Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Revew Exercises
Revew Exercises
REVENUE is income that arises in the course of ORDINARY ACTIVITIES OF AN ENTITY and is referred to by a variety of
different names including sales, fees, interest, dividends and royalties.*
GAINS on the other hand results from “peripheral**” or related activities, such as selling a fully Depreciated Asset (Zero Book-
Value).
EXAMPLE 1
You disposed of your fully depreciated printer but was able to make P65.00 out of it.
Asset:
EPSON Printer P9,000.00
Acc. Dep. (9,000.00)
Book Value -0-
JOURNAL ENTRY:
EXAMPLE 2
Asset:
EPSON Printer P9,000.00
Acc. Dep. 60% (5,400.00)
Book Value 3,600.00
JOURNAL ENTRY:
To simplify it:
*PAS18
** “peripheral” accountingcoach.com
INDIRECT LABOR
Indirect labor is the cost of any labor that supports the production process, but which is not directly involved in the
active conversion of materials into finished products.*
It is the compensation of employees or workers who DO NOT physically convert raw materials into finished goods.**
Indirect labor also refers to worker’s hours that are spent on working on projects that cannot be traced back to specific
production units or products. In other words, indirect labor is employee work that can’t be billed to goods produced. ***
Examples of Indirect Labor are Salaries of plant managers and engineers, wages of forklift operators, maintenance and
inspection labor, machine helpers.
It forms part of Manufacturing Overhead (Factory Overhead), thus, a part of the cost of the product.
Partnership by Estoppel
"Partners who are not partners to each other but are partners as to third persons."
As part of the financial reporting, "assessing cash flow prospects" is interpreted to mean
A. Cash basis accounting is preferred over accrual basis accounting.
B. Information about the financial effects of cash receipts and cash payments is generally considered the best indicator
of an entity's present and continuing ability to generate favorable cash flows.
C. Over the long run, trends in revenue and expenses are generally more meaningful than trends in cash receipts and
disbursements. ☑
D. None of the above is correct.
A limited partnership has Dimi, as general partner, Tilor, as limited partner, and Kiti, as an industrial partner contributing
P50,000; P50,000 and services, respectively. The partnership failed and after disposing all its assets to partnership
debts, there still remains a note payable in the sum of P30,000. Against whom can the creditor demand payment?
A. Dimi-P30,000 B. Tilor-P0 C. Kiti- P0
B. Dimi-P15,000 B. Tilor-P15,000 C. Kiti- P0
C. Dimi-P15,000 B. Tilor-P0 C. Kiti- P15k ☑
D. Dimi-P10,000 B. Tilor-P15,000 C. Kiti- P10,000
Because Tilor is limited, he is not Liable for the liabilities of the partnership
Situation 1 A commits the crime of theft and is asked to return the car to its owner B. If before the car is delivered to B,
it is destroyed by flood. Is A's liability extinguished?
Situation 2 Using the above statement, A had previously asked the owner to accept the car, but the owner without any
justifiable reason, refused to accept the car and it is destroyed by flood. Is A's liability extinguished?
A. Yes, Yes B. Yes, No
C. No, Yes D. No, No
When the debtor of a debtor is ordered not to pay the latter so that preference would be given to the latter's creditor.
A. Garnishment B. Interpleader
C. Injunction D. Attachment
The correct answer is A (Garnishment).
A ordered B, a 10 year old boy to climb a high slippery mango tree with the promise to give him a part of the fruits. B fell
while climbing and was seriously injured. Is A liable?
A. Yes B. No
A is obligated to deliver his only car to B on March 10, 2019. If A does not deliver and on March 15, 2019, a typhoon
destroys the car,
a. A is not liable because the obligation is extinguished.☑
b. A is liable because he is in delay.
c. A and B will divide the loss equally.
d. A's obligation is converted into a monetary obligation.
Statement 1: If a person obligated to do something fails to do it, the same shall be executed at his cost.
Statement 2: Those who in the performance of their obligations are guilty of fraud, negligence, or delay and those who
in any manner contravene the tenor thereof, are liable for damages.
a. True, True ☑
b. True, False
c. False, True
d. False, False
Nadine Gue borrowed money from James Red payable on February 28, 2019. If Nadine failed to pay on due date, will
she be in delay?
a. Yes, because there is stipulation as regards to the date.
b. Yes, if the obligation is in writing.
c. No, because demand has not been made by James.☑
d. No, if Nadine has the money to pay James.
No demand, no delay
Where demand by the creditor shall be necessary in order that delay may exist?
a. When time is of the essence of the contract.
b. When demand would be useless.
c. When the obligor has expressly acknowledged that he is in default.
d. When the obligor has requested for an extension of time. ☑
If Kathryn Bernardez is obligated to give Daniel Padriñas 10 kilos of sugar, which of the following is not correct?
a. Daniel can demand that Kath obtain the sugar and deliver it to him.
b. Daniel can just buy 10 kilos of sugar and charge the expenses to Kath.
c. Kath can insist on just paying Daniel damages or the monetary value of the sugar.☑
d. Daniel may require another person to deliver the sugar and charge the expense to Kath.
Your Ex again, a Frenchman arrived in the Philippines on January 1, 2017 and continued to live and engage in
business (hindi sayo, of course) in the Philippines. He went on a tour of Southeast Asia from August 1 to November 5,
2017. He returned to the Philippines on November 6, 2017 and stayed until April 15, 2018 when he returned to France.
He earned during his stay in the Philippines a gross income of P3,000,000.00 from his investments in the country. For
the year 2017, what was the status of your ex? Do you even care? Bakit, mahal mo pa?
a. A non-resident alien not engaged in trade or business in the Philippines.
b. A non-resident alien engaged in trade or business in the Philippines.
c. A resident alien not engaged in trade or business in the Philippines.
d. A resident alien engaged in trade or business in the Philippines.
The element of the audit planning process most likely to be agreed upon with the client before implementation of the
audit strategy is the determination of the
a. Timing of inventory observation procedures to be performed. ☑
b. Evidence to be gathered to provide a sufficient basis for the auditor's opinion.
c. Procedure to be undertaken to discover litigation, claims, and assessments.
d. Pending legal matters to be included in the inquiry of the client's attorney.
An auditor compares 2018 revenues and expenses with those of the prior period and investigates all changes
exceeding 10%. By this procedure, the auditor would be most likely to learn that
a. An increase in property tax rates has not been recognized in the client's accrual.
b. The 2018 provision for uncollectible account is in adequate because of worsening economic conditions.
c. Fourth quarter payroll taxes were not paid.
d. The client changed its capitalization policy for small tools in 2018. ☑
Your Ex, a french citizen permanently residing in the Philippines, received several items during the taxable year. Which
among the following is not subject to Philippine income taxation?
a. Consultancy fees received for designing a computer program and installing the same in the Shanghai facility of a
Chinese firm.
b. Interest from his deposits in a local bank of foreign currency earned abroad converted to Philippine peso.
c. Dividends received from an American corporation which derived 60% of it annual gross receipts from the Philippine sources for
the past 7 years.
d. Gains derived from the sale of his condominium unit located in The Fort, Taguig to another resident alien.
What accounts would be debited and credited when the wages for indirect laborers are recorded?
DEBIT CREDIT
a. Factory Overhead Wages payable
b. Factory Overhead Payroll ☑
c. Payroll Accrued Payroll
d. Work in Process Payroll
The hardest test in life is having the patience to wait for the right moment. Sometimes when things are falling apart,
they are actually falling in place. Let's be at ease knowing that what was meant for us will never miss us, and what
misses us was never meant for us. Keep moving forward, staying patient and thinking positively. —Francis Kong,
Passion, Purpose, Productivity
Costs, when categorized in relation to persons regulating them, can be classified into:
2. uncontrollable costs.
Controllable Costs
Controllable costs are costs that can be influenced or regulated by the manager or head responsible for it.
