Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Unit Ii Multi-Stage Amplifiers: Types of Coupling
Unit Ii Multi-Stage Amplifiers: Types of Coupling
MULTI-STAGE AMPLIFIERS
In practical applications, the output of a single state amplifier is usually insufficient, though
it is a voltage or power amplifier. Hence they are replaced by Multi-stage transistor
amplifiers.
In Multi-stage amplifiers, the output of first stage is coupled to the input of next stage using
a coupling device. These coupling devices can usually be a capacitor or a transformer. This
process of joining two amplifier stages using a coupling device can be called asCascading.
cascade.
V2 Vo
AV=AV1×AV2
AV1 = Voltage gain of 1st V1
stage, and
V 2AV2= Voltage gain of 2
nd
stage.
Where AV = Overall
gain,
If there is n number of stages, the product of voltage gains of those n stages will be the
overall gain of that multistage amplifier circuit.
To transfer the AC from the output of one stage to the input of next stage.
To block the DC to pass from the output of one stage to the input of next stage, which
means to isolate the DC conditions.
Types of Coupling
Joining one amplifier stage with the other in cascade, using coupling devices form a Multi-
stage amplifier circuit. There are four basic methods of coupling, using these coupling
devices such as resistors, capacitors, transformers etc. Let us have an idea about them.
The coupling network that uses inductance and capacitance as coupling elements can be
called as Impedance coupling network.
In this impedance coupling method, the impedance of coupling coil depends on its
inductance and signal frequency which is jwL. This method is not so popular and is seldom
employed.
Transformer Coupling
The coupling method that uses a transformer as the coupling device can be called as
Transformer coupling. There is no capacitor used in this method of coupling because the
transformer itself conveys the AC component directly to the base of second stage.
The secondary winding of the transformer provides a base return path and hence there is no
need of base resistance. This coupling is popular for its efficiency and its impedance
matching and hence it is mostly used.
Direct Coupling
If the previous amplifier stage is connected to the next amplifier stage directly, it is called as
direct coupling. The individual amplifier stage bias conditions are so designed that the
stages can be directly connected without DC isolation.
The direct coupling method is mostly used when the load is connected in series, with the
output terminal of the active circuit element. For example, head-phones, loud speakers etc.
Other than the coupling purpose, there are other purposes for which few capacitors are
especially employed in amplifiers. To understand this, let us know about the role of
capacitors in Amplifiers.
The Input Capacitor Cin
The input capacitor Cin present at the initial stage of the amplifier, couples AC signal to the
base of the transistor. This capacitor Cin if not present, the signal source will be in parallel
to resistor R2 and the bias voltage of the transistor base will be changed.
Hence Cin allows, the AC signal from source to flow into input circuit, without affecting the
bias conditions.
The emitter by-pass capacitor Ce is connected in parallel to the emitter resistor. It offers a
low reactance path to the amplified AC signal.
In the absence of this capacitor, the voltage developed across RE will feedback to the input
side thereby reducing the output voltage. Thus in the presence of Ce the amplified AC will
pass through this.
Coupling Capacitor CC
The capacitor CC is the coupling capacitor that connects two stages and prevents DC
interference between the stages and controls the operating point from shifting. This is also
called as blocking capacitor because it does not allow the DC voltage to pass through it.
In the absence of this capacitor, RC will come in parallel with the resistance R1 of the
biasing network of the next stage and thereby changing the biasing conditions of the next
stage. Amplifier Consideration
For an amplifier circuit, the overall gain of the amplifier is an important consideration. To
achieve maximum voltage gain, let us find the most suitable transistor configuration for
cascading.
CC Amplifier
The characteristics of CE amplifier are such that, this configuration is very suitable for
cascading in amplifier circuits. Hence most of the amplifier circuits use CE configuration.
AC equivalent circuit
Darlington pair 1- Two emitter follower stages in cascade with infinite emitter resistance in
the first stage constitute a Darlington circuit.
