss . T h e h e lls a r e n o t p la c e s o f e t e r n a l d a m n a ­
t io n , h o w e v e r , s i n c e a l t h o u g h o n e m a y e n d u r e t h e m fo r v e ry
lo n g p e r io d s a s a r e s u l t o f u n s k i l f u l a c t i o n s , it is a l s o p o s s i b l e to
le a v e t h e m ( w h e n t h e e f f e c t s o f t h o s e a c t i o n s a r e e x h a u s t e d ) a n d
to b e r e b o r n in a n o t h e r r e a lm o f e x i s t e n c e .

4 .2 4 O n Y a m a , s e c 2 .4 2 n o t e .

4 .2 7 A spell, or mantra, is a verbal formula which, through repeti­

tion, will obtain magically some specified end, either secular or
spiritual. They are used throughout Indian religious culture, no
less in Buddhism than in Hinduism.
4 .3 1 Mount Meru is the great mountain at the centre of the world in
Indian Buddhist cosmology.
4 .3 2 In the Buddhist tradition there is no beginning to time, nor is
there any moment of creation for the universe, and speculation
upon these subjects, far from providing any spiritual illumina­
tion, is thought at best to be irrelevant to the spiritual life, at
worst an obstacle to it. Sanisära, the cycle of existence, has been
fuelled since beginningless time by the defilements, which are
themselves rooted in avidyft, ignorance.
4 .3 5 T h a t t h e d e f i l e m e n t s o f o n e ’ s m in d a r e a l s o t h e e x e c u t i o n e r s in
h e l l is c o n s i s t e n t w it h t h e s c h o l a s t i c r a t h e r t h a n p o p u l a r p o s i­
t i o n t h a t h e l l a n d it s m i n i o n s a r e m e r e l y p r o d u c t s o f o n e ’ s o w n
c o r r u p t m in d .
4 .4 0 T h e a u t h o r c h i d e s h i m s e l f o n t w o c o u n t s h e r e . It is n o t o n ly
t h a t t h e s e p e o p l e a r e a b l e , f o r t h e i r o w n p e r s o n a l l i v e l i h o o d , to
 Notes to the Text 153
e n d u r e g r e a t h a r d s h i p s w h i c h t h e a u t h o r is n o t a b l e to e n d u r e
th o u g h it b e f o r t h e w e l f a r e o f t h e e n t i r e w o r l d . T h e p e o p l e
m e n t i o n e d a l s o a ll b e l o n g to t h e lo w e s t a n d m o s t d e s p is e d s e c ­
t i o n s o f s o c i e t y a c c o r d i n g to t h e B r a h m a n i c a l c a s t e s y s t e m , a n d
s o m a n a g e g r e a te r th in g s th a n th e h ig h - c a s t e a u th o r , th o u g h
t h e y a r e s u p p o s e d l y i n f e r i o r to h i m . Catujälas w e r e t r a d it io n a lly
‘ u n t o u c h a b l e s ’ , w h o d i d w o r k a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d e a d b o d ie s : a s
e x e c u t io n e r s , a n d a t c re m a tio n g r o u n d s .

4 .4 3 A n y d e s t r u c t i v e a c t , b a s e d in g r e e d , h a t r e d , o r d e l u s i o n , le a d s
t o a n i n c r e a s e in t h e d e f i l e m e n t s , a n d s o t h e a u t h o r w r y l y a d d s
th a t h e is n o t b o t h e r e d b y a n y d e file m e n ts w h ic h m ig h t re su lt
fr o m d e s t r o y in g d e file m e n t s .

4 .4 7 S ä n t i d e v a r e fe r s h e r e to th e sta n d a r d B u d d h is t p h y s io lo g y o f
s e n s e p e r c e p t i o n . T h i s is e x p l a i n e d m t e r m s w h i c h le a v e n o
p la c e fo r a n y co n cep t o f an u n c h a n g i n g o r p e r m a n e n t s e lf ,
rumati. O u r a w a r e n e s s o f t h e w o r l d is u n d e r s t o o d in t h e B u d ­
d h is t t r a d it io n a s b e in g m a d e u p o f d is t in c t b u t in sta n ta n e o u s
m o m en ts o f c o n s c io u s n e s s . T h e s e a r is e w h e n th e n e c e ssa ry
c o n d it io n s a r e p r e s e n t : n a m e ly , an o b je c t , a n d a s e n s e o rg a n .
T h e s e t h r e e , o b j e c t , s e n s e o r g a n , a n d t h e c o n c o m it a n t m o m e n t
o f c o n s c io u s n e s s , a c c o u n t c o m p le t e ly fo r o u r e x p e r ie n c e o f th e
w o r ld . H e n c e , if, a s S ä n t i d e v a s u g g e s ts , th e d e file m e n ts c a n b e
e x p e lle d fro m th e m in d , i.e . th e m o m e n ts o f c o n s c io u s n e s s
w h i c h m a k e u p t h e m i n d - c o n t i n u u m o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l , t h e r e is
n o w h e r e e ls e f o r th e m to g o , s in c e a s m o ra l q u a lit ie s t h e y c a n ­
not d w e ll in o b je c t s o f p e r c e p t io n , o r th e o r g a n s o f se n s e .
M o r a l i t y i s e s s e n t i a l l y in t e n t i o n a l in B u d d h i s t t e a c h i n g , a n d s o
o b j e c t s w h i c h d o n o t p o s s e s s o r g e n e r a t e i n t e n t io n c a n n o t e n ­
g a g e in e t h i c a l a c t i v i t y .

4 .4 8 F r o m t h e e a r l i e s t t i m e s t h e B u d d h a w a s li k e n e d to a d o c t o r w h o
o f f e r e d a m e d i c i n e , A w a k e n i n g , to c u r e t h e il l s o f t h e w o r l d .
T h e F o u r T r u t h s o f th e N o b le s , th e m o st u b iq u it o u s o f B u d ­
d h is t t e a c h in g s , a r e t h e m s e lv e s c o u c h e d a s a m e d ic a l d ia g n o s is
o f t h e s i c k n e s s o f t h e w o r l d , w h i c h is s u f f e r i n g . T h e f ir s t T r u t h ,
t h a t t h e r e is s u f f e r i n g , is t h e d i a g n o s i s o f t h e c o n d i t i o n . T h e
s e c o n d T r u t h , t h a t s u f f e r i n g a r i s e s f r o m c a u s e s , is a s t a t e m e n t
o f t h e c a u s e s o f t h e c o n d i t i o n . T h e t h ir d T r u t h , t h a t t h e r e c a n
b e an end t o s u f f e r i n g , is a p r o g n o s i s t h a t t h e c o n d i t i o n is
c u r a b le . T h e fo u r t h T r u t h , d e s c r ib in g th e p a th to e n d s u f fe r ­
i n g , i s t h e p r e s c r i p t i o n o f t r e a t m e n t . ( S e e H o r n e r 1 9 5 4 - 9 , iii-
4 3 —4 ; a l s o B i r n b a u m 19 8 9 , a s t u d y o f h e a lin g s y m b o lis m , p a r ­
t i c u l a r l y in t h e M a h ä y ä n a . )
 Notes to the Text
154

C H A PTER 5

5 .2 T h e a n a l o g y o f t h e m i n d t o a r u t t i n g e l e p h a n t is t r a d i t i o n a l , fo r
e x a m p le Dhamtnapada 3 2 6 . D u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f r u t , o r se x u a l
e x c i t e m e n t , m a le e l e p h a n t s a r e e x t r e m e l y d a n g e r o u s a n d fig h t
e a c h o th e r f o r fe m a le s , c a u s in g c o n s id e r a b l e d e s tr u c tio n .

5 .6 ‘T e a c h e r o f R e a lit y ’ , o r taitvavadin, is u s e d h e r e a s a n e p ith e t o f

th e B u d d h a .

5 .7 T h e c o m m e n ta r y e x p la in s th a t t h e w o m e n r e fe r r e d to h e r e are
t h e w o m e n w h o a p p e a r in t h e h e l l s o n a n d b e l o w t h e th o r n y
s ilk - c o t to n tre e s w h e r e in a d u lt e r e r s t r y t o c l a m b e r ! S e e 4 .3 5
n o te .

5 .8 O n e n e e d lo o k n o f u r t h e r t h a n t h e f ir s t v e r s e o f t h e Dhammupuda
f o r a s t a t e m e n t to t h i s e f f e c t ‘ s u n g ’ b y t h e B u d d h a : ‘ T h i n g s a r e
c o n t r o l le d b y t h e m i n d , h a v e m i n d a s t h e i r c h i e f , a r e m a d e b y
t h e m i n d . I t o n e s p e a k s o r a c t s w i t h a m i n d m a d e b a d , th e n
s u f f e r i n g f o l l o w s o n e li k e t h e w h e e l t h e f o o t o f t h e d r a u g h t .’
S e e a ls o 5 . 1 7 b e l o w a n d n o t e .

5 .9 The p e r fe c tio n o f g e n e r o s ity is t h e fir s t o f th e p e r fe c tio n s,

para minis, w h i c h a r e c u l t i v a t e d b y t h e B o d h i s a t t v a s o a s t o g a in
f u ll B u d d h a h o o d . F r o m th is p o in t o n S ä n tid e v a b e g i n s h is
e x p o s it i o n o f t h e püramitâs.
5 .10 In t h is v e r s e S ä n t i d e v a d e f i n e s t h e p e r f e c t i o n o f g e n e r o s ity .
1 h e f r u i t r e f e r r e d to h e r e i s t h e f r u i t o f s u c h g e n e r o s i t y . T h i s
is u n d e r s t o o d n o t in t h e c o n c r e t e s e n s e o f g i f t s m a d e in r e t u r n ,
b u t in t h e s e n s e o f t h e punya o r m e r it ( a s o r t o f n o n - m a t e r i a l
‘good f o r t u n e ’ ), w h i c h s u c h s k ilfu l a c tio n b u ild s up f o r th e
d o n o r . T h i s d e f i n it i o n c o u n t e r a c t s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f ‘ s p ir it u a l
m a t e r i a l i s m ’ , w h e r e b y s o m e o n e m ig h t e n g a g e in a c t s o f g e n e r ­
o s i t y w i t h a n e s s e n t i a l l y s e lf is h m o t i v e , t h i n k i n g o n l y o f th e
b e n e f i t to t h e m s e l v e s in t e r m s o f m e r it a t t a i n e d ( c f . 8 . 9 7 - 8 a n d
n o te ). T h i s h a s a n u n d o u b t e d r e l e v a n c e to S ä n t i d e v a ’ s s o c ia l
c o n t e x t , in w h i c h , a s h a d b e e n d o n e f o r m a n y c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e ,
dû no, g e n e r o s i t y , w a s d e f i n e d in t e r m s o f g i v i n g m a t e r i a l g o o d s
t o t h e m o n a s t i c c o m m u n i t y o n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t t h is le d
t o a s u b s t a n t i a l r e w a r d o f m e r it f o r t h e d o n o r .

‘ M e n t a l a t t it u d e ’ h e r e tra n sla te s citta. S e e T r a n s la t o r s ’ In tro ­

d u c t io n , p . x x x v i.

5 .11 In th is v e r s e S ä n t i d e v a d e fin e s th e p e r fe c t io n o f e th ic a l c o n ­
d u c t . B u d d h i s t e t h i c s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h in t e n t io n .
 Notes to the Text 155
H i s c o n c e r n is t h a t i n v o l v e m e n t in t h e w o r l d a t a n y le v e l i n e v i t ­
a b l y l e a d s t o u n s k i l f u l a c t i o n s , u n l e s s o n e ’ s in t e n t io n is f u n d a ­
m e n t a l l y t r a n s f o r m e d . T h e r e i s n o p o i n t in t r y i n g to r e m o v e a ll
p o t e n t ia l v ic t im s o f o n e ’ s u n s k ilfu l b e h a v io u r . O n e m u s t ra th e r
c h a n g e t h e b e h a v i o u r it s e lf.

T h e r a t h e r o b s c u r e e x c la m a t io n is p r o b a b ly a n o b liq u e r e fe r ­
e n c e to a tra d it io n w h ic h s o u g h t to e x p la in h o w th e B u d d h a ,
t h o u g h t t o b e p e r f e c t in h i m s e l f , c a m e t o h a v e c e r t a i n u n p le a s ­
a n t e x p e r i e n c e s , a s d e s c r i b e d in t h e s c r i p t u r e s . R e c o u r s e w a s
m a d e t o p a s t l i v e s in w h i c h h e h a d p e r f o r m e d s o m e b a d a c ti o n
w h i c h i n e v i t a b l y r e s u l t e d in u n p l e a s a n t c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r h i m ,
e v e n i f t h o s e r e s u l t s w e r e o n l y e x p e r i e n c e d a f t e r h i s e n l ig h t e n ­
m e n t. T h e r e fe r e n c e h e r e is t o a p a s t l i f e in w h i c h he had
w a t c h e d a f i s h e r m a n w i t h h i s c a t c h a n d h a d t a k e n p l e a s u r e in
t h e s i g h t o f h i m k i l l i n g t h e f is h . T h i s w a s s a i d t o h a v e r e s u l t e d
in h i m e x p e r i e n c in g a h e a d a c h e o n c e h e w a s e n lig h te n e d . O n e
s u s p e c t s th a t t h is v e r s e a n d th e n e x t g o to g e th e r , c o n tr a stin g
g r a tu ito u s and v ic a rio u s v io le n c e w ith ‘ ju s tifie d ’ v io le n c e ,
r e s p e c t iv e ly .

The c o n c e p ts o f ‘ c e s s a tio n ’ a n d ‘ fre e d o m fro m p a s s io n ’ a re

b o t h c o n t a i n e d in t h e S a n s k r i t t e r m virati^ h e r e t r a n s l a t e d a s ‘ to
c e a se fro m w o r ld ly a c ts ’ .

5 .15 S f i n t i d e v a r e f e r s in t h i s v e r s e t o t h e b e n e f i t s o f c a l m i n g m e d i­
t a t io n (see In tro d u c tio n to C h a p t e r 8 ). W h ile th e m e d ita tiv e
a b s o r p tio n s th e m s e lv e s are d e s c r ib e d in te rm s o f s u b je c t iv e
e x p e r i e n c e , t h e B u d d h i s t t r a d i t i o n a l s o d e s c r i b e s c o s m o lo g ic a l
r e a lm s w h i c h a r e t h e o b je c t iv e c o r r e la t e s o f th e s e in te rn a l s ta te s .
In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e le v e l o f c o n s c io u s n e s s w h ic h a p e r s o n e x ­
p e r ie n c e s d e t e r m in e s t h e ir e x p e rie n c e o f th e w o rld , a n d o f th e
c o s m o lo g ic a l r e a lm w h ic h t h e y o c c u p y . T h e re a lm s w h ic h a r e
c o rre la te d in t h i s w a y w i t h t h e m e d i t a t i v e a b s o r p t i o n s a r e t h e
h e a v e n l y r e a lm s o c c u p ie d b y th e d e itie s o f B u d d h is t c o s m o l­
o g y . T h e h i g h e r o f th e s e r e a lm s a r e th e a b o d e s o f Brahma, th e
h ig h e s t d e i t y , a n d w e r e re g a rd e d a s th e p in n a c le o f m u n d a n e
e x is t e n c e . T y p ic a ll y th e se a r e to b e re a c h e d th ro u g h th e p ra c ­
t ic e o f a s e t o f f o u r c a lm in g m e d ita tio n s , th e brahma-vihtiras, o r
‘a b o d e s o f B ra h m a ’ . T h e s e in v o lv e th e c u lt iv a t io n o f mailri,
lo v e , karumi, c o m p a s s io n , muditä, s y m p a t h e t i c jo y (a t a n o t h e r ’ s
h a p p in e ss ), a n d upeksä, e q u a n im ity (b o th w ith re g a r d to o n e ’ s
a f f e c t i v e r e s p o n s e t o p l e a s u r e , d i s c o m f o r t , e t c . , a n d in t h e s e n s e
o f a c h i e v i n g a n e q u a l r e s p o n s e o f t h e f ir s t t h r e e e m o t i o n s t o ­
w a r d s a l l b e i n g s ) . E x p e r i e n c e o f t h e s e r e a l m s is s a id to b e s u b t l y
156 Notes to the Text
b l i s s f u l , a n d h e n c e v e r y a t t r a c t i v e , y e t it a l l r e m a i n s a p a r t o f
c y c l i c e x i s t e n c e , a n d d o e s n o t le a d t o A w a k e n i n g . I n t h e B u d ­
d h i s t t r a d i t i o n , e v e n g o d s a r e t h e v i c t i m s o f p a s t a c t i o n s a n d a re
a s in n e e d o f s p i r i t u a l A w a k e n i n g a s a n y o t h e r b e i n g . S e e a lso
6 .8 1 n o te.

5 .16 R e c i t a t i o n , ja p a , r e f e r s t o t h e r e c i t a t i o n o f s c r i p t u r e s o r s p e lls ,
mantras (s e e 4 .2 7 n o te ). A u s t e r it y , tapas ( lit e r a lly ‘ h e a t ’ ), w as
g e n e r a l l y f o r b i d d e n to t h e B u d d h i s t m o n k o r n u n a s o n e o f th e
e x t r e m e s w h i c h t h e B u d d h a ’ s M i d d l e W a y a v o i d e d , t h e o th e r
e x tr e m e b e in g th a t o f h e d o n ism . T h e e a r ly c a n o n r e c o r d s , in
v a r io u s p la c e s , a to ta l o f 1 3 dhutagunas ( P a li: dhilt aitgas), or
m i n o r a u s t e r i t i e s , w h i c h w e r e a l l o w e d t h e m o n k , i n c l u d i n g liv ­
i n g in t h e o p e n , w e a r i n g o n l y r a g r o b e s , e a r i n g o n l y o n e m e a l a
d a y , l i v i n g in a c e m e t e r y , o r s l e e p i n g o n l y in a s i t t i n g p o s i t io n .
S o m e tim e s th e te rm tapas is u s e d a s a s y n o n y m f o r r e lig i o u s
p r a c t i c e in g e n e r a l.

5 .17 P r a jn ä k a r a m a t i s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e citta , m in d , is th e bodhicitta,

w h i c h is im p e r c e p t i b l e t o f o o li s h p e o p l e , i. e . t h o s e w h o d o n o t
p u r s u e t h e r e lig io u s life . T h e u se o f th e te rm dharma is a m b i g u ­
o u s h e r e . I t c o u l d m e a n th a t t h e m i n d ( o f A w a k e n i n g , i. e . th e
bodhicitta) is t h e s u m o f a ll T e a c h i n g s , o r it c o u l d r e f e r to
dharmas a s t h e f u n d a m e n t a l i r r e d u c i b l e u n it s t o w h i c h p h e n o m ­
e n a l e x p e r i e n c e c a n b e r e d u c e d . T h e s e a r e l a r g e l y m e n t a l in
c h a r a c t e r , a n d th e ir e n u m e ra tio n w a s o n e o f th e m a in c o n c e r n s
o f th e Abhidhanna , a b o d y o f lite ra tu r e w h ic h g r e w u p in th e
c e n t u r i e s i m m e d ia t e ly f o llo w in g t h e B u d d h a . T h e m i n d is t h e r e ­
fo r e th e w h o le s u m o f dharmas in t h e s e n s e t h a t a ll p h e n o m e n a
a r e u n d e r s t o o d a s i n s e p a r a b le f r o m t h e m i n d . T h i s id e a l i s t t e n d ­
e n c y in B u d d h i s t t e a c h i n g w a s p r e s e n t f r o m t h e e a r l i e s t p e r io d
b u t w a s b r o u g h t to it s m o s t s o p h is t i c a t e d e x p r e s s i o n b y e x p o n ­
e n ts o f th e Y o g ä c ä r a sc h o o l.

5 .18 S ä n t id e v a u s e s th e te rm adhisthita, h e re tra n sla te d a s ‘ m a n a g e ’ .

T h i s t e r m , w i t h it s c o g n a t e f o r m s , h a s a t e c h n i c a l u s a g e in th e
t r a i n i n g o f e l e p h a n t s , r e f e r r i n g to a s t a g e in t h e p r o c e s s o f in d u c ­
i n g a w il d e l e p h a n t to p e r f o r m o n e ’ s w i l l . I t is a l s o v e r y w id e ly
u s e d in M a h ä v ä n a s c r i p t u r e s to d e n o t e a f o r m o f b e n e v o le n t
b le s s in g , o r c o n tr o llin g p o w e r , e x e r c is e d b y a B u d d h a o r B u d ­
d h a s u p o n a fa v o u r e d B o d h is a t tv a .

5 .2 5 ‘ M e m o r y ’ h e r e tr a n sla te s smrti, e ls e w h e r e t r a n s l a t e d a s ‘ m in d ­
fu ln e s s ’ .
 Notes to the Text 157

S ä n t i d e v a r e f e r s h e r e t o t h e t h r e e le v e l s o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g o r
w i s d o m . 'F h e f i r s t is t h a t w h i c h is m e r e l y ‘ h e a r d ’ , sruta, i. e . h a s
b e e n le a r n t f r o m a t e a c h e r o r fro m t h e s c r i p t u r e s , ‘ h e a r d ’ in
b o th c a s e s b e c a u s e th e s c r ip t u r e s w e r e d is s e m in a te d p r im a r ily
b y r e c i t a t i o n . T h e s e c o n d le v e l is t h a t ‘ r e f l e c t e d u p o n ’ , emtita,
i.e . w is d o m or u n d e rs ta n d in g d e v e lo p e d by th e in d iv id u a l
th ro u g h th e ir ow n in t e lle c t iv e r e fle c t io n . T h e t h ir d le v e l is
th a t o f ‘ c u lt iv a t io n in m e d i t a t i o n ’ , bhävanä, a n d r e f e r s to th e
l e v e l s o f i n s i g h t o r w i s d o m t h a t c a n b e c u l t i v a t e d t h r o u g h th e
p r a c tic e o f m e d ita tio n , p a r t ic u la r ly vipasyatui m e d ita tio n . ( S e e
I n t r o d u c t i o n t o C h . 8 .) T h e s e t h r e e t y p e s o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g a r e
seen as p r o g r e s s iv e ly h ig h e r, an d a s re fle c tin g th e n e c e ssa ry
s t a g e s o f t r a i n i n g f o r t h e B u d d h i s t . T h i s p r o c e s s b e g in s w it h
s i m p l y h e a r i n g t h e t e a c h i n g s o f t h e B u d d h a ; p r o g r e s s e s to a n
i n t e l l i g e n t a n d i n f o r m e d a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h o s e p r i n c i p l e s to o n e ’ s
o w n e x p e r i e n c e ; a n d c u l m i n a t e s in t h e a t t a in m e n t b y t h e i n d i­
v i d u a l , t h r o u g h m e d ita tio n p a r t ic u la r ly , o f th o se in s ig h ts w h ic h
in f o r m e d th e o r ig in a l t e a c h in g o f th e B u d d h a .

