Chapter 2
Chapter 2
Literature Review
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) item two adopted by world nations in 2000
proposed that, by 2015, children of educable age should have free, affordable and accessible
education. The item is a response to the world conference of “Education For ALL (EFA)”
held in Jomitten, Thailand from 5th to 9th March 1990, which was the major trigger for the
birth of basic education. The conference, which was well attended, came out with a blue print
document entitled ‘World Declaration On Education For All’ and framework of actions to
meet basic learning needs. (FGN/UNICEF 2003). Nigeria as a world nation became
encouraged to setup educational activities to achieve EFA goals. EFA in Nigeria could be
traced back to the introduction of Universal Primary Education (UPE) in the 1950’s in two of
the then regions of the country and at national level in 1976. Denga (2000) contributing “our
memories may be flashed back to 1950 when the universal declaration of human rights
Education is a road to development. It ensures individual and collective freedom in all walks
of life (Pervaiz, 1994). Pakistan, in spite of many ambitious education endeavors, still
remains the lowest in development ranks in the world. According to the Human Development
Report, Pakistan ranks 136th with less than 50% literacy rate with 33.8% female and 47.18%
Pakistan stands at the lowest in the ladder of allocation for education with less than 2.0
percent of the Gross Domestic Product (Haq & Haq (1998). Pakistan is a developing country
with a weak education system. Poor policy implementation has been one of the major causes
for this state of affairs. Although, this issue is a general phenomenon in all areas of national
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life yet it has been deeply affecting the education sector since the inception of the country in
1947.
According to Bhatti, Bano, Khanam, Hussain, Riaz, and Hussain (2010) education is the
epicenter of all developments. Poor policy implementation in the education sector in Pakistan
has exercised highly negative repercussions on all other areas of the national life. Bukhari
(1995) defines policy implementation to be setting of goals and anticipating for the
consequences of the policy for the people for whom it is made. It means that it involves a
variety of actions such as issuing directives, decision making, assigning duties, and hiring
when there is a gap between the stated policy and the achievement of the benefits of the
policy by the target community. This phenomenon has been facing Pakistan for a longer time.
Public policy refers to a process which helps any system to solve public problems.
Implementation of policy is the adoption of the policy at the grassroots level. It consists of
giving practical shape to ideas, set of activities and structures to enable the people the deal
with new changes (Laauwen, 2004; Fullan, 2001 & Folwer, 2000).The Education
Development Index (EDI) reports that Pakistan stands at the lowest rank of 120 out of the
144 countries in the world. Government of Pakistan (2010) report observes that the current
literacy rate of Pakistan is 59% which is among the lowest in Asia. In a report of UNESCO
(2000) it has been observed that Pakistan has 66% female and 59% male net enrollment rate
This alarming situation in the words of Aly (2007) is due to the lowest financial allocation for
education sector in Pakistan. The expenditure on education has declined in Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) from 2.6% in 1990 to 2.2 in recent times. This situation has rendered the
education system incapable to cater to the needs of the nation. The education is not
15
productive. There are increasing drop-outs at primary level. Although policies are formulated
and framed form time to time without having any positive impact on the lives of the people
This poor implementation has created a credibility gap. Review of the policies shows that the
failure in implementation is due to one reason or another. This leads the researchers to
explore the main reasons for the gaps in implementation of education policies in Pakistan on
Education is a dynamic activity. The goals of education could be realized by concerted and
consistent approach. Realization of the goals of education has direct relationship with overall
national development. Pakistan, being a developing country has been facing problems in the
arena of policy implementation in all areas generally and in education particularly. This trend
has deeply affected the system of education on which the overall national edifice of the
society depends (Rasool, 2007). Shahid (1985) holds the following factors responsible for the
functionaries and lack of cooperation. In another study, Bengali (1999) argues that too
ambitious policy targets, less trained technical and educational managers, financial resource
constraints and political instability have crippled the implementation of education policies in
Pakistan. Butt (1996) adds amongst the many problems weak implementation of education
policies in Pakistan are teacher’s absenteeism, weak supervision and lack of physical
facilities. Similarly, he further argues that non-involvement of lower level managerial staff of
education has contributed to development of sense of alienation among the district and
16
provincial staff which has affected the process of policy implementation at these crucial
levels.