Second Stage
Let us assume , hoe RL< 0.1
Also hfe>> 1
First Stage
hoeRL1 = hoehfeRL< 0.1 . If this inequality is satisfied, then we can use simplified
equivalent ckt in the first stage.Using exact solution
Effect of biasing network on the input resistance of emitter follower or Darlington ckt.
Effective input resistance Ri = R1 | | R2 | | Ri’ where Ri’ is a large input resistance of emitter
follower or Darlington ckt.
Ri = RB | | Ri’
~ RB
Emitter follower with Boot Strap Biasing
The reactance offered by the capacitor is very low for all frequencies.
The resistance-capacitance coupling is, in short termed as RC coupling. This is the mostly
used coupling technique in amplifiers.
The resistor RL is used as a load impedance. The input capacitor Cin present at the initial
stage of the amplifier couples AC signal to the base of the transistor. The capacitor CC is the
coupling capacitor that connects two stages and prevents DC interference between the stages
and controls the shift of operating point. The figure below shows the circuit diagram of RC
coupled amplifier.
The important point that has to be noted here is that the total gain is less than the product of
the gains of individual stages. This is because when a second stage is made to follow the
first stage, the effective load resistance of the first stage is reduced due to the shunting
effect of the input resistance of the second stage. Hence, in a multistage amplifier, only the
gain of the last stage remains unchanged.
As we consider a two stage amplifier here, the output phase is same as input. Because the
phase reversal is done two times by the two stage CE configured amplifier circuit.
Frequency response curve is a graph that indicates the relationship between voltage gain and
function of frequency. The frequency response of a RC coupled amplifier is as shown in the
following graph.
From the above graph, it is understood that the frequency rolls off or decreases for the
frequencies below 50Hz and for the frequencies above 20 KHz. whereas the voltage gain for
the range of frequencies between 50Hz and 20 KHz is constant.
We know that,
XC=1/2πfc
It means that the capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency.
At Low frequencies (i.e. below 50 Hz)
The capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency. At low frequencies, the
reactance is quite high. The reactance of input capacitor Cin and the coupling capacitor CC
are so high that only small part of the input signal is allowed. The reactance of the emitter
by pass capacitor CE is also very high during low frequencies. Hence it cannot shunt the
emitter resistance effectively. With all these factors, the voltage gain rolls off at low
frequencies.
At High frequencies (i.e. above 20 KHz):Again considering the same point, we know that
the capacitive reactance is low at high frequencies. So, a capacitor behaves as a short
circuit, at high frequencies. As a result of this, the loading effect of the next stage increases,
which reduces the voltage gain. Along with this, as the capacitance of emitter diode
decreases, it increases the base current of the transistor due to which the current gain (β)
reduces. Hence the voltage gain rolls off at high frequencies.
The voltage gain of the capacitors is maintained constant in this range of frequencies, as
shown in figure. If the frequency increases, the reactance of the capacitor CC decreases
which tends to increase the gain. But this lower capacitance reactive increases the loading
effect of the next stage by which there is a reduction in gain.
The frequency response of RC amplifier provides constant gain over a wide frequency
range, hence most suitable for audio applications.
The circuit is simple and has lower cost because it employs resistors and capacitors
which are cheap.
The voltage and power gain are low because of the effective load resistance.
Due to poor impedance matching, RC coupling is rarely used in the final stages.
We have observed that the main drawback of RC coupled amplifier is that the effective load
resistance gets reduced. This is because, the input impedance of an amplifier is low, while
its output impedance is high.
When they are coupled to make a multistage amplifier, the high output impedance of one
stage comes in parallel with the low input impedance of next stage. Hence, effective load
resistance is decreased. This problem can be overcome by a transformer coupled
amplifier.
The coupling transformer T1 is used to feed the output of 1ststage to the input of 2nd stage.
The collector load is replaced by the primary winding of the transformer. The secondary
winding is connected between the potential divider and the base of 2ndstage, which provides
the input to the 2nd stage. Instead of coupling capacitor like in RC coupled amplifier, a
transformer is used for coupling any two stages, in the transformer coupled amplifier circuit.