For example: direct materials, direct labor, and certain factory overhead costs are controlled by the
production manager. Another example: the sales manager has control over the salary and commission of
sales personnel.
Uncontrollable Costs
From the term itself, uncontrollable costs are those that are not under the control of a specified manager.
These cannot be influenced by decisions or actions of the manager. These costs are imposed by the top
management or allocated to several departments. For example, a company-wide advertising cost that is
allocated by the central office to different departments is not under the control of the department heads.
Other examples include depreciation, insurance, share in rent, share in organization-wide security costs,
etc.
Example
To effectively evaluate the performance of the production department of ABC Company, the
management accountant wants to determine the controllable and uncontrollable costs from the following
items:
1. Direct materials
2. Direct labor
1. Indirect materials
3. Depreciation
4. Insurance
Solution: The controllable costs are: direct materials, direct labor, indirect materials, and indirect labor
(supervision). Depreciation, insurance, allocated repairs and maintenance, and allocated rent and utilities
expense are not under the influence of the production manager. Under responsibility accounting, managers
are evaluated based on costs that they can control. Hence, uncontrollable costs are ignored in evaluating
managers.
Costs, when categorized according to the timing of charge against revenue, can be classified into:
Product Costs
Product costs refer to inventoriable costs. These costs are included as part of inventory and are charged
against revenues as cost of sales only when sold. In other words they are initially classified as assets and
are transferred to expense when they are sold.
All manufacturing expenses (i.e., direct materials, direct labor, and factory overhead) are product costs.
Direct materials, direct labor, and factory overhead are combined to form the products to be sold, hence
the term "product costs".
In the accounting records, the cost of finished products is accumulated in an inventory account - usually
"Finished Goods Inventory". When goods are sold, the cost is transferred from "Finished Goods
Inventory" in the balance sheet to "Cost of Sales" (or Cost of Goods Sold) in the income statement.
Period Costs
Period costs are charged immediately against revenue. Unlike product costs, they are classified as
expenses right away. They are not included in inventory.
Period costs include selling and distribution expenses, and general and administrative expenses. These
costs are presented directly as deductions against revenues in the income statement.
Example
Classify the following costs as (PR) product costs or (PE) period costs.
6. Legal fees
9. Advertising expense
Answers: (1) PR; (2) PR; (3) PE; (4) PR; (5) PE; (6) PE; (7) PE; (8) PR; (9) PE; (10) PR
Direct Costs and Indirect Costs
YES ACCOUNTING·MONDAY, FEBRUARY 11, 2019
Costs, when categorized according to traceability to the product or cost object, can be classified into:
2. indirect costs.
Direct Costs
Direct costs are those that can be easily traced to or associated directly with a specific cost object. A cost
object is something for which cost is measured such as a specific product, a specific department or a
specific branch.
For example, ABC Company produces plastic food containers. The cost of plastic used in production can
be easily traced to the food containers. However, the cost spent for electricity is not directly traceable to
the food containers since such cost was not used solely for the production of the product.
Examples of direct costs include direct materials, direct labor, and other costs incurred for a particular
product such as advertising and promotion costs for, say "Product A".
If the cost object is a department or a branch, all costs that can be associated directly to a particular
department or branch are direct costs. For example, salaries of sales personnel are directly traceable to the
selling department of the organization. Also, the salaries of the sales personnel of "Branch A" can be
traced directly to that branch.
Indirect Costs
Indirect costs are difficult to trace directly to a specific cost object. These costs are commonly shared by
multiple products, different departments, or branches; hence, such costs cannot practically be traced to a
cost object.
Examples of indirect costs include factory overhead costs, organization-wide advertising, taxes, and other
common or joint costs.
Example
Classify the following costs as (D) direct costs or (ID) indirect costs in relation to a specific product.
2. Income tax
3. Factory supplies
8. Supervisor's salary
Answers: (1) ID; (2) ID; (3) ID; (4) D; (5) ID; (6) ID; (7) D; (8) ID; (9) ID; (10) D
Q: AFAR
A private college received an offer from a CPA who is an alumnus to teach a one-semester AFAR course at no cost.
This contribution of service
a. need only be disclosed in the footnotes to the financial statements.
b. be recorded as an asset with an equivalent amount recorded in the unrestricted fund balance.
c. be recorded as a revenue with an equivalent amount recorded as an expenditure.
d. need not be recorded if the service is for a period less than one academic year.
The correct answer is C.
Q: Auditing Theory
Analytical procedures used in planning should focus on:
A. Evaluating the adequacy of evidence gathered concerning unusual balances.
B. Testing individual account balances that depend on accounting estimates.
C. Enhancing the auditor’s understanding of the client’s business.
D. Identifying material weaknesses in the control structure.
CORRECT ANSWER: C
To October 2018 CPALE takers, please read this and hopefully will help you in Audit (Auditing Theories). This
appeared twice (exact same questions, shuffled choices) in October 2016 CPALE:
Comfort Letter
What is a 'Comfort Letter'
A comfort letter is a written document that provides a level of assurance that an obligation will ultimately be met. In its traditional
context, a comfort letter is given to organizations or persons of interest by external auditors regarding statutory audits, statements,
and reports used in a prospectus. The comfort letter will be attached to the preliminary statements as assurance that it will not be
materially different from the final version.
Also known as "letter of comfort" or "solvency opinion."
In other practical uses, comfort letters are often issued by auditors to lenders as solvency opinions on whether a borrower can meet
the payment obligations of a loan. They are opinions, not guarantees, that the underlying company will remain solvent.
Comfort letters can also be issued to underwriters as an obligation to carry out "reasonable investigation" into offerings of
securities. These letters of comfort will ensure that the reports conform to generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). This
helps the underwriter better understand aspects of the financial data which might not otherwise be reported, such as changes to
financial statements and unaudited financial reports.
Yet another broad category of comfort letter application is parent company to subsidiary, whereby a parent company can, for
example, issue a letter of comfort on behalf of a subsidiary that needs to borrow from a bank in its locale, or provide a letter to a
supplier of a subsidiary that wishes to transact a large purchase order of raw materials.
Read more: Comfort Letter https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/comfort_letter.asp…
Comfort Letter
REVIEWED BY WILL KENTON
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Comfort letters can also be issued to underwriters from accounting firms as an obligation to
carry out "reasonable investigation" into offerings of securities. These letters of comfort will
ensure that the reports conform to generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). This helps
the underwriter better understand aspects of the financial data that might not otherwise be
reported, such as changes to financial statements and unaudited financial reports.
Yet another broad category of comfort letter application is parent company to a subsidiary. For
example, a parent company can issue a letter of comfort on behalf of a subsidiary that needs to
borrow from a bank in its locale. It could also provide a letter to a supplier of a subsidiary that
wishes to transact a large purchase order of raw materials.
Internal Controls
REVIEWED BY WILL KENTON
Volume 0%
Internal Controls
Importance to Auditors
The auditor’s opinion that accompanies financial statements is based on an audit of the
procedures and records used to produce them. As part of an audit, external auditors will test a
company’s accounting processes and internal controls and provide an opinion as to their
effectiveness.
Internal audits evaluate a company’s internal controls, including its corporate governance and
accounting processes. They ensure compliance with laws and regulations and accurate and
timely financial reporting and data collection, as well as helping to maintain operational efficiency
by identifying problems and correcting lapses before they are discovered in an external audit.
Internal audits play a critical role in a company’s operations and corporate governance, now that
the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 has made managers legally responsible for the accuracy of its
financial statements.
The U.S. Congress passed the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 to protect investors from the
possibility of fraudulent accounting activities by corporations, which mandated strict reforms to
improve financial disclosures from corporations and prevent accounting fraud.
Operational Efficiency
No two systems of internal controls are identical, but many core philosophies regarding financial
integrity and accounting practices have become standard management practice. While internal
controls can be expensive, properly implemented internal controls can help streamline
operations and increase operational efficiency, in addition to preventing fraud.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Internal controls are the mechanisms, rules, and procedures implemented by a company
to ensure the integrity of financial and accounting information, promote accountability and
prevent fraud.