30 A c c o r d i n g t o t h e m o n a s t i c c o d e ( vin aya ), a m o n k is a s s i g n e d to
h is p r e c e p t o r , upädhyäya, w h e n h e r e c e i v e s f u ll o r d i n a t i o n . T h e
re la t io n s h ip b etw een th e m is c h a r a c t e r i z e d as th a t b e tw e e n
f a t h e r a n d s o n , th e p r e c e p t o r t a k in g r e s p o n s ib ilit y fo r th e s p ir ­
i t u a l w e l f a r e o f t h e m o n k . O n e m a y o r m a y n o t l i v e w it h o n e ’ s
p r e c e p t o r , b u t in t h e a b s e n c e o f t h e p r e c e p t o r o n e is a s s i g n e d
a n in s t r u c t o r , äalrya, w i t h w h o m o n e is e x p e c t e d to l i v e , a n d
w h o se d u tie s c o rre s p o n d w it h th o se o f th e p re c e p to r. H e re
S ä n t id e v a u se s th e term teac h er, guru, ra th e r th a n in s tr u c to r .

32 A c c o r d in g to P r a jn ä k a r a m a ti, o n e s h o u ld e x p e rie n c e sh a m e ,
trapä, a t t h e t h o u g h t o f a n y k in d o f u n s k ilfu l, u n w h o le s o m e
a c tio n ; re sp e c t, adora , t o w a r d s th e B u d d h a ’ s t e a c h in g ; a n d fe a r ,
hhay a, a t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t r a n s g r e s s i n g it.

In t h is v e r s e S ä n t i d e v a in t r o d u c e s th e p r a c tic e o f ‘ r e c o lle c t io n ’
or anusw rti o f t h e B u d d h a a n d h is q u a litie s . T h i s c a n b e p e r ­
f o r m e d in v a r i o u s w a y s . O n e s u c h p r a c t i c e is t h e r e c i t a t i o n o f
th e bu d d ha-van d am , o r ‘ p r a i s e o f t h e B u d d h a ( s ) ’ : ‘ T h i s is w h a t
t h e F o r t u n a t e O n e is li k e : w o r t h y , f u l l y a w a k e n e d , e n d o w e d
w ith k n o w le d g e and v i r t u e , in a g o o d sta te , k n o w e r o f th e
w o r l d s , t h e u n s u r p a s s e d t r a i n e r f o r i n d i v i d u a l s w h o n e e d to b e
tra in e d , te a c h e r o f g o d s an d m e n , A w a k e n e d , th e F o r tu n a te
O n e .’ T h e te rm anusmrti is c o g n a t e w it h starti, and m ean s a
g u i d e d r e m e m b e r i n g o f a s p e c i f i c o b je c t .
158 Notes to the Text
5 .3 5 S ä n t i d e v a h e r e , a s e l s e w h e r e in t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h i s c h a p t e r ,
re p e a t s th e in ju n c t io n s o f m in o r r u le s o f th e vitiaya, o r m o n as­
t ic d i s c i p l i n e . T h e s e w il l n o t b e n o t e d u n l e s s t h e y r e q u i r e s o m e
s p e c ia l e x p la n a tio n .

5 .3 6 ‘ F ie ld o f v is io n ’ tra n sla te s äbhäsa , w h ic h h a s a te c h n ic a l u sag e

d e n o t i n g t h e f ie l d o f o p e r a t io n o f t h e s e n s e s .

5 .4 0 T h i s v e r s e is n o t in t h e T u n - h u a n g r e c e n s i o n . T h e u s e o f th e
term dvipa is v e r y a p t h e r e . C o m m o n l y t h i s w o r d is a n e p it h e t
f o r a n e l e p h a n t , li t e r a l l y m e a n in g ‘ o n e w h o d r i n k s t w i c e ’ , w ith
t r u n k a n d t h e n m o u t h , b u t it c o u l d a ls o b e a n a l y s e d a s ‘ o n e w h o
p r o t e c t s t w i c e ’ , i.e . t h e m i n d , w h i c h p r o v i d e s i t s e l f w it h t h e tw o
p r o te c to r s , m in d fu ln e s s a n d a w a r e n e s s.

5 .4 1 C o n c e n tr a tio n , samädhäna , is n o t a n a c t o f w i l l , in w h i c h o n e
f o r c e s t h e m in d o n t o a s i n g le o b j e c t , b u t r a t h e r a d i s c ip l in e d
b u t h a r m o n io u s a n d o r g a n i c in t e g r a t io n o f t h e m i n d a c h ie v e d
th ro u g h th e p r a c tic e o f m in d fu ln e s s a n d c a lm in g m e d ita tio n .
( S e e I n t r o d u c t i o n to C h . 8 .)

54 2 T h e k i n d o f e la t i o n e n v is a g e d h e r e b y P r a j n ä k a r a m a t i is th a t
fro m p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a B u d d h i s t f e s t i v a l , t h e w o r s h i p o f th e
T h r e e J e w e ls , o r a r is in g fro m e x p e r ie n c e o f a samädhi, o r m e d i­
t a t iv e c o n c e n t r a t i o n . T h e r e is p o s s i b l y th e sa m e in s t r u c t i o n
g i v e n in t h e S iksâ Samuccaya, b u t m is tr a n s la te d b y B e n d a li an d
R o u s e ( 1 9 2 2 , p . 1 17 ).

Aksayam ati S u tra , w h ic h

‘ I t is t a u g h t ’ m a y b e a r e f e r e n c e to t h e
S iksä Sam uccaya ( B e n d a li
S ä n t i d e v a q u o t e s o n t h is p o in t in t h e
and R o u se, 12 ). T h e Aksayanuiti Sü tra i s n o w lo s t in it s
S a n s k r i t o r i g i n a l , b u t a t r a n s l a t io n f r o m t h e C h i n e s e h a s b e e n
p u b l i s h e d in C h a n g 1 9 8 3 , 4 1 5 - 2 6 .

5 .4 5 A b s t i n e n c e f r o m ‘ id le c h a t t e r i n g ’ is t h e s i x t h o f t h e ‘ t e n p a th s
o f s k ilfu l c o n d u c t ’ , o r dasa-kusala-karma-patha, a s e t o f te n
e t h i c a l p r e c e p t s g o v e r n i n g a c t s o f t h e b o d y , s p e e c h , a n d m in d ,
e n j o i n e d f r o m t h e e a r li e s t s t r a t u m o f t h e c a n o n . T h e y a r e , to
a b s ta in fr o m u n s k ilfu l a c tio n s o f th e b o d y , v iz . h a r m in g liv in g
b e i n g s , t a k i n g w h a t is n o t g i v e n , s e x u a l m i s c o n d u c t ; o f s p e e c h ,
v i z . l y i n g , h a r s h s p e e c h , s p i t e f u l s p e e c h , id le s p e e c h ; a n d o f th e
m i n d , v i z . c o v e t o u s n e s s , ill w i l l , a n d w r o n g v i e w s .

5 .4 6 T h e s e t h re e a c tiv it ie s a r e s p e c ific a lly p r o h ib ite d fo r th e o r th o ­

dox b r a h m a n ic a l h o u se h o ld e r by H in d u la w books ( e .g .
Visnusmrti 7 1 . 4 1 IT.) w h i c h s t i p u l a t e ‘ g o o d m a n n e r s ’ f o r a w e ll -
e d u c a te d p e r s o n . T h e y a r e p e r m itte d i f fo r a u s e fu l p u rp o s e ,
s u c h a s a g r i c u l t u r e — in t h e c a s e o f t h e f ir s t t w o — a n d a s a n a c t
 Notes to the Text 159
t o p u r i f y t h e e a r t h a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f r i t u a l — in t h e c a s e o f t h e
l a s t . D r a w i n g a l i n e in th e e a rth w o u n d s it , a n d m a y h a r m
liv in g c r e a t u r e s , b u t in th e p u r ific a to r y ritu a l th e w o u n d is
s o o t h e d b y t h e p o u r i n g o f w a t e r . D r a w i n g a li n e in t h e e a r t h
o u tsid e t h is c o n te x t m a y b e a n in v o lu n t a r y g e s tu r e o f b e in g
o v e r w h e lm e d by an e m o t i o n , o r o f t e l l i n g a lie . A lth o u g h
S ä n tid e v a u s e s th e la n g u a g e fo u n d in t h e H i n d u la w b o o k s ,
th e re are a p p ro x im a te e q u iv a le n ts in th e ex ta n t B u d d h ist
m o n a s tic c o d e s .

4<j Prajnäkaramati’s commentary suggests that, amongst other rea­

sons, the mind can become inflated in the sense of being intoxi­
cated from hearing the Dharma.
52 ‘ C o n g r e g a t io n ’ tra n sla te s parisut. The li t e r a l m e a n in g o f th e
te rm is ‘ s e a t e d a r o u n d ’ , r e f e r r i n g to t h o s e w h o s i t a r o u n d a
t e a c h e r . It is u s e d to d e n o t e th e fo u r ‘ c o n g r e g a t io n s ’ o r a s se m ­
b l i e s o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l B u d d h i s t c o m m u n i t y , i. e . t h e la y m e n
a n d la y w o m e n , a n d th e m o n k s an d n u n s.

54 T h i s is a s t a n d a r d p r i n c i p l e o f B u d d h i s t m e d i t a t i o n . T h e p u p il
s h o u l d b e g u i d e d b y t h e t e a c h e r to e n g a g e in m e d i t a t i o n t e c h ­
n i q u e s w h i c h c o u n t e r a c t s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r t r a i t s o f t h e p u p il .
Thus lu s t w o u ld b e c o u n te ra c te d by th e m e d ita tio n o n th e
f o u l n e s s o f t h e b o d y ( s e e 8 . 4 5 fT .), o r h a t r e d w o u ld b e c o u n t e r ­
a c te d b y t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f fr ie n d lin e s s t h ro u g h maitri bhävanä.
55 T h i s v e r s e a n d v . 5 7 a r e q u o t e d t o g e t h e r in t h e Siksâ Samuccaya
( B e n d a li a n d R o u s e , p . 12 7 ) fro m th e Sä gammati Sûtru.
57 T h e a u t h o r e n j o y s a p u n w h i c h c a n b e o n l y f a i n t l y r e fl e c t e d in
t r a n s la t io n . He u n d e r t a k e s to m a i n t a in h i s m in d ‘ fre e fro m
d e lu s io n ’ o r lit e r a lly ‘ fre e fro m p r id e ’ , ninnano, ju s t l i k e ‘ a
m a g ic a l d i s p l a y ’ , ninnano. T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l le v e l s o f m e a n in g
t o t h i s w o r d p l a y : a m a g i c a l d i s p l a y h a s n o s e l f - w i l l , b e c a u s e it
h a s b e e n c r e a t e d a n d is d i r e c t e d in it s a c t i o n s b y t h e m a g ic ia n ;
a m a g i c a l d i s p l a y is f r e e f r o m d e l u s i o n o r p r i d e b e c a u s e it is
n o t c a p a b l e o f in t e n t io n a l a c tio n , a n d th e r e fo r e c a n n o t e n g a g e
in u n s k ilfu l a c tio n s ; th e arch e ty p a l m a g ic a l d isp la y fo r
th e M ahäyüna B u d d h ist is th e nirmäna-käya, th e M a g ic a lly
C r e a t e d B o d y , o f t h e B u d d h a . T h e la s t is a n a l l u s i o n t o t h e la t e
M ahäyäna t e a c h in g th a t th e B u d d h a h a s t h re e b o d ie s , kayo,
a n d t h a t o f t h e s e t h e p h y s i c a l b o d y o f t h e h i s t o r ic a l B u d d h a w a s
a m a g ic a l d is p la y , ninnano, c r e a t e d t h r o u g h c o m p a s s io n to t e a c h
b e i n g s in t h i s w o r l d .
6o Notes to the Text
5 .5 8 O n ‘ b e s t o f o p p o r tu n it ie s ’ se e 4 . 1 5 - 1 6 . S imeni is a s y n o n y m fo r
M o r u . S e e 4 .3 1 n o te .

5 .6 1 O n t h e im p u r it y o f th e b o d y , s e e 8 .6 3 ff.

5 .6 2 W it h th e im a g e o f th e k n ife o f u n d e r s t a n d in g , prajm -sastrena ,

S ä n t i d e v a p la y s u p o n th e d o u b le a s s o c ia t io n o i t h e k n ife o f the
a n a t o m i c a l l y k n o w le d g e a b le s u r g e o n o r b u t c h e r , a n d t h e s w o r d
o f w i s d o m , h e l d in t h e r i g h t h a n d o f t h e B o d h i s a t t v a M a n ju s r T ,
w h i c h c u t s a w a y d e lu s i o n .

5 .6 5 T h r o u g h o u t t h is a n d th e p r e c e d in g v e rse s, S ä n tid e v a p la y s
u p o n t h e I n d i a n h i g h - c a s t e p h o b i a o f t h e ‘ p o l l u t i n g ’ b o d y an d
it s p r o d u c t s , a s w e ll a s a n y f e a r f o r t h e i n t e g r i t y o f t h e p h y s ic a l
body.

5 .7 1 T o s p e a k f ir s t is a s i g n o f r e s p e c t , b o t h w i t h i n a n d o u t s i d e th e
m o n a s tic c o m m u n ity .

5 .7 4 L it e r a lly o n e s h o u ld a c c e p t su c h a d v ic e ‘ w ith th e h e a d ’ . T h i s
r e f e r s t o b o w i n g t h e h e a d in a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t o r t o s h o w i n g
r e s p e c t b y t o u c h i n g w it h o n e ’ s h e a d t h e f e e t o f s o m e o n e r e ­
v e r e d o r p l a c i n g r e v e r e d o b je c t s o n o n e ’ s h e a d . T h e h e a d is th e
h i g h e s t p a r t o f o n e ’ s b e i n g , in a ll s e n s e s , a n d b y p e r f o r m i n g
s u c h a n a c t o n e s u b o r d i n a t e s t h e b e s t o f o n e ’ s s e l f to t h a t w h ic h
is revered . T h is v e rse ap p ears w it h v a ria n ts in th e Siksfi
Samuccaya ( B e n d a li a n d R o u s e , 3 19 ) .

5 .7 5 T h e ‘ w e ll s a i d ’ is a f r e q u e n t s y n o n y m f o r t h e B u d d h a ’ s t e a c h ­
in g , a n d e x p re sse s one s ig n ific a n t d iffe r e n c e b e tw e e n th e
M a h ä y ä n a a n d n o n - M a h ä y ä n a v i e w s o f t h e D h a r m a . I n th e
la t t e r , it is u n d e r s t o o d t h a t e v e r y t h i n g s a id b y t h e B u d d h a is
‘ w e ll s a i d ’ , i. e . is t r u e a n d to t h e b e n e f it o f b e i n g s . T h e M a h ä y ä n a
tr a d it io n c o n s c io u s ly in tro d u c e d a n in v e r s io n , s a y in g th a t e v e r y ­
t h i n g ‘ w e ll s a i d ’ w a s t h e w o r d o f t h e B u d d h a , i. e . t h a t a n y
t e a c h i n g w h i c h w a s t r u e a n d to t h e b e n e f it o f b e i n g s s h o u l d b e
r e s p e c t e d t o t h e s a m e d e g r e e a s t h o s e t e a c h i n g s p r e s e r v e d in
t h e c a n o n o f s c r i p t u r e a t t r i b u t e d to t h e h i s t o r i c a l B u d d h a . T h e
g e n e r a l t h r u s t o f t h is in v e r s i o n w a s t o c r e a t e a m o r e i n c l u s i v e
a t t i t u d e t o w h a t c o n s t it u t e d t h e B u d d h i s t t e a c h i n g , in i t s e l f an
a p p r o p r ia te e x p r e s s io n o f th e d o c tr in e o f u päya , o r s k ilfu l m e a n s.
S u c h a r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e B u d d h a ’ s t e a c h i n g w a s a ls o v it a l
f o r t h e M a h ä y ä n a f o l l o w e r s w 'h o r e v e r e d t h e M a h ä y ä n a siltms
w h ic h h a d b e g u n to c ir c u la t e b y a b o u t th e fir s t c e n t u r y B Π,
a n d w h i c h , s i n c e t h e y w e r e n o t u n i v e r s a l l y i n c o r p o r a t e d in to
t h e m a t e r i a l a t t r i b u t e d to t h e h i s t o r i c a l B u d d h a , w e r e r e je c t e d
a s ‘ m e r e p o e t r y ’ b y th e n o n - M a h ä y ä n is ts . D h a r m a s v ä m in , a
 Notes to the Text i 6 i

T ib e ta n p ilg r im t r a v e l l i n g in I n d i a in t h e t h ir t e e n t h c e n t u r y ,
w a s a s k e d to d i s c a r d a M a h ä y ä n a s c r i p t u r e t h a t h e w a s c a r r y i n g
b e f o r e h e w o u ld b e a llo w e d a c c e s s to a n o n - M a h ä y ä n is t m o n a s­
t e r y at B o d h G a y a , th e p la c e o f th e B u d d h a ’s E n lig h te n m e n t.
H e re S ä n tid e v a p l a y s w it h t h e a m b i g u i t y o f t h e M a h ä y ä n i s t
p o s it io n . O f c o u r s e , a s a p io u s B u d d h is t , o n e sh o u ld e x p r e s s
o n e ’ s a p p r e c ia t io n o f th e B u d d h a ’ s t e a c h in g , b u t o n e s h o u ld
a l s o e x p r e s s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h w h a t e v e r a c c o r d s w it h th a t t e a c h ­
i n g , w h a t e v e r it s s o u r c e .
5 .8 1 T h i s v e r s e is n o t i n t h e T u n - h u a n g r e c e n s i o n . P r a jn ä k a r a m a t i
s u g g e s t s th a t ‘ t h e V ir t u o u s ’ r e fe r s to th e B u d d h a s a n d B o d h i-
s a t t v a s ; t h a t t h e ‘ b e n e f a c t o r s ’ a r e o u r p a r e n t s a n d s o o n ; a n d th a t
‘ o n e w h o s u f f e r s ’ r e fe r s to th o s e w h o a r e s ic k , a n d so o n . H e
a ls o g lo s s e s ‘ a n t id o t e ’ , pratipaksa , a s ‘ t h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f t h e r e a l­
iz a t i o n o f e m p t i n e s s a s a n a n t i d o t e to t h e d e f i l e m e n t s ’ .

The d e s c r ip t io n o f th e B u d d h a s a n d B o d h is a t tv a s , a n d o n e ’s
w o rld ly b e n e fa c to rs (o fte n th e m o n a s tic c o m m u n it y it s e lf is
d e s c r i b e d in t h i s w a y ) a s ‘ f i e l d s ’ is a c o m m o n a g r i c u l t u r a l m e t a ­
p h o r . S u c h p e o p l e a r e f i e l d s in w h i c h o n e s o w s a c r o p o f g o o d
a c t io n s o f o n e ’ s o w n , v iz . d e v o t io n , g e n e r o s it y , e t c ., a n d fro m
w h ic h o n e h a r v e s t s a c r o p o f fr u it, phalt j , in t h e f o r m o f m e r it ,
p u n y a.
5 .8 3 ‘ A f i x e d r u l e o f c o n d u c t ’ is g l o s s e d b y P r a j n ä k a r a m a t i a s siksâ-
sam vara , ‘ th e b o n d o f th e tr a in in g ’ o f th e B o d h is a t tv a s .

5 .8 5 T h is ve rse i s n o t in t h e T u n - h u a n g r e c e n s i o n . I n a p a r a l le l
p assage q u o te d fro m th e Ratnamegha Sutra in h is S i km
Sam uccuya, S ä n t i d e v a li s t s t h o s e w it h w h o m o n e s h o u l d s h a r e
a s f e l l o w m o n k s , t h o s e w h o s u f f e r , a n d t h o s e in d i f f i c u l t y ( B e n d a li
a n d R o u s e , 1 2 7 ) . T h e g i v i n g a w a y o f t h e t h r e e r o b e s is f o r b i d ­
d e n in t h e Bodhisattva-prâtim oksa, q u o t e d i b id . 1 4 3 .
A c c o r d in g to th e a n c ie n t r u le s g o v e r n in g th e m o n a s tic c o m m u n ­
i t y , t h e i n d i v i d u a l m o n k w a s a ll o w e d a n a b s o l u t e m in i m u m o f
p o s s e s s i o n s o n l y . T h e s e in c l u d e d t h r e e r o b e s a n d a b e l t t o h o ld
u p t h e l o w e r o f t h e s e , a b o w l in w h i c h to r e c e i v e b e g g e d f o o d ,
n e e d le a n d t h r e a d , r a z o r , w a t e r - s t r a in e r , a n d m e d ic in e s . H o w ­
e v e r , a t le a s t fr o m th e tim e o f th e e m p e r o r A so k a ( 3 r d c e n t u r y
UCF.), t h e m o n a s t i c c o m m u n i t y h a d b e e n t h e r e c i p i e n t o f e x t e n ­
s i v e la y a n d r o y a l p a tr o n a g e , b e c o m in g a c o n s id e r a b le p r o p e r t y -
o w n e r . 1- t s i n g , a C h i n e s e m o n k w h o t r a v e l l e d in I n d i a in t h e
secon d h a lf o f th e 7 th c e n tu ry ce, r e p o rts th a t N ä la n d ä , th e
m o n a s t i c i n s t i t u t i o n w h e r e S ä n t i d e v a c o m p o s e d t h is w o r k a r o u n d
th at tim e , h e ld la n d s c o n ta in in g o v e r tw o h u n d r e d v illa g e s .
j 62 Notes to the Text
M e m b e r s o f t h i s c o m m u n i t y h a d a c c e s s t o it s c e n t r a l t r e a s u r y
o f m o n e y , w it h th e p e r m is s io n o f th e t h re e t r e a s u r e r s , h u r th e r-
m o r e , in d iv id u a l m o n k s o f h ig h s t a n d in g tr a v e lle d in s e d a n
c h a i r s , w i t h a t t e n d a n t s t o c a r r y t h e i r b a g g a g e . T h u s , w h i l e th e
r u l e s g o v e r n i n g in d i v i d u a l p o s s e s s i o n s r e m a i n e d in p l a c e , de
facto m a n y m o n k s b e c a m e th e h e irs o f c o n s id e r a b le e s ta te s ,
w h i c h t h e y w o u ld a d m i n i s t r a t e o n b e h a l f o f t h e c o m m u n i t y a s
a w h o le . C o m b i n e d w it h a l i t e r a l is m b y w h ic h so m e m o n k s
c o n s id e r p e r m is s ib le a n y th in g w h ic h is n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y fo r­
b i d d e n in t h e le t t e r o f t h e Vinaya , one can im a g in e th a t b y
S ä n t i d e v a ’ s d a y th e r e w a s c o n s id e r a b le s c o p e fo r c ir c u m v e n t in g
m o n a s t i c r e g u la t io n s .