The figure below shows the circuit diagram of transformer coupled amplifier.
The potential divider network R1 and R2 and the resistor Re together form the biasing and
stabilization network. The emitter by-pass capacitor Ce offers a low reactance path to the
signal. The resistor RL is used as a load impedance. The input capacitor Cin present at the
initial stage of the amplifier couples AC signal to the base of the transistor. The capacitor
CC is the coupling capacitor that connects two stages and prevents DC interference between
the stages and controls the shift of operating point.
When an AC signal is applied to the input of the base of the first transistor then it gets
amplified by the transistor and appears at the collector to which the primary of the
transformer is connected.
The transformer which is used as a coupling device in this circuit has the property of
impedance changing, which means the low resistance of a stage (or load) can be reflected as
a high load resistance to the previous stage. Hence the voltage at the primary is transferred
according to the turns ratio of the secondary winding of the transformer.
This transformer coupling provides good impedance matching between the stages of
amplifier. The transformer coupled amplifier is generally used for power amplification.
The figure below shows the frequency response of a transformer coupled amplifier. The gain
of the amplifier is constant only for a small range of frequencies. The output voltage is equal
to the collector current multiplied by the reactance of primary.
At low frequencies, the reactance of primary begins to fall, resulting in decreased gain. At
high frequencies, the capacitance between turns of windings acts as a bypass condenser to
reduce the output voltage and hence gain.
So, the amplification of audio signals will not be proportionate and some distortion will also
get introduced, which is called as Frequency distortion.
Though the gain is high, it varies considerably with frequency. Hence a poor
frequency response.
Applications
The following are the applications of a transformer coupled amplifier −
The other type of coupling amplifier is the direct coupled amplifier, which is especially used
to amplify lower frequencies, such as amplifying photo-electric current or thermo-couple
current or so.
As no coupling devices are used, the coupling of the amplifier stages is done directly and
hence called as Direct coupled amplifier.
Construction
The figure below indicates the three stage direct coupled transistor amplifier. The output of
first stage transistor T1 is connected to the input of second stage transistor T2.
The transistor in the first stage will be an NPN transistor, while the transistor in the next
stage will be a PNP transistor and so on. This is because; the variations in one transistor tend
to cancel the variations in the other. The rise in the collector current and the variation in β of
one transistor gets cancelled by the decrease in the other.
Operation
The input signal when applied at the base of transistor T1, it gets amplified due to the
transistor action and the amplified output appears at the collector resistor Rc of transistor T1.
This output is applied to the base of transistor T2 which further amplifies the signal. In this
way, a signal is amplified in a direct coupled amplifier circuit.
Advantages
The advantages of direct coupled amplifier are as follows.
The circuit is of low cost because of the absence of expensive coupling devices.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of direct coupled amplifier are as follows.
The types of amplifiers that we have discussed so far cannot work effectively at radio
frequencies, even though they are good at audio frequencies. Also, the gain of these amplifiers
is such that it will not vary according to the frequency of the signal, over a wide range. This
allows the amplification of the signal equally well over a range of frequencies and does not
permit the selection of particular desired frequency while rejecting the other frequencies.
So, there occurs a need for a circuit which can select as well as amplify. So, an amplifier circuit
along with a selection, such as a tuned circuit makes a Tuned amplifier.
When an amplifier circuit has its load replaced by a tuned circuit, such an amplifier can be
called as a Tuned amplifier circuit. The basic tuned amplifier circuit looks as shown below.
The tuner circuit is nothing but a LC circuit which is also called as resonant or tank circuit. It
selects the frequency. A tuned circuit is capable of amplifying a signal over a narrow band of
frequencies that are centered at resonant frequency.
When the reactance of the inductor balances the reactance of the capacitor, in the tuned circuit
at some frequency, such a frequency can be called as resonant frequency. It is denoted by fr.
At resonant frequency, a series resonant circuit offers low impedance which allows high current
through it. A series resonant circuit offers increasingly high impedance to the frequencies far
from the resonant frequency.