Besides complying with laws and regulations, and preventing employees from stealing
assets or committing fraud, internal controls can help improve operational efficiency by
improving the accuracy and timeliness of financial reporting.
Internal audits play a critical role in a company’s internal controls and corporate
governance, now that the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 has made managers legally
responsible for the accuracy of its financial statements.
Preventative Versus Detective Controls
Internal controls are typically comprised of control activities such as authorization,
documentation, reconciliation, security and the separation of duties. And they are broadly
divided into preventative and detective activities.
Preventive control activities aim to deter errors or fraud from happening in the first place and
include thorough documentation and authorization practices. And the separation of duties
ensures that no single individual is in a position to authorize, record, and be in custody of a
financial transaction and the resulting asset. Authorization of invoices and verification of
expenses are internal controls. In addition, preventative internal controls include limiting physical
access to equipment, inventory, cash and other assets.
Detective controls are backup procedures that are designed to catch items or events that have
been missed by the first line of defense. Here, the most important activity is reconciliation, used
to compare data sets, and corrective action is taken upon material differences. Other detective
controls include external audits from accounting firms and internal audits of assets such as
inventory.
[Fast Fact: Auditing techniques and control methods from England migrated to the
United States during the Industrial Revolution. In the 20th century, auditors' reporting
practices and testing methods were standardized.]
This a board exam question from Financial Accounting and Reporting (FAR):
In arriving at its profit before tax for the year ended December 31, 2017, Jerry Company has accrued royalties
receivable of P250,000 and interest payable of P200,000. Both royalties and interest are dealt with on a cash basis in
tax computations.
Q1. What is the net temporary difference on December 31, 2017?
Q2. What kind of temporary difference is it: Deductible/ Taxable?
Sample answer: P200,000 Taxable
👇😉
The Correct answer is P50,000 TAXABLE Temporary Difference.
Royalties Income P250,000
Interest Expense (P200,000) = P50,000
PARTNERSHIP FORMATION
Which between the two values below should be taken FIRST when valuing a partner's contribution to the
partnership?
The primary purpose for adopting TQM is for greater customer satisfaction. ☺
Maglibang ng konti: This is a board exam question from RFBT (Business Law):
Mr. San authorized Mr. Soy to sell his car for P200,000 with 5% agent’s commission. Mr. Soy sold the car to Mr. Dy for
P250,000. For how much is Mr. Soy accountable to Mr. San?
A. P200,000
B. P190,000
C. P250,000 👈 correct answer
D. P240,000
Kc lahat ng makukuha ni agent ay mapupunta sa principal.
Art. 1891 (RA 386 - Civil Code of the Philippines)
Every agent is bound to render an account of his transactions and to deliver to the principal whatever he may have received
by virtue of the agency, even though it may not owing to the principal.
2. non-manufacturing costs.
Manufacturing Costs
Manufacturing costs refer to those that are spent to transform materials into finished goods.
Manufacturing costs include direct materials, direct labor, and factory overhead.
Direct materials - cost of items that form an integral part of the finished product. They refer to the major
parts or ingredients. Examples include wood in furniture, steel in automobile, water in bottled drink, fabric
in shirt, etc.
Direct labor - cost of labor expended directly upon the materials to transform them into finished goods.
Direct labor refers to salaries and wages of employees who work to convert the raw materials to finished
goods.
Factory overhead - also called manufacturing overhead, refers to all costs other than direct materials and
direct labor spent in the production of finished goods. Factory overhead includes indirect materials such
as cost of nails, thread, glue, etc.; indirect labor such as salary of the supervisor; and factory expenses
such as rent of the factory space, depreciation of factory equipment, utilities expense of the factory,
factory supplies, etc.
Non-manufacturing Costs
Non-manufacturing costs refer to those incurred outside the factory or production department. These are
costs are not needed in transforming materials into finished goods. Non-manufacturing costs include:
selling expenses and general expenses.
Selling Expenses - also called Selling and Distribution Expenses. Examples include advertising costs,
salaries and commission of sales personnel, storage costs, shipping and delivery, and customer service.
General Expenses - also called General and Administrative Expenses. Examples are: executive salaries,
salaries of administrative staff, accounting expenses, legal expenses, research and development, and other
costs related to general administration of the organization.
Example
Classify the following costs as either M: manufacturing (DM: direct materials, DL: direct labor, FOH:
factory overhead) or N: non-manufacturing (SE: selling expense, GE: general expense).
1. Factory supplies
3. Legal expense
5. Marketing samples
9. Advertising
15. Freight-in
Answers: (1) M-FOH; (2) M-FOH; (3) N-GE; (4) N-SE; (5) N-SE; (6) M-FOH; (7) M-DM; (8) N-GE; (9)
N-SE; (10) N-GE; (11) M-DL; (12) M-FOH; (13) N-GE; (14) N-SE; (15) M-DM
1. management function,
2. ease of traceability,
1. Manufacturing costs - incurred in the factory to convert raw materials into finished goods. It includes
cost of raw materials used (direct materials), direct labor, and factory overhead.
2. Nonmanufacturing costs - not incurred in transforming materials to finished goods. These include
selling expenses (such as advertising costs, delivery expense, salaries and commission of salesmen) and
administrative expenses (such as salaries of executives and legal expenses).
1. Direct costs - those that can be traced directly to a particular object of costing such as a particular
product, department, or branch. Examples include materials and direct labor. Some operating expenses
can also be classified as direct costs, such as advertising cost for a particular product.
2. Indirect costs - those that cannot be traced to a particular object of costing. They are also called
common costs or joint costs. Indirect costs include factory overhead and operating costs that benefit more
than one product, department, or branch.
1. Product costs - are inventoriable costs. They form part of inventory and are charged against revenue,
i.e. cost of sales, only when sold. All manufacturing costs (direct materials, direct labor, and factory
overhead) are product costs.
2. Period costs - are not inventoriable and are charged against revenue immediately. Period costs include
non-manufacturing costs, i.e. selling expenses and administrative expenses.
1. Variable costs - vary in total in proportion to changes in activity. Examples include direct materials,
direct labor, and sales commission based on sales.
2. Fixed costs - costs that remain constant regardless of the level of activity. Examples include rent,
insurance, and depreciation using the straight line method.
3. Mixed costs - costs that vary in total but not in proportion to changes in activity. It basically includes a
fixed cost potion plus additional variable costs. An example would be electricity expense that consists of a
fixed amount plus variable charges based on usage.
1. Relevant cost - cost that will differ under alternative courses of action. In other words, these costs refer
to those that will affect a decision.
2. Standard cost - predetermined cost based on some reasonable basis such as past experiences, budgeted
amounts, industry standards, etc. The actual costs incurred are compared to standard costs.
3. Opportunity cost - benefit forgone or given up when an alternative is chosen over the other/s.
Example: If a business chooses to use its building for production rather than rent it out to tenants, the
opportunity cost would be the rent income that would be earned had the business chose to rent out.
4. Sunk costs - historical costs that will not make any difference in making a decision. Unlike relevant
costs, they do not have an impact on the matter at hand.
5. Controllable costs - refer to costs that can be influenced or controlled by the manager. Segment
managers should be evaluated based on costs that they can control.
Cost accounting is often associated with managerial accounting. Management accountants need to
understand cost and its concepts. Cost concepts are useful in many areas of managerial accounting, such
as in cost-benefit analysis, investing and financing decisions, performance evaluation, and many others.
Despite the presence of overlapping topics, cost accounting and managerial accounting are two different
branches having different study focus.
Cost Accounting
Cost accounting is defined as "a systematic set of procedures for recording and reporting measurements of
the cost of manufacturing goods and performing services in the aggregate and in detail. It includes
methods for recognizing, classifying, allocating, aggregating and reporting such costs and comparing them
with standard costs." (IMA)
Cost accounting focuses on the accumulation of costs incurred and allocating or assigning such costs to
products or departments.
