Kevin Lynch Image of the City o Physical characteristics (topography,

boundaries, etc.)
Imageability o Inhabitants (ethnics)
– quality in a physical object that evokes a strong image o Nodes
o Points, strategic spots by which an
– Important to understanding it as a construction of observer can enter
space o Intensive foci from which observer is
travelling
– Challenging because of features such as size, scale,
o Directly related to the concept of paths
time, and motion
and districts
– May shift depending on circumstance of viewing o Junctions and concentration
o May be thematic concentrations
o Landmarks
May be analyzed into 3 components: o Point of reference to an observer
o Physical elements that may vary widely in
o Identity ( as separate identity ) scale
o Structure ( spatial relationship between elements
)
o Meaning ( practical or emotional )
Elements of Urban Design
5 Major Elements
Involves design and coordination of all that makes up
o Paths cities and towns:
o Channels along which the observer
moves BUILDINGS
o Predominant element for many person’s – Most pronounced elements
image
o Other elements are related through – Shape and articulate space by forming
paths the street walls of the city
o Strong paths:
 Easily identifiable PUBLIC SPACE
 Continuity and directional
– Living room of the city
quality
 Aligned with larger systems – Make high quality life possible
 Spatial extremes highlight paths
– Most Stage and backdrop to the
o Edges
o Linear elements not used or considered drama of life
as paths
o Lateral reference – i.e. grand central plaza and squares, local
o Not coordinate axes neighborhood parks
o Not as dominant as paths STREETS
o Important in organizing features
o Districts – Connection between spaces and places
o Medium to large sections of a city – Pattern of street network defines a city and
o Conceived of as two dimensional what makes each city unique
o Observer can mentally eneter “inside-of”
o Dominance depends upon the individual – i.e. grand avenues and intimate pedestrian
and the given district street in Paris
o Building types and detail
TRANSPORT HERITAGE CHARACTER

– Connects parts of the city and help shape them o Second important source of character.
o ‘old buildings’ are recurring theme of
– Enable movement through the city
urban design.
– Best cities are the ones that elevate the o Implies more than a memorable or
experience of the pedestrian while minimizing attractive appearance
the dominance of private automobile o Gathorne – Hardy
 Important repository of
– i.e. road, rail, bicycle, and pedestrian networks knowledge
LANDSCAPE o Historic buildings provide a richness of
character, texture, and human scale
– Green part of the city that weaves throughout o Establish landmarks and focal point that
– Helps define the character and beauty of a city contribute to the city pattern

– Creates soft, contrasting spaces and elements INCREASED CHOICE

– i.e. urban parks, street trees etc. o People no longer experience life in lock –
step, predictable patterns.
o Not only do people need to choose
among many options or living and
Core Elements of Urban Design working, but they increasingly value
LOCAL CHARACTER having a choice

The distinctive identity of a particular place that “Place promotion is in part a process whereby cities,
results from the interaction of many factors including: regions and countries are imbued with new meanings and
sold though the agency of advertising, packaging, and
 Built form market positioning.”
 People
 Activity  Landscapes
 Social practices
 History
 Building
Supporting local character can reinforce a sense  Residents
of identity among residents thereby encouraging  Symbol and meanings of places
them to help actively managing their neighborhood
These are potentially available for sale to investors and
and offer people meaningful choices
tourists. It also includes representational element directed
NEIGHBORHOOD CHARACTER at local residents.
o Supporting for local character is FACILITATING REDEVELOPMENT
strongest at scale of individual
New housing is more likely to be accepted by
neighborhood.
neighbors and purchasers if its layout and design
o It is the prime example of design
acknowledge local building traditions.
principle.
o Provide and important source of “Housing design that reflect local traditions also enhance
“identity”. the value of higher – density developments. Projects that
fit their surrounding are an easier sell – both to local
officials and consumers – than those that seem out of
context.”
 Ian Bentley’s Responsive Environments
Planning should be a product of progressive
social and political attitudes. Legibility
Should be able to provide users with democratic Degree of choice depends on how legible its: how
setting. layout is understood
Once this is achieved, the places are RESPONSIVE. Elements that give perceptual structure to the
place should now be brought into the design process