Impedance
The ratio of supply voltage to the line current is the impedance of the tuned circuit. Impedance
offered by LC circuit is given by
The below figure represents the impedance curve of a parallel resonance circuit.
Impedance of the circuit decreases for the values above and below the resonant frequency fr.
Hence the selection of a particular frequency and rejection of other frequencies is possible.
Circuit Current
At parallel resonance, the circuit or line current I is given by the applied voltage divided by the
circuit impedance Zr i.e.,
Quality Factor
For a parallel resonance circuit, the sharpness of the resonance curve determines the selectivity.
The smaller the resistance of the coil, the sharper the resonant curve will be. Hence the
inductive reactance and resistance of the coil determine the quality of the tuned circuit.
The ratio of inductive reactance of the coil at resonance to its resistance is known as Quality
factor. It is denoted by Q.
The higher the value of Q, the sharper the resonance curve and the better the selectivity will be.
The usage of reactive components like L and C, minimizes the power loss, which makes
the tuned amplifiers efficient.
A smaller collector supply VCC would do, because of its little resistance in parallel
tuned circuit.
It is important to remember that these advantages are not applicable when there is a high
resistive collector load.
Where ZC = effective collector load and Zin = input impedance of the amplifier.
The value of ZC depends upon the frequency of the tuned amplifier. As ZC is maximum at
resonant frequency, the gain of the amplifier is maximum at this resonant frequency.
Bandwidth
The range of frequencies at which the voltage gain of the tuned amplifier falls to 70.7% of the
maximum gain is called its Bandwidth.
The range of frequencies between f1 and f2 is called as bandwidth of the tuned amplifier. The
bandwidth of a tuned amplifier depends upon the Q of the LC circuit i.e., upon the sharpness of
the frequency response. The value of Q and the bandwidth are inversely proportional.
The figure below details the bandwidth and frequency response of the tuned amplifier.
Construction
A simple transistor amplifier circuit consisting of a parallel tuned circuit in its collector load,
makes a single tuned amplifier circuit. The values of capacitance and inductance of the tuned
circuit are selected such that its resonant frequency is equal to the frequency to be amplified.
The output can be obtained from the coupling capacitor CC as shown above or from a secondary
winding placed at L.
Operation
The high frequency signal that has to be amplified is applied at the input of the amplifier. The
resonant frequency of the parallel tuned circuit is made equal to the frequency of the signal
applied by altering the capacitance value of the capacitor C, in the tuned circuit.
At this stage, the tuned circuit offers high impedance to the signal frequency, which helps to
offer high output across the tuned circuit. As high impedance is offered only for the tuned
frequency, all the other frequencies which get lower impedance are rejected by the tuned circuit.
Hence the tuned amplifier selects and amplifies the desired frequency signal.
Frequency Response
The parallel resonance occurs at resonant frequency fr when the circuit has a high Q. the
resonant frequency fr is given by
The following graph shows the frequency response of a single tuned amplifier circuit.
At resonant frequency fr the impedance of parallel tuned circuit is very high and is purely
resistive. The voltage across RL is therefore maximum, when the circuit is tuned to resonant
frequency. Hence the voltage gain is maximum at resonant frequency and drops off above and
below it. The higher the Q, the narrower will the curve be.
Construction
The construction of double tuned amplifier is understood by having a look at the following
figure. This circuit consists of two tuned circuits L1C1 and L2C2 in the collector section of the
amplifier. The signal at the output of the tuned circuit L1C1 is coupled to the other tuned circuit
L2C2 through mutual coupling method. The remaining circuit details are same as in the single
tuned amplifier circuit, as shown in the following circuit diagram.
Operation
The high frequency signal which has to be amplified is given to the input of the amplifier. The
tuning circuit L1C1 is tuned to the input signal frequency. At this condition, the tuned circuit
offers high reactance to the signal frequency. Consequently, large output appears at the output
of the tuned circuit L1C1which is then coupled to the other tuned circuit L2C2 through mutual
induction. These double tuned circuits are extensively used for coupling various circuits of
radio and television receivers.