Managerial Accounting
Managerial accounting (or management accounting) "involves partnering in management decision-
making, devising planning and performance management systems, and providing expertise in financial
reporting and control to assist management in the formulation and implementation of an organization’s
strategy." (IMA)
Based from the definitions given above, the difference between the two lies in their functions. The main
function of cost accounting is cost accumulation and allocation to determine cost values. Managerial
accounting, on the other hand, provides information (including cost information) to the members of the
management for decision-making purposes.
Financial accounting, another distinct branch of accounting, also utilizes cost accounting concepts. Cost
accounting provides the needed values to be reported in the financial statements, especially in the
computation and presentation of cost of sales.
Managerial accounting is the branch of accounting that deals with providing accounting information that
is useful to managers in decision-making. Unlike financial accounting, it does not focus on following
reporting standards. Rather, it makes use of principles from different fields of business to cater to
management needs.
Managerial accounting, or management accounting, focuses on providing information for use by internal
users.
Internal users pertain to those working within the company, specifically the management.
"Managerial accounting involves the application of appropriate techniques and concepts in processing
information to assist management in establishing plans and making rational decisions towards the
achievement of the organization's objectives."
There are two broad functions in an organization: line and staff. Line function is the one that is directly
involved in the core operations of the company such as sales and production. Staff function, on the other
hand, provides advisory and support to the organization.
Generally, management accountants exercise staff functions. They support the company by providing
information to enable decisions which are vital for the company's performance and continuity.
The Chief Management Accountant (or controller) exercises line function over his or her subordinates,
and performs staff functions to the other members of the management.
The Management
1. Top management - The top management or administrative level consists of the Chief Executive Officer
(CEO) and the board of directors (BOD). The CEO is also called the managing director or president, and
is selected by the board of directors from among themselves. The BOD is selected by the shareholders to
represent them in managing the company. The top level management is in-charge with the overall
direction of the company. They set company goals, policies and long-term plans.
2. Middle management - Also known as executory management, the middle-level management consists of
departmental heads and branch managers. They implement and execute the plans and policies set by the
top managements. The middle management is the intermediary between the top and low level
management. They report to the top management as well as communicate the plans of the top level to the
lower levels.
3. Low level management - The low level management or front-line management is responsible in directing
and controlling the day-to-day operations of the company. They report directly to the middle management.
The lower level management consists of supervisors, foremen, and officers who are in-charge of directing
workers and employees.
1. Planning and control - such as making budgets and determining expectations regarding future outcomes
of alternative courses of action
2. Internal reporting and interpreting - accumulating and summarizing financial data and disclosing its
implications to different levels of management
3. Evaluation and consulting - assessing different alternatives giving advice to the management to come up
with appropriate decisions
4. Tax administration - supervising the formulation and implementation of tax policies and procedures of
the organization and evaluating implications of tax-related decisions
6. Protection of assets - implementing internal controls, insurance and performing internal audits to protect
the company from losing its assets because fraud, theft, natural disasters, etc.
7. Economic appraisal - assessing the value the economic and social and government influences, and
interpret their effects or impact on the business
Often compared to the controllership function is the treasurership function. Both the controller and the
treasurer report directly to the company's head of finance. While the controller's functions involve internal
finance and accounting, the treasurer's responsibilities involve external finance and cash functions.
The functions of the treasurer include: (1) provision of capital, (2) investor relations, (3) short-term
financing, (4) banking and custody, (5) credit and collections, (6) investments, and (7) insurance.
Conclusion
Managerial accounting processes economic information to aid the management in making decisions. It is
not mandatory yet very important. Without managerial accounting, a business would suffer in information
deficiency leading to uninformed decisions that are detrimental to the entity's performance and even to its
existence.
THE COMPANY SELLS MERCHANDISE FOR P5,233.33%, NET OF 12.35% SALES DISCOUNT. THE AMOUNT
CONTAINS 35.22% PROFIT.
PREPARE JOURNAL ENTRIES USING THE PERPETUAL INVENTORY SYSTEM.
2. NET METHOD- Merchandise purchased are recorded on "net cash to pay" with the assumption that THE COMPANY MUST
AVAIL THE CASH DISCOUNTS. Therefore, on the date of purchase, the Purchases are recorded net of the cash discounts.
ENTRY: DATE OF PURCHASE
DR. Purchases P1,290.91
CR. A/P P1,290.91
ENTRY: DATE OF PAYMENT
DISCOUNTS AVAILED
DR. A/P P1,290.91
CR. CASH P1,290.91
What is Footing?
Definition:
Footing means getting the sum of the amounts entered in the debit and credit columns of an account. It is useful in
computing for account balances.
Purpose of Footing
Every account has a debit column and a credit column. The debit column is on the left side of the account while the credit column is
on the right. Amounts are entered to these columns as business transactions are recorded and posted. Once all transactions are
recorded and posted, the account balances are computed. Account balances are the amounts that are reported in the financial
statements.
To get the balance of an account, all amounts on the debit column are added. All amounts on the credit column are also added. This
process is known as "footing". The account balance is then computed by getting the difference between total debits and total
credits.
Prepaid expenses (a.k.a. prepayments) represent payments made for expenses which have not yet been incurred.
In other words, these are "advanced payments" by a company for supplies, rent, utilities and others that are still to be
consumed. Hence, they are included in the company's assets.
Expenses are recognized when they are incurred regardless of when paid. Expenses are considered incurred when
they are used, consumed, utilized or has expired.
Because prepayments they are not yet incurred, they are not recorded as expenses. Rather, they are classified as
current assets since they are readily available for use.
Prepaid expenses may need to be adjusted at the end of the accounting period. The adjusting entry for prepaid
expense depends upon the journal entry made when it was initially recorded.
There are two ways of recording prepayments:
(1) the asset method, and
(2) the expense method.
[Asset Method]
Under the asset method, a prepaid expense account (an asset) is recorded when the amount is paid. Prepaid expense
accounts include: Office Supplies, Prepaid Rent, Prepaid Insurance, and others.be
Illustration: Gray Electronic Repair Services made this entry to record the purchase of service supplies:
Dr. Service Supplies 1,500.00
Cr. Cash 1,500.00
Take note that the amount has not yet been incurred, thus it is proper to record it as an asset.
Suppose at the end of the month, 60% of the supplies have been used. Thus, out of the ₱1,500, ₱900 worth of supplies
have been used and $600 remain unused. The ₱900 must then be recognized as expense since it has already been
used.
In preparing the adjusting entry, our goal is to transfer the used part from the asset initially recorded into expense – for
us to arrive at the proper balances shown in the illustration above.
The adjusting entry will include: (1) recognition of expense and (2) decrease in the asset initially recorded (since some
of it has already been used). The adjusting entry would be:
Dec 3:
Dr. Service Supplies Expense 900.00
Cr. Service Supplies 900.00
The "Service Supplies Expense" is an expense account while "Service Supplies" is an asset. After making the entry, the
balance of the unused Service Supplies is now at ₱600 (₱1,500 debit and ₱900 credit). Service Supplies Expense now
has a balance of ₱900. Now, we've achieved our goal.
[Expense Method]
Under the expense method, the accountant initially records the entire payment as expense. If the expense method was
used, the entry would have been:
Dr. Service Supplies Expense 1,500.00
Cr. Cash 1,500.00
Take note that the entire amount was initially expensed. If 60% was used, then the adjusting entry at the end of the
month would be:
Dec 31:
Dr. Service Supplies 600.00
Cr. Service Supplies Expense 600.00
This time, Service Supplies is debited for ₱600 (the unused portion). And then, Service Supplies Expense is credited
thus decreasing its balance. Service Supplies Expense is now at ₱900 (₱1,500 debit and ₱600 credit).
Notice that the resulting balances of the accounts under the two methods are the same (Cash paid: ₱1,500; Service
Supplies Expense: ₱900; and Service Supplies: ₱600).