According to a report by Education For All (EFA) (2008) 5.5 million children of primary
school age are out of school. There is an alarming rate of 45% drop outs at primary level in
Pakistan. In another place the report states that teacher absenteeism, poor supervisory
mechanism, inadequate learning materials are some of the acute problems which are direct
offshoot of the weak policy implementation in the country. National Education Policy (2009)
reports that weak policy implementation is primarily due to lack of commitment on the part
of policy implementers which leads to implementation gap. This gap is catapulted by the
Furthermore, Rasool (2007) shares that even much of the developmental funds remain
unspent to the tune of 10% to 30% in Pakistan. He holds the following factors responsible for
structures and attitudes. He further says that these factors closely interact with one another
and consequently, either help or hinder the policy implementation process in any system.
(MDGs) has demonstrated progress. Worldwide integrated efforts have resulted into an
improved access and increase in global net enrolment ratio from 82% in 1999 to 90% in
2010. Nevertheless, there were still 29 countries with net primary enrolment ratio below 85%.
Most of these countries belong to Sub Saharan Africa, South and West Asia.
improvement and higher budgetary allocation to improve the enrolment in public schools.
Following the policy, Education Sector Reforms (2001-2005) were developed in rigorous
consultation with all the key stakeholders of EFA. In this context, a National Conference on
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EFA was held to discuss and develop viable frameworks for implementation of the objectives
Consequent upon the conference recommendations and series of dialogues among the
principal stakeholders, the National Plan of Action (NPA, 2001-2015) was developed. The
NPA was discussed and presented at various forums, including International Development
Partners EFA Forum, South Asia EFA Ministerial Meeting in Kathmandu-Nepal, meetings of
bi-lateral and multilateral agencies. Consequently, it was amended in the light of suggestions
from stakeholders. The implementation plan was supported by the analysts and. affirmed by
the first Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP 2003-2006). However, the plan could not
National Education Policy (2009) was formulated firstly for the reason that the previous
policy (1998-2010) was not addressing the lags in education sector, and the performance
regarding the improvement in key indicators had halted. Secondly, it was realized that
Development Goals, Dakar Framework of Action Education for All could only be addressed
The policy focused on the need for enhanced public-private partnership, promoting equity in
education, and rebuilding trust in public sector education. The policy document reiterated the
envisioned a greater role for provincial and area governments in addressing these issues. NEP
(2009) included a comprehensive framework for implementation and stressed the Federal-
Provincial collaboration.
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2.1Challenges
any society. According to Article 25-A, of the Constitution of Pakistan, it is the responsibility
of the state to provide free and compulsory education to all the population between 5 to 16
years of age (UNESCO, 2011). Universal primary education cannot be achieved without the
concerted efforts of all the social institutions and stakeholders. Pakistan is highly likely to
default on EFA by 2015 (Khan, 2011). It is also important to understand the barriers and
In order to achieve the goal of UBE, it is pertinent to note that much debated issues of
student ratio in public primary schools was 1 to 42, and availability of public primary
education facility within 2 kilometers radius in Punjab was 93% and 91% for boys and girls
respectively. Moreover, 50% of the villages in Punjab had at least one private school in its
locale. The number of nonfunctional public primary schools was high in districts where the
These statistics indicate that mere existence and functioning of school does not guarantee
students’ enrollment and retention. The real functioning of a school depends on its ability to
earn community ownership and get integrated with local institutional structures Universal
truncated progress in Pakistan. As part of the globalization process, Pakistan and its
national education policies have been formulated, national action plans designed, and other
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strategies stipulated. However, the progress in the achievement of UBE has been limited.