5 .8 8 T h i s v e r s e , a n d t h o s e th a t f o llo w u p to a n d i n c l u d i n g 9 S , a r e
n o t in t h e T u n - h u a n g r e c e n s i o n . T h e s e a r e m i n o r m o n a s t i c
r e g u la t io n s . A s o n e c a n i n f e r , t h e s e a r e c o n c e r n e d t o p r e v e n t
o n e f r o m t e a c h i n g to p e o p l e w h o a r e u n r e c e p t i v e . T h e v a r i o u s
p o t e n t i a l m o d e s o f u n r e c e p t i v i t y a r e im p l i e d b y t h e a c c o u t r e ­
m e n t s . I t w o u l d b e a c c e p t a b le to t e a c h s o m e o n e u n d e r t h e s e
c i r c u m s t a n c e s i f t h e y w e r e il l. ( S e e H o r n e r 1 9 4 2 , 1 4 0 f f .)

5 .8 9 T h e ‘ in a d e q u a te ’ a r e u n d e rs to o d b y P r a jn â k a r a m a ti to b e ‘ th o se
w it h u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d m i n d s , o r t h o s e w h o s e d i s p o s i t i o n is in ­
f e r i o r ’ . T h e n e e d f o r a m o n k to b e c h a p e r o n e d w h e n t e a c h in g
w o m e n is t o p r o t e c t b o t h p a r t i e s f r o m e x p l o i t i n g w i t h s e x u a l
i n t e n t t h e o p p o r t u n i t y o f p r i v a c y . T h e m o n k is r e q u i r e d t o b e
s t r i c t l y c e lib a t e . T h e l e s s e r t e a c h i n g s r e f e r r e d t o h e r e a r e t h o s e
o f th e s o -c a lle d H în a y â n a . T h e h ig h e r t e a c h in g s a r e th o s e o f
th e M a h ä y ä n a .

5 .9 0 T h e p r o h ib i t io n a g a i n s t g i v i n g t h e l e s s e r t e a c h i n g t o o n e s u i t ­
K Ssyapa-
a b l e f o r t h e h i g h e r t e a c h in g m a y b e a r e f e r e n c e t o t h e
parivarta Sütra p a s s a g e q u o t e d in t h e Siksä Sam uccaya ( B e n d a l i
a n d R o u s e , 5 5 ) . P r a jn â k a r a m a t i e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e s e c o n d r e f e r ­
e n c e is to t h e p r a c t i c e o f t e l l i n g p e o p l e t h a t t h e y w i l l b e p u r i f i e d
b y r e c itin g th is sütra (s c r ip tu r e ) o r th a t mantra ( s p e ll) ir r e s p e c ­
t iv e o f h o w th e y b e h a v e . A sütra is a t e x t t h a t p u r p o r t s t o c o n ­
t a in a d i s c o u r s e b y t h e h i s t o r ic a l B u d d h a . P 'o r mantra s e e 4 .2 7
n o te.

59 1 The fir s t r u le is g i v e n , p h r a s e d s lig h t ly d i f f e r e n t l y , in th e

bodhisattva-prätimoksa q u o t e d in t h e S ib sä Sam uccaya (B e n d a li
a n d R o u s e , 1 2 5 ) . T h e s e c o n d r u l e is g i v e n s e p a r a t e l y , i b id . 1 2 4 .

c o2 R u b b i n g b o t h a r m s a t t h e s a m e t im e is a g e s t u r e o f t h r e a t o r
c h a l l e n g e . T h i s v e r s e is q u o t e d in t h e S ib sä Sam uccaya (B e n d a li
 Notes to the Text 163
and R o u se, 1 2 5 ) a n d a s c r ib e d to th e Prätim oksa , a lth o u g h it
d o e s n o t o c c u r in t h e P a l i Pätimokk/ia.
5 .9 3 b T h e d isp le a su re of s o c ie t y is t h e p r i m e r e a s o n g iv e n in th e
Vinaya f o r th e in s t ig a t io n o f m a n y m o n a s tic r u le s . T h i s in ju n c ­
t io n r e v e a l s t h e s y m b i o t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e m o n a s t i c a n d la y
c o m m u n i t i e s , w h e r e b y , in re tu rn f o r m e r i t e a r n e d , t h e la i t y
fe e d s a n d c lo t h e s t h e m o n k s . T h e p r ic e p a id b y th e m o n k s fo r
t h i s a r r a n g e m e n t is t h a t t h e m o n a s t i c c o m m u n i t y i t s e l f is a s ­
s e s s e d b y a v ig ila n t la it y w h o a r e k e e n to s e e th a t th e ir g e n e r ­
o s it y is n o t w a s te d o n la x m o n k s . A s i m il a r s t a t e m e n t is m a d e
in t h e S ik s ä Sam uccaya, ib id . 1 2 5 .

5 .9 6 T h e m o n k is e n jo in e d to im it a t e th e B u d d h a at h is d e a th , o r
f in a l e m a n c i p a t i o n , parinirvätui , a t w h i c h h e l a y w i t h h i s h e a d to
th e n o r t h , o n h is r i g h t s i d e , h is h e a d o n h is r ig h t h a n d , le ft h a n d
s t r e t c h e d o u t a l o n g h i s le f t t h i g h , a n d h i s r o b e s w r a p p e d c l o s e l y
a ro u n d h is b o d y . T h e B u d d h a ’s parim nnnia h a s fre q u e n t ly b e e n
d e p i c t e d in p a i n t i n g s a n d s c u l p t u r e . T h e s u b j e c t is n o t c o n s i d ­
ered m o rb id , b u t an in s p ir in g r e p r e s e n ta t io n o f th e p o in t at
w h ic h t h e B u d d h a w a s fin a lly r e le a s e d fr o m th e c y c l e o f e x is t ­
ence, samsara.
5 .9 8 T h e Triskandha is p r o b a b l y a re fe r e n c e to th e Triskaudha-dharma
S ü tra , T h e D i s c o u r s e o n th e T e a c h in g o f th e T h r e e H e a p s,
w h i c h is a s h o r t M a h ä y ä n a sii tra t h a t s u r v i v e s o n l y in T i b e t a n
a n d C h in e s e t r a n s la t io n s . It c o n s is t s o f a n e x t e n d e d c o n fe s s io n
o f fa u lt s to th e t h ir t y - fiv e ‘ B u d d h a s o f c o n fe s s io n ’ , a n d e n d s
w it h a b r i e f r e jo i c i n g in m e r it a n d d e d ic a t io n to E n lig h t e n m e n t .
F o r a t r a n s la t io n o f th is w o r k fr o m th e T ib e t a n , se e B e r e s fo r d
19 8 0 , 17 -2 1. In Siksfi Sam uccaya, S i i n t i d e v a
th e q u o te s th is
r u le f r o m th e Ugradatta pariprcchä, w h i c h d e f i n e s th e ‘T h r e e
H e a p s ’ a s ‘ c o n fe s s io n o f s i n , d e l i g h t in m e r i t , s o l i c i t a t i o n of
B u d d h a s ’ , s e e B e n d a li a n d R o u s e , 1 9 2 2 , 2 6 3 - 4 . P r a jn ä k a r a m a ti
m e r e ly g lo s s e s t h is r e fe r e n c e b y m e n tio n in g c o n fe s s io n o f f a u lts ,
r e j o i c i n g in m e r i t , a n d t h e m a t u r a t i o n o f A w a k e n i n g , s o t h a t ,
w h ile he m ay have had th is p a r t ic u la r sfitra in m in d , o th e r
f o r m u l a t i o n s o f t h e s a m e s e n t i m e n t s w e r e in u s e .

5 .F 0 2 ‘ S p ir itu a l fr ie n d ’ tra n sla te s kalyiltjam itra. T h e ‘ B o d h is a t tv a v o w ’

h a s r e c e iv e d v a r io u s fo r m u la tio n s . S e e In t ro d u c tio n to C h . 10 .

5 .10 3 T e a c h e r , guru, is u sed by S ä n tid e v a as a sy n o n y m fo r th e

kalyäuam itra o f Srïsam hhava-vim oksa
th e p re v io u s v e rse . T h e
is t h e 5 3 r d c h a p t e r o f t h e G atidavyüha Sü tra ( s e e 1 . 1 0 n o t e ) .
T h ere the spiritu ally advanced b o y and girl, SrTsam bhava and
164 Notes to the Text
S r i m a t i , e x p l a i n to t h e p i l g r i m S u d h a n a t h e i n d i s p e n s a b l e ro le
o f s p i r i t u a l f r i e n d s a n d t h e a t t i t u d e t h a t o n e s h o u l d h a v e to ­
w a rd s th em .
5 .10 3 ‘ S c r ip t u r e ’ tra n sla te s sutrmta, w h i c h is a p a r a l l e l t e r m f o r sätra,
i.e . a c a n o n ic a l ‘ d is c o u r s e ’ .

5 .10 4 The Akïmgarbha Sütra is o n e o f t h e .ultras in th e Mahâsamnipâta

Sütra c o ll e c t i o n . T h e S a n s k r i t t e x t is n o t know n to s u r v iv e ,
e x c e p t f o r t h e p a s s a g e r e f e r r e d to h e r e , w h i c h S ä n t i d e v a q u o te s
a t le n g t h in h i s Siksä Samuccaya (B e n d a li a n d R o u s e , 6 1 - 7 0 ) .
T h i s d e s c r ib e s e i g h t f u n d a m e n t a l t r a n s g r e s s i o n s , multipatti, fo r
' t h e B o d h is a t t v a : 1 . T e a c h i n g p r o f o u n d sfitras t o t h o s e in c a p a b le
o f u n d e rs ta n d in g th e m , th e r e b y p u tt in g t h e m o f f t h e h ig h e r
p a th ( t h e M a h ä y ä n a ) ; 2 . T e a c h i n g t h e le s s e r p a t h ( t h e H ln a y â n a )
to t h o s e c a p a b l e o f t h e h i g h e r ; 3 . T e a c h i n g t h e h i g h e r p a th an d
n e g le c t in g t h e m o n a s t i c r u le s a n d t h e d i s c i p l i n e ; 4 . D i s c o u r a g ­
in g p e o p l e fro m fo llo w in g th e le s s e r p a th ; 5. D is c r e d it in g
o t h e r s a n d b o a s t i n g o f o n e s e lf , i n c l u d i n g b o a s t i n g o f h a v in g a t­
t a in e d p s y c h i c p o w e r s ( s u c h p o w e r s a r c r e g a r d e d a s a n a tu r a l
b y - p r o d u c t o f c a lm in g m e d i t a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y o f e x p e r i e n c e o f
th e fo u rth m e d ita tiv e a b s o r p tio n ; se e In t r o d u c tio n to C h . 8 );
6 . S h o w i n g o f f a m e r e b o o k - le a r n i n g o f t h e M a h ä y ä n a , b u t
c l a i m i n g it is b a s e d o n p e r s o n a l i n s i g h t ; 7 . C u l t i v a t i n g p o li t ic a l
c o n t a c t s w h o e x p l o i t t h e w e a lt h o f t h e r e l i g i o u s c o m m u n i t y
a n d t h e n a p p r o p r i a t e t h a t w e a lt h ; 8 . F a l l i n g a w a y f r o m s p ir ­
it u a l d i s c i p l i n e u n d e r e x t e r n a l p r e s s u r e s , a n d h o n o u r i n g t h o s e
w h o a r e c o r r u p t in t h e i r d i s c ip l in e .

5 .10 5 T h i s v e r s e is n o t in t h e T u n - h u a n g r e c e n s i o n . A s i m i l a r s t a t e ­
m e n t is m a d e , h o w e v e r , in t h e Sihâ Samuccaya i t s e l f ( B e n d a li
a n d R o u se , 17 ).

5 .10 6 N ä g ä r ju n a w a s th e g re a t te a c h e r o f th e 2 n d c e n t u r y CE w h o is
r e g a r d e d b y t r a d it io n a s t h e f o u n d e r o f t h e M a d h y a n r a k a t r a d i­
t io n , to w h ic h S ä n t i d e v a a d h e re d . R e n o w n e d a s a ‘ s e c o n d B u d ­
d h a ’ , h e is a s s o c i a t e d w it h t h e ‘ d i s c o v e r y ’ a n d p r o m u l g a t i o n o f
th e P e r fe c tio n o f W is d o m S u t r a s . T h e in te r p r e ta tio n o l th is
v e r s e is d i s c u s s e d b y I s h i d a ( 1 9 8 8 ) .

CH APTER 6

6 ! T h i s v e r s e li s t s t o p i c s a l r e a d y c o v e r e d in t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s :
w o r s h i p , i . e . t h e S u p r e m e W o r s h i p , in C h s . 2 - 3 , a n d g e n e r o s it y
a n d p r o p e r c o n d u c t in C h . 5 .
 Notes to the Text 165
6 .2 T h i s m a y b e a n a l l u s i o n to Dhammapada 18 4 a : Muniti paramenti
tapa titikkhä, ‘ L o n g - s u f f e r i n g f o r b e a r a n c e is t h e h i g h e s t s p i r i ­
t u a l p r a c t i c e . ’ ‘ S p i r i t u a l p r a c t i c e ’ is a t r a n s l a t io n o f t h e te r m
tapas, w h ic h m e a n s li t e r a l l y ‘ h e a t ’ , a n d r e f e r s , in t h e b r o a d e r
In d ia n r e l i g i o u s c o n t e x t , to a u s t e r i t i e s , b o t h in th e s e n s e o f
g e n e r a t i n g i n t e r n a l h e a t a n d e n d u r i n g e x t r e m e e x t e r n a l h e a t.
S ä n t i d e v a t h e r e f o r e u s e s a t e r m f o r s p i r i t u a l p r a c t i c e w h i c h in
i t s e l f i m p l i e s g r e a t e n d u r a n c e , b u t in t h e B u d d h i s t c o n t e x t w it h
t h e a d d e d s e n s e o f p a t i e n c e . I n t h i s la s t r e s p e c t , t h e u s e o f t h is
te rm illu s tr a t e s th e B u d d h is t te n d e n c y to e t h i c i z e a n d p sy­
c h o lo g iz e p a n - I n d ia n re lig io u s c o n c e p ts .

6 .3 The d art o r a rro w is a fre q u e n t m e ta p h o r fo r th e p ie r c in g

e m o t i o n s o f g r e e d a n d h a t r e d . T h e m o s t f a m o u s in s t a n c e , a n d
o n e u n d o u b t e d l y k n o w n b y S ä n t i d e v a , is t h a t in w h i c h a p e r ­
s o n i s s t r u c k b y a p o i s o n e d a r r o w ( i .e . b y t h e s u f f e r i n g s o f c y c l ic
e x i s t e n c e ) b u t , i n s t e a d o f le t t i n g t h e s u r g e o n g e t o n w it h r e ­
m o v i n g it, h in d e r s h im w it h q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e p r o v e n a n c e
a n d t y p e o f t h e a r r o w ( i .e . w it h m e t a p h y s i c a l q u e s t i o n s ) . ( S e e
H o r n e r 1 9 5 7 , ii . 9 9 - 1 0 0 . ) T h e im a g e a ls o a p p e a r s in t h e w e ll -
know n ‘ W h e e l o f L i f e ’ , a d ia g r a m illu s tr a t in g th e n a tu re o f
c a u s a lit y . H ere, in t h e o u t e r c i r c l e , a s a s y m b o l o f f e e li n g ,
vedano, a p e r s o n is s h o w n w it h a n a r r o w in t h e e y e . S e e T h o m a s
W 5L 5^-7 0 .
6 .9 O n ‘ s y m p a t h e t i c jo y ’ s e e 5 . 1 5 n o te . O n ‘ s k ilfu l’ s e e 1 .3 n o te .

6 .10 T h is v e r s e a l s o o c c u r s in t h e Siksä Samuccaya ( B e n d a li a n d

R o u se , 1 7 6 ).

6 .13 D u r g ä is a f i e r c e g o d d e s s , o n e o f t h e p r i n c i p a l f o r m s o f t h e w if e
o f t h e H i n d u d e i t y S i v a . E v e n to t h is d a y , b lo o d s a c r i f i c e s a r e
o f f e r e d t o h e r a n d d e v o t e e s m u t i l a t e t h e m s e l v e s , e .g . b y p i e r c ­
i n g t h e i r f le s h w i t h h o o k s , o r t a k i n g b u r n i n g - h o t b o w l s in t h e i r
h a n d s , t o g a i n h e r f a v o u r , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r m a t e r ia l g a in . K a r n ä t a
w as an area o f so u th In d ia c o r re s p o n d in g to a n a r e a w h ic h
in c lu d e s th e m o d e r n -d a y sta te K a rn a ta k a .

6 .14 a S i m i l a r in t h e Siksä Samuccaya ( B e n d a li a n d R o u s e , 17 6 ) .

6 .15 S o m e o f t h e s e ir r it a t io n s ta k e o n g r e a te r s ig n ific a n c e fo r s o m e ­
o n e t r y in g to m e d ita te .

6 .19 b S i m i l a r in t h e Siksä Samuccaya ( B e n d a li a n d R o u s e , 3 1 9 ) .

6 .2 1 T h i s i s ‘ t h e i n t o x i c a t i o n o f y o u t h , w e a lt h , e t c . ’ , a c c o r d i n g to
P r a j n â k a r a m a t i , a l t h o u g h t h e r e is a ls o a w i d e s p r e a d a n d e a r l y
e n u m e r a t i o n o f t h r e e i n t o x i c a t i o n s : o f y o u t h , h e a l t h , a n d li f e .
i66 Notes to the Text
Prajnäkaramati bhahti\ ‘ f a ith ’ ,
a ls o g lo s s e s ‘ lo n g i n g ’ a s : ‘ d e v o t i o n ’ ,
sraddhä; a n d ‘ s e r e n e c o n fid e n c e o f m in d ’ , citta-pnisfula.
6 .2 2 T h i s v e r s e a n d th e n e x t tw o in v o lv e a n e x t e n d e d p u n re v o lv in g
a ro u n d th e u se o f th e v e rb a l ro o t hup a n d it s d e r i v a t i v e s , w h i c h
e n c o m p a s s c o n n o t a t i o n s o f a g it a t i o n , b i l i o u s i l l - h u m o u r , a n d
d o w n r i g h t a n g e r . E x c e s s o f b i le g i v e s r i s e t o p h y s i c a l a i lm e n t s
a s w e l l a s a n g e r , a c c o r d i n g to t r a d it io n a l I n d i a n m e d i c i n e .

6 .2 5 T h e n o t io n o f a s i n g le c a u s e f o r a n y e v e n t is r e je c t e d in B u d ­
d h i s t t h o u g h t f r o m t h e e a r li e s t p e r i o d . E v e r y p h e n o m e n a l e v e n t
a r i s e s o n t h e b a s is o f n u m e r o u s c o n d i t i o n i n g f a c t o r s , t h e n a t u r e
o f w h i c h , a t le a s t in t e r m s o f a g e n e r a l t y p o l o g y , w a s d e s c r ib e d
in t h e Abhidhama, t h e s e c t io n o f s o m e B u d d h i s t c a n o n s w h ic h
s o u g h t to s y s t e m a t iz e a n d o r g a n i z e t h e t e a c h i n g s f r o m t h e S c r i p ­
t u r e s ( s e e 5 . 1 7 n o t e ) . W h il e in d i v i d u a l a c t i o n s m i g h t b e s i n g le d
o u t a s s k i l f u l o r u n s k i l f u l , t h e ‘ r e s u l t ’ o f t h a t a c t i o n in t h e li f e o f
t h e i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n c a n n o t b e p r e d i c t e d w i t h a n y g r e a t e x a c t i­
t u d e , s i n c e it w il l b e a f f e c t e d b y n u m e r o u s o t h e r c o n t r i b u t o r y
c o n d it io n s , r e fle c t in g o th e r a c tio n s o n th e p a r t o f th a t p e r s o n .

6 .2 7 ‘ P r im a l m a t t e r ’ , pradhäna, is c o n s i d e r e d b y S ä m k h y a p h i l o s o ­
p h e r s to b e t h e m a t e r ia l c a u s e o f a ll p h e n o m e n a l e x i s t e n c e . T h e
‘S e lf’, iïtman, is t h e u l t i m a t e l y r e a l e s s e n c e o f a n in d i v i d u a l
a c c o r d i n g to m a n y n o n - B u d d h i s t I n d i a n p h i l o s o p h i e s . T h e s a r ­
c a s t i c t o n e o f t h is v e r s e r e f l e c t s S ä n t i d e v a ’ s d i s d a i n f o r t h e s e
p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h e o r i e s w h i c h a r e r e je c t e d in B u d d h i s t t h o u g h t .
W h i l e h e o f f e r s p r e l i m i n a r y a r g u m e n t s a g a i n s t b o t h in t h e n e x t
v e r s e , S ä n t i d c v a e n g a g e s in a m o r e d e t a i le d r e f u t a t i o n o f t h e i r
e x i s t e n c e in C h . 9 . S e e 9 .5 6 fif. ( o n t h e s e l f ) a n d 9 . 1 2 7 f ï . (o n
p r im a l m a tte r).

6 .2 8 T h ese a rg u m e n ts are b o th based on th e p r e m is e h e ld by

âtmavüdins, ‘ t h o s e w h o h o ld a d o c t r i n e o f a S e l f ’ , t h a t a S e l f is
n e c e s s a r i l y p e r m a n e n t a n d u n c h a n g i n g . I f it is p e r m a n e n t it
m u s t a l w a y s h a v e e x i s t e d , s o t h e r e c a n n e v e r h a v e b e e n a t im e ,
p r i o r to it s e x i s t e n c e , a t w h i c h it f o r m s t h e i n t e n t i o n o f c o m i n g
i n t o e x i s t e n c e . I f it d o e s e x i s t a n d is i n v o l v e d i n ‘ t h e s p h e r e o f
a c t i o n ’ o r t h e m a t e r i a l w o r l d , s i n c e it is u n c h a n g i n g , t h i s in ­
v o l v e m e n t m u s t b e p a r t o f it s n a t u r e a n d s o it c a n n o t c h a n g e
a n d s t o p d o i n g t h is .

6 .3 0 S ä n t i d e v a r e f e r s to t h e p e r c e i v e d c o n ju n c t i o n o f a n a g e n t a n d
a n a c t i o n a t t r i b u t e d to t h a t a g e n t . I f t h e a g e n t d o e s n o t c h a n g e
in t h e c o u r s e o f t h e a c t i o n t h e n it i s n o t i n v o l v e d in it in a n y
m e a n in g f u l w a y . I f , a s s o m e m a in t a in , th e a c tio n is c o n tin u e d
 N otes to the Text 167
w i t h i n t h e a g e n t , t h e n b o t h h a v e t h e s a m e s t a t u s , a n d t h e r e is
n o c a u s a l r e la t io n s h ip .

6 .3 2 S â n t i d e v a e n v is a g e s a n o n - B u d d h i s t r e s p o n s e to h is a r g u m e n t
th at ta k e s th e v ie w th a t, s in c e B u d d h is t s d e n y th e e x is te n c e o f
a n e n d u r i n g ‘ s e l f ’ , t h e ir a r g u m e n t s a g a in s t a n g e r a r e in c o h e r ­
e n t, s in c e t h e y p r e s u m e a w o r ld o f e n d u r i n g e n t it ie s , o r s e lv e s .
S ä n t i d e v a ’ s r e p l y is b o t h d o c t r i n a l ! } ' b a s e d a n d p r a g m a t i c . S u f ­
fe r in g a r is e s t h r o u g h c a u s e s a n d c o n d it io n s , a n d d o e s n o t n e e d
a ‘ s e l f ’ u p o n w h i c h t o b e i n f l i c t e d . A l s o , t h e f a c t is t h a t t h e r e is
s u f f e r i n g , a n d t h e r e a r e c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h g i v e r i s e t o it w h i c h
c a n b e c o n t r o lle d . S u f f e r i n g n e e d s to b e d e a lt w ith r e g a r d le s s o f
o n e ’ s m e t a p h y s i c a l o u t lo o k . O n d e p e n d e n t o r i g i n a t i o n , s e e y .4 6
n o te a n d T h o m a s 1 9 5 1 , 5 8 —7 0 .

