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1475 2891 6 33 PDF
1475 2891 6 33 PDF
Address: Medical College, Aga Khan University, Stadium Road, Karachi, Pakistan
Email: Jawad Kiani* - [email protected]; Sardar Z Imam - [email protected]
* Corresponding author †Equal contributors
Abstract
Grapefruit juice is consumed widely in today's health conscious world as a protector against
cardiovascular diseases and cancers. It has however, been found to be an inhibitor of the intestinal
cytochrome P – 450 3A4 system, which is responsible for the first pass metabolism of many drugs.
The P – glycoprotein pump, found in the brush border of the intestinal wall which transports many
of these cytochrome P – 450 3A4 substrates, has also been implicated to be inhibited by grapefruit
juice. By inhibiting these enzyme systems, grapefruit juice alters the pharmacokinetics of a variety
of medications, leading to elevation of their serum concentrations. Most notable are its effects on
the calcium channel antagonist and the statin group of drugs. In the case of many drugs, the
increased serum concentration has been found to be associated with increased frequency of dose
dependent adverse effects. In this review, we have discussed the phytochemistry of grapefruit juice,
the various drugs involved in the drug – grapefruit juice eraction with their mechanisms of action
and have presented the clinical implications of these interactions.
Introduction In fact, much of the enthusiasm in its use stems from med-
The grapefruit, thought to be a cross between an orange ical research that has suggested that grapefruit juice
and a shaddock, was developed in the West Indies in the reduces atherosclerotic plaque formation [2] and inhibits
early 1700s and first introduced to Florida in the 1820s. breast cancer cell proliferation and mammary cell tumor-
Since the early part of the 20th century, mutant strains of igenesis [3,4]. Traditionally grapefruit juice has been
white grapefruit have appeared with pink to slightly red- found to contain antioxidant, antinitrosaminic, antisep-
dish colour, and have been propagated by citriculturists tic, aperitif, cardiotonic, detoxicant, hypocholesterolemic,
into several strains of grapefruit. The three major types of sedative and stomachic activities. In the light of its above
grapefruit that exist today are white, pink/red and ruby/rio activities, it has been traditionally indicated throughout
red varieties. Grapefruit juice combines the sweet and time for anorexia, bacteria, benign prostatic hypertrophy,
tangy flavour of the orange and shaddock and also pro- cancers (breast, colon, prostate, lung, skin and throat),
vides up to 69% of the RDA for vitamin C along with as candida, cold, diabetes, dysuria, high cholesterol, infec-
many as 250 mg of Potassium [1]. tion, insomnia, mycobacterium, mycosis, nervousness,
pseudomonas, rheumatism, staphylococcus and yeast.
However, the wide consumption of grapefruit juice can-
not entirely be attributed to its taste, and nutritive value.
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However, as many as fifteen years ago, investigators found ating the degradation of these enzymes while also reduc-
that grapefruit juice can markedly augment oral drug bio- ing translation from its mRNA. However, the process of
availability. This was an unexpected observation from an transcription of mRNA from the cell DNA is not affected.
interaction study between the dihydropyridine calcium Overall, grapefruit juice reduces the levels of CYP 3A4 in
channel antagonist, felodipine, and ethanol in which the cells by as much as 47% within four hours of ingestion
grapefruit juice was used as a flavour supplement to mask of grapefruit juice with the resultant increased bioavaila-
the taste of the ethanol [5]. Studies that followed, con- bility being maintained for as long as 24 hours, by which
firmed that grapefruit juice significantly increased the oral time 30% of its effect is still detectable [14-17]. It has been
bioavailability of felodipine [6,7]. Subsequent studies observed that decreased content of CYP3A4 was not asso-
probed the constituents of grapefruit juice, its interaction ciated with increased CYP3A4 mRNA, probably indicating
with various other drugs and the mechanisms of action of the absence of a feedback mechanism for CYP3A4 expres-
those interactions. Several grapefruit juice-drug interac- sion. Restoration of CYP3A4 activity would therefore
tions were discovered and these remain a potential con- require denovo synthesis or enterocyte replacement,
cern especially since the juice and drugs are often accounting for the prolonged duration of the actions of
consumed together at breakfast. An increasing number of grapefruit juice [18].