With the changing scenario under the 18th amendment in the constitution, the provinces have
to work out the strategies according to their suitability. Government of Punjab has shown
keen interest in the UPE goals, hence its School Reforms Roadmap envisions the target of
providing equitable access to quality education across the province. Notwithstanding such
commitments, there is always scope for looking into varying subtle ground realities and
envisioning some policy recommendation. The present efforts are in that direction.
At the provincial level, Net Primary Enrolment Rate (NPER) for Balochistan is lowest at
39% while Sindh and KPK have NER of 50% and 53% respectively. Province of Punjab
leads other provinces by far with NER of 64%, well beyond the national average of 57%. In
view of achieving the goal of UPE in Pakistan, Punjab’s contribution is significant since it
embodies 60% of the total population of the country, and indicators of Punjab affect the
national indicators. After 18th constitutional amendment, federating units passed a Joint
committed the provincial governments to develop an action plan to set the priorities and raise
budgetary allocation in view of time limit challenges like MDGs and EFA.
According to PSLM (2011-2012), there were notable variations in the literacy and enrolment
rates in Punjab across different factors. For example, by gender, males were still more likely
to enter school and NER for males was 65% compared with 62% for females. Disparity
between rural and urban areas was more visible. Urban Punjab had NER of 72% where rural
areas lagged behind with NER of 61%. Primary Completion Rates (PCR) also varied across
the districts ranging from 20% PCR for Mandi Bahauddin and 40.9% PCR for Rajanpur.
However, Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) data showed that transition rates from
primary to middle level in public schools was over 90% in most of the districts. Therefore, it
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can be ascertained that enrolment and retention in primary schools was a priority concern
than transition.
April 19, 2010. The 18th Amendment devolved the education to the provinces which resulted
implementation of programs and coordination became the sole responsibility of the provincial
governments
Government of Punjab (GoPb) has shown keen interest in the EFA goals; hence, its School
Reforms Roadmap envisions the target of providing equitable access to quality education
across the province. Daanish Schools, Punjab Education Endowment Fund (PEEF), Punjab
Education Foundation (PEF) and Punjab Education Sector Reforms Programme (PESRP)
have been the leading initiatives taken by the government. PESRP deals with the donor
funded projects through Program Monitoring and Implementation Unit (PMIU), and aims at
improving governance, access and quality in education. PEF primarily keeps liaison with and
supports private sector education institutions; whereas, PEEF concerns with providing
financial support to the underprivileged especially from the southern side of province. It is
noted that the objectives of these programs are not sharply defined, and there is frail
are not efficacious. There is an immediate need for decentralization of these programs to
ensure the participation of community, civil society, donors and education activists for
Keeping in view the existing circumstances, Pakistan can not achieve the UBE by 2015.
There are serious problems of governance, access, equity and quality. According to the World
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Bank literature, demand of education for both boys and girls is high even among the poor
One-third of the total school going age (5-9) are not going to school. Even if all the out of
school children try to get enrolled, the existing public schools can not accommodate them
(UNESCO, 2011). Although, a variety of private schools emerged with the motives of
earning money yet a large number of parents can not afford to send their children even to the
low fee private schools. Additionally, many remote rural areas lack the public and the private
schools, let alone the quality of education and other socio-cultural impediments.
and quality need be considered. The derived policies must be linked to effective feedback
mechanisms to ensure adaptability. In order to achieve this, better coordination between the
and need assessment through quality data collection are required to provide service delivery
to the communities. Research has demonstrated that just constructing schools and recruiting
teachers is not enough to ensure enrolment, retention and quality education for children in
schools. World Bank studies show an association between the quality of schooling and
education (Gazdar, n.d). Children’s enrolment and retention in school is not just a technical
or isolated issue; rather it needs a concerted support of the whole social, political and
Local government institutions such as education officials, basic health units, social welfare
department, child protection institutions, etc. need to play a main role to develop a pattern of
coordination with the existing local social structures in the community to make a
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collaborative effort to enhance the enrolment and retention of school-going age children. This
collaboration and coordination can also be useful to enhance the quality of the education.
