Aristotle and Longinus
Aristotle and Longinus
Introduction
been called “poetics”. Aristotle’s Poetics, Horace’s Arts Poetica and Longinus’s
On the Sublime are the earliest critical treatises in Western Europe. Perhaps the
most profitable critical discussion has been Aristotle’s Poetics, which may be
debate by which literature survives. Literary criticism has established itself as the
main activity associated with the academic study of literature, and it employs
we can say that literary criticism involves the reading, interpretation and
judging or evaluation with knowledge and propriety the beauties and faults of
judging the qualities and values of an aesthetic object, whether in literature or the
fine arts. To Walter Pater, “Criticism is the art of interpreting art. It serves as
intermediary between the author and the reader by explaining the one to the
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propagate the best that is known and thought in the world”. Criticism, says T.S.
words”. He adds that the end of criticism is the elucidation of works of art and the
correction of taste.
literary work. The moral approach, the psychological approach, the sociological
approach, the formalistic approach and the archetypal approach are the five major
interpretation of art and literature with its endeavour to enlighten the masses and
The first chapter of this thesis traces the growth of modernistic trends in
twentieth century British criticism. This will help us to assess the role and position
of Marxist Criticism and see how it stood apart from other critical methods.
Towards the end of the nineteenth century a number of trends were visible
of Walter Pater and Oscar Wilde and the socialist criticism of George Bernard
Shaw. The first notable group of British critics in the twentieth century were
associated with the universities. During the nineteenth century, relatively few
critices were professors and wrote primarily for journals and magazines. In the
last decade of the nineteenth century and the first decades of the twentieth
situation changed rapidly. In 1895 the influential literary historian and critic,
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George Saintsbury, was appointed professor of rhetoric at Edinburgh, and the
Couch did not consider themselves critics and in fact showed considerable scorn
for academic criticism. Their own approaches to texts and authors were empirical,
included D.H. Lawrence, Wilson Kinight, John Middleton Murry and Herbert
Read. D.H. Lawrence was an avowed irrationalist, reacting against both the
essays on sexuality and the unconscious. In both these works and in his fiction,
Lawrence advocated a vitalism and individualism that often has parallels in the
various writers in the light of his libidinal and primitivist ideology. In his own
century criticism, notably the stress on the unconscious and the irrational. Of the
attempted to reinstate a Romantic belief in Pantheism and the organic unity of the
world. According to him, genuine poetry was not amenable to paraphrase and that
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it expressed truth inaccessible to reason or concepts. Herbert Read began as an
1985) a Shakespearean scholar, is best known for his The Wheel of Fire (1930)
myths, rituals and symbols, Wilson Knight interprets William Shakespeare’s play
criticism, which he sees as evaluative. Somewhat like the New Critics, Wilson
religious tradition was C.S. Lewis, whose major critical work, The Allegory of
Love (1936), along with his other works, contributed to his mission of promoting
the understanding of the formality and didacticism of the literature of the Middle
English literature and to pave the way for the New Criticism. The most prominent
were I.A. Richards and his student, William Empson. In his Principles of Literary
Criticism (1924) and his Science and Poetry (1926), Richards attempted to
establish a systematic basis for the study of literature, an approach that became
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1929 he published a book, Practical Criticism (1929) whose profound pervasive
analyse poetry, he aimed to foster the skills and techniques necessary for the close
Cambridge and Harvard later, had a profound impact on the New Critics. While
William Empson was not himself a New Critic, he produced a book, Seven Types
of Ambiguity (1930) which had an impact on the New Criticism by virtue of the
close attention it paid to literary texts and its stress on ambiguity as an essential
characteristic of poetry.
prominently manifested in the work of the Irish poet and critic William Butler
Yeats. Symbolism had roots in the English-speaking world in the theory and
William Wordsworth, Shelley and Edgar Allan Poe. The symbolism of Yeats and
(1899). In this book Symons explained the history and rationale of French
affirming the reality of a higher spiritual realm which could be divided not only
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by rational thought but also by glimpses through a pure poetic language. Symon’s
book had a profound influence on major British poet critics such as T.S. Eliot. It
was actually dedicated to Yeats whom Symons saw as the chief exponent of
Symbolism in Britain.
iconoclastic Bloomsbury Group. This circle included Virginia Wool and her sister
Vanessa, daughters of the critic and agnostic philosopher Leslie Stephen, the art
critics Roger Fry and Clive Bell, the economist John Maynard Keynes the
biographer Lytton Strachey, and the novelist E.M.Forster. While each of these
personalities had his or her own highly idiosyncratic artistic disposition, most
members of the group fell under the influence of the Cambridge philosopher G.E.