Another Example:
GVG Company acquired a six-month insurance coverage for its properties on September 1, 2017 for a total of ₱6,000.
Under the asset method, the initial entry would be:
Sep 1:
Dr. Prepaid Insurance 6,000.00
Cr. Cash 6,000.00
On December 31, 2017, the end of the accounting period, part of the prepaid insurance already has expired (hence,
expense is incurred). The expired part is the insurance from September to December. Thus, we should make the
following adjusting entry:
Dec 31:
Dr. Insurance Expense 4,000.00
Cr. Prepaid Insurance 4,000.00
Of the total six-month insurance amounting to ₱6,000 (₱1,000 per month), the insurance for 4 months has already
expired. In the entry above, we are actually transferring ₱4,000 from the asset to the expense account (i.e., from
Prepaid Insurance to Insurance Expense).
If the company made use of the expense method, the initial entry would be:
Sep 1:
Dr. Insurance Expense 6,000.00
Cr. Cash 6,000.00
In this case, we must decrease Insurance Expense by ₱2,000 because that part has not yet been incurred (not
used/not expired). Insurance Expense shall then have a balance of ₱4,000. The amount removed from the expense
shall be transferred to Prepaid Insurance. The adjusting entry would be:
Dec 31:
Dr. Prepaid Insurance 2,000.00
Cr. Insurance Expense 2,000.00
Conclusion
What we are actually doing here is making sure that the incurred (used/expired) portion is included in expense and the
unused part into asset. The adjusting entry will always depend upon the method used when the initial entry was made.
If you are having a hard time understanding this topic, I suggest you go over and study the lesson again. Sometimes, it
really takes a while to get the concept. Preparing adjusting entries is one of the challenging (but important) topics for
beginners.
Companies provide services or sell goods for cash or on credit. Allowing credit tends to encourage more sales.
However, businesses that allow credit are faced with the risk that their receivables may not be collected.
Accounts receivable should be presented in the balance sheet at net realizable value, i.e. the most probable amount
that the company will be able to collect.
Net realizable value for accounts receivable is computed like this:
Accounts Receivable (Gross Amount) ₱100,000
Less: Allowance for Bad Debts* 3,000
Accounts Receivable (Net Realizable Value) ₱ 97,000
*Allowance for Bad Debts (also often called Allowance for Doubtful Accounts) represents the estimated portion of the
Accounts Receivable that the company will not be able to collect.
Take note that this amount is an "estimate". There are several methods in estimating doubtful accounts.The estimates
are often based on the company's past experiences.
To recognize doubtful accounts or bad debts, an adjusting entry must be made at the end of the period. The adjusting
entry for bad debts looks like this:
Dec 31:
Dr. Bad Debts Expense xx
Cr. Allowance for Bad Debts xx
Bad Debts Expense (a.k.a. Doubtful Accounts Expense): An expense account; hence, it is presented in the income
statement. It represents the estimated uncollectible amount for credit sales/revenues made during the period.
Allowance for Bad Debts (a.k.a. Allowance for Doubtful Accounts): A balance sheet account that represents the total
estimated amount that the company will not be able to collect from its total Accounts Receivable.
What is the difference between Bad Debts Expense and Allowance for Bad Debts?
Bad Debts Expense is an income statement account while the latter is a balance sheet account. Bad Debts Expense
represents the uncollectible amount for credit sales made during the period.
Allowance for Bad Debts, on the other hand, is the uncollectible portion of the entire Accounts Receivable.
You can also use Doubtful Accounts Expense and Allowance for Doubtful Accounts in lieu of Bad Debts Expense and
Allowance for Bad Debts. However, it is a good practice to use a uniform pair. Some say that Bad Debts have a higher
degree of uncollectibility that Doubtful Accounts. In actual practice, however, the distinction is not really significant.
Here's an Example:
Gray Electronic Repair Services estimates that ₱100.00 of its credit revenue for the period will not be collected. The
entry at the end of the period would be:
Dec 31:
Dr. Bad Debts Expense 100.00
Cr. Allowance for Bad Debts 100.00
Again, you may use Doubtful Accounts. Just be sure to use a logical (and uniform) pair every time. For example:
Dec 31:
Dr. Doubtful Accounts Expense 100.00
Cr. Allowance for Doubtful Accounts 100.00
If the company's Accounts Receivable amounts to ₱3,400 and its Allowance for Bad Debts is ₱100, then the Accounts
Receivable shall be presented in the balance sheet at ₱3,300 – the net realizable value.
Accounts Receivable (Gross Amount) ₱ 3,400
Less: Allowance for Bad Debts 100
Accounts Receivable - Net Realizable Value ₱ 3,300
PART II
FOB SHIPPING POINT:
The ownership to the merchandise will immediately transfer to the buyer once the merchandise is shipped.
✓What if the merchandise is lost while in transit, who suffers the loss?
-Since the ownership is already transferred to the buyer, THE BUYER HIMSELF SUFFERS the loss.
✓On the date of inventory count, to whom will the merchandise inventory belong? Buyer or Seller?
-The merchandise shipped FOB Shipping Point, while in transit on the date of inventory count, is INCLUDED in the merchandise
of the BUYER.
FOB SHIPPING POINT FREIGHT COLLECT
-The buyer shoulders the costs and pays the shipping costs for inventory.
Example:
Selling Price: P10,000.00
Shipping Fee: P250.00
FROM THE SELLER'S VIEWPOINT:
Date of Sale
DR. A/R P10,000.00
CR. Sales P10,000.00
The Seller does not bear/shoulder the transportation costs, therefore he does not record Transpotation Out in his books.
Date of Collection
DR. Cash P10,000.00
CR. A/R P10,000.00
FROM THE BUYER'S VIEWPOINT:
Date of Purchase
DR. Purchases P10,000
DR. Transportation In P250
CR. Accts Payable P10,000
DR. Cash P250
Since the buyer shoulders the transportation costs, he records it in his books the Transportation In.
Date of Payment
DR. A/P P10,000
CR. Cash P10,000.
FOB SHIPPING POINT FREIGHT PREPAID
-the buyer shoulders the costs and does record the Transportation In in his books, BUT FOR THE MEANTIME the seller pays for
the shipping costs, as an accomodation to the buyer.
In effect, the buyer has to reimburse the seller for the transportation costs. On the payment date, the buyer will add the amount to
the payment.
Example:
Selling Price: P10,000.00
LBC Shipping Fee: P250.00
FROM THE SELLER'S VIEWPOINT:
Date of Sale:
DR. A/R P10,250
CR. SALES P10,000
CR. Cash P250
The shipping fee is added to the amount the seller can collect from the buyer.
Again, no Transportation Out is recognised because the seller does not shoulder the shipping costs anyway. He is merely
accomodating the buyer so he pays the shipping company for now.
Date of Collection
DR. CASH P10,250
CR. A/R P10,250
FROM THE BUYER'S VIEWPOINT:
Date of Purchase
DR. Purchases P10,000
DR. Transportation In 250,00
CR. Accts Payable P10,250
Per Accrual Principle, the buyer will recognise Transportation In although no payment has been made yet.
Date Of Payment
DR. A/P P10,250
CR. Cash P10,250
*Payment for the merchandise (P10,000) + Reimbursement to the seller (P250)
HOW TO BECOME A CPA
How to Become a CPA: What It Really Takes
The Certified Public Accountant (CPA) is the professional title given to accountants who have met specific requirements
and passed the CPA licensure exam.
“All CPAs are accountants but not all accountants are CPAs.”
Apparently, the first step to become a CPA is to get into a good school and earn a degree in accounting. Having a
degree is the most basic qualification towards getting certified.
Then, candidates must pass other sets of rigorous requirements. Here are some practical tips and motivation boosters
to help you get those letters beside your name.
1. Know the Requirements
This may sound very basic; but, it is really important to know the requirements. The certification rules vary in different
countries. The board of accountancy in your area implements and observes them. These requirements are generally
classified into education, experience, and examination qualifications.