adverse drug reactions might be avoided on the basis of
knowledge about the interaction of grapefruit juice and Grapefruit juice shows a high variability of the magnitude
relevant drugs. Therefore, patients need to be educated of effect among individuals. This variability is dependent
about the hazards (and advantages) of grapefruit interac- upon inherent differences in enteric CYP3A4 protein
tion with medication. In recent years, more drugs have expression such that individuals with highest baseline
been investigated for their interaction with grapefruit juice CYP3A4 have the highest proportional increase [19,20].
and new models have been proposed for the mechanism However, the effects of grapefruit juice are predominantly
of such interaction. This article presents a simplistic sum- on the intestinal CYP rather than hepatic CYP. This is
mary of most examples of such interactions and also shown by the fact that most of the drugs that are involved
explores the phytochemistry and possible mechanisms of in interaction with grapefruit juice undergo their primary
action involved in drug-grapefruit juice interactions in metabolism at the intestinal level and in usual quantity,
light of recent studies on this subject. grapefruit juice does not affect the pharmacokinetics of
these drugs when they are administered intravenously.
Mechanism of action Furthermore, while it increases the area under the plasma
The mechanism of action of this interaction involves inhi- concentration-time curve (AUC), it has no significant
bition of the CYP 3A4, a member of the cytochrome P 450 effect on the half life of the drugs [10,21-23].
(CYP) enzyme system. CYP is a large multigene family of
heme-containing enzymes located in the endoplasmic In contrast to the clear inhibitory effects of grapefruit juice
reticulum of cells throughout the body. It is especially on CYP 3A4, the effects of grapefruit juice on Pgp are con-
concentrated in the liver and intestinal wall where it is troversial, ranging from activation to inhibition. Earlier
involved in oxidative biotransformation of various results have shown grapefruit juice to cause activation of
endogenous and exogenous substances. CYP 3A isoforms Pgp in vitro [24]. Any such activation in vivo will mean a
constitute 70% of CYP enzymes in enterocytes [8,9]. P- greater efflux of the drug back into the lumen, thereby
glycoprotein (Pgp), a member of the ABC (adenosine tri- decreasing the oral bioavailability of that drug and at least
phosphate-binding cassette), is another membrane trans- partially, if not completely offsetting the effects produced
porter located in the apical brush border of enterocytes. by the inhibition of CYP system of enzymes. This is taken
Once taken up by the enterocytes, a lipophilic drug may as an explanation for the less-than-expected increase in
be metabolized by CYP 3A4 or be pumped back into the the bioavailability of drugs that are established substrates
lumen by the Pgp. Hence the oral delivery of many drugs of Pgp [24]. However, grapefruit juice does not change the
is limited by the actions of CYP 3 A4 or Pgp. Metabolism absorption of digoxin, a prototypical P-glycoprotein sub-
by the CYP 3A4 will also occur in the liver before the drug strate, likely because it has high inherent oral bioavailabil-
finally enters the systemic circulation. Grapefruit juice ity [17,25]. However, recent studies have demonstrated
causes inhibition of CYP 3A4 and thus serves to increase the inhibition of Pgp by grapefruit juice both by its down-
the bioavalability of the drug by decreasing its pre-sys- regulation and inhibition of function [26,27]. For exam-
temic metabolism [10]. This action is in essence, similar ple, grapefruit juice increases the bioavailability of
to that caused by CYP-inhibiting drugs like itraconazole, cyclosporine. This effect is thought to be primarily though
ketoconazole and erythromycin [11-13]. Pgp inhibition (instead of CYP3A4 inhibition) since
orange juice mediated reduction in enterocyte CYP3A4
Grapefruit juice causes quick and irreversible sustained concentrations did not produce a similar increase in bio-
inhibition of the CYP system, possibly by greatly acceler- availability [17]. In fact, grapefruit juice has also shown
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inhibition of multidrug resistant protein 2 (MRP2), an noid glycosides (narirutin, naringin, naringinen, querce-
efflux protein closely related to Pgp in terms of its expres- tin, kaemferol, hesperidin, neohesperidin, didymin, and
sion and function [26]. poncirin) [8,31-34], furanocoumarins (6',7'-dihydroxy-
bergamottin, bergamottin) and sesquiterpen (nootka-
Yet, in spite of all what is known, the mechanism of action tone)[8,22,32,35,36].