Mutual Inductance
As the current carrying coil produces some magnetic field around it, if another coil is brought
near this coil, such that it is in the magnetic flux region of the primary, then the varying
magnetic flux induces an EMF in the second coil. If this first coil is called as Primary coil, the
second one can be called as a Secondary coil.
When the EMF is induced in the secondary coil due to the varying magnetic field of the primary
coil, then such phenomenon is called as the Mutual Inductance.
The current is in the figure indicate the source current while iind indicates the induced current.
The flux represents the magnetic flux created around the coil. This spreads to the secondary coil
also.
With the application of voltage, the current is flows and flux gets created. When the current is
varies the flux gets varied, producing iind in the secondary coil, due to the Mutual inductance
property.
Coupling
Under the concept of mutual inductance coupling will be as shown in the figure below.
When the coils are spaced apart, the flux linkages of primary coil L1 will not link the secondary
coil L2. At this condition, the coils are said to have Loose coupling. The resistance reflected
from the secondary coil at this condition is small and the resonance curve will be sharp and the
circuit Q is high as shown in the figure below.
On the contrary, when the primary and secondary coils are brought close together, they
have Tight coupling. Under such conditions, the reflected resistance will be large and the
circuit Q is lower. Two positions of gain maxima, one above and the other below the resonant
frequency are obtained.
We understood that, for a given frequency, the tighter the coupling the greater the bandwidth
will be.
We hope that now you have gained sufficient knowledge regarding the functioning of tuned
amplifiers.
STAGGER TUNED AMPLIFIER
Stagger Tuned Amplifiers are used to improve the overall frequency response of tuned
Amplifiers. Stagger tuned Amplifiers are usually designed so that the overall response exhibits
maximal flatness around the center frequency.
It needs a number of tuned circuit operating in union. The overall frequency response of a
Stagger tuned amplifier is obtained by adding the individual response together. Since the
resonant Frequencies of different tuned circuits are displaced or staggered, they are referred as
STAGGER TUNED AMPLIFIER.
The main advantage of stagger tuned amplifier is INCREASED BANDWIDTH. Its Drawback is
Reduced Selectivity and critical tuning of many tank circuits. They are used in RF amplifier
where m is the power ratio of the power at resonance to that at the band edge frequency
(equal to 2 for the 3 dB point and 1.19 for the 0.75 dB point) and Q is the quality factor.
The noise level in the amplifier circuits can be considerably reduced by using negative
feedback done by injecting a fraction of output in phase opposition to the input signal.
This voltage is added for positive feedback and subtracted for negative feedback, from the
signal voltage Vs. Now,
Vi=Vs+Vf=Vs+βVoVi=Vs+Vf=Vs+βVo
Vi=Vs−Vf=Vs−βVoVi=Vs−Vf=Vs−βVo
The quantity β = Vf/Vo is called as feedback ratio or feedback fraction.
Let us consider the case of negative feedback. The output Vo must be equal to the input
voltage (Vs - βVo) multiplied by the gain A of the amplifier.
Hence,
(Vs−βVo)A=Vo(Vs−βVo)A=Vo
Or
AVs−AβVo=VoAVs−AβVo=Vo
Or
AVs=Vo(1+Aβ)AVs=Vo(1+Aβ)
Therefore,
VoVs=A1+AβVoVs=A1+Aβ
Let Af be the overall gain (gain with the feedback) of the amplifier. This is defined as the
ratio of output voltage Vo to the applied signal voltage Vs, i.e.,
Af=OutputvoltageInputsignalvoltage=VoVsAf=OutputvoltageInputsignalvoltage=VoVs
So, from the above two equations, we can understand that,
The equation of gain of the feedback amplifier, with negative feedback is given by
Af=A1+AβAf=A1+Aβ
The equation of gain of the feedback amplifier, with positive feedback is given by
Af=A1−AβAf=A1−Aβ
These are the standard equations to calculate the gain of feedback amplifiers.