The board of accountancy requires a bachelor’s degree in accounting. The certification also requires that you complete
and pass the CPA licensure exam. Candidates are required to pass each exam part with a grade not lower than 65%.
Additional rules and conditions may be set by the board. (Refer to R.A. 9298)
The exam consists of six subjects, namely:
a. Financial Accounting and Reporting
b. Advanced Financial Accounting and Reporting
c. Regulatory Framework for Business Transactions
d. Taxation
e. Management Advisory Services
f. Auditing
The rules really do vary so it is important that you check the specific requirements observed by the board of
accountancy. They will also be able to guide you in the application process.
Now, we want to talk more on the personal-motivational aspect of becoming a CPA.
2. Preparing for the Exam
The CPA Exam is tough. The low passing rates in the previous examinations prove it. However, no exam is too hard
with the right preparation. To pass, you need to allocate sufficient study time to your schedule.
Depending on mastery and level of understanding, some may need to devote plenty of time. And candidates faced with
other responsibilities will need to find balance in managing time. Here's the point. Whatever amount of time you
allocate, make sure it is sufficient and worthwhile.
But how much time is sufficient? It depends upon how proficient you already are with the exam areas and your ability to
learn. If you are having a hard time understanding the topics, then you might need to stay in front of that lamp a little
longer (and focus a little harder). Nonetheless, some say that the time you allocate should not be less than 20 hours
per week for 5-6 months of preparation.
Obtain a list of the topics covered in the exam and study the items. Changes to the CPA exam are made every time so
stay updated. Go to a review school. The reviewers and the study guides they provide will help you pass the board
exam.
To the students who are still working on their bachelor’s degree: please do not take your college subjects for granted!
Study the concepts and absorb them into your system now so that you won't have a hard time in your formal review
later.
In preparing for the exam, answer as many problems as you can and understand the theory behind them. You may get
surprised to find questions in the actual exams that are similar to those you already have encountered. That is because
accounting problems are based on accounting concepts. And they will always be. So study, understand and practice.
Keep in mind that what separates passers from non-passers is proper preparation.
3. Pushing Yourself. . . Consistently
The hardest part of the CPA Exam preparation is fueling yourself to go further. This won’t be much of a problem if you
are disciplined enough. However, many of us are not. We tend to get lazy after solving four or five problems. We plan
but act as if we are not up to something. We procrastinate and later realize we don't have enough time.
Clearly, you need to break those habits if you want to become a CPA. There is a proper time for everything. Study
when it is time to study and sleep when it is time to sleep. Take breaks in between your study hours but not to the point
that you are already wasting precious hours. You have to balance everything.
Do not let distractions take you off the track. Focus. You are headed towards the prize. Remind yourself of the rewards
after you pass the exam. Stay motivated and act on it.
4. Inside the Examination Room
During the actual examination, say a little prayer before starting the exam. Be positive but not overly confident.
Manage your time well. Don't use much of it by trying to answer very difficult questions. Answer as many items
confidently as possible. Your goal is to accumulate as much points as you can. The examiners don't give penalties for
incorrect answers so it is in your advantage to attempt to respond to every question; do not leave any item blank.
Please do not get sick on the exam day. Be careful not to catch a cold or digestion problems, or anything! Get enough
rest the night before your exam. You will need a great deal of concentration and presence of mind inside the
examination room so you must prepare both mentally and physically.
Make sure your calculator is in good condition. Have the batteries replaced. You don't want it to go crazy or give up
while you are taking your life-changing exam.
CONCLUSION
The CPA license is awarded to a select few – those who really deserve it. It is a symbol of excellence and an emblem
of achievement. Moreover, it is a platform that will introduce you to bigger career opportunities. Like anything worth
chasing however, it requires some work! So, there you go. Stay excited. Believe in yourself; have faith and act on it.
You will make it. Let us end this long pep talk with a quote from Paulo Coelho.
"When you want something, all the universe conspires in helping you achieve it."
– The Fifth Mountain
Article adapted from AccountingVerse
INDIRECT LABOR
Indirect labor is the cost of any labor that supports the production process, but which is not directly involved in the
active conversion of materials into finished products.*
It is the compensation of employees or workers who DO NOT physically convert raw materials into finished goods.**
Indirect labor also refers to worker’s hours that are spent on working on projects that cannot be traced back to specific production
units or products. In other words, indirect labor is employee work that can’t be billed to goods produced. ***
Examples of Indirect Labor are Salaries of plant managers and engineers, wages of forklift operators, maintenance and inspection
labor, machine helpers.
It forms part of Manufacturing Overhead (Factory Overhead), thus, a part of the cost of the product.
[MANAGEMENT ADVISORY SERVICES]
What is Variable Overhead Efficiency Variance?
'Variable Overhead Efficiency Variance' Definition:
In variance analysis, the total variable overhead variance may be split into two: spending variance and efficiency variance. The
variable overhead efficiency variance refers to the variance that arises due to the difference between the standard variable overhead
allocation base and actual base.
Allocation Base and Application Rate
In standard costing, factory overhead is applied based on a certain allocation base. The most common allocation bases for factory
overhead are:direct labor hours and machine hours. Other bases are also used (especially in activity-based costing).
Example: A company has a production budget of 20,000 units. Each unit requires 4 labor hours to complete. The company has a
factory overhead budget of ₱400,000. Using labor hours as base, the budgeted FOH application rate would be ₱5 per labor hour, i.e.
the FOH budget of ₱400,000 divided by the budgeted allocation base of 80,000 hours.
Standards are used to facilitate better control and speed up the recording process. To better manage accounts, standards may be
established separately for variable and fixed factory overhead.
Formula
The formula for variable factory overhead (VFOH) efficiency variance is:
VFOH efficiency variance = (AB - SB) x BR
where:
AB = actual allocation base,
SB = standard base, and
BR = budgeted rate.
It may also be expressed as:
(AB x BR) - Applied VFOH, or (AB x BR) - (SB x BR).
The applied variable factory overhead is equal to (SB x BR).
Example
XYZ Company has a variable factory overhead budget of ₱1,320,000 in producing 120,000 units of its product. One unit requires
2.75 labor hours to complete -- a total of 330,000 hours. Hence, the application rate for VFOH is ₱4 per labor hour (1,320/330).
Last month, XYZ produced 9,600 units and employed 29,000 direct labor hours. The actual variable factory overhead is ₱121,800.
Compute for the variable efficiency variance.
VFOH efficiency variance
=(AB - SB) x BR
=(29,000 - 26,400) x ₱4
=₱10,400 unfavorable
The standard allocation base of 26,400 is computed by multiplying the number of units produced by the standard time required to
produce a unit (9,600 units x 2.75 hours).
The variance may also be expanded and expressed as:
VFOH efficiency variance
=(AB x BR) - (SB x BR)
=(29,000 x ₱4) - (26,400 x ₱4)
=₱10,400 unfavorable
Favorable and Unfavorable VFOH Efficiency Variance
If the actual allocation base is greater than the standard, the company used more of it (more hours) than expected. Hence, the
variance is unfavorable. If the actual base is less than the standard base, the variance is favorable.
Correcting Entries – For Errors Made in the Journal
When an error is discovered in the accounting records, it should be corrected immediately to prevent the processing of
wrong data which results to unreliable financial statements.
A correcting entry is a journal entry whose purpose is to rectify the effect of an incorrect entry previously made.
To illustrate how to prepare correcting entries, here are some examples.
On December 5, 2017, Gray Electronic Repair Services paid ₱370 registration and licensing fees for the business.
The correct entry is:
Dec5:
Dr. Taxes and Licenses 370.00
Cr. Cash 370.00
Suppose the bookkeeper, for whatever reason, debited Transportation Expense instead of Taxes and Licenses.