These government agencies can use local media to bring about awareness in the community
Government agencies can mobilize the communities and work in coordination with the
religious leaders, local political leaders, businessmen and other volunteer organizations to
enhance enrolment, retention and quality of the education. Strong political will and well
coordinated efforts to mobilize the community by spreading awareness about the importance
of the education can be effective with regard to school enrolment, retention and quality. Once
community realizes the importance of the education for their children then it will take care of
the teacher-attendance, physical environment of the school and many other things that
influence quality of the education and retention. However, some parents, in spite of being
aware of the importance of education can not afford to send their children to school due to
financial constraints. Government needs to provide some financial support to enable the
parents to send their children to school for education. The community may be made the main
stake holder by helping it realize the importance of education and its long-term benefits (see
Figure 1). All this requires high level of political commitment to involve the local community
primary education universal in the spirit of article 25-A of the constitution. Subsequent
legislation with regard to Article 25-A has yet not been made by the provincial government
(Malik, 2011).
Lack of political will may be one of the causes of legislative vacuum. For getting legal
legitimacy, persistent and effective advocacy efforts are required to persuade the legislators
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2.3Education as an Indicator of Political Achievements
In electoral politics, politicians prefer to spend money on short-term high visibility targets
such as construction of bridges, expensive motorways and speedy trains. Though extremely
important for social development, educating the poor children may not be very glamorous
and politically visible. It is therefore important that primary education may be placed at the
center stage in the development initiatives. Lack of political will and commitment to improve
the condition of the government schools (mainly, by forming parent educational committees)
is often regarded as the main cause for the failure of the government schools (Gazdar, n. d).
The provinces have been entrusted to run the education system on their own. But there are
many financial, procedural and capability issues the provinces are facing. In National
Educational Conference (2011) held under the auspices of Federal Government, the provinces
Nonetheless, no significant increase has been made, and Punjab budgetary allocation for
to 210 billion (2013- 2014). Of this allocation, primary school budget constituted only 2.44
percent, which arguably cannot cater to the needs of 3.8 million out of school children
(PESRP-PMIU, 2010-2011) with a fast growing population. It appears that no lesson has
been learnt from the failure of education policy 1998-2010 which collapsed generally due to
financial constraints. It is reported that provincial financial procedures are very slow and
inefficient. Usually the donors expect efficient and time bound financial transactions. When
provincial financial bureaucracies fail to meet the deadlines, the funds get lapsed and the
plans flop. Independent Evaluation Group (IEG) of World Bank considered the complexity of
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disbursement mechanisms as a major cause of their relative failure in both Social Action
The idea of School Management Committees (SMCs) consisting of parents, teachers and
notables of community is already under active consideration of the policy makers. In fact it is
in place in some places and has borne appreciable results. Nonetheless, this idea has not yet
been implemented in letter and spirit. This approach of involving the local community in the
community social cohesion is very strong and pressures from within the community are
anticipated to draw desired results. Once SMCs are in place, they, in addition to helping in
managing the school affairs, can identify the families which do not enroll their children in
school and the reasons thereof. They can also trace the underlying variables for frequent
absenteeism of some students, and can take remedial measures to ensure that there are no
drop-outs.