of grapefruit juice-drug interaction requires further inves-
tigation. Investigators still need to determine for certainty Flavanoids exist in grapefruit juice in the form of glyco-
any in vivo effect of grapefruit juice on Pgp. One study sides, with naringin being the most abundant. Upon
[28] has also reported the action of grapefruit juice inde- ingestion, these are converted to aglycones and sugars by
pendent of its actions on Pgp and CYP 3A4. This also the action of intestinal flora. Being polyphenolic and elec-
requires further investigation. Similarly, grapefruit and tron rich, these compounds can theoretically inhibit the
even orange juice have also recently been shown to be CYP enzymes. However, studies have at most shown an in
potent in vitro inhibitors of a number of organic anion- vitro effect by these compounds on the these enzymes and
transporting polypeptides (OATPs) that are involved in have failed to identify any in vivo effect by them [37,38],
apical-to-basal transport of drugs in the small intestine leading to an implication that they are probably not the
[17,18,25,29]. They were also found to decrease the main active ingredients of grapefruit juice [1,39]. Studies
absorption of the non-metabolized OATP substrate, fex- have even failed to demonstrate any sort of activity in nar-
ofenadine hence pointing towards inhibition of intestinal ingin although its metabolite naringinin was observed to
uptake transporters by fruit juices to decrease drug bioa- be active in vitro. Yet, because of their huge quantities in
vailability. This newly proposed mechanism of action and grapefruit juice, and the fact that naringin is not present in
its effect vis a vis various medications also demands fur- other citrus juices, flavanoids remain a subject of research.
ther investigation [25,29].
The main focus at present, however, is on furanocou-
Assessment of the in vitro CYP inhibition potential for marins. This group includes Bergamottin, its derivative 6'
these natural products has important implications for pre- 7' dihydroxybergamottin (DHB) and a host of other com-
dicting the likelihood of natural product-drug interac- pounds [40]. Controversy still exists on the degree of their
tions if these products are taken concomitantly. The role in the inhibitory effects of grapefruit juice. Several
susceptibility of CYP3A4 to modulation by food constitu- studies have shown DHB [23,35,40] and to an extent Ber-
ents may be related to its high level of expression in the gamottin [23] to be important contributors to the grape-
intestine, as well as its broad substrate specificity. fruit juice effect. In one study, the inhibitory potency of
Reported ethnic differences in the activity of this enzyme DHB and four recently isolated furanocoumarins, when
may be partly due to dietary factors. Food-drug interac- mixed with one another, almost approached that of grape-
tions involving CYP1A2, CYP2E1, glucuronosyltrans- fruit juice. Omission of any of the components resulted in
ferases and glutathione S-transferases have also been decreased potency, suggesting that all major furanocou-
documented, although most of these interactions are marins contribute to the inhibitory effects of grapefruit
modest in magnitude and clinically relevant only for juice [40]. However, others have suggested that DHB and
drugs that have a narrow therapeutic range. Recently, Bergamottin are not the primary substances responsible
interactions involving drug transporters, including P-glyc- for inhibition of CYP activity clinically [41,42]. For now,
oprotein and the organic anion transporting polypeptide, this topic also remains a subject of intense research.
have also been identified. Hence a lot of food varieties
have the potential to require dosage adjustment to main- Drug-grapefruit juice interactions
tain drug concentrations within their therapeutic win- Anti-hypertensive drugs and amiodarone
dows, especially with drugs that have a high first pass 1,4-Dihydropyridine calcium antagonists are lipid soluble
degradation [30]. Further research is needed to determine drugs used in the treatment of essential hypertension and
the scope, magnitude and clinical importance of food angina pectoris and metabolized in vivo by CYP3A4.
effects on drug metabolism and transport. Since the effects of grapefruit juice were first noticed with
felodipine, this class of drugs has been intensively studied
Relevant phytochemistry with grapefruit juice. The degree to which the intestinal
Another area in which the search for definite answers con- CYP system metabolizes this class of drugs and affects
tinues, is the quest to find the active constituents of grape- their oral bioavailability varies markedly. In a study done
fruit juice that are responsible for its actions on CYP by Lundahl J et al., it was found that the intake of grape-
enzyme systems and Pgp. The components of grapefruit fruit juice led to an increase in the oral bioavailability by
juice that are responsible for clinical drug interactions 112% [43]. However, this study also found out that the
have yet to be fully determined but the compounds intravenous pharmacokinetics of felodipine were not sig-
thought to be responsible for this action include flavo- nificantly altered with grapefruit juice. The main acute
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effect of the grapefruit juice on the plasma concentrations ACE-inhibitors like enalapril, captopril, lisinopril and
of felodipine was believed to be mediated by inhibition of ramipril have not shown any interaction with grapefruit
gut wall metabolism. Grapefruit juice-felodipine interac- juice although such an interaction might be possible with
tion increases with increasing frequency and amount of angiotensin II type 1 receptor antagonists like losartan
grapefruit juice ingestion, hence it has been determined and valsartan [18]. Thiazide diuretics and alph 1 adrener-
that an interval of 2–3 days between grapefruit juice gic antagonists (doxazosin, terazosin, prazosin) have also
intake and felodipine administration is necessary if the shown no interaction with grapefruit juice [18].