Types of Feedbacks
The process of injecting a fraction of output energy of some device back to the input is
known as Feedback. It has been found that feedback is very useful in reducing noise and
making the amplifier operation stable.
Depending upon whether the feedback signal aids or opposes the input signal, there are
two types of feedbacks used.
Positive Feedback
The feedback in which the feedback energy i.e., either voltage or current is in phase with
the input signal and thus aids it is called as Positive feedback.
Both the input signal and feedback signal introduces a phase shift of 180o thus making a
360o resultant phase shift around the loop, to be finally in phase with the input signal.
Though the positive feedback increases the gain of the amplifier, it has the
disadvantages such as
Increasing distortion
Instability
It is because of these disadvantages the positive feedback is not recommended for the
amplifiers. If the positive feedback is sufficiently large, it leads to oscillations, by which
oscillator circuits are formed. This concept will be discussed in OSCILLATORS tutorial.
Negative Feedback
The feedback in which the feedback energy i.e., either voltage or current is out of phase
with the input and thus opposes it, is called as negative feedback.
In negative feedback, the amplifier introduces a phase shift of 180 o into the circuit while
the feedback network is so designed that it produces no phase shift or zero phase shift.
Thus the resultant feedback voltage Vf is 180o out of phase with the input signal Vin.
Though the gain of negative feedback amplifier is reduced, there are many advantages
of negative feedback such as
Reduction in distortion
Reduction in noise
Previous Page
Next Page
While the output energy is being applied to the input, for the voltage energy to be taken
as feedback, the output is taken in shunt connection and for the current energy to be
taken as feedback, the output is taken in series connection.
There are two main types of negative feedback circuits. They are −
Voltage-series feedback
Voltage-shunt feedback
Current-shunt feedback
Voltage-Series Feedback
In the voltage series feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in series
with the input voltage through the feedback circuit. This is also known as shunt-driven
series-fed feedback, i.e., a parallel-series circuit.
The following figure shows the block diagram of voltage series feedback, by which it is
evident that the feedback circuit is placed in shunt with the output but in series with the
input.
As the feedback circuit is connected in shunt with the output, the output impedance is
decreased and due to the series connection with the input, the input impedance is
increased.
Voltage-Shunt Feedback
In the voltage shunt feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in parallel
with the input voltage through the feedback network. This is also known as shunt-driven
shunt-fed feedback i.e., a parallel-parallel proto type.
The below figure shows the block diagram of voltage shunt feedback, by which it is
evident that the feedback circuit is placed in shunt with the output and also with the
input.
As the feedback circuit is connected in shunt with the output and the input as well, both
the output impedance and the input impedance are decreased.
Current-Series Feedback
In the current series feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in series
with the input voltage through the feedback circuit. This is also known as series-driven
series-fed feedback i.e., a series-series circuit.
The following figure shows the block diagram of current series feedback, by which it is
evident that the feedback circuit is placed in series with the output and also with the
input.
As the feedback circuit is connected in series with the output and the input as well, both
the output impedance and the input impedance are increased.
Current-Shunt Feedback
In the current shunt feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in series
with the input voltage through the feedback circuit. This is also known as series-driven
shunt-fed feedback i.e., a series-parallel circuit.
The below figure shows the block diagram of current shunt feedback, by which it is
evident that the feedback circuit is placed in series with the output but in parallel with the
input.
As the feedback circuit is connected in series with the output, the output impedance is
increased and due to the parallel connection with the input, the input impedance is
decreased.
Let us now tabulate the amplifier characteristics that get affected by different types of
negative feedbacks.
Characteristics Types of Feedback
CLASSIFICATION OF AMPLIFIERS
Amplifiers can be classified broadly as,
I. Voltage amplifiers.
2. Current amplifiers.
3. Transconductance amplifiers.
4. Transresistance amplifiers.
This classification is with respect to the input and output impedances relative to the load
and source impedances.
VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER
This circuit is a 2-port network and it represents an amplifier (see in Fig 7.1). Suppose
R,» Rs, drop across Rs is very small.