6 .3 5 S ä n tid e v a lis ts e x a m p le s o f s e lf- t o r t u r e m o tiv a te d b y each of

th e th re e ro o t p o is o n s , d e lu s io n , h a t r e d , a n d g r e e d , in th a t
o rd e r. P e o p le to r m e n tin g t h e m s e lv e s w it h th o rn s p o s s ib ly
re fe r s to s e l f - t o r t u r e in a s t a te o f r e lig io u s h y s te ria , a n o th e r
r e fe r e n c e to c u lt s s u c h a s th at o f D u r g ä . T h e te rm used fo r
in t o x ic a t io n , pramäda, is th e a n tit h e s is o f m in d f u ln e s s a n d a w a r e ­
n e s s, fo r w h ic h th e te rm apro nutda is o f t e n u s e d . T h e r e f u s a l o f
fo o d is a w id e s p r e a d fo rm o f e m o tio n a l b la c k m a il in In d ia n
s o c ie t y .

6 .4 1 T h e s c e n a r io e n v is a g e d is o f s o m e b o d y b e in g a tta c k e d b y s o m e ­
o n e e ls e w ith a w e a p o n .

6 .4 6 S e e 4 .3 5 n o te .

6 .4 8 T h e s p e a k e r h a s c o m m i t t e d e v il in t h e p a s t a n d m u s t t h e r e f o r e
u n d e r g o t h e e v i l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h o s e a c t i o n s in t h e f o r m of
s u ffe r in g . I f h e d o e s n o t re a c t u n s k ilfu lly to o th e r s w h o a r e th e
a g e n t s o f t h a t s u f f e r i n g , t h e o v e r a l l e v i l s t i l l t o b e w o r k e d o f f is
re d u ced .

6 .6 4 T h e a u t h o r r e f e r s to s a c r e d im a g e s o f th e B u d d h a s o r B o d h i -
sa ttv a s. A stüpa is a f u n e r a r y m o n u m e n t b u ilt to c o n ta in b o d il y
re lic s o f s p ir it u a lly advanced p e o p le , m o st t y p ic a lly o f th e
B u d d h a . T h e y w e r e e x t r e m e ly p o p u la r , b e i n g r a is e d a t a ll th e
p ilg rim a g e s ite s a s s o c ia te d w it h th e life o f t h e B u d d h a . T h e
c o n c e p t o f b l a s p h e m y is f o r e i g n to B u d d h i s m , a n d t h e B u d d h a
is r e c o r d e d a s u n a m b i g u o u s l y f o r b i d d i n g r i g h t e o u s i n d i g n a t i o n
to h is fo llo w e r s , e v e n w hen h e o r th e y , o r th e t e a c h in g , w a s
ab u se d b y o u t s id e r s (se e Brahmitjälu Slitta, R h y s D a v id s iS y y ) .

6 .6 5 O n e sh o u ld r e fle c t a s d ire c te d in th e p r e c e d in g p a ssa ge, vv .

25- 33 -
168 Notes to the Text
6 .6 6 T h e c a u s e s o f s u ffe r in g c a n b e e ith e r c o n s c io u s o r u n c o n s c io u s ,
b u t t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f s u f f e r i n g o n l y o c c u r s in s o m e t h i n g t h a t is
c o n s c i o u s . T h e r e f o r e t h e p r o b le m li e s w it h t h e s t a t e o f b e i n g
c o n s c i o u s . T h e c a u s e is i r r e le v a n t .

6 .6 8 ‘ T h e f o r c e o f p r i o r a c t i o n s ’ is a f r e e t r a n s l a t io n o f t h e s i n g le ,
o f t e n m is u n d e r s t o o d t e r m karma, o n w h ic h s e e 1 .2 n o te .

6 .8 1 ‘T h e th re e w o r ld s ’ a r e th e th re e w o r ld s o r p la n e s o f e x is t e n c e o f
B u d d h is t c o s m o lo g y , v iz . th e kamaloka, th e w o r ld o f s e n s u o u s
e x p e r ie n c e (w h ic h in c lu d e s th e h u m a n re a lm ); th e rtipaloka, th e
w o r l d o f [ s u b t le ] f o r m ; a n d t h e arûpaloka, t h e w o r l d w it h o u t
[ s u b t le ] f o r m . T h e s e r e a lm s c o r r e s p o n d t o le v e l s o f c o n s c i o u s ­
n e s s w h i c h c a n b e a t t a in e d in m e d i t a t i o n . S e e 5 . 1 5 n o t e .

6 .8 4 R i v a l r y b e t w e e n m o n k s f o r la y s u p p o r t is c l e a r l y t h e c o n t e x t f o r
a n u m b e r o f th e e m o tio n a l d iffic u lt ie s d is c u s s e d b y S ä n t id e v a .

6 .9 1 T h e s e a r e ju s t t w o o f a s t a n d a r d s e t o f e i g h t v i c e s , n a m e ly
h u n t in g , g a m b lin g , s le e p in g d u r in g th e d a y , c a lu m n y , p h ila n ­
d e r i n g , d r i n k i n g , e n t e r t a in m e n t f r o m s o n g , d a n c e , a n d i n s t r u ­
m e n ta l m u s ic , a n d tr a v e llin g fo r p le a s u re . In S a n s k r it d r a m a
t h e y a r e t h e c a u s e s o f a n y t r a g e d y o r m i s f o r t u n e w h i c h b e f a l ls
t h e m a i n c h a r a c t e r s . T h e c o n t r a s t d r a w n in t h i s v e r s e is b e ­
t w e e n t h o s e t h i n g s w h i c h a r e o f r e a l b e n e f it a n d t h o s e w h i c h
m e r e l y g i v e p l e a s u r e . T h e s o c ia l s t i g m a o f d r i n k i n g a n d g a m ­
b l i n g is h i g h , a n d t h e y a r e a ll e i g h t p r o s c r i b e d f o r t h e B u d d h i s t
m o n k o r n u n . B o t h le a d to u n c l a r i t y o f m i n d , a d d i c t i o n , a n d a r e
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r c o n s i d e r a b l e m a t e r ia l d i s t r e s s — a s d e m o n s t r a t e d
b y th e d e v a s t a t in g w a r o f th e e p ic M a h ä b h ä r a t a w h ic h b e g a n a s
a d i r e c t c o n s e q u e n c e o f Y u d h i s t h i r a lo s i n g h i s e n t i r e k i n g d o m
to h i s c o u s i n s t h r o u g h u n c o n t r o ll e d g a m b li n g .

6 .9 4 T h i s v e r s e a ls o o c c u r s in t h e Siksä Samuccaya ( B e n d a li a n d
R o u se, 243).

6 .9 5 a T h i s h a l f v e r s e a ls o o c c u r s in t h e Siksä Samuccaya ( B e n d a l i an d
R o u se, 2 4 3 -4 ).

6 .9 8 ‘S en se o f u rge n cy’, samvega, is t h e s e n s e o f s p i r i t u a l s h o c k t h a t

i n v o l v e s b o t h d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w it h w o r l d l y m a t t e r s a n d a c o n v i c ­
t io n t h a t o n e n e e d s t o p u r s u e t h e s p i r i t u a l p a t h . I t is t h e r e f o r e
a p o siti% 'c m o t i v a t i n g f a c t o r , w i t h o u t w h i c h t h e B u d d h i s t m a y
b e c o m e c o m p l a c e n t a n d lo s e s p i r i t u a l d r i v e . P r a i s e c a n e a s i l y
le a d t o s u c h c o m p l a c e n c y .

6 .10 1 O n ‘ b le s s in g ’ , adhistjuina, se e 5 .1 8 n o te .
 Notes to the Text 169
6 .10 5 ‘ O n e w h o h a s g o n e f o r t h ’ is a lit e r a l t r a n s l a t io n o f t h e t e r m
pravräjaka. T h i s t e r m , w it h c o g n a t e f o r m s , is u s e d to d e n o t e a
p e r s o n w h o h a s t a k e n t h e l o w e r o r d i n a t i o n in t o t h e B u d d h i s t
m o n a s tic c o m m u n it y , a n d h a s th e sta tu s o f a ‘ n o v ic e ’ . T h i s ca n
be tak en as so o n a s t h e c h ild is ‘ o ld e n o u g h to s c a r e a w a y
c r o w s ’ , a lt h o u g h th e h ig h e r o rd in a tio n , th e upasampadä, can
o n l y b e t a k e n a f t e r t h e a g e o f 2 0 . T h e t e r m a ls o h a s a w id e r
u s a g e , n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y B u d d h i s t , to r e f e r to a n y w a n d e r e r w h o
h a s g o n e f o r t h a n d r e je c t e d t h e r e s t r a in t s o f s o c ie t y to p u r s u e
t h e s p i r i t u a l li f e . T h a t t h is is t h e i n t e n d e d s e n s e in t h is v e r s e
c a n b e in f e r r e d fro m t h e fa c t th a t n o v ic e m o n k s c a n n o t c o n fe r
o rd in a tio n , a n d t h e r e f o r e c a n n o t b e s a id to c a u s e o r d i n a t i o n
t h r o u g h t h a t f u n c t i o n . T h e s e n s e in w h i c h s u c h a p e r s o n c o u ld
b e a c a u s e o f a n o t h e r ’ s g o i n g f o r t h c a n o n ly b e in s p ir a t io n a l , b y
t h e i r e x a m p l e . T h e m o s t f a m o u s i n s t a n c e o f t h is is t h e e p i s o d e
i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l b i o g r a p h y o f t h e h i s t o r ic a l B u d d h a , in w h i c h ,
a s a y o u n g p r i n c e p r i o r to h i s E n l i g h t e n m e n t , h e is i n s p ir e d to
le a v e h o m e a n d p u r s u e th e sp ir itu a l q u e s t b y th e s ig h t o f ju s t
su ch a w an d erer.

6 .1 1 2 îv â n t i d e v a q u o te s fro m th e DharmasaiigJti Sutra to t h is e f f e c t in

th e Siksfi Samuccaya (B e n d a li a n d R o u s e , 15 2 ) .

O n ‘ fie ld [ o f m e r it ] ’ , s e e 2 .2 4 n o te a n d 5 .8 1 n o te .

6 .113 ‘T r a n s m is s io n o f t h e B u d d h a ’ s q u a l i t i e s ’ t r a n s la t e s ! huddha-
dhantmgama. T h i s e x p r e s s i o n is c o m p o s e d o f t h r e e é lé m e n t s ,
o f w h i c h th e la t t e r tw o a r e a m b ig u o u s : dharma c a n r e f e r b o t h to
t h e B u d d h a ’ s t e a c h i n g a n d to t h e q u a li t ie s o f t h e B u d d h a ( s e e
I . I n o t e ) , h e r e r e f e r r i n g t o t h e q u a li t y o f fo r b e a r a n c e ; a n d àgama,
m e a n in g ‘ a c q u is it io n , r e s u lt ’ , o r m o re sp e c ific a lly ‘ th a t c o m in g ’
fro m t h e B u d d h a , is in t h is s e n s e w i d e l y u s e d to d e n o t e t h e
B u d d h i s t s c r i p t u r a l t r a d it io n . T h e e x p r e s s i o n c o u l d t h e r e f o r e
b e re ad in t w o w a y s : ‘ t h e t r a n s m i s s io n (in a c t i v e a n d p a s s i v e
s e n s e s ) o f t h e B u d d h a ’ s t e a c h i n g s ’ o r ‘ o f th e B u d d h a ’ s q u a l i ­
t i e s ’ . T h e a u t h o r is d i s c u s s i n g e n v y o f f e ll o w m o n k s , w h o a r e
c o lle c t iv e ly t h e in s t i t u t i o n a l v e h i c l e f o r t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n a n d
t r a n s m i s s i o n o f t h e B u d d h i s t c a n o n o f s c r i p t u r e , a s w e ll a s t h e
b a s i s f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f B u d d h a - q u a l i t i e s s u c h a s , in t h is
c a s e , fo rb e a r a n c e .

6 .1 1 5 T h is v e r s e a l s o o c c u r s in t h e £ik$ä Samuccaya (B e n d a li a n d
R o u se , 1 5 5 ).

6 .117 ^ ä n t i d e v a h a s in m i n d h e r e t h e k in d o f o f f e r i n g m a d e a t t h e
b e g in n in g o f C h . 2.
i jo Notes to the Text
6 .1 ig T h i s v e r s e o c c u r s in t h e Siksä Samuccaya (B e n d a li a n d R o u s e ,
1 5 5 ) . ‘ T h o s e w h o b e f r ie n d w it h o u t p r e t e x t ’ a r e t h e B u d d h a s
a n d B o d h i s a t t v a s . T h i s b e c o m e s c le a r e r in s u b s e q u e n t v e r s e s .

6 .12 0 - 3 4 T h e s e v e r s e s o c c u r in t h e Siksä Samuccaya (B e n d a li an d

R o u se, 15 4 -5 ) .

6 .12 0 O n t h e A v i c i h e l l, s e e 4 . 2 1 n o t e . T h o s e w h o d i s m e m b e r t h e ir
o w n b o d ie s a n d d e s c e n d in t o h e ll a r e t h e B o d h i s a t t v a s . I n th e
B u d d h i s t t r a d it io n t h e r e a r e m a n y s t o r i e s i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e e x ­
t r a o r d i n a r y g e n e r o s it y o f t h o s e o n t h e p a t h to B u d d h a h o o d .
T h e s e a r e o f t e n c a s t a s s t o r i e s a b o u t f o r m e r e x i s t e n c e s o f th e
h i s t o r ic a l B u d d h a . A ty p ic a l e x a m p le is t h a t in w h ic h th e
B o d h is a t t v a f e e d s h i s o w n b o d y t o a s t a r v i n g t i g r e s s to p r e v e n t
h e r f r o m t h e u n m o t h e r ly a c t o f e a t i n g h e r o w n c u b s . T h i s s t o r y
is t o ld in t h e The Sutra of Golden Light (s e e E m m e r i c k ig g o ,
ch . 18 , p p . 9 2 - 1 0 6 ) .

6 .12 3 T h e im a g e o f t h e b o d y e n g u l f e d b y f ir e is o f t e n u s e d to d e m o n ­
s t r a t e t h e r e l a t i v e n a t u r e o f s e n s e p l e a s u r e . A l l m o n k s w o u ld
have b een f a m i l i a r w it h th e ‘ F ir e S e rm o n ’ , th e se c o n d d is­
c o u r s e , a c c o r d i n g to t r a d i t i o n , d e li v e r e d b y t h e B u d d h a a f t e r
h is e n l i g h t e n m e n t , in w h i c h h e li k e n s a ll e x p e r i e n c e o f th e
s e n s e s t o b e i n g o n f ir e . F o r t h is d i s c o u r s e , s e e R h y s D a v i d s a n d
O l d e n b e r g 1 9 8 2 , 1 3 4 —5 .

6 .12 4 The G r e a t C o m p a s s io n is a n a t t r i b u t e o f t h e B u d d h a s a n d
B o d h i s a t t v a s , a n i n c l u s i v e c o m p a s s io n t o w a r d s a ll b e i n g s , in ­
f o r m e d b y t h e in s i g h t , c e n t r a l to t h e M a h ä y ä n a p e r s p e c t i v e ,
t h a t a ll b e i n g s la c k a n y a b i d in g e s s e n c e , a n d t h a t a ll p h e n o m e n a
a r e in e s s e n c e t h e s a m e .

6 .12 5 A s t h e y a r c t h e lo w e s t p a r t o f t h e b o d y , p l a c i n g t h e f e e t o n ,
n e a r , o r t o w a r d s s o m e o n e ’ s h e a d is a s t r o n g s i g n o f d i s r e s p e c t in
I n d i a n c u l t u r e . S i m i l a r l y , to p l a c e o n e ’ s h e a d a t s o m e o n e ’ s f e e t
is a s i g n o f s u b s e r v i e n c e to t h e m . S ä n t i d c v a a s k s f o r t h is to b e
d o n e a s a s i g n o f h i s s e r v i t u d e to t h e w o r l d .

CH APTER 7

7 .1 T h e intended com parison in this verse is with the m ovement o f

the body. According to traditional Indian physiology even phy­
sical m ovement results from the element o f vital wind inside
the body.
7 .6 On Yam a, see 2.42 note.
 Notes to the Text 171
7 .11 T h e im a g e in v v . 1 1 - 1 2 is rh a r o f a J i v e fis h which h as been
t r a p p e d a n d is a b o u r to b e cooked and eate n .

7 .16 ‘ T h e a r ra y o f p o w e r s ’ is th a t lis t e d in v . 3 2 b e l o w . T h e s e c o n ­
s t i t u t e th e p o s i t iv e p o w e r s o r c a p a c i t i e s o f t h e m i n d w h ic h
s h o u l d b e c u lt iv a t e d . D e d i c a t i o n a n d s e l f - m a s t e r y a r e d i s c u s s e d
in v v . 6 7 - 7 5 b e l o w . T h e p r a c tic e s o f ‘ r e g a r d in g o n e s e lf a n d
o th e rs as e q u al an d th e e x c h a n g e o f s e l f a n d o th e r s ’ a r e d e ­
s c r i b e d in t h e n e x t c h a p t e r , 8 ;q o f f .

7.18 We have not identified the source of this quotation.

7 .2 0 M a n y p o p u la r s to r ie s illu s tr a t in g th e c a r e e r o f th e B o d h is a t t v a
to w a rd s B u d d h a h o o d e m p h a siz e th e g ift o f s o m e p a rt o f th e
body an a measure of generosity. Cf. 6.120 note.
7 .2 4 The g r e a te s t illn e s s is to remain in c y c lic e x is te n c e . On the
i m a g e r y o f t h e B u d d h a a s a d o c t o r s e e 4 . 4 8 n o t e . ‘ Conduct’
tra n sla te s upacâra. T h i s t e r m m e a n s b o t h ‘ b e h a v i o u r ’ a n d ‘ m e d i­
c a l t r e a t m e n t ’ . T h e ‘ s w e e t c o n d u c t ’ is t h e r e f o r e t h e t r e a t m e n t
o f f e r e d b y a d o c t o r , b u t a ls o t h e c o n d u c t o f t h e d o c t o r , i.e . t h e
c o m p a s s io n a t e a t te n tio n g iv e n b y th e B u d d h a to s u f fe r in g b e ­
i n g s , a n d t h e c o n d u c t h e e n jo i n e d u p o n h i s p a t i e n t s , w h i c h is
th e B o d h is a t tv a t ra in in g .

7 .2 6 ‘ U n d e r s t a n d in g ’ tra n sla te s p ra jm .
7 .2 7 ‘ F a l s e p r o j e c t i o n s ’ a r e t h e u l t i m a t e l y u n t r u e c o n s t r u c t i o n s im ­
p o s e d u p o n e x p e r i e n c e in t h e n o n - A w a k e n e d m in d a n d w h i c h
p r e v e n t u s fr o m ‘ s e e in g th e w a y th in g s r e a lly a r e ’ .

7 .2 9 The srävahas, li t e r a l l y ‘ h e a r e r s ’ , a r e t h e d i s c i p l e s o f t h e B u d d h a
w ho fo llo w w hat is d e e m e d an in fe rio r B u d d h is t p a th , o r
H l n a y ä n a . S e e G e n e r a l In t r o d u c tio n , p . x v i. B e c a u s e t h e ir g o a l
is o n l y t h e i r o w n l i b e r a t i o n , t h e p a th o f the srävahas is in t h e o r y
q u ic k e r th a n t h a t o f t h e B o d h i s a t t v a w h o h a s u n d e r t a k e n to
li b e r a t e a ll b e in g s .
7 .3 1 F ro m t h e e a r l i e s t p e r i o d t h e B u d d h i s t t r a d it io n d i s t i n g u i s h e d
b etw een ham a-chanda , d e s ir e fo r p le a s u re , a n d dharma-chanda ,
r ig h t e o u s d e s ir e . ( S e e v v . 1 1 7 a n d 1 1 8 o f th e Dhammapada , in
n o t e t o v . 4 0 b e l o w . ) I n t h i s s e n s e it a c k n o w l e d g e s t h a t d e s i r e
m o t i v a t e s a l l a c t i o n , b u t t h a t j u s t a s t h e r e is g o o d a n d b a d
a c t i o n , t h e r e i s a l s o g o o d a n d b a d d e s ir e . H e r e S ä n t i d e v a r e f e r s
to dharm a-chanda , rig h t e o u s d e s ir e , w h ic h c o n s titu te s th e fu n ­
d a m e n t a l l e v e l o f m o t i v a t i o n f o r t h e s p ir it u a l a s p i r a n t , h e r e t h e
B o d h is a t tv a .

T h e p r a i s e s r e f e r r e d to a r e t h o s e o f t h e A w a k e n i n g M i n d . S e e
C h . I , e s p e c ia lly v . 1 4 an d n o te .
172 Notes to the Text
7 .3 2 H e r e S ä n t id e v a o u tlin e s th e s tr u c t u r e o f th e re s t o f h is d is c u s ­
s io n o f v i g o u r .

7 .3 7 T h e D is p e n s a tio n , o r säsaua, is a n o t h e r t e r m f o r t h e T e a c h i n g
o f th e B u d d h a .

7 .4 0 It is n o t c le a r i f Ó à n t id e v a h a d a s p e c i f i c v e r s e o r v e r s e s in
m in d , b u t t h e r e a d e r m ig h t c o m p a r e t h is s t a t e m e n t , a n d v v . 4 2
a n d 4 3 b e l o w , w it h v v . 1 1 7 a n d 1 1 8 o f t h e DSunnmtipadu: ‘ If a
p e r s o n p e r f o r m s a n e v i l d e e d , le t h i m n o t d o i t a g a i n a n d a g a i n .
L e t h im n o t f o r m a d e s i r e f o r it. S u f f e r i n g is t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n
o f e v i l . ’ ‘ I f a p e r s o n p e r f o r m s a m e r i t o r i o u s d e e d , le t h i m d o it
a g a in a n d a g a i n . L e t h i m f o r m a d e s i r e f o r it . H a p p i n e s s is t h e
a c c u m u la t io n o f m e r i t o r i o u s d e e d s . ’

7 .4 2 ‘ W e lc o m i n g r e c e p t i o n ’ h e r e t r a n s l a t e s t h e t e r m argha, w h ic h
can m ean b o th ‘ v a lu e , p r ic e ’ o r ‘ w o r t h ’ , a n d ‘ th e re sp e c tfu l
r e c e p tio n g i v e n to a n h o n o u r e d g u e s t ’ . T h u s f o r o n e w h o d o e s
g o o d , th a t p e r s o n ’ s d e s i r e s a r e m e t b y t h e i r o w n v a l u e ( b e c a u s e
th ey a re s k ilfu l d e s ir e s , th e y h a v e a p o s itiv e c o n s e q u e n c e ) , a n d
th e v a lu e w h i c h th e y c o m m a n d is a ls o t h e r e c e p t i o n t h a t is
o f fe r e d a n h o n o u r e d g u e s t , t h e h o n o u r e d g u e s t b e i n g r i g h t e o u s
d e s ir e .