School Management Committees may be properly constituted and the nexus of these committees may
be extended from school to union council and ultimately to district level for its ultimate coordination
with provincial education department through effective network linkages. SMCs can keep tight liaison
with District Management Committees (DMCs), and later can develop a mechanism for the
Getting children to schools is a serious policy issue for Punjab where annual increase in net
enrolment rates has virtually stalled since the last five years (PSLM, 2011-2012). It is noted
that data regarding enrolment of primary level students in Punjab are school-based. The
nature of the data makes it difficult to develop an efficient system of child tracking and it
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only tells us about the number of children that are out of school. The questions about socio-
cultural environmental forces constraining the children to remain out of school remain
unanswered. In order to locate the out of school children as well as the constraining forces for
such happenings, village based data in rural areas and union council based data in urban areas
is imminent. To do this, Union Councils may be engaged with schools and a coordination
In this way, Secretary of Union Council may forward the birth registration data of primary
school children to the Public High School of the area which may serve as a coordinating unit
for other public and private schools within its jurisdiction. Tallying the birth registration
record with the enrolment record at union council level will help to track the child without
additional financial implications. In this way local data banks will be created revealing why
local children are not enrolling, and identify the specific issues and consequent solutions.
Experiences of various stakeholders working on model villages suggest that once identified,
community mobilization and some advocacy efforts may be sufficient to get children to
schools. This function may be performed by SMCs or any other body deemed appropriate.
National Education Policy (2009) emphasizes on the quality of learning but an effective
implementation strategy is missing. Harnessing the cognitive skills of students against rote
learning may require broad based changes ranging from the teaching methods to the
examination system and curriculum content. Curriculum development and textbook reforms
are politically sensitive issues and would require a lengthy collaborative process to initiate.
However, an effective and workable solution could be to change the questions at the end of
each chapter in a textbook. It is noticed that the exact answers to each question may be found
in the content of chapter. This encourages rather compels the student to rote the passage
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given in the chapter as the answer to the question. Therefore, changing the questions to
require some interpretive and analytical skills will help to improve the quality of education.
Teacher training and capacity building is important to all the aspects of UPE indicators.
Capacity enhancement of teachers has a direct impact on student retention and their quality
learning, building an image of school friendly environment, and having an ultimate bearing
on school enrolment of out of school lot. It is reported that the primary level teacher training
is highly focused on certain pedagogical techniques; and as a result the teacher’s actions
remain too technical in dealing with the students. Advanced research in primary school
education has shown that while in the class room a primary school teacher is confronted with
many challenges such as: identity formation of the child, discrimination on the basis of status
example, if a student is absent from school and is punished by the teacher as a “standard
practice” inclusive of corporal punishment, shouting, naming, stigmatizing, labeling. But the
absence of the student could be because of his/her parental ailment or because of any other
reason beyond the student’s control. But such a treatment of the teacher often has negative
implications for the “self-concept” of the child, his/her denigration among the peers, his/her
silent exclusion from the mainstream students, and ultimately leading to the self-fulfilling
prophecy of the teachers. Resultantly, the student will consider him/herself as worthless and
suffering from vision and hearing problems find it very difficult to learn in the classroom
environment. Similarly, bad dental care and skin related issues may damage the self-esteem
27
among students. Because of health disadvantaged condition, which may attract stigmatization
and discrimination, a student may not withstand the punitive sanctions by teachers and peers
Health promotion programs have been successful in other parts of the world. ‘CHERISH’ in
Singapore and ‘Fit for School’ in Philippines have yielded results which outweigh the
associated costs. For similar practice in Punjab, student health program could be launched on
the lines of National Integrated Health Screening program by Iran. In this connection, public
health institution could coordinate with the school education department in providing health
Despite all infrastructural facilities, school could be an unattractive place for the child. It is
learnt that joyful learning is a prerequisite to retention especially at primary school level. In
department to conduct regular sports event at schools could be a viable course of action. In
addition to the school interior, school surroundings may be important to create a congenial
learning environment.
It is noticed that throughout the province of Punjab, vicinities of several schools are
hazardous. Garbage dumping, noisy transportation, commercial activity stagnant water, poor
sanitation and open drainage are common activities around schools. While these affect the
health status of children, they make school going an unpleasant experience. Moreover, such
activities distract the students’ concentration and affect the learning outcomes
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