CURRENT AMPLIFIER
An ideal current amplifier is one which gives output current proportional to input current
and the proportionality factor is independent ofRs and RL.
TRANSCONDUCTANCE AMPLIFIER
Signal Source
It can be a voltage source V s or a current source Is
FEEDBACK NETWORK
It is a passive two port network. It may contain resistors, capacitors or
inductors. But usually a resistance is used as the feedback element. Here
the output current is sampled and feedback. The feedback network is
connected in series with the output. This is called as Current Sampling or
Loop Sampling.
A voltage feedback is distinguished in this way from current feedback. For voltage
feedback,
the feedback element (resistor) will be in parallel with the output. For current
feedback the
will be in series.
COMPARATOR OR MIXER NETWORK
This is usually a differential amplifier. It has two inputs and gives a
single output which is the difference of the two inputs.
(ii) Negative feedback. When the feedback energy (voltage or current) is out of
phase with the
input signal and thus opposes it, it is called negative feedback. This is illustrated in
Fig.. As you
can see, the amplifier introduces a phase shift of 180° into the circuit while
the feedback network is so designed that it introduces no phase shift (i.e.,
0° phase shift). The result is that the feedback voltage Vf is 180° out of
phase with the input signal Vin.
It may be seen that the gain now depends only upon feedback fraction mv
i.e., on the characteristics of feedback circuit. As feedback circuit is usually
a voltage divider (a resistive network), therefore, it is unaffected by
changes in temperature, variations in transistor parameters and frequency.
Hence, the gain of the amplifier is extremely stable.
(ii) Reduces non-linear distortion. A large signal stage has non-linear distortion
because its
voltage gain changes at various points in the cycle. The negative voltage
feedback reduces the nonlinear distortion in large signal amplifiers. It can
be proved mathematically that :
where D = distortion in amplifier without feedback
Dvf = distortion in amplifier with negative feedback
It is clear that by applying negative voltage feedback to an amplifier,
distortion is reduced by a factor 1 + Av mv.
Equivalent circuit
V
R t
Output resistance of ≡ I
where I Vt − AVi and V − V − βV − βV (for V 0)
Ro i f o t s
V AβV
I t t
R
o
R Vt Ro
of ≡
I 1 Aβ
The voltage-sampling feedback reduces the output resistance by (1 + Aβ).
Zo (s)
General form Zof (s)
1 A(s)β (s)
The source and load resistances are included inside the A circuit.
Equivalent circuit
Input resistance
R ≡ Vs Vs R Vs R Vi βVo R Vi βAVi R (1 Aβ )
if I V /R iV i V i V i
i i i i i i
V
R
Output resistance of ≡ It
R V R (1 Aβ )
of ≡ o
It
The voltage-sampling feedback increases the output resistance by (1 + Aβ ).
General form Zof (s) Zo (s)[1 A(s)β (s)]
The Shunt-Shunt Feedback Amplifier
The Ideal Situation of the Shunt-Shunt Feedback Amplifier
Ideal structure
Equivalent circuit
Output resistance (Vs = 0)
R Vt
Output resistance of ≡ I
Vt − AIi
where I and I −I − βV − βV (for I 0)
Ro i f o t s
V AβV
I t t
R
o
R Vt Ro
of ≡
I 1 Aβ
The voltage-sampling feedback reduces the output resistance by (1 + Aβ).
Zo (s)
General form Zof (s)
1 A(s)β (s)
I
o A
The close-loop gain Af ≡ (A and β have reciprocal units)
I
s 1 Aβ
Input resistance
R ≡ V i I iR i R I i R Ii R Ii R Ii Ri
I I
if s s Is i i
Ii I f i
Ii βIo i
Ii βAIi 1 Aβ
The series-mixing reduces the input resistance by (1 + Aβ ).
Zi (s)
General form Zif (s)
1 A(s)β (s)
R V R (1 Aβ )
of ≡ o
It
The current-sampling feedback increases the output resistance by (1 + Aβ ).
General form Zof (s) Zo (s)[1 A(s)β (s)]