7 .4 4 T h e im a g e r y h e r e is t h a t o f t h e Sukhâvatlvyûha Sutras , tw o
w e l l - k n o w n M a h ä y ä n a d i s c o u r s e s , in w h i c h t h e d e v o t e e s o f t h e
B u d d h a A m i t ä b h a a r e a s s u r e d r e b i r t h a s a B o d h i s a t t v a in t h e
h e a r t o f a lo t u s in t h e S u k h ä v a t I r e a l m , w h e r e t h e y a r e g u a r a n ­
t e e d to g a in A w a k e n i n g l i s t e n i n g to t h e s o u n d o f t h e B u d d h a ’ s
v o i c e t e a c h in g t h e D h a r m a . ( S e e M ü l l e r 1 9 6 9 f o r a t r a n s l a t io n
o f b o th fro m th e S a n s k r it , a n d C h a n g 1 9 8 3 fo r a n a b r id g e d
t r a n s l a t io n o f t h e lo n g e r sûtra f r o m t h e C h i n e s e t r a n s l a t io n .)

7 .4 6 The Vajradhvaja Sütra is n o t k n o w n to s u r v i v e in S a n s k r i t ,

e x c e p t fo r th o se p a ssa g e s q u o te d b y S ä n tid e v a in t h e Siksa
Samuccaya. T h e m e t h o d h e r e f e r s to h e r e is d e s c r i b e d in t h e
w o rd s o f th e sütra i t s e l f ( s e e B e n d a l i a n d R o u s e , 2 5 5 f f .) .

H e r e p r i d e is m e a n t in a p o s i t i v e s e n s e .

7 .4 9 ‘ T h e s e c o n d a r y d e file m e n ts ’ tra n sla te s th e te rm upaklesa. O n

s o m e o c c a s i o n s t h is is u s e d a s a s y n o n y m o f blesa, d e f i l e m e n t ,
b u t it is a ls o u n d e r s t o o d to r e f e r to a s e t o f ‘ s e c o n d a r y d e f i l e ­
m e n t s ’ w h ic h a r e e n u m e ra te d v a r io u s ly b y d iffe r e n t tra d itio n s
a n d in d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s . T h e Dhanna-samgmha ( L X I X ) li s t s
2 4 s e c o n d a r y d e f i le m e n t s : a n g e r , e n m i t y , h y p o c r i s y , c o n t e n ­
t io u s n e s s , e n v v , a v a r ic e , d e c e it, d u p lic it y , p r id e , m a lic e , sh a m e ­
l e s s n e s s , r e c k l e s s n e s s , s l o t h , a r r o g a n c e , i n f i d e l i t y , in d o l e n c e ,
 Notes to the Text 1 73
c a r e l e s s n e s s , f o r g e t f u l n e s s , in a t t e n t io n , la c k o f a w a r e n e s s , w ic k e d ­
n e s s , t o r p o r , d is t r a c t io n , a n d d is c u r s iv e th o u g h t. T h e y a r e se c ­
o n d a r y b e c a u s e t h e y a r e d e r i v e d f r o m t h e d e f i le m e n t s o r klesas
p r o p e r , t h a t is , g r e e d , h a t r e d , a n d d e lu s i o n .

7 .5 2 G aru d a is a m y th ic a l f ie r c e f l e s h - e a t i n g b i r d , th e e n e m y o f
se rp e n ts. H is n am e m ean s ‘ d ev o u rer’ .

7 .5 6 fv ä n t id e v a b e g i n s in t h i s v e r s e a p l a y u p o n t h e p o s i t iv e a n d
n e g a t i v e s e n s e s o f p r id e .

7 .5 8 S i i n t i d e v a ’ s p l a y o n w o r d s r e a c h e s t h e h e i g h t o f it s a m b i g u it y
w it h t h i s v e r s e , in w h i c h h e e m p l o y s s e v e r a l t e r m s w h i c h c a n
b e r e a d e i t h e r p o s i t i v e l y o r n e g a t i v e l y . ‘ D e s p i s e d o n a ll s i d e s ’ ,
s a rv a ta h pa rib hütäh , i s s y n o n y m o u s w i t h t h e e x p r e s s i o n
sadüparibhüta, t h e n a m e o f a f a m o u s B o d h i s a t t v a f i g u r e in th e
Lotus S ü tra ( c h . 2 0 ) . T h e p a r t o f h i s s t o r y r e l e v a n t to t h i s v e r s e
con cern s h i s B o d h i s a t t v a t r a i n i n g , w h i c h c o n s is t e d o f t e lli n g
o t h e r B u d d h i s t s t h a t h e d i d n o t d e s p i s e t h e m , s i n c e t h e y h a d a ll
b e e n p r e d i c t e d to fu ll B u d d h a h o o d b y th e B u d d h a . P a r t ly b e ­
c a u s e s o m e o f t h e r e c i p i e n t s o f t h i s a s s u r a n c e d i d n o t s e e k th a t
g oal an d o th e rs d id n o t t h in k it p o s s ib le , a n d p a r t l y w it h a
p r e d ic t a b le hum an r e s p o n s e to s u c h t r e a t m e n t , t h e s e p e o p l e
becam e in c r e a s in g ly ir rita te d w it h S a d ü p a r ib h ü ta , e v e n tu a lly
e x p r e s s i n g t h e i r i r r i t a t i o n w i t h f i s t s , f e e t , a n d m i s s i l e s . A t t h is
it a p p e a r s t h a t S a d ü p a r i b h ü t a w o u ld w i t h d r a w to a s a f e d i s ­
ta n c e , w h e re fro m h e w o u l d s h o u t t h e r e a s s u r a n c e t h a t h e s t i ll
d id n o t d e s p i s e t h e m ! B e c a u s e o f t h is c o n d u c t o f h i s , h e w a s
n a m e d S a d ü p a r i b h ü t a , it s e l f ta k e n a s a p u n , m e a n in g ‘ A lw a y s
d e s p is e d ’ a n d ‘ N e v e r d e s p is in g ’ ! ‘ S u s ta in e d b y p r id e ’ , tutina-
stabdlulh, m e a n s e i t h e r ‘ s u p p o r t e d ’ o r ‘ h e l p e d b y p r i d e ’ , o r ‘ f u ll
o f ’ , e v e n ‘ p u f f e d u p w ith p r id e ’ . ‘ T h e m o r t ifie d ’ , h e r e tra n s la t­
in g tapasvittah , m e a n s e ith e r ‘ s p ir it u a l p r a c tit io n e r s ’ o r ‘ m is e r ­
a b le , w re tc h e d p e o p le ’ . (O n tapas s e e 5 . 1 6 n o t e .) T h e o v e r a l l
e f f e c t o f t h e v e r s e i s t h a t o n e f i n d s o n e s e l f r e a d i n g it a s a c o n ­
t i n u a t i o n o f t h e a c c o u n t o f t h o s e p e o p l e w it h n e g a t i v e p r id e , o n ly
to fin d t h a t t h o s e d e s c r ib e d in t h e n e x t v e r s e a r e t h o s e w it h
p o s it iv e p r id e .

7 .6 5 T h e w o r d u s e d fo r e le p h a n t h e r e , hart., is c o g n a t e w it h karm a,
th e te rm t r a n s l a t e d a s t a s k , a n d li t e r a l l y m e a n s b o t h o n e w h o
a c t s a n d o n e w h o h a s a h a n d o r t r u n k ( t h e t h i n g w h i c h a c t s ) , i. e .
a n e le p h a n t.

7 .6 6 I n t h i s v e r s e â ü n t i d e v a a g a i n c h o o s e s to u s e v e r y s t r o n g , a l m o s t
p e r v e r s e l a n g u a g e . H e r e o n e s h o u ld h a v e a ‘ t h ir s t ’ fo r th e n e x t
 Notes to the Text
174
ta s k . T h e t e rm u s e d is trsnä, a n o t h e r w i s e p e j o r a t i v e t e r m , u sed
u b i q u i t o u s l y in t h e s e n s e o f ‘ c r a v i n g ’ , a n d in t h a t s e n s e s o m e ­
t h in g to b e e x p u n g e d .

7 .7 0 T h e v o w r e f e r r e d to is t h e B o d h i s a t t v a v o w t o l i b e r a t e a ll b e ­
in g s fr o m c y c lic e x is te n c e .

T h i s s i m il e m a y b e a r e f e r e n c e to a s t o r y in t h e c o m m e n t a r y on
th e Telapatta-jätuka ( C o w e l l et al. 1 9 8 1 , J a ta k a n o . 9 6 , p p . 2 3 2_
3 ) : a m a n is m a d e to c a r r y a p o t b r i m m i n g w i t h o il t h r o u g h a
c r o w d w h i c h is w a t c h i n g t h e lo c a l b e a u t y q u e e n d a n c e a n d stn g .
T h o u g h t e m p t e d to lo o k a t h e r , h e m u s t c o n c e n t r a t e h i s a t t e n ­
tio n o n c a r r y i n g t h e p o t b e c a u s e h e is b e i n g f o l l o w e d b y a g u a r d
w h o w ill c h o p h is h e a d o f f i f h e s p ills s o m uch a s a d ro p .
A lte r n a tiv e ly , th e Siksft Samuccaya g i v e s th e s im ile o f a se rv a n t
c a r r y i n g a p o t b r i m m i n g w it h o il o v e r a s l i p p e r y s u r f a c e f o r an
i r a s c i b le k i n g ( B e n d a l i a n d R o u s e , 3 1 4 ) .

7 -7 4 ‘ T h e t e a c h in g o n v ig ila n c e ’ m a y r e fe r to th e fo u r t h c h a p te r o f
t h is w o r k , e n t i t le d ‘ V i g i l a n c e r e g a r d i n g t h e A w a k e n i n g M i n d ;
o r it m a y b e a r e f e r e n c e to t h e B u d d h a ’ s f in a l w o r d s to h is
f o l l o w e r s b e f o r e h i s d e a t h , ‘ S t r i v e w it h v i g i l a n c e ! ’

CH APTER 8

8 .1 ‘ M e d it a t iv e c o n c e n tr a tio n ’ , sanmdhi, is a s t a t e o f m e d i t a t i v e
a b s o r p t i o n in a n o b je c t , i n v o l v i n g a h i g h d e g r e e o f c o n c e n t r a ­
t io n , a lb e it w it h o u t a n y s e n s e o f f o r c e .

8 .2 A l t h o u g h S ä n t i d e v a ’ s a d v i c e to d i s r e g a r d d i s t r a c t i n g t h o u g h t s
c a n b e c o n s t r u e d in a n o n - t e c h n ic a l s e n s e , t h e t e r m u s e d fo r
d is t r a c t in g th o u g h t, vitarka, im m e d i a t e l y p l a c e s h i s c o m m e n t
in t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e t e c h n ic a l la n g u a g e o f B u d d h i s t m e d i t a t i o n .
Vitarka is d e f i n e d d i f f e r e n t l y b y v a r i o u s B u d d h i s t s c h o o l s , b u t
c o u ld h e d e s c r ib e d a s th e r e la tiv e ly g r o s s , s u b - v o c a l c o n c e p tu a l
a c t i v i t y o f t h e m i n d , a s s o c i a t e d w it h t h e in it i a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f
o n e ’ s a t t e n t io n to a s u b je c t . I t is p r e s e n t in n o r m a l , e v e r y d a y
m e n t a l a c t i v i t y , a s w e ll a s in t h e f ir s t o f t h e s t a g e s o f m e d i t a t i v e
a b s o r p t i o n ( dhyana), b u t d r o p s a w a y u p o n e n t r y to t h e s e c o n d .
H i s a d v i c e t h e r e f o r e w o u ld h a v e im m e d i a t e l y b e e n u n d e r s t o o d
to m e a n t h a t o n e s h o u l d e n g a g e in t r a n q u i l l i t y o r c a l m i n g m e d i ­
t a t io n , w it h a v i e w to e x p e r i e n c i n g t h e h i g h e r s t a g e s o f m e d i t a ­
t iv e a b s o r p tio n .
 Notes to the Text 175
8 .3 T h e a u t h o r d e a ls w it h a t t a c h m e n t in v v . 5 - 8 . H e d i s c u s s e s th e
f e e l i n g s o f a m o n k w h o h a s n o t c o m e to t e r m s w it h c e lib a c y . A
t h i r s t f o r a c q u is it io n s , e t c . w o u ld b e d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s t h e d o n a ­
t io n s f r o m la y s u p p o r t e r s .

8 .4 ‘ T r a n q u i l l i t y ’ is th e f r u it o f ‘ c a lm in g m e d i t a t i o n ’ , samatha-
,
bbävanä w h i le ‘ in s i g h t ’ is th e p r o d u c t o f ‘ in s i g h t m e d i t a t i o n ’ ,
vi pas yaitâ-bhîi va m .
8 .7 T h e id e a o f ‘ s e e in g t h in g s a s t h e y r e a lly a r e ’ is c e n t r a l to th e
B u d d h i s t c o n c e p t o f A w a k e n i n g , f o r w h i c h it h a s b e e n u s e d a s
a s y n o n y m s i n c e t h e e a r li e s t p e r io d .

8 .2 5 T h i s v e r s e is m i s s i n g in t h e c a n o n ic a l T i b e t a n t r a n s l a t io n .

8 .2 7 A ll th e se p la c e s a re re c o m m e n d e d fo r m e d ita tio n fro m th e

e a r l i e s t p e r io d o f t h e t r a d it io n .

8 .3 0 S ä n t i d e v a q u e s t i o n s w h e n h e w il l e v e r p e r f o r m t h is m e d i t a t i v e
e x e r c is e , w h ic h w a s re co m m e n d e d by th e B u d d h a h i m s e lf .
R e f l e c t i o n u p o n t h e d e c a y o f th e h u m a n b o d y w a s e m p l o y e d
f r o m t h e e a r l i e s t p e r io d to c o u n t e r a c t g r e e d a n d lu s t . T h e w h o le
p r o c e s s w a s f a c ili t a t e d b y t h e p r a c t i c e o f d i s p o s i n g o f c o r p s e s in
t h e o p e n . T h e r e a r e f r e q u e n t r e f e r e n c e s in e a r ly B u d d h i s t t e x t s
to c h a r n e l g r o u n d s , w h e r e c o r p s e s w e r e le f t to t h e e le m e n t s
ra th e r th a n b e in g c re m a te d . S u c h c h a rn e l g ro u n d s w e re u sed
fo r v a r i o u s r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e s in In d ia n r e lig i o n s , e s p e c ia ll y
w h e r e t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r w a s c o n c e r n e d to o v e r c o m e s o m e k i n d o f
c o n d i t i o n i n g , e i t h e r s o c ia l ( t h e f e a r o f p o ll u t io n f r o m c o r p s e s )
o r p e r s o n a l, a s w ith g re e d .

8 .3 5 T h e f o u r m e n a r e t h e ‘ p a l l - b e a r e r s ’ . O n e s h o u l d n o t w a it f o r
d e a t h , b u t r e n o u n c e li f e a s a h o u s e h o l d e r a n d li v e a s a r e n u n c i a t e
in t h e f o r e s t i m m e d i a t e l y , b e f o r e it is t o o la te .

8 .3 6 M e t a p h o r i c a l l y h e d i e d p r e v i o u s l y to t h e w o r ld w h e n h e r e ­
n o u n c e d it a n d c e a s e d to b e p a r t o f s o c ie t y . B r a h m a n i c a l H i n ­
d u s w h o b e c o m e r e n u n c i a t e s g o s o f a r a s to h a v e t h e i r o w n
f u n e r a l w h e n t h e y r e n o u n c e s o c ie t y a n d n o t a t t h e e n d o f t h e i r
life .

8 .3 7 It is h e l d in t h e B u d d h i s t t r a d it io n th a t o n e ’ s s t a t e o f m in d
w hen d y i n g h a s a s i g n if i c a n t in f lu e n c e o n o n e ’ s f u t u r e b i r t h .
F o r a g o o d r e b i r t h it is t h e r e f o r e v e r y im p o r t a n t a t t h e t im e o f
d e a th to b e a b le to p r a c tis e th e ‘ re c o lle c tio n s ’ . T h e r e a r e six
s u b j e c t s o f r e c o l l e c t i o n : t h e B u d d h a , h i s t e a c h in g , t h e Sanghay
m o r a l c o n d u c t , l i b e r a l i t y , a n d h e a v e n l y b e i n g s . S e e a ls o 5 . 3 2
n o te .
I <76 Notes to the Text
8 .3 9 ‘ A s ta te o f s in g le - p o in te d t h o u g h t ’ tr a n s la t e s cittaikägra, a te c h ­
n ic a l te rm fo r a c h a r a c te r is tic o f th e s e c o n d m e d ita tiv e ab so rp ­
t io n , dhyäna. On m e d ita tiv e a b s o r p tio n , s e e In tro d u c tio n to
C h . 8.
8 .4 1 M e s s e n g e r s a n d g o - b e t w e e n s a r e c l e a r l y p e o p l e o f l o w e r s ta tu s .
T h e e n a m o u r e d p e r s o n is t h e r e f o r e d e g r a d i n g h i m s e l f b y tre a t­
i n g w it h g r e a t r e s p e c t t h o s e w h o s h o u l d n o r m a l l y s h o w re s p e c t
to h im , in o r d e r to h a v e c o n t a c t w it h t h e o n e h e lo v e s . W it h in
t h e m o n a s ti c c o m m u n i t y s u c h a c t i v i t i e s a r e e x p r e s s l y f o r b i d d e n .

8 .5 9 T h e fie ld is t h e m o t h e r ’ s w o m b , t h e s e e d t h e f a t h e r ’ s s p e r m ,
a n d th e n o u r i s h m e n t t h e m o t h e r ’ s b l o o d . A l l a r e c o n s id e r e d
im p u r e .

8 .7 6 T h e y h a v e to g i v e b i r t h w h e r e v e r t h e h u s b a n d h a p p e n s to d o
h is w o r k . B o t h t h e j u n g l e a n d s c r u b l a n d w o u l d b e p h y s i c a lly
d a n g e r o u s a n d is o la t e d .

Mi O n ‘ m o m e n ta r y g o o d fo rtu n e ’ se e 4 .1 6 n o te .

8 .8 3 ‘ P a t h ’ , l i t e r a l l y ‘ t h e w a y to g o o r a c t ’ : t h e B u d d h i s t p a th of
c o n d u c t w h i c h le a d s t o A w a k e n i n g .

8 .8 8 ‘ K i n g ’ tra n sla te s mira, w h i c h is a ls o t h e n a m e g i v e n to t h e c h ie f

o f a ll t h e g o d s in t h e r e a lm o f s e n s u a l e x p e r i e n c e , s h a r e d w ith
h u m a n b e in g s.

8 .8 9 ‘ D is t r a c t e d t h o u g h t s ’ t r a n s l a t e s vitarka.
8 .9 6 T h i s v e r s e is t h e f ir s t o f t h e r o o t v e r s e s o f t h e Siksä Sanmccaya.
8 .9 7 - 1 0 9 The f o l l o w i n g v e r s e s a ls o o c c u r in th e Siksji Saotuccayn
( B e n d a l i a n d R o u s e , 3 1 5 - 1 7 ) : 9 7 , 9 8 , t o o , i o t a , 1 0 4 , 1 0 7 , 10 8 ,
10 9 .

8 .9 8 T h i s v e r s e r e f e r s to t h e t h e o r y o f r e b ir t h a c c e p t e d b y a ll s c h o o l s
o f B u d d h i s m . A l t h o u g h t h e r e is r e b ir t h t h e r e is n o p e r m a n e n t
s o u l o r in d i v i d u a l w h i c h is r e b o r n , s o t h e p e r s o n w h o d i e s is n o t
t h e s a m e p e r s o n a s t h e o n e w h o is b o r n in t h e n e x t li f e . 1 h e
d iffic u lty o f re c o n c ilin g th e th e o ry o f ‘ n o - s e l f ’ w ith th a t o f
r e b i r t h h a s b e e n a n o n g o i n g d o c t r in a l i s s u e f o r t h e p h i l o s o p h i ­
c a l s c h o o l s o f B u d d h i s m , o n a p a r w it h t h e p r o b l e m in C h r i s ­
t i a n i t y o f t h e g o o d c r e a t o r g o d c r e a t i n g e v i l . D i f f e r e n t s o lu t i o n s
w e r e a t t e m p t e d b y d i f f e r e n t s c h o o l s . A n e a r l y s i m i l e f o r th e
p r o c e s s is o f a f la m e w h i c h l i g h t s a n o t h e r f la m e : t h e t w o a r e n o t
t h e s a m e , b u t p a r t o f a s i n g l e c o n t i n u u m . I n v v . 9 7 - 8 , t h e n , th e
q u e s t i o n is : w h y p e r f o r m a c t s o f m e r it to e n s u r e a g o o d r e b ir t h
w h e n t h a t is n o t s o m e t h i n g t h e p e r s o n p e r f o r m i n g t h e m e r i t ­
m a k in g a c tio n e x p e r ie n c e s ?
 Notes to the Text 177
8 .10 1 ‘ T h e c o n t i n u u m o f c o n s c io u s n e s s e s ’ t r a n s l a t e s sanitària, a term
u s e d to r e f e r to t h e c o n t i n u o u s s u c c e s s io n o f m o m e n t s o f c o n ­
s c i o u s n e s s w h i c h m a k e u p a n in d i v i d u a l ’ s e x p e r i e n c e o f c o n ­
s c i o u s n e s s . S e e 4 .4 7 n o t e a n d 9 .9 b —1 0 n o t e . ‘ T h e c o m b i n a t i o n
o f c o n s t it u e n t s ’ tra n sla te s samudiiya, a n o t h e r t e c h n ic a l t e r m . It
l i t e r a l l y m e a n s ‘ a c o - a r i s i n g ’ a n d r e f e r s to a n y c o m b i n a t i o n o f
e l e m e n t s p e r c e iv e d a s a u n it , s u c h a s t h e b o d y . B o t h t h e c o n ­
t i n u u m o f c o n s c io u s n e s s e s a n d t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f c o n s t it u e n t s
m a y b e f a l s e l y id e n t if i e d a s t h e l o c u s o f a n e n d u r i n g , u n c h a n g ­
in g S e lf .

8 .10 4 T h i s v e r s e c o u n t e r s t h e s e n t im e n t t h a t it is b e t t e r t o g e t o n w ith ,
l i f e a n d i g n o r e t h e m i s e r y in t h e w o r ld b e c a u s e k n o w le d g e o f
t h a t m i s e r y w il l o n ly m a k e o n e m o r e u n h a p p y .