The entry made was:
Dec5:
Dr. Transportation Expense 370.00
Cr. Cash 370.00
Upon analysis, the Transportation Expense is overstated (higher than in should be) because the bookkeeper recorded
transportation expense but it was not really a transportation expense.
Also, Taxes and Licenses is understated (lower than it should be). The amount should have been recorded but was not
recorded under this account.
To correct these errors, we should make an entry to offset the effects.
Transportation Expense is overstated therefore we should decrease it; Taxes and Licenses is understated therefore we
should increase it.
The Cash account was credited in the entry made. Was the entry made to Cash correct? Look at the correct entry. Is it
proper to have Cash credited? Yes. Therefore, we have no problem with the Cash account.
Now, to increase Taxes and Licenses, we debit it. To decrease Transportation Expense, we credit it.
Remember that to increase/record an expense, we debit it; to decrease an expense, we credit it.
The correcting entry would then be:
Dec31
Dr. Taxes and Licenses 370.00
Cr. Transportation Expense 370.00
Note: The correcting entry is dated when the error is discovered. In this case, we assumed that it was discovered and
corrected on December 31.
If an explanation or annotation is required, it would be something like: "To correct error made on taxes and licenses" or
"To record correction of error on entry made for taxes and licenses."
After making this entry, Transportation Expense will zero-out (₱370 debit and ₱370 credit) and Taxes and Licenses will
now have a balance of ₱370.00, thus making our records correct.
Another Example
Let us assume the bookkeeper made another error.
On December 17, the company collected a receivable from a customer, ₱1,650.00. Suppose the bookkeeper recorded
it at ₱1,560.00 instead of ₱1,650.00.
This was the entry made:
Dec17:
Dr. Cash 1,560.00
Cr. Accounts Receivable 1,560.00
What is the correct entry? The entry should have been:
Dec17:
Dr. Cash1,650.00
Cr. Accounts Receivable 1,650.00
How will we correct this? Cash is understated because the accountant recorded ₱1,560 instead of ₱1,650. Accounts
Receivable is also overstated because it was reduced by ₱1,560 only but should have been reduced by ₱1,650.
ANALYSIS: We should then increase Cash and reduce Accounts Receivable by ₱90.
The correcting entry would be:
Dec31:
Dr. Cash 90.00
Cr. Accounts Receivable 90.00
Another way of doing it (and an easier one) is to look at the entry made and correct entry. Upon analysis, you will see
that the amount debited to Cash is less that what should have been debited. The same goes for the amount credited to
Accounts Receivable. Cash should then be debited by ₱90 more and Accounts Receivable should be credited by ₱90
more.
Recap: Steps in Making Correcting Entries
The steps in preparing correcting entries may be summed up as follows:
1. Determine the entry made. – What was the erroneous/wrong entry made?
2. Determine the correct entry. – What entry should have been made?
3. Analyze #1 and #2 to come up with the correcting entry.
Steps 1 and 2 may be interchanged. Nonetheless, you need to know the entry made and the correct entry (should-be
entry) before you can come up with the correcting entry.
What is Accounting?
Accounting is famously known as the "language of business". Through the financial statements, the end-product reports
in accounting, it delivers information to different users.
Accounting is a means through which information about a business entity is communicated.
Accounting Definition
Technical definitions of accounting have been published by different accounting bodies. The American Institute of Certified Public
Accountants (AICPA) defines accounting as:
"the art of recording, classifying, and summarizing in a significant manner and in terms of money, transactions and events which
are, in part at least of financial character, and interpreting the results thereof."
Though I am not a fan of technical definitions, I believe that studying the statement above will give us a better understanding of
accounting.
1. Accounting is considered an art
Accounting is considered an art because it requires the use of skills and creative judgment. One has to be trained in this discipline to
be able to perform accounting functions well.
Accounting is also considered a science because it is a body of knowledge. However, accounting is not an exact science since the
rules and principles are constantly changing (improved).
2. Accounting involves interconnected "phases"
Recording pertains to writing down or keeping records of business transactions. Classifyinginvolves grouping similar items that
have been recorded. Once they are classified, information is summarized into reports which we call financial statements.
3. Concerned with transactions and events having financial character
For example, hiring an additional employee is qualitative information with no financial character. Hence, it is not recorded.
However, the payment of salaries, acquisition of an office building, sale of goods, etc. are recorded because they involve financial
value.
4. Business transactions are expressed in terms of money
They are assigned amounts when processed in an accounting system. It is not enough to record that the company paid salaries. It
must include monetary figures – say for example, ₱20,000 salaries expense.
5. Interpreting the results
Interpreting results is part of the phases of accounting. Information is useless if they cannot be interpreted and understood. The
amounts, figures, and other data in the financial reports have meanings that are useful to the users.
By studying the definition alone, we learned some important concepts in accounting. It also gave us an idea of what accountants do.
You may not notice but the simple things you do and encounter everyday can actually be related to some level of accounting. You
make budgets, count change and check the receipts from the supermarket. You may also have listed things you spent your money
with at one point in your life.
We are surrounded by business – from managing our own money to seeing profit statements of big corporations. And where there is
business, there sure is accounting.
Reversing Entries - Part 2 (UNEARNED INCOME & PREPAID EXPENSE)
In part 1, we had an introduction to reversing entries and discussed examples for accrued income and accrued
expense.
In this part, we will cover the two other types of entries that can be reversed:
a. unearned income and
b. prepaid expense.
Reversing Entry for Unearned Income
If the income method is used in recording unearned income, reversing entries can be prepared.
Take note that adjusting entries for unearned income recorded using the liability method are NEVER reversed.
Example: ABC Company recorded customer advances amounting to ₱5,000 in December 1, 2017. The company uses the income
method in recording unearned income.
Dec1:
Dr. Cash5,000.00
Cr. Service Revenue 5,000.00
At the end of 2017, the company rendered ₱2,000 worth of services. We need to set-up the unearned income of ₱3,000 and bring
Service Revenue to its correct balance (₱2,000). The adjusting entry would be:
Dec31:
Dr. Service Revenue3,000.00
Cr. Unearned Revenue 3,000.00
At the beginning of 2018, the following reversing entry can be prepared:
Jan1:
Dr. Unearned Revenue3,000.00
Cr. Service Revenue 3,000.00
Notice that the adjusting entry is simply reversed.
At the end of 2018, Service Revenue will again be checked to see if there is any unearned portion and if an adjusting entry is
necessary.
Reversing Entry for Prepaid Expense
If the expense method is used in recording prepaid expense, reversing entries can be prepared. Adjusting entries for prepaid
expense under the asset method are NOT reversed.
Example: On December 1, 2017, ABC Company paid ₱7,500 of rent for 3 months starting December 1. The expense method was
used in recording this transaction.
Dec1:
Dr. Rent Expense7,500.00
Cr. Cash 7,500.00
At the end of 2017, 1 month worth of rent has already expired. Prepaid Rent should be set-up for the remaining 2 months. The
adjusting entry would be:
Dec31:
Dr. Prepaid Rent5,000.00
Cr. Rent Expense 5,000.00
At the beginning of 2018, the following reversing entry can be prepared:
Jan1:
Dr. Rent Expense5,000.00
Cr. Prepaid Rent 5,000.00
Again, notice that the adjusting entry is simply reversed.
At the end of February, the entire rent paid has already expired. We do not need to make an entry here since we already prepared a
reversing entry.
Nonetheless, Rent Expense will be reviewed at the end of the year. Rent Expense and all other expenses will be checked to see if
there are any unexpired portions which will require adjusting entries.
Author's Notes:
And there you have the four types of adjusting entries that can be reversed. We've covered all of them and provided examples to
guide you. Again, if you are having a hard time understanding the process, don't worry. It requires some time and a little effort for
the concepts to sink in. After all, the process will always be the same.
Reversing Entries - Part 1 (ACCRUED INCOME & ACCRUED EXPENSES)
Reversing entries are made at the beginning of the new accounting period to enable a smoother accounting process.