interaction is to be avoided [44]. Blood pressure responses
to felodipine with grapefruit juice have also been assessed Amiodarone, an antiarrythmic, is metabolized by CYP3A
in the elderly and the systolic and diastolic blood pres- to N-desethylamiodarone (N-DEA), a metabolite more
sures were found to be lower with grapefruit juice in the potent than the parent drug [17]. On interaction with
single-dose state, whereas they were not different between grapefruit juice, there has been shown to be complete
treatments in the steady-state dose [45]. The different inhibition of N-DEA production [52] leading to an overall
blood pressure results between the studies can be decrease in the arrythmogenic side effects of amiodarone
explained by felodipine concentration-blood pressure [17]. These results are in agreement with in vitro data
response relationships. The elderly should be particularly pointing to the involvement of CYP3A in the metabolism
cautioned about concomitant grapefruit juice and of amiodarone and other Ca antagonists, suggesting that
felodipine ingestion. this interaction should be taken into account when pre-
scribing this antiarrhythmic drug. Similarly grapefruit
In the benzothiazepine calcium channel antagonists juice has been found to increase oral nimodipine bioa-
group, diltiazem has been found to have an increased bio- vailability [53]. The same cannot be said of amlodipine,
availability on co administration of a single intake of on which grapefruit juice has no appreciable effect [54].
grapefruit juice. Inhibition of intestinal metabolism and/
or P-glycoprotein efflux transport was believed to be pos- One of the possible active ingredients in commercial
sibly responsible for this effect [46]. However in contrast grapefruit juice is Bergamottin, as mentioned before. This
to this, another study showed the bioavailability to be was determined after studying the effects of the furano-
unchanged with grapefruit juice suggesting that factors coumarin derivative on nifedipine (NFP) pharmacokinet-
other than biotransformation may be contributing [47]. ics, suggesting that bergamottin in grapefruit might be the
substance that elevates the NFP plasma concentrations
Compared with water, grapefruit juice increased the max- [55].
imum concentration of nisoldipine and reduced the time
to reach maximum nisoldipine concentration [48]. How- Further studies have also been done to determine if even
ever, the effects of grapefruit pulp intake were smaller unprocessed grapefruit could cause drug interactions. It
than those produced by grapefruit juice intake, indicating has been shown that unprocessed grapefruit can cause a
that grapefruit pulp and juice have different effects on the drug interaction with felodipine [56]. 6', 7'-Dihydroxyber-
pharmacokinetics [49]. gamottin and naringin were implicated to be more impor-
tant in this case because they are present in higher
A clinical study was performed to see the duration of this concentrations in grapefruit extracts.
interaction in the body. Eight healthy volunteers were
given grapefruit juice at 14, 38, 72 and 96 hours. Com- Antimicrobials
pared with the control group, the maximum plasma con- With antivirals, authors concluded that concomitant
centration of nisoldipine was significantly increased after administration of grapefruit juice increases gastric pH and
grapefruit juice intake in at 0 and 14 hours, and the delays indinavir absorption but does not uniformly affect
plasma concentration was significantly increased at each the systemic bioavailability of indinavir in HIV-infected
time till 72 hours [50]. It is therefore necessary to with- subjects [57,58]. Similarly grapefruit juice has been
hold grapefruit juice for at least 3 days before administra- shown clinically to not significantly affect amprenavir
tion of the drug to prevent grapefruit juice -nisoldipine pharmacokinetics [59]. It is suggested that this may be
interaction. because the primary metabolism of these drugs is not in
the small intestine.