8 .10 6 T h e s t o r y o f S u p u s p a c a n d r a , e c h o in g th a t o f th e Khantiväda
Jätaka (sec C o w e llet al. 1 9 8 1 , v o l. 3 ) , is t o ld in th e 3 5 th
c h a p te r of th e Samädhiräja Sütra. T h ere, a h o ly m onk,
S u p u s p a c a n d r a , t r a v e ls to a b a r b a r o u s r e g i o n a g a i n s t t h e w a r n ­
i n g s o f h i s fe llo w ' m o n k s , w h e r e h e g o e s to t h e r o y a l c a p i t a l a n d
b e g i n s to t e a c h . H e a t t r a c t s t h e a t t e n t io n o f a n a u d ie n c e , in ­
c l u d i n g t h o u s a n d s o f t h e k i n g ’ s c h ild r e n , m in is t e r s , a n d w iv e s ,
w h o a r e a l l c o n v e r t e d . K i n g S u ra d a t t a e n v ie s h i s b e a u t y a n d is
f u l l o f j e a l o u s y t o f in d h i s w i v e s la v i s h i n g a t t e n t io n a n d a d u la ­
t io n upon th e m o n k , a n d h is s o n s s h o w in g th e m o n k su c h
r e s p e c t , d i s c a r d i n g a ll t h e f in e r y t h e k i n g h a d la v is h e d o n t h e m .
H e c o m m a n d s h i s s o n s to k i ll t h e m o n k , b u t t h e y r e f u s e a n d t r y
to d is s u a d e th e ir fa th e r fro m so h e in o u s a n a c t. B u t th e k in g
m a n a g e s t o f in d a p a r t i c u l a r l y v i le e x e c u t i o n e r w h o w i l l i n g l y
c h o p s t h e m o n k in t o b i t s , r i g h t t h e r e o n t h e h i g h w a y . T h e k i n g
g o e s a b o u t h i s u s u a l b u s in e s s , u n t i l a w e e k la t e r w h e n h e c h a n c e s
u p o n t h e m o n k ’ s d i s m e m b e r e d r e m a in s , n o t e v e n s l i g h t l y d i s ­
c o l o u r e d , b u t s t i l l f r e s h a n d p u r e . A t t h is t h e k i n g is f il le d w it h
r e m o r s e , f o r h e n o w r e a li z e s t h a t h e h a d c h o p p e d u p s o m e o n e
s p e c i a l . H e la m e n t s h i s t e r r ib le c r i m e , a n d b e w -a ils h i s i m p e n d ­
i n g d e s c e n t t o h e l l , to t h e a c c o m p a n im e n t o f t h e d i r g e s s u n g b y
th e god s, w ho h a v e g a th e re d ro u n d th e site o f th e m o n k ’ s
e x e c u t io n . F o r t u n a t e ly , th e k in g c o n fe s s e s h is c r im e to th e
Safigha a n d t a k e s r e f u g e in t h e B u d d h a s b e f o r e h e d i e s , f o r ,
e v e n t u a l l y , in a f u t u r e b i r t h , it is t h a t w i c k e d k i n g S ü r a d a t t a
w h o b e c o m e s t h e h i s t o r ic a l B u d d h a , S i d d h a r t h a G a u t a m a , o f
o u r e r a . T h e r e i s n o E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t io n y e t p u b l i s h e d o f t h is
c h a p t e r o f th e Samädhiräja Sütra.
178 Notes to the Text
8 .10 7 L i k e t h e B o d h is a t t v a K s i t i g a r b h a ( s e e 2 . 5 2 n o t e ) , t h o s e w h o s e
m o s t im p o r t a n t o b je c t i v e is to e n d t h e s u f f e r i n g o f o t h e r s w ill
e v e n g o d o w n to t h e w o r s t h e l l, A v i c i ( s e e 4 . 2 1 n o t e ) , a s h a p p i ly
a s g e e s e g o d o w n a m o n g lo t u s e s . P r e v e n t i n g s u f f e r i n g is s o
i m p o r t a n t to t h e m t h a t e v e n t h e w o r s t p l a c e in t h e u n iv e r s e
d o e s no t d e te r th e m . T h e B o d h i s a t t v a A v a l o k i t e s v a r a is a ls o
d e s c r ib e d a s e n t e r i n g t h e A v i c i h e ll to s a v e b e i n g s in t h e s e c o n d
c h a p te r o f th e Karantjavyüha Sutra (s e e 1 0 . 1 8 n o t e ) .

8 .10 9 T h e r e su ltin g re w a rd , viptika-phala, w o u ld b e m e r it le a d i n g to

a d v a n ta g e s fo r o n e s e lf, s u c h a s a d v a n c e m e n t o n th e sp ir itu a l
p a t h , o r m o r e m a t e r ia l b e n e f it , s u c h a s r e b ir t h in h e a v e n .

8 .111 A c c o r d i n g to a n c i e n t I n d i a n p h y s i o l o g y , t h e s p e r m o f t h e f a t h e r
a n d t h e b lo o d o f t h e m o t h e r g i v e r i s e to t h e i n d i v i d u a l w h o , in
B u d d h i s t t e r m s , t h e n m is t a k e n l y p e r c e i v e s t h e p r o d u c t a s h i s
s e lf. T o e m p h a s i z e t h is a s p e c t o f h u m a n o r i g i n , a s - S ä n t i d c v a
d o e s , is to p l a y h e a v i l y u p o n c a s t e H i n d u r e p u l s i o n f o r ‘ p o l l u t ­
i n g ’ b o d i l y f lu i d s .

8 .116 O n ‘ g iv in g o n e s e lf a s fo o d ’ , se c 6 .1 2 0 n o te .

8 .11 8 O n A v a lo k it a , o th e r w is e k n o w n a s A v a lo k ite s v a r a , s e e 2 . 1 3 n o te .
The Lotus Sütra, c h . 2 4 (S a n s k r it , se e K e r n 18 8 4 ) o r c h . 25
( C h in e s e , se e H u r v it z 19 7 6 ) , an d th e Ganilavyftha Sutra ( C l e a r y
1 9 8 7 , 1 5 3 - 5 ) , b o th d e s c r ib e th e w id e - r a n g in g p e r ils fro m w h ic h
o n e r e c e iv e s p r o te c tio n b y c a llin g u p o n th e n a m e o f th e L o r d
A v a lo k ita .

8 .12 3 O n th e T h r e e J e w e ls , se e 1 . 1 n o te . O n th e A v i c i h e ll, s e e 4 .2 1
n o te . 1 h e m o n a s tic c o d e c o n ta in s r e g u la tio n s fo r b id d in g th e
a p p r o p r i a t i o n b y in d i v i d u a l m o n k s o f p r o p e r t y d o n a t e d f o r th e
b e n e f it o f t h e T h r e e J e w e l s .

8 .12 5 L it e r a ll y , th e a u th o r c o n tr a s ts tw o s ta te s : th a t o f a pisâca, a
f l e s h - e a t i n g d e m o n , w it h t h a t o f t h e k i n g o f t h e g o d s .

8 .15 6 P o s s ib ly a r e fe r e n c e to th e Tat/iâgatagûhya Sütra, fro m w h ic h a

n u m b e r o f v e r s e s a r e q u o t e d e a r l i e r in t h is c h a p t e r , b e t w e e n
v . 9 7 a n d v . 10 9 .

8 .16 2 G r e a t S a g e is a c o m m o n e p i t h e t f o r t h e B u d d h a , b u t t o r e a d it
a s s u c h h e r e d o e s n o t m a k e s e n s e g i v e n t h e v i n d i c t i v e i n t e n t io n
o f t h e p a s s a g e a s a w h o le . I n h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f m o n a s t i c l i f e in
I n d i a , I - t s i n g r e f e r s to t h e o f f i c e o f ‘ g r e a t s a g e ’ , o c c u p i e d b y th e
m o n k r e s p o n s ib le fo r in s t illin g th e m o n a s tic c o d e o f d is c ip lin e
in t h e m o n k s u n d e r h i s ju r i s d i c t i o n ( s e e T a k a k u s u 18 9 6 , 119 ) .
W e t h i n k t h a t t h e ‘ g r e a t s a g e ’ o f t h is v e r s e r e f e r s t o t h e h o l d e r
o f th a t d is c ip lin a r y o ffic e .
 Notes to the Text 179
8 .17 8 T h e b o d y w il l b e lo s t in t h e a s h e s o f t h e c r e m a t i o n fir e .

8 .18 5 I n a b r o a d s e n s e t h is v e r s e r e c a p it u la t e s p r e v i o u s m a t e r ia l. O n e
n e e d s v i g o u r , t h e s u b je c t o f t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , in o r d e r to
w a r d o f f s l o t h a n d t o r p o r , w h i c h a r e in t h e m s e lv e s s t a n d a r d
h i n d r a n c e s to m e d i t a t i o n . A l s o , a s in t h e p e n u lt i m a t e v e r s e o f
th e p r e c e d in g c h a p te r (se e 7 .7 4 n o te ), th e a u th o r e m p h a siz e s
th e n e e d fo r v ig ila n c e , apravuula. H i s r e f e r e n c e t o f o llo w in g t h e
le a r n e d a n t i c i p a t e s t h e e n d o f t h is c h a p t e r a n d t h e b e g in n i n g o f
th e n e x t c h a p t e r , o n U n d e r s ta n d in g .

8 .18 6 T h e ‘ o b s c u r i n g v e i l ’ r e f e r s e i t h e r to t h e ‘ o b s c u r a t i o n ’ c a u s e d b y
t h e d e f i l e m e n t s , o r t h e ‘ o b s c u r a t i o n ’ r e g a r d i n g w h a t is c o g ­
n i z e d , c a u s e d b y b e l i e v i n g t h a t o b je c t s o f c o n s c io u s n e s s a r e r e a l
e n t i t i e s . T h e e a r l i e r m e d i t a t i o n s o f t h is c h a p t e r c o u n t e r a c t th e
f o r m e r , w h i l e t h e la t t e r is r e m o v e d b y u n d e r s t a n d i n g , th e r e a l­
i z a t io n o f e m p t i n e s s , w h i c h is t h e t o p ic o f t h e n e x t c h a p t e r .

CH APTER 9

9 .1 The ‘ c o l l e c t i o n o f p r e p a r a t i o n s ’ r e f e r s to t h e f iv e p e r f e c t i o n s
( g e n e r o s it y , e th ic a l c o n d u c t, v ig o u r , fo rb e a r a n c e , a n d m e d ita ­
t i v e a b s o r p t i o n ) w h i c h a r e e x p o u n d e d in t h e p r e c e d in g c h a p t e r s .

9 .4 S ä n t i d c v a is s e t t i n g t h e g r o u n d - r u l e s f o r p h ilo s o p h ic a l d e b a te ,
w h i c h in t h e I n d i a n c o n t e x t f r e q u e n t ly p r o c e e d s b y t h e u s e o f
a n a l o g y , a s is w e ll i l lu s t r a t e d in t h is c h a p t e r . T h i s p e r t a in s
i r r e s p e c t i v e o f w h a t t h e c o m b a t a n t s in t e n d to p r o v e , b e c a u s e
t w o p a r t i e s m a y a c c e p t a s i n g le s t a t e m e n t b u t in t e r p r e t it s s i g ­
n i f i c a n c e d i f f e r e n t l y . T h i s c o m m o n a g r e e m e n t w a s a m a jo r to o l
in t h e M a d h y a m a k a a t t e m p t to in v a lid a t e t h e s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t
r e a l i t y m a d e b y o t h e r s c h o o l s o f p h ilo s o p h y .

9 .6 M u c h a t t e n t i o n w a s d e v o t e d to t h e p r o b le m s o f e p i s t e m o lo g y in
I n d i a n p h i l o s o p h y , a n d m o s t s y s t e m s d e v e lo p e d a h i e r a r c h y o f
‘ v a l i d m e a n s o f k n o w l e d g e ’ . A l m o s t u n iv e r s a lly , ‘ s c r i p t u r e ’ ( t h e
e x a c t b o d y o f s c r i p t u r e v a r y i n g a c c o r d i n g to p a r t i c u l a r t r a d i­
t i o n s ) w o u l d s t a n d a s t h e h i g h e s t o r m o s t a u t h o r it a t iv e m e a n s o f
k n o w l e d g e , t h u s r e v e a l i n g t h e i n t e r r e la t i o n s h i p o f r e lig i o n a n d
p h ilo s o p h y in t h i s m il ie u . ‘ D i r e c t p e r c e p t io n ’ w o u ld b e t h e
se co n d m o s t a u t h o r i t a t i v e m e a n s o f k n o w le d g e , f o llo w e d b y
f u r t h e r m e a n s , s u c h a s in f e r e n c e a n d a n a lo g y . S ä n t i d e v a t h e r e ­
f o r e s t a t e s t h a t , f r o m h i s s t a n c e a s a P r ä s a ii g i k a M ä d h y a m i k a ,
a ll ‘ v a l i d m e a n s o f k n o w l e d g e ’ a r e m e r e ly in d ic a t o r s o f c o n v e n ­
t i o n a l t r u t h . T h i s is c o n s is t e n t w it h t h e P r ä s a ii g i k a M ä d h y a m i k a
i8o Notes to the Text
a t t e m p t to r e je c t a ll s t a t e m e n t s r e g a r d i n g r e a li t y m a d e b y o t h e r
t r a d it io n s a n d o t h e r s c h o o l s o f B u d d h i s m , b y s h o w i n g th a t t h e y
in v o lv e in t e r n a l in c o n s is t e n c ie s — h e n c e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f ‘ a n a lo ­
g ie s a c c e p t e d b y b o t h p a r t ie s ’ ( s e e v . 4 a b o v e ) .

A n e x a m p le o f s o m e t h i n g w h ic h m a y b e c o n s id e r e d p u r e , t h o u g h
r e a lly im p u r e , is t h e h u m a n b o d y , o n w h i c h s e e 8 .4 7 f f . A n ­
o t h e r s u c h f a ls e v i e w is to r e g a r d s o m e t h i n g i m p e r m a n e n t a s
p e rm a n e n t.

9 .7 a T h e P r o t e c t o r , i. e . t h e B u d d h a , t a u g h t in t e r m s o f r e a l l y e x i s t ­
e n t e n t it ie s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e in ju n c t io n n o t to k ill a s s u m e s th e
e x is t e n c e o f s o m e t h i n g w h i c h c a n k ill a n d s o m e t h i n g w h i c h c a n
b e k ille d . T h e a u t h o r d e f e n d s t h e a p p a r e n t p a r a d o x o f a n in ­
ju n c t io n n o t to k i ll a n e n t i t y , t h e e x i s t e n c e o f w h i c h h e h a s ju s t
c la im e d is e s t a b lis h e d o n ly b y c o n v e n t i o n a l t r u t h , o n t h e b a s is
th at th e c o n d u c t e n jo in e d is t h a t w h i c h is s p i r i t u a l l y e f f e c t i v e ,
i.e . le a d s to li b e r a t i o n .

9 .7 b —8 A n o p p o n e n t a r g u e s t h a t , s i n c e t h e B u d d h a u s e d t h e la n g u a g e
o f c o n v e n tio n a l t ru th , h e de Jacto b e l ie d h i s c l a i m s a b o u t u l t i ­
m a t e r e a li t y . I n t h e n e x t v e r s e , S ä n t i d e v a d e f e n d s t h e u s e o f
c o n v e n t i o n a l la n g u a g e b y d r a w i n g u p o n t h e d i s t i n c t i o n a g r e e d
u p o n a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e d i s c u s s io n : n a m e l y , t h a t t h e s p i r i ­
t u a ll y a d v a n c e d k n o w m o r e a b o u t t h e w a y t h in g s r e a l l y a r e t h a n
o r d i n a r y p e o p l e . T h e r e f o r e t h e p r e r o g a t i v e t o u s e la n g u a g e o f
d i f f e r e n t k i n d s li e s w it h t h e m . T h e B u d d h a w a s n o t l y i n g , b u t
u s i n g ‘ s k i l f u l m e a n s ’ in a d a p t i n g h i s t e a c h in g to h i s a u d ie n c e .
T h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n t le v e l s o f c o n v e n t i o n a l t r u t h t o o : t h e B u d d h a
is a l w a y s r i g h t a t w h a t e v e r le v e l h e is t a lk i n g .

9 .8 O n ‘ w o m e n a s im p u r e ’ , s e e a b o v e , 9 .6 n o t e .

9 .9 a A r g u m e n t w it h t h e H ï n a y â n i s t b e g in s . A l l B u d d h i s t s a c c e p t
t h a t m e r it is g a in e d b y w o r s h i p p i n g t h e B u d d h a . W h e t h e r o n e
s e e s t h e c a u s a l p r o c e s s w h e r e b y t h is h a p p e n s a s r e a l o r i l l u s o r y ,
t h e p r o c e s s i t s e l f is u n a f f e c t e d .

9 .9 b - io T h e H m a y ä n i s t s p u t f o r w a r d t h e v i e w t h a t t h e r e is n o p e r ­
m a n e n t, u n c h a n g in g s e lf b u t a c o n tin u u m o f sta te s. The
M a h ä y ä n i s t s a c c e p t t h is . H o w e v e r , t h e H l n a y ä n i s t s a r e a c ­
c u s e d o f r e g a r d in g th a t c o n tin u u m a s r e a l. S ä n t i d e v a a r g u e s
t h a t t h e r e is n o m o r e r e a s o n f o r r e g a r d i n g t h e c o n t i n u u m a s re a l
t h a n t h e ‘ p e r s o n ’ . A n i l lu s io n c a n a ls o c o n t i n u e f o r s o m e t im e ,
b u t t h i s d o e s n o t m a k e it r e a l.

9 .11a The C i t t a m ä t r a ( M i n d - o n l y ) B u d d h i s t s c o m e in t o t h e a r g u ­
m e n t: t h e y a c c e p t th a t e x te r n a l p h e n o m e n a , s u c h a s in d iv id u a l
 Notes to the Text 18 1
p e o p l e , a r e i l l u s o r y , b u t c la im th a t t h e c o n s c io u s m in d i t s e l f
m u s t e x i s t o r t h e r e w o u ld b e n o b a d in t e n t io n b e h i n d m u r d e r .
A l l B u d d h i s t s a g r e e t h a t g o o d o r b a d a c t s le a d to g o o d o r b a d
c o n s e q u e n c e s , a n d a c c e p t t h a t it is th e in t e n t io n b e h i n d a n a c t
w h i c h le a d s to m e r it o r e v il. H e r e th e C it t a m ä t r a is r e p r e s e n t e d
a s t a k i n g g o o d a n d e v il a s m o r a l a b s o l u t e s f r o m w h ic h h e c a n
m ake an o n t o l o g i c a l a r g u m e n t , i.e . th a t c o n s c io u s n e s s r e a lly
e x is ts .

g .i ib S ä n t i d e v a c o u n t e r s t h a t g o o d a n d e v il a r e n o t m o r a l a b s o l u t e s ,
b u t a r e v a l u e s a r i s i n g w it h i n t h e r e a lm o f c o n v e n t i o n a l t r u th a s
a r e s u l t o f t h e i l l u s o r y p r o je c t io n o n t h e p a r t o f c o n s c io u s n e s s .
B o t h p a r t i e s w o u l d a g r e e w it h t h e r e s p o n s e b e c a u s e b o t h a g r e e
t h a t i l l u s i o n is t h e p r o b le m .

9 .13 a A l l B u d d h i s t s d e n y t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a s i n g le c a u s e o f e v e r y ­
t h i n g . J u s t a s m a g i c s p e l l s a r e n o t t h e o n ly c a u s e o f i l lu s io n , th e
m in d c a n n o t b e t h e s o le s o u r c e o f il lu s io n e i t h e r . T h u s th e
M f u l h y a m i k a f o r e s t a l l s a p o s s ib le c la im b y t h e M i n d - o n l y o p ­
p o n e n t t h a t t h e m in d is t h e s o u r c e o f a ll il lu s io n .

9 .1 3 b - 14 a The C i t t a m ä t r a a r g u e s t h a t i f e v e r y t h i n g is a n il lu s io n ,
t h e n e v e n t h e B u d d h a ’ s A w a k e n i n g is a n i l lu s io n , in w h i c h c a s e
t h e r e is n o p o i n t in p u r s u i n g t h e s p ir it u a l p a th l e a d in g to A w a k ­
e n in g . In o th e r w o r d s , th e C itta m ä tr a a c c u s e s th e M ä d h y a m ik a
o f b e i n g in c o n s i s t e n t , a n d o f e f f e c t i v e l y d e s t r o y i n g t h e b a s is o f
t h e P a t h , n a m e l y , t h e A w a k e n i n g o f th e B u d d h a .

g .i4 b - i5 a T h e M ä d h y a m i k a r e p l i e s t h a t t h e i l lu s o r y p e r c e p t io n s o f
t h e u n - A w a k e n e d c o n t i n u e u n til t h e c a u s e s a r e r e m o v e d , a n d
t h e r e f o r e t h e y w il l s e e a B u d d h a in t e r m s o f c o n v e n t i o n a l t r u th
u n t i l s u c h a p o i n t a s t h e y t h e m s e lv e s a r e A w a k e n e d . T h e s t a t u s
of a Buddha is n o t d e t e r m in e d by t h e il lu s io n s o f t h e u n -
A w aken ed.

9 .15 b If a Buddha is s o m e b o d y w h o s e f a ls e p e r c e p t io n h a s c e a s e d ,
h o w , w i t h o u t c o n s c i o u s n e s s , c o u l d h e s e e t h e i l lu s io n o f t h e u n -
A w a k e n e d , a n d o f f e r t h e m t e a c h in g ?

9 . 1 7 —1 8 T h i s is a p a r a p h r a s e o f a p a s s a g e f r o m t h e Ratnadufa Sütra,
q u o t e d in t h e Siksä Samuccaya ( B e n d a li a n d R o u s e , 2 3 5 , li n e s
6 - 8 ) , w h i c h s t a t e s t h a t t h e m in d c a n n o t s e e i t s e l f , j u s t a s a k n if e
c a n n o t c u t i t s e l f a n d t h e t ip o f a f in g e r c a n n o t t o u c h it s e lf .

9 .19 a T h e C i t t a m ä t r a l i k e n e d t h e s e l f - e x i s t e n t m in d t o a l i g h t - s o u r c e
i l l u m i n a t i n g i t s e l f . T h i s a r g u m e n t w a s n e c e s s a r y b e c a u s e it w a s
ir r e fu ta b ly e s ta b lis h e d b y t h e h i g h e s t s o u r c e o f v a lid k n o w ­
l e d g e , s c r i p t u r e , t h a t m in d m u s t h a v e a n o b je c t o f w h i c h it is
i 82 Notes to the Text
aw are. T h e M ä d h y a m ik a a c c e p ts th a t a s o u r c e o f lig h t ca n
b r i n g il lu m i n a t i o n t o o t h e r o b j e c t s b u t n o t t h a t it c a n i l l u m i n a t e
i t s e l f , b e c a u s e , b y d e f i n i t i o n , a l i g h t - s o u r c e is s i m p l y t h e f u n c ­
t io n o f il lu m i n a t i o n , a n d is n o t i t s e l f a n o b je c t w h i c h c a n b e
h id d e n fro m it s e lf b y d a r k n e s s .