This step is "optional" and is especially useful to companies that use the cash basis method.
In this step, adjusting entries made at the end of the previous accounting period are simply reversed, hence the term
"reversing entries".
However, not all adjusting entries qualify for this step.
The only types of adjusting entries that may be reversed are those that are prepared for the following:
1. accrued income,
2. accrued expense,
3. unearned revenue using the income method, and
4. prepaid expense using the expense method.
Adjusting entries for unearned revenue under the liability method and for prepaid expense under the asset method are
never reversed. Adjusting entries for depreciation, bad debts and other allowances are also never reversed.
Reversing Entry for Accrued Income
Example: ABC Company is to receive ₱3,000 interest income at the end of February 2018. It covers 3 months starting
December 1, 2017. At the end of 2017, the accountant properly made an adjusting entry for one month's worth of
accrued income.
Dec31:
Dr. Interest Receivable1,000.00
Cr. Interest Income 1,000.00
At the beginning of 2018, the accountant can prepare this reversing entry:
Jan1:
Dr. Interest Income1,000.00
Cr Interest Receivable 1,000.00
The adjusting entry is simply reversed. Debit what was credited and credit what was debited.
When the ABC Company receives the interest income at the end of February, the accountant will then prepare this
journal entry:
Feb28:
Dr. Cash3,000.00
Cr. Interest Income 3,000.00
Notice that Interest Income is credited for ₱3,000. Now you might be asking this: Under the concept of accrual, the
interest income to be recognized in 2018 should be ₱2,000. Then why credit ₱3,000 Interest Income?
Very good. Well, in the reversing entry at the beginning of the period, Interest Income was already debited for ₱1,000.
So if we combine them (₱1,000 debit and 3,000 credit), then we'll end up with ₱2,000 Interest Income which is the
correct amount to be recognized in 2018.
We said that reversing entries are optional. If the accountant did not make a reversing entry at the beginning of the
year, the accountant will have this entry upon collection of the income.
Feb28:
Dr. Cash3,000.00
Cr. Interest Receivable 1,000.00
Cr. Interest Income 2,000.00
Note: Actually, if you combine the reversing entryand journal entry for collection. You'll come up with the journal entry
above.
Reversing Entry for Accrued Expense
Example: Suppose that ABC Company and its lessor agrees that ABC will pay rent at the end of January 2018,
covering a 3-month period starting November 1, 2017. The entire amount is ₱6,000.
At the end of December 2017, the accountant properly prepared this adjusting entry for two months worth of rent
expense (Nov 1 to Dec 31):
Dec31:
Dr. Rent expense4,000.00
Cr. Rent payable 4,,000.00
At the beginning of 2018, the accountant can prepare this reversing entry:
Jan1:
Dr. Rent Payable4,000.00
Cr. Rent Expense 4,000.00
Again, notice that the adjusting entry is simply reversed.
When the company pays the entire rent, the accountant will then prepare this journal entry:
Jan31:
Dr. Rent Expense6,000.00
Cr. Cash 6,000.00
In effect, Rent Expense for 2017 is ₱2,000 even if the accountant debits ₱6,000 upon payment. This is because of the
reversing entry which includes a credit to Rent Expense for ₱4,000.
If the accountant did not make a reversing entry at the beginning of the year, the accountant will have this entry upon
payment of the rent.
Jan31:
Dr. Rent Payable4,000.00
Cr. Rent Expense2,000.00
Cr. Cash 6,000.00
There you have the first two types of adjusting entries that can be reversed. If you are having trouble understanding the
process, don't worry. It requires some time and a little effort for the concepts to sink in. In part 2, we'll take a look at the
other two types.
WHAT IS A BALANCE SHEET?
Balance Sheet – a.k.a. Statement of Financial Position
A balance sheet shows the financial position or condition of a company as of a certain date. It is also called Statement of Financial
Position.
Financial position pertains to the resources owned and controlled by the company (assets), and the claims against them (liabilities
and capital).
Hence, if you have a report that presents a company's assets, liabilities and capital, then you are probably looking at a company's
balance sheet.
Balance Sheet Example
Here is a sample balance sheet for Strauss Printing Services, a service type sole proprietorship business. (REFER TO IMAGE)
All amounts are assumed and simplified for illustration purposes.
[Explanation and Pointers]
1. A Balance Sheet shows the financial position or condition of the company; thus, it is also called "Statement of Financial
Position".
2. A typical balance sheet starts with a heading which consists of three lines. The first line presents the name of the company; the
second describes the title of the report; and the third states the date of the report.
3. Notice that the third line is worded "As of..." Unlike the other components of the financial statements which cover a span of time
("For the period ended.."), the balance sheet presents information as of a certain date (at a specific point in time). In the above
example, the contents of the balance sheet pertain to the financial condition of the company on December 31, 2017.
4. A balance sheet summarizes the assets, liabilities, and capital of a company. Assets refer to properties owned and controlled by
the company. Liabilities are obligations to creditors, lenders, etc. And capital represents the portion left for the owners of the
business after all liabilities are paid. For detailed lessons about assets, liabilities and capital, check out the Elements of Accounting.
5. Assets and liabilities are classified as either current or non-current. Current assets are properties that will be converted into cash
within 12 months or within the operating cycle of the business. Current liabilities are due within 12 months or within the operating
cycle. Non-current assets and non-current liabilities are those that do not meet the above qualifications.
6. "Total assets" and "total liabilities and capital" should always be equal.
7. The capital amount, P147,100 for Strauss, Capital, was actually taken from the Statement of Owner's Equity.
8. The balance sheet may be presented in two forms: account form and report form. In account form, assets are presented on the left
side while liabilities and capital are presented on the right. In report form, assets are presented first and then followed by liabilities
and capital. The example above is presented using the report form.
9. Good accounting form suggests that a single line is drawn every time an amount is computed. It signifies that a mathematical
operation has been completed. The "total assets" and "total liabilities and capital" amounts are double-ruled.
EMPTIO REI SPERATAE
REGULATORY FRAMEWORK FOR BUSINESS TRANSACTIONS -
Latin for "Sale of Future Thing."
Professional Skepticism
- is an attitude that includes a questioning mind, being alert to conditions which may indicate possible misstatement due
to error or fraud, and a critical assessment of audit evidence. #Auditing
'Pag tinanong ka ng jowa mo kung bakit mo sya pinaghihinalaan sabihin mo skeptic kalan
MANAGEMENT BY EXCEPTION
COST ACCOUNTING: Management By Exception is a concept in which material differences
between #expected performance and #actualperformance are investigated, whether FAVORABLE or UNFAVORABLE.
SUNK COST
MANAGEMENT ADVISORY SERVICES
A sunk cost is a cost that has already been incurred and thus cannot be recovered. A sunk cost differs from future costs
that a business may face, such as decisions about inventory purchase costs or product pricing.
Sunk costs (Past Costs) are excluded from future business decisions, because the cost will be the same regardless of the outcome of
the decision.
FUNERAL EXPENSE
TAXATION: Funeral expenses are those incurred in connection with the interment or burial of the deceased. These
expenses must be duly supported by receipts, invoices, or other evidences to show that they were actually incurred.
The amount deductible from Gross Estate is the ACTUAL FUNERAL EXPENSE (whether paid or unpaid) up to the time
of interment, or an amount EQUAL TO FIVE PERCENT OF THE GROSS ESTATE, whichever is lower, but in NO
CASE to EXCEED P200,000. [Rev. Regs. No. 2-2003; Sec. 86 [A] (1) [a], NIRC]
LAND
FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING & REPORTING: Land in general (with the assumption that all other things remain constant) is an
asset the physical form of which does not depreciate, and its monetary value is expected to increase overtime (Appreciation).
DECEDENT
TAXATION: Decedent is the person who died and whose property is transmitted through succession.
"Decedent is a general term applied to the person whose property is transmitted through succession, whether or not he
left a will."
(Art. 775, Civil Code of he Philippines)