Regarding verapamil, there are conflicting reports about
its interaction with grapefruit juice. One study showed an On the other hand regarding saquinavir, it has been
increase in its bioavailability at steady state [51] while shown that grapefruit juice increases the bioavailability of
another showed no significant change in pharmacokinet- saquinavir without affecting its clearance, suggesting that
ics on a single administration. inhibition of intestinal CYP3A4 may contribute [60]. And
since the antiretroviral effect of saquinavir is dose-
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dependent, it has been suggested that inhibition of One study however, did show that grapefruit juice did not
CYP3A4 may represent a way to enhance its effectiveness have any particular interaction with oral doses of 10 mg
without increasing the dose. midazolam and 0.25 mg triazolam in healthy young sub-
jects [72]. However, since more studies have determined
Amongst anti malarials, grapefruit juice significantly increases in midazolam and triazolam bioavailbility,
increases the oral bioavailability of artemether but does grapefruit juice should be administered with caution with
not prevent the time-dependent reduction in bioavailabil- these drugs. However, alprazolam remains unaffected in
ity or elimination half-life, suggesting a role for intestinal pharmacokinetics or pharmacodynamics due to its high
CYP3A4 in the presystemic metabolism of artemether bioavailability [73].
[61,62]. Similar results have also been seen after a single
oral dose of praziquantel with 250 ml of grapefruit juice Among antipsychotics, clozapine remained unaffected
[63]. after consumption of regular-strength grapefruit juice,
usually taken as 250 mL b.i.d., for 14 days [74]. One rea-
Quinine appears to be unaffected in its pharmacokinetics. son for this is that enzymes other than CYP3A4 also medi-
Since quinine is a low clearance drug with a relatively high ate clozapine disposition. Haloperidol remains
oral bioavailability, and is primarily metabolised by unaffected by grapefruit juice [75].
human liver CYP3A4, the lack of effect of grapefruit juice
on quinine pharmacokinetics again supports the view that In anti convulsants, grapefruit juice increases the bioavail-
the site of CYP inhibition by grapefruit juice is mainly in ability of carbamazepine [76] but does not affect the phar-
the gut [17,64]. However for quinidine, grapefruit juice macokinetics of phenytoin [77].
reduces its total clearance and increases the elimination
half-life by 19% [65]. Grapefruit juice considerably increases plasma buspirone
concentrations [78] and also increases sertraline bioavail-
In antibiotics, administration of grapefruit juice increased ability [79]. Grapefruit juice therefore should be contrain-
the time to peak concentration of clarithromycin but did dicated during administration of buspirone and
not affect other pharmacokinetic parameters [66] while in sertraline.
antiparasitics, albendazole showed an increase in bioa-
vailability upon administration of grapefruit juice [67]. Antihistamines and Serotonin Analogs
A number of studies have shown that a single glass of
Benzodiazepines and CNS drugs grapefruit juice produced an individual-dependent, varia-
A marked interaction between oral midazolam and grape- ble increase in the systemic bioavailability of cisapride by
fruit juice has been found and the data is consistent again inhibition of intestinal cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4)
with a reduced first-pass metabolism of midazolam, activity. [80-82] It has therefore been recommended that
resulting in increased bioavailability of midazolam concomitant use of high amounts of grapefruit juice with
[68,69]. The clinical importance of this is especially for cisapride should be avoided, at least in patients with risk
patients with other causes for increased midazolam bioa- factors for cardiac arrhythmia.
vailability such as advanced age, cirrhosis of the liver, and
administration of other inhibitors of cytochrome P450. The effect of grapefruit juice on racemic nitrendipine was
Thus, patients with liver cirrhosis are more dependent on also to increase its bioavailability and it was found that it
the intestine for metabolism of CYP3A4 substrates than inhibits the stereoselective metabolism of nitrendipine in
subjects with normal liver function. Another important humans [83].
implication of this interaction is in dentistry. Oral mida-
zolam is a frequently used sedative in pediatric dentistry. Regarding terfenidine, the ingestion of grapefruit juice
Although an oral form of midazolam is now commer- leads to its enhanced systemic bioavailability [84,85].
cially available, some practitioners continue to use the IV This is especially important because the raised levels of
midazolam as an oral medication. If the injectible form of terfenidine can prolong the QT interval in the electrocar-
midazolam is administered orally, its bitter taste requires diogram sufficiently to precipitate the ventricular arrhyth-
the use of a flavoring agent like grapefruit juice. This mia of Torsade-des-pointes [86]. Incidentally, both
results in increased blood plasma levels of midazolam terfenidine and cisapride have been globally withdrawn
causing excessive levels of sedation for the pediatric from the market due to serious cardiac arrythmias precip-
patient. Grapefruit juice therefore should be contraindi- itated by their interaction with other drugs if simultane-
cated for use with oral midazolam especially in such ously taken.
patients [70]. Similar results have also been seen with tri-
azolam [71].