Permeability Important in Two Levels

 Must be accessible to people to offer them  Physical form

choice.  Activity forms
 Physical and visual permeability depends on how Legibility in the old days: important buildings stood out.
the network of public space divides the
environment in blocks. Legibility of form and use is reduced in the modern
 THE CHALLENGE: to improve interface between environments.
public and private permeability Segregation also reduces legibility.
Decline in Public Permeability Current Design Trends Legibility is strengthened by LYNCH’s elements of the
 Scale of Development city.
 Hierarchical Layout
 Segregation of pedestrian and vehicular
circulation Robustness
 Security Environments which can be used for many
different purposes

Variety The spatial and construction arrangements of

individual buildings and outdoor spaces should allow for
 Offers users a choice of experiences flexibility.
 Places with varied forms, uses, and meanings
There must be a distinction between large scale
 Developers and planners are more concerned
and small-scale robustness.
with economic performance and easier
management, than the variety. 3 Key Factors for Long Term Robustness
 END PRODUCT: Modern zoned city where choice
depends on mobility  Building depth
 Access
Variety 3 Main Factors  Building height
 Range of activities
 Possibility of supply Small Scale of Robustness Depends on
 Design encourages positive interaction
 Feasibility  Hard and soft spaces
o Economic  Active and passive spaces
o Political  Size and shapes
o Functional  Details
Visual Appropriateness Personalization

Focus on details Bears the stamp of their own taste and values

Affects interpretation of people put on places Person’s pattern of activities more clear

A vocabulary of visual cues must be found to Users personalize in 2 ways: improve practical
communicate levels of choice. facilities and to change image of the place

Interpretation can reinforce responsiveness by: POLITICAL ISSUE: Control VS individual choice

 Supporting the place’s legibility Two levels of Personalization

 Supporting the place’s variety
 Public
 Supporting the place’s robustness
 Private

Personalization is affected by 3 key factors

Richness
 Tenure
Variety of senses experience  Building Type
 Technology
Designing for all sensory choices

Two ways for users to choose from different senses

experiences

 Focus their attention to different source of SYNTHESIS

sense experience
PERMEABILITY: designing the overall layout of routes
 Moving from one source to another
and development blocks
The sense of motion: involves kinetic experience whose
VARIETY: Locating uses on the site
choices can be gained only through movement.
LEGIBILITY: massing of bldgs. And enclosure of public
Tram line
spaces
Road
ROBUSTNESS: spatial and constructional arrangement of
Footpath building and outdoor spaces

VISUAL APPROPRIATENESS: designing the external image

The sense of smell: involves choice of olfactory RICHNESS: design of sensory choice
experience which can only be gained by moving from
PERSONALIZATION: encourages people to put their mark
one source to another
on their own place
The sense of hearing: involuntary and restricted to
places

Aural richness is achieved in small spaces by

imposing it on everyone in that space.

The sense of touch: voluntary and involuntary

The sense of sight: most dominant in terms of

information and easiest to control

Visual richness depends on presence of visual

contrast.
 Urban Form and Function
Main Parameters of City Form

 Shape Urban land Use Color Code

 Size  Residential – yellow
 Built-up area vis-à-vis amount of open space  Commercial – red
Lost Space  Industrial – violet
 Institutional – blue
Poor planning practices and factors that affect  Agricultural – green
urban form.  Parks and recreation – LT green
Factors that cause Lost Space  Water zone – aqua
 Tourist zone – orange
 The Automobile
o Devotion of storage and movement of Incentive zoning – allowing builder and developer more
vehicles space if they provide certain desirable features and
 Modern Movement amenities such as plazas and arcade
o Abstract ideals Cluster zoning – special zoning policies for medium to
 Zoning and Land Use Policies large sized controlled development
o City is subdivided into homogenous
districts. Architectural guidelines
 Privatization of Public Spaces  Building height
 Changing Land Use  Setback
Urban Design Control  Building bulk
 Architectural character
Tools to create a unified and coherent urban
form. Floor area ratio – proportion between built area and lot
area
Land Use Planning and Zoning