9 .2 1 T h e a u th o r r e p la c e s th e te rm citta, w h ic h h a s b e e n u se d u p
u n til t h is p o in t f o r ‘ m i n d ’ , w it h w h a t is f o r h i m a m o r e d e r o g a ­
t o r y t e r m , ‘ i n t e lle c t io n ’ , buddhi, w h i c h h e r e le g a t e d to t h e s p h e r e
o f c o n v e n t i o n a l t r u t h in v . 2 a b o v e .

9 .2 2 T h e d au g h ter o f a b a rre n w om an is a s t a n d a r d a n a lo g y fo r
s o m e t h i n g w h i c h e v e r y o n e w o u ld a g r e e c a n n o t e x i s t .

9 .2 3 T h e o b je c t i o n is to a s k h o w t h e m in d c a n e x p e r i e n c e s o m e t h i n g
th a t is n o t p r e s e n t , a s it d o e s in th e act o f m e m o ry . ‘T h e
s h r e w ’ s p o i s o n ’ i s a n a n a l o g y u s e d to e x p l a i n m e m o r y in p h i l o ­
s o p h ic a l a r g u m e n t . T h e s h r e w ’ s b i t e is i n f e r r e d , a n d in t h a t
w a y r e m e m b e r e d , w h e n t h e p o is o n t a k e s e f f e c t ! A h i b e r n a t i n g
b e a r is b i t t e n b u t d o e s n o t r e a li z e it u n t i l h e c o m e s o u t o f
h i b e r n a t io n .

9 -2 44 T h e c a u s e r e f e r r e d t o i s t h e m i n d . I t is t h e c a u s e o f p e r c e p t i o n .
I t p e r c e i v e s e x t e r n a l p h e n o m e n a , w h i c h a r e n o t in i m m e d i a t e
c o n t a c t w i t h t h e m i n d , t h r o u g h t h e in t e r m e d i a r i e s o f t h e s e n s e s
a n d i n f e r s t h a t it i t s e l f m u s t e x i s t t o b e a b l e to s e e t h e m . I n t h is
w a y it i s s e l f - a w a r e .

9 .2 5 T h i s m a y b e th e M ä d h y a m ik a b r in g in g th e a r g u m e n t b a c k to
t h e m a i n s o t e r i o l o g i c a l i s s u e a n d is b y t r a d it io n i n t e r p r e t e d a s
s u c h . H o w e v e r , it c o u l d b e t h e C i t t a m ä t r a c o n c e d i n g t h e p o in t
a b o u t th e s e lf- a w a r e n e s s o f th e m in d , b u t r e a s s e r t in g th e re a l
is s u e , s h a r e d b y b o t h p a r t ie s . B o t h a g r e e t h a t , w h e t h e r o r n o t
t h e m in d is t h e b a s is o f t h e p r o je c t i o n t h a t w h a t is p e r c e i v e d
h a s u l t i m a t e r e a l i t y , t h a t p r o je c t i o n is f a l s e a n d t h e c a u s e o f
s u ffe r in g .

9 .2 7 b T h e C i t t a m ä t r a c l a i m s t h a t t h e r e m u s t b e s o m e t h i n g r e a l , i. e .
th e c o n s c io u s m in d , to a c t a s a b a s is fo r th e a p p e a r a n c e o f c y c lic
e x is te n c e .

9 .3 0 T h e C it t a m ä t r a c o n c e d e s fo r th e s a k e o f a r g u m e n t th a t e v e n th e
m in d is lik e a n illu s io n , b u t p o in t s o u t th a t y o u s t ill h a v e th e
p r o b le m o f th e d e file m e n t s . H e u s e s th e a n a lo g y o f a n illu s o r y
w o m a n c r e a t e d b y a m a g ic ia n .

9 .3 1 ‘ In flu e n c e ’ tra n sla te s väsancì, lit . ‘ p e r fu m e ’ , o n w h ic h s e e 1 .2 n o te .

O n ‘ t h e d e f i l e m e n t s a n d w h a t is c o g n i z e d ’ , hlcsa-, jiieya-ävarana,
 Notes to the Text ^3
s e e 9 .4 6 n o te a n d 8 .1 8 6 . O n ‘ e m p t in e s s ’ , s e e G e n e r a l I n tro d u c ­
t io n , p . x x ii.

9 .3 3 T h i s v e r s e c a n b e u n d e rs to o d a s a p a rt o f th e M ä d h y a m ik a ’ s
a r g u m e n t , a s it i s in t h e s t a n d a r d d G e lu g s p a ( p r o n o u n c e d
G e l u k p a ) in t e r p r e t a t i o n . T h e n o n - e x i s t e n c e o f a n e n t i t y is t h e
n e g a t i o n o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f th a t e n t i t y . O n e c a n n o t n e g a t e w h a t
d o e s n o t e x is t . T h e r e f o r e t h e r e c a n n o t b e a n o n - e x is te n c e o f
s o m e t h i n g w h i c h h a s n e v e r e x i s t e d . T h e b a s is o f n o n - e x i s t e n c e
is e x i s t e n c e .

9 .3 5 T h e v o w o f t h e C o n q u e r o r i s t o h e l p a ll b e i n g s g a in E n l i g h t e n ­
m e n t . R e ‘ t h e w i s h i n g - g e m a n d t h e m a g ic a l t r e e ’ , s e e 3 . 1 9 n o te .
O n t h e ‘ v o w ’ o f t h e C o n q u e r o r , s e e I n t r o d u c t i o n to C h . 10 .

9 .4 0 'E h e t r u t h s r e f e r r e d t o h e r e a r c t h e F o u r T r u t h s o f th e N o b l e s
w h ic h fo rm t h e b a c k b o n e o f n o n - M a h â y â n a e x p o s it i o n s o f th e
D h a r m a . 'E h e f o u r t r u t h s a r e t h a t : a ll is s u f f e r i n g o r u n s a t i s f a c ­
t o r y ; s u f f e r i n g h a s a n o r i g i n ; s u f f e r i n g c a n c e a s e ; a n d t h e r e is a
p a th th a t le a d s to th e c e s s a tio n o f s u ffe r in g . O n th e F o u r T r u t h s
s e e a l s o 4 . 4 8 n o t e . T h e s e a r c t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e f ir s t d i s c o u r s e o f
t h e h is t o r ic a l B u d d h a a ft e r h is A w a k e n in g . F r o m a M a d h y a m a k a
p e r s p e c t i v e , e v e n t h e s e t r u t h s s h o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d to b e e m p t v .

T h e s c r i p t u r e s w h i c h e x p o u n d t h e n e c e s s it y o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g
e m p tin e s s a re th e Praj/lâpürarnitâ Sütra, o r th e ‘ P e r fe c tio n o f
W is d o m S u tra s’. T h e y fo rm t h e s c r i p t u r a l a u t h o r i t y f o r th e
M adhyam aka sc h o o l. T h e y a r e n o t a c c e p te d a s s c rip tu r e b y
n o n - M a h â y â n a s c h o o ls .

9 .4 1 'E h e M a h ä y ä n a s c r i p t u r e s a r e n o t a c c e p t e d a s t h e w o r d o f th e
B u d d h a b y th e n o n - M a h â y â n a s c h o o ls , b u t M a h ä y ä n a s c h o o ls
accep t b o th n o n -M ah âyân a and M a h ä y ä n a s c rip tu r e s . S in c e
t h e r e m u s t b e a t im e b e fo r e w h ic h e a c h p e r so n h a s a c c e p te d a n y
B u d d h i s t s c r i p t u r e , t h e M ä d h y a m i k a p o in t s o u t t h a t t h e fa c t
t h a t t h e r e a r e p e o p le w h o d o n o t a c c e p t th e a u t h o r it y o f a te x t
d o e s n o t a f f e c t it s v a l i d i t y .

9 .4 2 T h e c r i t e r i o n r e f e r r e d to h e r e is t h a t a t e x t is e s t a b lis h e d i f b o t h
p a r t i e s a c c e p t it . T h e V e d a s a r e t h e e a r li e s t a n d m o s t a u t h o r ­
ita tiv e s c rip tu re s o f B ra h m a n ic a l H in d u o rth o d o x y. T h e ir
a u t h o r i t y is r e je c t e d b y a ll B u d d h i s t s .

9 .4 3 ‘ S c r i p t u r e ’ , h e r e tr a n s la t in g àgama, li t . ‘ t h e t r a d i t i o n ’ , is t h e
te rm g iv e n to th e s e c t io n s o f th e sütra-pitaka, t h e c o ll e c t i o n o f
th e B u d d h a ’ s d i s c o u r s e s . T h e s e a r e a c c e p te d a s c a n o n ic a l b y
b o t h M a h ä y ä n a a n d n o n - M a h ä y ä n a sc h o o ls .
184 Notes to the Text
g .4 4 T h e B u d d h i s t m o n a s t i c c o m m u n i t y h a s u n d e r g o n e s c h i s m s in
t h e c o u r s e o f it s h i s t o r y . T h e s e s c h i s m s h a v e t a k e n p l a c e a s a
re s u lt o f d is a g r e e m e n ts o v e r th e in te r p r e ta tio n o f th e m o n a s tic
r u l e s w h i c h d e f i n e t h e in s t i t u t i o n o f m o n k h o o d . T h e d i f f e r e n t
o r d i n a t i o n li n e a g e s r e s u l t i n g f r o m s u c h s c h i s m s d o n o t a c c e p t
e a c h o t h e r ’ s m o n a s t i c c o d e a s v a lid . I n t h is w a y t h e m o n k h o o d
is i m p e r f e c t l y e s t a b lis h e d .

T h o se ar/mts, e n l ig h t e n e d o n e s a c c o r d i n g to t h e H î n a y â n a ,
g r a s p o n t o e n t i t ie s , i.e . b e l ie v e s o m e t h i n g s a r e u l t i m a t e l y r e a l,
a n d h a v e n o t r e a li z e d ‘ e m p t i n e s s ’ . F o r t h is r e a s o n , a c c o r d i n g to
t h e P r a jn ä p ä r a m i t ä li t e r a t u r e , t h e y c a n n o t b e f u l l y e n l i g h t e n e d ,
s o t h e i r E n l i g h t e n m e n t is a ls o i m p e r f e c t l y e s t a b l i s h e d .

9 .4 5 ‘ U n d e f i l e d a c t i o n ’ r e f e r s to e t h i c a l ly n e u t r a l a c t i o n s . E p i s o d e s
in t h e l a t e r l i t e r a t u r e d e s c r i b e e v e n arhats, t h e e n l i g h t e n e d f o l­
lo w e r s o f t h e H m a y â n a , a c t i n g in a m a n n e r d e t e r m i n e d by
a c tio n s p r i o r t o t h e i r E n l i g h t e n m e n t (s e e L a m o t t c 1 9 7 4 ) . T h e s e
o f f e r e x t r a o r d i n a r y im a g e s o f s o m e o f t h e B u d d h a ’ s e n l i g h t e n e d
d i s c ip l e s , s u c h a s t h e h i g h - c a s t e M a h ä k ä s y a p a w h o c o u l d n o t
r id h i m s e l f o f h a b it u a l s n o b b e r y , a n d w h o , d e s p i t e h i s r e p u t a ­
tio n f o r a s c e t i c i s m , c o u l d n o t h e l p b u t j i g to a t u n e b e c a u s e o f
p r e v io u s liv e s s p e n t a s a m o n k e y ; G a v à m p a t i, w h o h a d b e e n an
o x in m a n y p r e v i o u s l i v e s , a n d w h o h a b it u a ll y r e g u r g i t a t e d h i s
f o o d in o r d e r to c h e w t h e c u d ; a n d M a d h u v a s i s t h a , a n o t h e r e x ­
m o n k e y , w h o c o u l d n o t r e s i s t c l i m b i n g o n w a l l s a n d in t r e e s .
T h e r e is e v e n a s t o r y o f a P r a t y e k a b u d d h a w h o , h a v i n g b e e n a
c o u r t e s a n in p a s t l i v e s , s t i l l d r e s s e d M ike a c o q u e t t e ’ — a n e n ­
li g h t e n e d t r a n s v e s t i t e !

9 .4 6 T h e d e lu s io n t h a t t h e r e a r e r e a l l y e x i s t e n t e n t i t i e s is i t s e l f a
fo r m o f s u b t le c r a v in g fr o m th e M a h â y â n is t p e r s p e c t iv e . T h i s
d e lu s io n is th e jneyävaraua, ‘ t h e o b s c u r a t i o n o v e r w h a t is c o g ­
n i z e d ’ , m e n t i o n e d in v . 3 1 . T h i s v e r s e a n d t h e n e x t r e f e r t o t h e
nùlâms,
s e v e n t h , e i g h t h , a n d n i n t h o f t h e t w e l v e M in k s’ , in t h e
c h a in o f d e p e n d e n t o r ig in a t io n , th e pratitya-samutpâda, w h ic h
d e s c r i b e s t h e p r o c e s s o f r e b i r t h a n d s u f f e r i n g in c y c l i c e x i s t e n c e
(s e e 6 .3 ) . T h i s d e s c r ip t io n f o r m s th e s e c o n d o f th e F o u r N o b le
T r u t h s , o n w h i c h s e c a b o v e , 9 .4 0 n o t e .

9 .4 8 The m e d ita tiv e a tta in m e n t o f n o n - p e r c e p tio n is a p r o f o u n d

s t a t e o f m e d i t a t i v e a b s o r p t i o n in w h i c h t h e p r o c e s s e s o f p e r c e p ­
t io n (samjm) a n d f e e l i n g ( vedami) c e a s e , b u t r e t u r n w i t h i n s e v e n
d a y s , i f t h e m e d i t a t o r h a s n o t d i e d m e a n w h ile !
 Notes to the Text 185
9 4 9 -5 1 T h o u g h t h e s e v e r s e s a r e in a ll t h e S a n s k r i t m a n u s c r i p t s a n d
th e T ib e ta n t r a n s la t io n , th e 10 th -c e n t u ry c o m m e n ta to r
P r a j n ä k a r a m a t i s a y s t h e y a r e in t e r p o l a t i o n s , b e c a u s e t h e y a r e
o u t o f s e q u e n c e a n d d i s r e s p e c t f u l to M a h â k â s y a p a , o n e o f t h e
h is to r ic a l B u d d h a ’s c h ie f d is c ip le s . T h e y a r e n o t a m o n g th e
v e r s e s i n c l u d e d in t h e T u n - h u a n g r e c e n s i o n .

9 .4 9 N o n - M a h â v â n a c r i t e r ia f o r a c c e p t i n g a t e x t a s c a n o n i c a l a r e : it
is t h e w o r d o f t h e B u d d h a a s h a n d e d d o w n b y a n u n b r o k e n
l i n e a g e o f t e a c h e r s a n d p u p i l s ; it is f o u n d in t h e D i s c o u r s e s ; it
is in a c c o r d a n c e w it h t h e t r e a t i s e o n t h e r u l e s o f t h e D i s c i p l i n e ;
it d o e s n o t c o n t r a d i c t t h e s p i r i t o f t h e T e a c h i n g .

9 .5 1 In e h . 4 o f th e Sudditarma-pundanka Sütra (th e Lotus Sutra),

M a h â k â s y a p a ( ‘ G r e a t K ä s y a p a ’ ), a c t i n g a s s p o k e s m a n fo r h i m ­
s e l f a n d t h r e e o t h e r s , c o n f e s s e s to t h e B u d d h a th a t t h e y h a d a ll
h e ld back fro m th e s u p e r io r M a h ä v ä n a t e a c h in g b e c a u s e o f
c o m p l a c e n c y a n d la c k o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g .

9 .5 2 'P h i s r e f e r s to t h e B o d h i s a t t v a r e m a in in g in c y c l i c e x i s t e n c e
e v e n a ft e r A w a k e n in g . T h i s a c c u s e s ar/tats, t h o s e E n lig h t e n e d
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e H l n a y â n a w h o d o n o t r e m a in to h e l p o t h e r s , o f
f e a r a n d a t t a c h m e n t — p r e s u m a b l y f e a r o f t h e s u f f e r i n g in c y c l ic
e x i s t e n c e a n d a t t a c h m e n t to t h e i r o w n c o m f o r t . H o w e v e r , in
a d d it io n to th e r e a d in g ta k e n h e r e , saktilräsäntanirmuktyä, and
t r a n s la t e d a s ‘ th r o u g h fre e d o m fro m th e tw o e x tr e m e s , a tta ch ­
m e n t a n d f e a r ’ , P r a jn ä k a r a m a t i o f f e r s a n a lt e r n a t i v e , saktitrâsât
lu auirmuktyâ: ‘ O n t h e c o n t r a r y , b y n o t b e i n g lib e r a te d fr o m
t h e f e a r o f a t t a c h m e n t , t h r o u g h d e lu s i o n t h e y r e m a in in c y c l i c
e x iste n c e . I s t h i s t h e f r u i t o f e m p t i n e s s ? ’ T h i s la t t e r r e a d in g
w o u ld r e q u i r e a d i f f e r e n t in t e r p r e t a t io n o f t h e v e r s e , a s t h e
s a r c a s t i c r e s p o n s e o f t h e o p p o n e n t to v . 4 8 .

9 .5 4 On t h e o b s c u r a t i o n s s e e 8 1 8 6 n o t e a n d v . 4 6 a b o v e . ‘ O m n i­
s c ie n c e ’ is a sy n o n y m fo r th e P e r fe c t U n d e r s ta n d in g o f a
B uddha.

9 .5 7 - 9 T h e s e v e r s e s c o n t a in a s t a n d a r d ‘ in s i g h t ’ , vipasyam, m e d ita ­
t io n , o n w h ic h s e e In tro d u c tio n to C h . 8 . I t s p u r p o s e is to
e s ta b lis h th a t n o p a rt o f th e p s y c h o - p h y s ic a l o rg a n ism c an b e
id e n t ifie d a s th e ‘ S e l f ’ .

9 .5 9 'P h e s i x c o n s c i o u s n e s s e s a r e c o n s c io u s n e s s o f s i g h t , s o u n d , s m e ll,
t a s t e , t o u c h , a n d m e n t a l o b je c t s .

9 .6 0 I n t h e S â m k h v a s c h o o l o f p h i l o s o p h y t h e S e l f is s a id to b e p u r e
c o n s c i o u s n e s s . S ä n t i d e v a ’ s c h o i c e o f s o u n d a s t h e e x a m p le in
t h is v e r s e r a th e r th a n th e m o re u s u a l e x a m p le o f sig h t (a s th e
186 Notes to the Text
‘ f i r s t ’ o f t h e s e n s e s ) m a y h a v e b e e n m a d e w i t h r e f e r e n c e to th e
e a r ly n o n -B u d d h ist id e n t ific a t io n o f th e u n iv e r s a l e sse n c e ,
brahman, w ith s o u n d .
g .6 i A c c o r d in g to S ä m k h y a , th e S e l f is p u r e c o n s c io u s n e s s , not
c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f a n y t h i n g in p a r t i c u l a r . T h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s il lu ­
m i n a t e s , a s it w e r e , a n y m e n t a l p r o c e s s e s w h i c h t a k e p la c e .
T h o s e m e n ta l p r o c e s s e s a r e n o t a n a s p e c t o f th e S e l l , b u t o f the
m a t e r ia l b o d y in w h i c h it r e s i d e s .

9 .6 4 ‘ G o o d n e s s ’ , ‘ p a s s i o n ’ , a n d ‘ d a r k n e s s ’ a r e t h e u n i v e r s a l c o n s t it u ­
e n t s ( ‘ q u a l i t i e s ’ o r ‘ s t r a n d s ’ ) w h i c h m a k e u p e v e r y t h i n g th a t
e x i s t s , a c c o r d i n g to S ä m k h y a p h i l o s o p h y . T h i s a r g u m e n t t h e r e ­
fo re r e fu te s th e u ltim a te e x is t e n c e o f s u c h t h in g s a s fa t h e r o r
so n o n th e o p p o n e n t’s o w n te rm s .

9 .6 6 T h e id e a t h a t a ll p e o p l e a r e o n e a n d t h e s a m e is u n a c c e p t a b l e to
S ä m k h y a . A c c o r d i n g to t h e m t h e d i f f e r e n t S e l v e s a r e n o t p a r t
o f o n e u n iv e r s a l S e l f b u t m a n y a n d s e p a r a te , o n e re a s o n b e in g
th a t, i f t h i s w e r e n o t s o , w h e n o n e p e r s o n d i e d a ll w o u ld d ie .

9 67 T h i s is a n a w k w a r d p o in t f o r t h e S ä m k h y a . F o r t h e m , c o n ­
s c i o u s n e s s is w h a t m a r k s o u t t h e i n d i v i d u a l ‘ s o u l s ’ f r o m th e
g r o s s m a t t e r o f e v e r y t h i n g e ls e , b u t it w a s d i f f i c u l t t o e x p la i n
w h a t t y p e o f m a tte r (w h ic h m a k e s u p th e e n t ir e u n iv e r s e ) c o n ­
s t i t u t e s t h e s o u l to m a k e it s o d i f f e r e n t . I f d i f f e r e n c e is f a ls e ,
th e n how c a n a p a r t ic u la r g r o u p o f th in g s b e s im ila r ? T h e
‘ s o u l s ’ , f o r e x a m p l e , w o u ld n o t b e m a r k e d o f f f r o m t h e r e s t o f
m a t t e r b y t h e s h a r e d d i s t in c t io n o f b e i n g m a d e o f a p a r t i c u l a r l y
s u b t l e o r p u r e m a t t e r . N o r w o u ld t h e y b e s i m i l a r t o e a c h o t h e r ,
r a t h e r t h a n a ll o n e a n d t h e s a m e , i f t h e r e w a s n o t h i n g a t a ll to
d is tin g u is h th e m .

9 .6 8 - 9 T h e s e tw o v e r s e s r e fu te th e N y ä y a th e o r y o f th e S e l f a s p e r ­
m a n e n t a n d c h a n g e le s s , e x p e r i e n c i n g t h r o u g h it s m i n d .

9 .7 1 T h e lo c a t i o n o f t h e c o n s e q u e n c e is a t a f u t u r e p o in t .
g .7 2 ‘ I t is t a u g h t ’ m e a n s it is t a u g h t in B u d d h i s t s c r i p t u r e . O n ‘ th e
c o n tin u u m o f c o n s c io u s n e s s e s ’ , se e 4 .4 7 n o te a n d 8 . 1 0 1 n o te .