Moore’s Principia Ethica (1903) . They saw this text as affirming an “aesthetic”
the most influential figure in this circle was Virginia Woolf, who had read
Moore’s text closely. Woolf’s critical contributions spanned two broad areas – a
modernistic redefinition of the novel that anticipated some of the more recent
trends of literary theory, and a broadly feminist approach to literature and literary
history. The nature of Woolf’s critical modernism is complex, and her connections
perspective are ambivalent. While Woolf may have taken from Moore a realist
distinction between consciousness and its objects, she indicts the mechanical
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Galsworthy. In the place of this, she advocates not any form of idealism but a
A central figure in English literary criticism was F.R, Leavis, who might
stood aloof from both the Bloomsbury Group and the New Criticism, though he
Leavis assumed both educational and critical roles. In the academy he attempted
to foster an elite which might safeguard English culture against the technological
major works New Bearings in English Poetry (1932), Revaluation (1936), and The
Great Tradition (1948) sought to increase general appreciation of Eliot, Yeats and
Pound; Leavis argued that the mainstream English poetry flowed through John
Donne, Alexander Pope, Samuel Johnson and Eliot. He also traced the main
tradition of fiction from Jane Austen, George Eliot, Henry James and Joseph
Conrad.
Leavis shared with Eliot and the New Critics the idea that literary criticism
system, he called for “a living critical inwardness with literature, and a mind
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document. What separated him from the New Critics, however, was an equally
works of art or to a realm of purely literary values. Leavis invokes Eliot’s notion
interest in man, society and civilization, and its boundaries cannot be drawn”.
The two remaining fields in which British critics have made substantial
through the nineteenth century, to the sporadic literary insights of Karl Marx’s
friend and collaborator Friedrich Engels and to William Morris who first applied
1884 the Fabian society was formed with the aim of substituting for Marxist
economic and class inequalities. The dramatist and critic George Bernard Shaw
was a member of this society and produced one of its first pamphlets ‘A
Mainfesto’ (1884). Shaw edited Fabian Essays in Socialism (1899) and advocated
Mention might also be made of George Orwell (1903-1950) who in his later
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career saw himself as a political writer and democratic socialist but who, however,
Farm (1945)
critical scene. It was the re-entry of the Marxist discourse into the British
intellectual scene. British Marxist discourse had been almost barren since William
Marxian aesthetics, he was not a literary critic. Novelist and painter, Morris was a
the re-entry of Marxist discourse in the form of literary criticism in the writings of
Chistopher Caudwell and Ralph Fox can be described as the real beginning of
nineteen thirties in the international political arena had its impact on the British
recognition in the British intellectual life. Poets like Stephen Spender and W.H.
Britian. Christopher Caudwell’s Illusion and Reality and Ralph Fox’s The Novel
and the People were the two important books that British Marxist criticism
obtained in the nineteen thirties. But the Marxist criticism during the thirties was
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British Communists did not produce any substantial works until the mid-
1930’s. With the menace of Fascism and the threat of war, several writers began
to show interest in Marxist criticism. These included the art historian Anthony
Blunt and the economist John Strachey who produced two influential books, The
Coming Struggle for Power (1933) and Literature and Dialectical Materialism
(1934-1938). The poets W.H, Auden, Stephen Spender and C. Day Lewis at
various times espoused and propagated left-wing views. The most significant
died in Spain fighting in the International Brigade. Caudwell’s best known work is
his Illusion and Reality: A Study of the Sources of Poetry (1937). Here Caudwell
correlating the stages of this development with economic phases such as primitive
poetry to mythology and the future role of poetry in the struggle for socialism.
says:
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The absolute individual will overriding all other wills is
the poems of Blake , Byron, Keats, Wordsworth and Shelley express the
Illusion and Reality exemplifies the crudities of Marxist criticism prevalent in the
nineteen thirties. In this work he adopts the orthodox Marxist view in discussing
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His work bears all the scars of that self-contradictory
vulgarities. ( CI 21)
Caudwell opened up again after him and endured until the emergence of the two
major British Marxist critics of the twentieth century, Raymond Williams and
Terry Eagleton. The revolutionary fervour of the 1960s gave Marxist criticism a
revived impetus. A group of Marxist critics was centred around the ‘New Left
Review’ founded in 1960 and edited first by Stuart Hall and then by Perry
Williams’s central project, which he would later term “Cultural Materialism”, was
as in Culture and Society (1958), which stressed that culture was a process. In The
critical review of earlier Marxist theories and offered his own analyses of
superstructure. His own cultural materialism as set forth here attempts to integrate
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a Marxist conception of language and literature. Keywords (1976) examines the
Eagleton argued that criticism must assume a scientific position beyond the
Eagleton’s later work turned somewhat away from Althusser and was inspired
currents within their historical and political contexts, revealing the ways in which
both Britain and America, and he is undoubtedly the most widely read Marxist
critic now living. His work as a whole clarified the relationship of Marxism to
other discourses; it has revalued the tradition of Marxist criticism itself. It has
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Works Cited
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