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Statins and other cholesterol-lowering agents Administration of cyclosporine with grapefruit juice com-
Taking simvastatin first, the active ingredient bergamottin pared with water induced a moderate, butsignificant
has been shown to inhibit simvastatin (SV) metabolism increase in the systemic exposure of cyclosporine [93,94].
and increase the serum concentrations of simvastatin and Most of these studies involving cyclosporine were done
its active metabolite simvastatin acid, and, to a lesser on adult patients. However, one study was also done in
extent, those of active and total HMG-CoA reductase the paediatric population. This study showed that altera-
inhibitors [87,88]. The probable mechanism of this inter- tions in cyclosporine absorption and elimination only
action was also the inhibition of CYP3A4-mediated first- occur with concurrent grapefruit juice ingestion when sta-
pass metabolism of simvastatin by grapefruit juice in the ble pediatric renal transplant patients are taking the oral
small intestine. Bergamottin (BG) and naringenin (NRG) cyclosporine solution, but not the microemulsion formu-
could therefore be applied as markers in food-drug inter- lation [95].
action studies in order to adjust posology and the dose of
simvastatin should be accordingly reduced. Regarding prednisolone and etoposide, grapefruit juice
has been found to have no significant effect on the metab-
Another study further found out that, when simvastatin is olism of prednisolone [96] but in the case of etoposide, it
taken 24 hours after ingestion of "high-dose" grapefruit has been shown to decrease its bioavailability [97].
juice, the effect on the concentration of simvastatin is only
about 10% of the effect observed during concomitant Conclusion
intake of grapefruit juice and simvastatin. It was also In light of the wide ranging effects of grapefruit juice on
shown that the interaction potential of even high the pharmacokinetics of various drugs, physicians need to
amounts of grapefruit juice with CYP3A4 substrates dissi- be aware of these interactions and should make an
pates within 3 to 7 days after ingestion of the last dose of attempt to warn and educate their patients regarding
grapefruit juice [89]. potential consequences of concomitant ingestion of these
two items. Patient-to-patient variability should be kept in
The grapefruit juice effect has also been studied on lovas- mind and elderly should be particularly warned about
tatin. Lovastatin and its active metabolite, lovastatin acid these interactions since they are more prone to grapefruit
had greatly increased serum concentrations after grape- juice-drug interactions [17]. Physicians should also con-
fruit juice administration [90]. However, one other study sider using these effects to their own advantage in order to
has shown a minimal effect of a glass of regular-strength reduce the dosage requirements of certain drugs. How-
grapefruit juice on plasma concentration after a 40 mg ever, since further research is required into the mechanism
evening dose of lovastatin [91]. of action of grapefruit juice, it is still premature to recom-
mend it as an adjunctive booster with other drugs.
Although grapefruit juice also increases the AUC of atorv-
astatin, the actual increase in activity is fairly modest, pos- Abbreviations
sibly due to a simultaneous effect of decreasing the AUC AUC = area under the plasma concentration-time curve
of active metabolites of atorvastatin [17]. Regardless,
grapefruit juice should not be concomitantly ingested CYP = cytochrome P -450
with atorvastatin, lovastatin or simvastatin. On the other
hand, pravastatin, fluvastatin and rosuvastatin are three DEA = desethylamiodarone
statin drugs that have been shown not to interact with
grapefruit juice [18]. These may be useful alternatives in DHB = dihydroxybergamottin
settings where there is a concern regarding potential inter-
action with grapefruit juice. HMG – CoA = 3 – hydroxyl – 3 – methylglutaryl coen-
zyme A
Other cholesterol-lowering agents like nicotinic acid and
common fibric acid derivatives and bile acid sequestrants NFP = nifedipine
have shown no interaction, and therefore may be safely
used, with grapefruit juice [18]. OATP = organic anion-transporting polypeptides
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