9 -7 5 T h e P r ° 61e r n ' s t h a t t h e a d v a n c e d B o d h i s a t t v a k n o w s t h a t t h e r e
a r e n o b e i n g s in c o n v e n t i o n a l t e r m s b u t c o n t i n u e s t o p r a c t i s e
c o m p a s s i o n . T h e o p p o n e n t p o in t s o u t t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n in t h is .
S ä n t i d e v a r e p lie s th a t fo r p r a g m a tic p u r p o s e s th e B o d h is a t tv a
c o n t i n u e s to p r a c t i s e c o m p a s s io n a s i f b e i n g s r e a l l y e x i s t e d . T h e
B o d h i s a t t v a n e e d s b e i n g s t o w a r d s w h o m h e is c o m p a s s i o n a t e in
o r d e r to c o m p l e t e h i s B o d h i s a t t v a t r a i n i n g . S e e I n t r o d u c t i o n to

C h . 8.
 Notes to the Text 187
9 .8 0 T h e V a i s e s ik a s h e l d t h e v i e w th a t t h e b o d y is t h e w h o le w h i c h
p o s s e s s e s a ll t h e p a r t s .

9 .8 4 W e h a v e a c c e p te d h e r e t h e a l t e r n a t i v e r e a d i n g p r o v id e d by
P r a jn ä k a r a m a t i : kastham, ‘ p o s t ’ , ra th e r th a n kayak, ‘b o d y’ .

9 .8 6 The d ire c tio n s a re th e c a rd in a l p o in t s , th e n a d ir , a n d th e

z e n it h , h e r e u s e d to a n a ly s e t h e a t o m in t o d i f f e r e n t p a r t s .

9 .8 8 P l e a s u r e a n d p a in c a n n o t e x i s t a s i n d e p e n d e n t r e a li t i e s u n le s s
t h e y e x i s t in d e p e n d e n t l y o f o t h e r f a c t o r s . I t is a x i o m a t ic th a t
s o m e t h i n g th a t r e a lly e x i s t s is p e r m a n e n t .

9 .8 9 A s e n s a t i o n is b y d e f i n it i o n s o m e t h i n g e x p e r i e n c e d , s o i f n o t
e x p e r i e n c e d it d o e s n o t e x i s t .

9 .9 1 H o w e ls e c o u l d s e n s a t i o n s , a s i n g l e c a t e g o r y , b e b o t h p a in f u l
a n d p l e a s u r a b l e — t h e s a m e t h i n g c a u s i n g b o t h p a in a n d p le a s ­
u r e d e p e n d in g o n th e c ir c u m s ta n c e s ?

9 .9 2 O n m e d i t a t i v e a b s o r p t i o n , s e e I n t r o d u c t i o n to C h . 8 . T h e s p i r i ­
t u a ll y d e v e lo p e d a r e n o u r is h e d b o t h l i t e r a l l y , in s o f a r a s it w a s
t h o u g h t th a t e x p e r i e n c e o f m e d i t a t i v e a b s o r p t i o n p r o v id e d a
s u b t l e n o u r is h m e n t to t h e b o d y , a n d m e t a p h o r i c a l l y , in th a t
m e d i t a t i o n o f t h e s o r t ju s t d e s c r i b e d ‘ f e e d s ’ t h a t u n d e r s t a n d i n g
w h i c h m a k e s a n in d i v i d u a l s p i r i t u a l l y a d v a n c e d .

9 .9 5 I f t w o t h in g s a r e t o u c h i n g , t h e p o in t o f c o n t a c t is a p a r t o f th e
w h o le o f e a c h . I f t h e t w o a r e w h o l l y in c o n t a c t t h e y m u s t b e th e
s a m e t h in g , s o it is n o t c o n t a c t .

9 .9 7 S e n s a t io n r e q u ir e s th e c o n ta c t o f th e s e n s e o b je c t (visaya), th e
s e n s e o r g a n ( imlriya), a n d c o n s c i o u s n e s s ( vijnwui). S e e 4 .4 7 n o t e .

9 .10 2 T h e a g g r e g a t e s a r e t h e f iv e c a t e g o r i e s , f o r m , s e n s a t i o n , a p p e r ­
c e p t i o n , v o li t io n s , a n d c o n s c i o u s n e s s , w h i c h e x h a u s t i v e l y d e ­
s c r i b e t h e p s y c h o - p h y s i c a l o r g a n i s m c a lle d a h u m a n b e i n g .

9 .10 4 C o n s c i o u s n e s s is u n d e r s t o o d b y B u d d h i s t s to b e c o n s c i o u s n e s s
o f s o m e t h i n g . I n t h a t s e n s e c o n s c i o u s n e s s is c o n d i t i o n e d b y its
o b je c t s , b e c a u s e t h e y a llo w th e a r is in g o f a m o m e n t o f c o n ­
s c i o u s n e s s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e o b je c t o f w h i c h one i s c o n s c io u s
m u s t e x i s t b e f o r e o n e c a n h a v e t h a t p a r t i c u l a r c o n s c io u s n e s s .
S e e 4 .4 7 n o te .

9 .10 5 W h a t d o e s n o t o c c u r p r i o r to o r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w it h s o m e t h i n g
m u s t o c c u r a f t e r it. A n o v e r l a p is n o t c o n s i d e r e d b e c a u s e a ll
t h in g s a r e m o m e n ta r y a n d th e m o m e n ts a r e d is c r e te .

9 .1 0 6 O n th e tw o tru th s, se c a b o v e , v. 2.
 Notes to the Text
Q. 1 1 8 T h i s b e g in s a n a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t t h e N y ä v a - V a i s e s i k a th e o r y
t h a t G o d is t h e p e r m a n e n t c a u s e o f t h e w o r l d , c r e a t i n g e v e r y ­
t h i n g ( t h r o u g h h is d e s ir e ) u n d e r c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s s u c h a s tim e
a n d th e p r e se n c e o f a c c e s so ry c a u se s su c h a s a to m s (w h ic h are
p e rm a n e n t).

Q .1 2 1 S o m e th in g e te rn a l h a s n o b e g in n in g a n d so c a n n o t h a v e b een
c re ated .

9 .12 3 I f G o d is t h e c a u s e o f s o m e t h i n g a n d h e is e t e r n a l , t h e e f f e c t o f
w h i c h h e is t h e c a u s e w o u ld a ls o b e e t e r n a l, i.e . t h e w o r ld a n d
e v e r y t h i n g in it w o u ld b e e t e r n a l, b u t t h i n g s a r e s e e n to b e
im p e rm a n e n t.

9 .12 6 S ä m k h y a is o n e o f th e s i x c la s s ic a l s c h o o l s o f o r t h o d o x I n d i a n
p h i l o s o p h y . T h e r e is a ls o a d e b a te w it h t h e m in v v . 6 0 f f . a b o v e .

9 .12 8 A c c o r d i n g to S ä m k h y a , e v e r y t h i n g in t h e u n i v e r s e is m a d e u p
o f t h e t h r e e c o n s t it u e n t s .

9 - 1 2 9 A c c o r d i n g to S ä m k h y a p l e a s u r e is p a r t o f t h e m a t e r ia l w o r ld ,
w h i le c o n s c i o u s n e s s is s e p a r a t e , t h e fu n c t io n o f t h e purttsa or
in d i v i d u a l s o u l .

9 -13 2 I f t h e s e n s a t i o n o f p l e a s u r e r e a lly e x i s t s it m u s t b e p e r m a n e n t
a n d u n c h a n g i n g , s o it w o u ld n o t b e a b l e to c h a n g e f r o m o n e
s t a t e ( h e r e , g r o s s n e s s ) to a n o t h e r ( h e r e , s u b t le t y ) .

9 .13 4 S ä m k h y a h o l d s t h e v i e w t h a t e v e r y t h i n g w h i c h e x i s t s a lr e a d y
e x i s t e d in it s c a u s e , e . g . t h e p o t e x i s t s in t h e c l a y . O t h e r w i s e ,
c a u s a t i o n w o u l d b e r a n d o m : a p o t c o u l d b e f o r m e d f r o m m il k ,
a n d y o g h u r t fro n t c la y .

9 .13 6 E v e n s a g e s w h o a c c e p t t h is t h e o r y d o n o t w e a r c o t t o n s e e d
in s t e a d o f c lo t h .

9 .13 7 S ä m k h y a s a c c e p t d i r e c t p e r c e p t io n , pratyaksa, a s th e h ig h e st o f
th e pramänas, v a lid m e a n s o f k n o w le d g e , a f t e r s c r i p t u r e . H o w ­
e v e r , i f t h e y q u a l i i y it b y s a y i n g th a t o n ly t h e d i r e c t p e r c e p t io n
o f th e s p ir itu a lly a d v a n c e d is v a lid , d i r e c t p e r c e p t i o n per se
c e a s e s to b e a n a u t h o r i t a t i v e m e a n s o f k n o w l e d g e , w h i c h w o u ld
a g r e e w it h t h e p o in t o f v i e w h e ld b y t h e M a d h y a m a k a .

9 .14 6 S o m e th in g n o n - e x is te n t c a n n o t b e a ffe c te d in a n y w ay, nor

b e c o m e e x i s t e n t , s i n c e t h a t w o u ld b e a c o n t r a d i c t io n in t e r m s .
Y e t o n l y s o m e t h i n g w h i c h is n o t a lr e a d y e x i s t e n t c o u l d b e s a id
to c o m e in t o e x i s t e n c e . T h e M a d h y a m a k a p o in t s o u t t h e in h e r ­
e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n in a ll p o s s ib ili t ie s .

9 .15 0 T h e b a n a n a tre e fo r m s , fro m an u n d erg ro u n d s t e m , a f a ls e

t r u n k c o m p o s e d o f l e a f s h e a t h s , s o t h a t i f t h e s h e a t h s a r e p e e le d
a w a y th e r e is n o re m a in in g c o r e o r ‘ e s s e n c e ’ .
 Notes to the Text 189
9 .16 1 O n M u r a , se c 10 .9 a n d 1 0 .3 2 .

9 .16 2 O n ‘ th e o p p o r tu n e m o m e n t’ , se e 1.4 n o te a n d 4 . 1 5 - 1 6 .

9 .16 4 H e l l is h e r e li k e n e d to a f ir e w h i c h m u s t b e e n t e r e d t im e a n d
t im e a g a i n a s lo n g a s o n e r e m a i n s in c y c l i c e x i s t e n c e . B e t w e e n
l i v e s in h e ll o n e m a y s i m p l y b e s o r e l i e v e d to b e o u t o f th e fir e
t h a t o n e f o r g e t s t h a t t h e h o r r o r w il l i n e v i t a b l y b e re p e a t e d .

CH APTER 10

io . I T h e title Bodhicaryävalära m e a n s ‘ u n d e rta k in g th e w a y o r co n ­

d u c t t o A w a k e n i n g ’ , s o t h e a u t h o r is r e f e r r i n g b o t h to th e title
o f th e w o rk h e h a s c o m p o s e d a n d th e p r a c tic e s w h ic h are d e­
s c r i b e d in t h a t w o r k .

10 .4 S u k h ä v a t T is t h e n a m e o f a ‘ p u r e la n d ’ , i. e . a p e r f e c t w o r ld
c re a te d by th e B u d d h a A m it ä b h a . A ll th o se re b o r n in th a t
w o r l d e n j o y d e l i g h t f u l a n d u n c e a s in g a c c e s s to t h e D h a r m a a n d
s p e e d i l y a t t a in A w a k e n i n g . S e e 7 . 4 4 n o t e . F o r a t r a n s la t io n o f
th e Sukhüvati-vyûha Sütra, s e e C o w e ll, M iille r , a n d T a k a k u s u
19 6 9 .

10 .6 S w o r d - l e a v e d f o r e s t s a n d t h ic k e t s o f t o r t u r i n g t h o r n s g r o w in
h e l l , w h e r e a s t h e w i s h - f u l f i l l i n g t r e e g r o w s in h e a v e n .

10 .7 The cakravâka i s a t y p e o f w a t e r - b i r d s y m b o l i c o f f a i t h f u l lo v e
in c l a s s i c a l S a n s k r i t li t e r a t u r e .

10 .9 I n b i o g r a p h i e s o f t h e B u d d h a t h e t e r r ib le w e a p o n s w it h w h ic h
M ä r a , t h e e m b o d i m e n t in B u d d h i s m o f d e l u s i o n , a t t a c k s th e
B u d d h a i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r h i s A w a k e n i n g a r e t u r n e d in t o a r a in
o f f l o w e r s . K a m a , t h e I n d i a n g o d o f lo v e a n d s p r i n g , is a r m e d
w it h a b o w , a n d a r r o w s w h i c h a r e f lo w e r s .

1 0 .11 O n Y a m a , s e e 2 . 4 2 n o t e . O n V a jr a p ä n i , s e e 2 . 5 3 n o t e .

10 .12 K a m a l a p ä n i , ‘ t h e o n e w h o h o ld s a r e d lo t u s in h i s h a n d ’ , is a
s y n o n y m o f P a d m a p ä n i, a n e p ith e t o f A v a lo k ite s v a ra , th e B o d h i-
s a t t v a o f C o m p a s s i o n , w h o s o m e t im e s a p p e a r s h o l d i n g a lo t u s .
S e e 2 .1 3 n o te .

10 .13 T h e ‘ p r i n c e in m o n k ’ s r o b e s ’ is a r e f e r e n c e to t h e B o d h i s a t t v a
K s it i g a r b h a . S e e 2 .5 2 n o te .

10 .14 O n M a ii ju g h o s a , s e e 2 . 1 3 n o te .

10 .15 O n S a m a n ta b h a d r a , s e e 2 . 1 3 n o te .

Io . 17 H u n g ry g h o sts, o r prêtas, a r e o n e o f t h e s i x t y p e s o f li v i n g b e i n g
in B u d d h i s t c o s m o l o g y . T h e y e x p e r i e n c e c o n s t a n t , in s a t i a b le
c r a v in g s fo r su sten a n ce . See 4 .5 n o te . U tta ra k u ru is th e
 190 Notes to the Text
n o r t h e r n m o s t o f t h e f o u r c o n t i n e n t s o f t h is w o r l d , a p la c e o f
lo n g - l a s t i n g c o n te n t m e n t .

10 .18 A v a lo k it e s 'v a r a (s e e 2 . 1 3 n o te ) is a ls o d e p ic t e d in t h e t h ir d c h a p ­
te r o f th e Kârandavyûha Sütra n o u r is h in g t h e h u n g r y g h o s t s
w it h s t r e a m s o f e ig h t k in d s o f li q u id f lo w in g f r o m e a c h f in g e r ,
t o e , a n d p o r e o f h i s s k in . T h e r e is n o E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t io n o f t h is
t e x t y e t p u b li s h e d .

10 .19 M â y â d e v ï w a s t h e m o t h e r o f th e h is t o r ic a l B u d d h a , S i d d h ä r t h a
G a u t a m a , w h o e m e r g e d fr o m h e r s i d e at b i r t h , c a u s i n g h e r n o
p a in .

10 .2 7 T h e in o p p o r t u n e b i r t h s , s o c a lle d b e c a u s e o n e c a n n o t b e n e fit
t h e r e in f r o m t h e B u d d h a ’s t e a c h in g s , a r e e i g h t in n u m b e r . T h e s e
a r e in h e l l, a s a n a n im a l o r h u n g r y g h o s t , a s a lo n g - l i v e d g o d , in
a b a r b a r ia n r e g i o n , a s o n e h o ld i n g b ia s e d v i e w s , a s o n e w h o is
d e f ic ie n t in f a c u lt ie s , o r a t a t im e w h e n t h e r e is n o D h a r m a
ta u g h t b y a B u d d h a . T h e a b i li t y to r e c a l l f o r m e r b i r t h s is a s ig n
o f h i g h s p i r i t u a l a t t a in m e n t . It is o n e o f t h e te n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
p o w e rs o r k n o w le d g e s o f a B u d d h a .

1 0 .2 8 G a g a n a g a n j a , ‘ S k y - t r e a s u r e ’ , is a B o d h is a t t v a , s o c a lle d b e c a u s e
h is g e n e r o s i t y i s lik e t h e s k y , in th a t it is i n f in it e a n d p u r e (s e e
th e q u o t e f r o m t h e Gaganaganja Sutra in t h e Siksü Samuccayti,
B e n d a li a n d R o u s e , 2 4 7 ) .

10 .3 2 On M ä ra , se e n o te to v. 9 ab o ve . M ä ra trie d to tric k th e
B u d d h a b y s e n d in g h is d a u g h te r s a s v o lu p tu o u s w o m e n (r e p r e ­
s e n t in g lu s t ) t o s e d u c e h i m ; a n d a n a r m y o f d e m o n s ( r e p r e ­
s e n t in g fe a r ) to t e r r i f y h i m ; a n d t r ie d to t r i c k h im in t o d o u b t b y
d e m a n d in g t h a t h e p r e s e n t a w it n e s s to p r o v e h e r e a l l y w t,s
e n l ig h t e n e d .

10 .3 6 ‘ C ir c le ’ h e re tra n sla te s mandala, w h i c h is a ls o t h e t e r m u s e d f o r

d i a g r a m m a t i c d e s c r i p t i o n s in c i r c u l a r f o r m o f B u d d h a s and
B o d h is a t t v a s in t h e i r t e m p l e s , a n d s o m e t im e s w it h t h e i r e n t o u ­
r a g e , e s p e c i a l l y a s a n o b je c t f o r m e d i t a t i v e c o n c e n t r a t io n in
M a h ä y ä n a v i s u a li z a t io n m e d i t a t i o n s . E a c h B u d d h a a n d B o d h i ­
s a tt v a h a s h i s o r h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c o lo u r a n d is u s u a l l y d e p ic t e d
s u r r o u n d e d b y a h a lo o f r a d ia n t li g h t .

10 .3 9 I n S a n s k r i t a n d P a li li t e r a t u r e r a in p r o d u c t i o n is a t t r i b u t e d to a
s k y g o d , s o t h e e x p r e s s i o n ‘ t h e g o d r a i n s ’ is a s t a n d a r d id io m .

10 .4 0 O n s p e l l s , s e e 4 . 2 7 n o t e . ‘ T h e m u t t e r e r s ’ r e f e r s t o t h e p r ie s t s
a n d o t h e r r e l i g i o u s o r m a g ic a l p r a c t i t io n e r s w h o r e c i t e d r e li­
g io u s o r m a g ic a l f o r m u la e .
 Notes to the Text 191
10 .4 4 ‘ T h o s e w h o e n t e r t h e s p ir it u a l c o m m u n it y ’ t r a n s la t e s th e te rm
pravrajitûs, a s y n o n y m fo r pmvrtljaka, o n w h i c h se e 6 . 1 0 5 n o te .

10 .4 7 T 1h -‘ w is h is f o r b e i n g s to a t t a in A w a k e n i n g ‘ in a s in g le , d iv in e
e m b o d i m e n t ’ , f o r e x a m p l e in th e S u k h ä v a t T r e a lm (o n w h ic h
s e e 7 . 4 4 a n d n o t e , a n d v . 4 a n d n o te a b o v e ) , r a t h e r th a n s p e n d
a e o n s p e r f e c t i n g t h e B o d h is a t t v a t r a i n i n g , d u r i n g th e c o u r s e o f
w h i c h t h e y w o u ld in e v i t a b l y u n d e r g o g r e a t s u f f e r i n g a n d h a v e
t o m a k e g r e a t e f f o r t to a c h ie v e th e p e r f e c t v i r t u e s o f a B u d d h a .

10 .5 0 P r a t v e k a b u d d h a s , ‘ a w a k e n e d o n th e ir o w n ’ o r ‘ b y a c a u s e ’ , a r e
t h o s e w h o g a in A w a k e n i n g in a tim e o r p l a c e w h e r e th e y h a v e
n o a c c e s s to t h e B u d d h a ’ s t e a c h in g a n d d o n o t b r i n g o th e r s to
E n l i g h t e n m e n t , ^ r â v a k a s , o r ‘ h e a r e r s ', a r e th o se w ho seek
E n l i g h t e n m e n t t h r o u g h t h e t e a c h in g s o f a B u d d h a . T h e te rm is
u s e d b y t h e M a h ä y ä n a f o r a d h e r e n t s o f t h e s o - c a l l e d H ln a y ä n a
tr a d it io n w h o a r e t h o u g h t to s e e k a n i n f e r i o r g o a l: p e rso n a l
e n l i g h t e n m e n t , r a t h e r t h a n t h e li b e r a t i o n o f a l l , w h i c h is th e
g o a l o f th e B o d h is a ttv a .

10 .5 1 On M a n ju g h o s a and S â n t i d e v a ’ s a s s o c ia t io n w it h h im , se e
G e n e r a l I n t r o d u c t i o n , p . x i , a n d 2 . 1 3 n o t e . O n t h e re c o lle c t io n
‘ o f fo r m e r b irth s, se e a b o v e , 10 .2 7 n o te . T h e pramuditâ bhümi,
o r ‘ s t a g e o f d e l i g h t ’ , is t h e f ir s t o f t h e t e n s t a g e s o f hhiimis
a tta in e d b y th e B o d h is a t tv a at route to B u d d h a h o o d . O n th e
h/ifnnis, s e e 4 . 1 1 n o t e a n d I n t r o d u c t i o n to C h . t o .

10 .5 3 M a n j u n ä t h a , ‘ g e n t le p r o t e c t o r ’ , is a n a s p e c t o f M a n j u s r i , on
w h o m s e e r e f e r e n c e s in 1 0 . 5 1 n o t e a b o v e .

10 .5 6 T h e a u t h o r h e r e e x p r e s s e s t h e in t e n t i o n o f s u f f e r i n g t h e c o n s e ­
q u e n c e s o f t h e e v i l a c t i o n s o f o t h e r s to s a v e t h e m fro m th a t
s u ffe r in g .
 J ______SÀNTIDEVA
T he B o d h icar yàvatâr a
A G u id e to t h e B u d d h ist P a th to A w a k e n in g
Translated with Introductions and Notes by
Kate Crosby and Andrew Skilton
With a General Introduction by Paul Williams

, W ritten in In d ia in th e early eig h th cen tu ry a d ,

S â n tid ev a ’s B odh icaryàvatâra b e c a m e o n e o f th e m ost
p o p u la r a c c o u n ts o f th e B u d d h ist sp iritu al path.

The Bodhicaryàvatâra takes as its subject the profound

desire to become a Buddha and save all beings from
suffering. The person who enacts such a desire is a
Bodhisattva. Säntideva not only sets out what the
Bodhisattva must do and become, he also invokes the
intense feelings of aspiration which underlie such a
commitment, using language which has inspired Buddhists
in their religious life from his time to the present.
Important as a manual of training among Mahäyäna
Buddhists, especially in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition, the
Bodhicaryàvatâra continues to be used as thé basis for
teaching by modern Buddhist teachers.
T h is is a n e w tra n sla tio n from th e origin al la n g u a g e,
w ith d e ta ile d a n n o ta tio n s ex p la in in g a llu sio n s and
te c h n ic a l r e feren ces. T h e In tro d u ctio n s set S ân tid eva’s
w o rk in c o n te x t, and for th e first tim e exp lain
its stru ctu re.

ISBN 0 - 1 9 - 2 8 2 9 7 9 - 3
Cover illustration: A r a p a c h a n a M a n j u s h r i taken from
T h e T ib e t a n A r t C a l e n d a r 1990 published by Wisdom.
By kind permission of Wolfgang Jünemnnn,
Schneelowe Verlangsberatung & Verlag.

Oxford University Press

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F iß
Ja 9 780192 829795
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