 Legal regulation of the use of land

 Allocates types of uses base on growth pattern Urban Ecological Processes
 Police power Natural process that affect urban form
 Programs and polices do not correspond with
social relationships Invasion – entrance of new population

General Land Use Color Codes Centralization – ecological processes in city land use
patterning referring to an increase in population
 Built-up area – yellow
Block – boosting – forcing the population out of the area
 Agriculture – LT green
 Agro-industrial – LT violet Gentrification – improving the physical set-up
 Forest – DK green
Adaptive re-use – converting old, usually historic building
 Mining/quarry – brown
section to new uses other than the original purpose
 Grassland/pasture – olive green
 Swampland/marshes – aqua Suburbanization – moving to the outskirts/hinterlands to
 Other categories – any color escape the ills of the inner city
Urban Models 4 Factors that give rise to separate Nuclei

Economic factors that affect urban form  Certain activities have special requirements
o CBD – accessibility
Centric Zone Theory – E.W. Burgess
o Warehousing/docks – waterfront
– transition zone for eventual CBD o Low density housing – land
 Some activities group together because they
– simplicity has stood the test of time
profit from cohesion
Zone1 – CBD o Financial/office district
o Medical district
Zone2 – transition o Manufacturing district
Zone3 – low-income housing  Other activities are detrimental to each other
o Heavy industry
Zone4 – middle-income housing o High rent residential
Zone5 – commuting o Meat packing plants
o Funeral homes
 Certain activities cannot afford high rents
Sector Model – Homer Hoyt o Forced together in the low rent areas

– other uses grow with the CBD Urban Realms – James Vance

– most cities grow in the direction – emergence of self-sufficient sectors

of the higher income – independent urban realms caused by

automobiles
1. CBD
2. Wholesale, light manufacturing City Functions
3. Low – class residential Socio – cultural, economic, and political factors
4. Middle – class residential affecting urban form.
5. High – class residential

High rent areas tend to:

Economic – basic and continuing function
 Grow from a given point along lines of transpo
 Grow towards the high ground free from Defense and Protection – obsolete at present and built
flooding to withstand sieges from migrating tribes
 Grow towards the open country Worship and Government – prime function of the city
 Grow towards home of community leaders and cities were built around temples, shrines, churches,
 Pull office buildings, banks, and stores along and castle.
with them
Transportation – greatly influences the location of the
 Continue growing in the same direction for a
city since they are dependent on geography and it also
long period
done serious damage to physical and social fabric.
Multiple Nuclei Model – Chauncy Harris & Edward
Education – seat of the academy and scholarship
Pullman
Cultural – too often sacrifice in favor of temporary
– uses do not evolve around a single core but at
economic concerns
several nodes and focal point
Housing – largest and simplest function of city
 Shape Types

Radiocentric – large circle with radial corridors  Separators

o Greenway
Rectilinear – two corridors of intense development
o Greenbelt
crossing the center
o Corridors
Star – radiocentric form with open spaces between the  Connectors
outreaching corridors of development  Centerpiece
o Plays role of node and focal point,
Ring – built around a large open space
commercial anchor, and recreational
Linear – result of natural topography and may also be area.
transportation spine  Preservation/conservation area
o Natural environment
Branch – linear with connecting arms
o Historical site
Sheet – vast urban area and no articulation o Cultural site

Articulated sheet – accented by one or more central

cluster

Constellation – series of nearly equal size cities in close

proximity

Satellite – constellation of cities around a main center

Size and Density

Absolute scale – physical extent measure in km across,

center to outskirts, and area in mm2

Relative scale – density formulas measure in

 # of people per sq. km or ha.

 # of families per block
 # of houses per sq. km or ha.
 Amount of BFA per section
 Automobile population
 FAR

Open Space

Function – open spaces are made for recreation,

preservation, and conservation of nature and ecology

 Provide visual amenity, health, and psychological

well-being
 Provide floor control measure
 Reduces air pollution
 Attract business
 Space for urban expansion