ENGLISH FOR AGRICULTURE STUDENTS

UNIT 1 Farmers and the Environment

Agriculture is one of the world’s most important industries.

It produces food and provides employment for millions of people.
Farmers work on the land and try to control and adapt the natural ecosystem.
They use fire to clear the land and they irrigate crops.
They plant crops at certain times of the year.
They try to control pests and diseases.
In hunting and gathering societies, people have very little impact on the natural environment.
In urban societies, people have a very large impact.

Agricultural ecosystems affect the environment more than hunting and gathering societies, but not as
much as urban societies.
Agro-ecosystems can be complex, with hundreds of crops and animals, or they can havejust one type
of plant and animal.
Two of the most important agro-ecosystems in Asia are slash-and-burn cultivation (also called
‘swidden’ or ‘upland agriculture’) and lowland rice cultivation.

UNIT 2 Traditional Lowland Rice Cultivation

Lowland rice is the most important crop in most parts of Asia.

Farmers level the land and build bunds to hold water.

They flood the fields with water and plow to get rid of weeds and to puddle the soil to prevent the
water from seeping away.

They transplant rice seedlings, weed the fields and finally, harvest the grain.

Irrigation is vital for high yields.

Most rice is grown in the lowlands because there is enough water, fertile soil and level land.

Plowing, transplanting, weeding and harvesting all take a lot of work.

Soil fertility varies from place to place, but lowland soils tend to be more fertile than in the uplands.

Traditional methods produce relatively low yields of rice.

Farmers also grow crops on the bunds and keep fish in the paddies.

They collect frogs, shellfish and snails that grow naturally in the rice fields.
Over the centuries, farmers have selected and planted rice seeds that yield well, resist pests and
diseases, and taste good.

Traditional farming uses many different varieties of rice.

English for Agriculture unit 2 grammar

GRAMMAR

Form of the Verb to be

Look at the following sentences:

1. Lowland rice is the most important crop.

2. Irrigation is vital.
3. There is enough water.
4. Agriculture is one of the world's most important industries.

Please note that

 these sentences all use a form of the verb 'to be'.

 in these cases the form = is
 however, the verb 'to be' has many forms.

The most important forms of the verb to be:

Tense Form
Present is (singular) / are (plural)
Future Simple will be
Future with 'going to' is going to be / are going to be
Past Simple was / were
Present Perfect has been / have been
Auxilliary Constructions can be / may be /should be / etc.
Note:

 Usually, there is only one present tense used for the verb 'to be'.
 Present continuous tense is not used in these types of construction.

Look at how we use 'to be' with different time periods:

Tense When?
Lowland rice is the most important crop
Present
now.
Lowland rice will be the most important
Future Simple
crop in the future.
Future with 'going Lowland rice is going to be the most
to' important crop in the future.
 Lowland rice was the most important
Past Simple
crop in the past.
Lowland rice has been the most
Present Perfect
important crop for a long time.
Auxilliary Lowland rice must be the most imortant
Constructions crop now.
Note that the sentences used the singular form of the verb 'to be'. The following set of
sentences show how plural nouns use a different form of 'to be':

Tense When?
In Europe, potatoes are one of the most
Present
important crops now.
In Europe, potatoes will be one of the
Future Simple
most important crops in the future.
Future with 'going In Europe, potatoes are going to be one
to' of the most important crops in the future.
In Europe, potatoes were one of the most
Past Simple
important crops in the past.
In Europe, potatoes have been one of the
Present Perfect
most important crops for many years
Auxilliary In Europe, potatoes must be one of the
Constructions most important crops at the moment.

English for Agriculture: unit 2 lowland

cultivation vocabulary
Vocabulary:

century (n) - 100 years

centuries (plural) - hundreds of years
Examples:

1. The 19th Century saw a large increase in heavy industries.

2. Agriculture has been developed and improved over many centuries.

disadvantage (n) - problem (opposite of advantage)

Examples:

1. If your children do not learn English while they are young, they will be at a disadvantage in later life.
2. This technique has both advantages and disadvantages.

fertile (adj.) - able to produce (especially for soil)

fertility (n)
Examples:

1. Soils in that region are especially fertile.

2. We can improve the fertility of soil.
finally (adv.)
final (adj.) - at the end
Examples:

1. It took a long time but we finally finished all the work.

2. It will be some time before we get the final results.

flood (n) - a lot of water where there is usually no water

flood (v)
Examples:

1. Most of the region was flooded for several days.

2. Floods damaged crops in many areas.

frogs (n) - type of animal that lives in water and on land, has very long legs for jumping and no
tail
get rid of (v) - take out, remove something we don't want
Examples:

1. There are too many papers here. Can you get rid of some of them?
2. I have had this cold for weeks. I just can't seem to get rid of it.

grow (v) - to become bigger (grow-grew-grown)

growth (n)
Examples:

1. My son grew 10 cm. last year.

2. These plants will not grow in hot climates.

harvest (v) - cutting and gathering of food crops

harvest (n)
Examples:

1. The harvest was late this year.

2. These crops are easy to harvest.

hold (v) - to take and keep something (hold-held-held)

Examples:

1. This bottle can hold 1 ½ liters.

2. How much information can this disk hold?

level (v) - to make something flat

level (n) - flat area
level (adj.) - having a flat surface
Examples:

1. This land will be difficult to level.

2. The car park has five levels.
3. To play our game, we will need to find a level piece of ground.

paddy (n) - rice field; unmilled rice

paddies (plural)
plow (v) - to turn over soil with a plow
plow (n) - farm tool used for plowing
note: British English – plough
Examples:

1. Most of the fields are plowed in the wet season.

2. Farmers have used plows for thousand of years.

relatively (adv.) - comparatively, quite

relative (adj.) - compared to
Examples:

1. The rooms are relatively large.( same as The rooms are quite large.)
2. This is relatively easy. (same as This is not too difficult.)

seep (v) - when water moves slowly through something

Examples:

1. If bunds are not built carefully, water may seep out of the rice field.
2. Our roof was damaged last year. Now when it rains, some water seeps through.

shellfish (n) - animals with a shell that live in water

snails (n) - small, slow-moving animal with a shell
tend to (adv.) - usually happens
Examples:

1. He is not a good worker. He tends to be lazy.

2. The rainy season tends to last for 4 or 5 months.

traditional (adj.)
tradition (n) - beliefs or systems passed from parents to children
traditionally (adv.)
Examples:

1. These are the traditional clothes worn by women in my country.

2. This is a very old tradition which people have carried out for centuries.
3. English people traditionally eat meat with two vegetables.

vary (v) - to change, to be different

varied (adj.) - different
variety (n) - different types
variable (adj.) - often changing
Examples:

1. Traditions vary from country to country.

2. We should eat a varied diet.
3. We need to use a variety of techniques.
4. Weather conditions in my country are variable.

vital (adj.) - very important

vitally (adv.)
Examples:

1. It is vital that you understand this! (same as It is very important that you understand this.)
2. This is vitally important! (same as This is very, very important.)
weed (n) - plant which we do not want
weed (v) - to take out weeds
Examples:

1. These fields need to be weeded at least two times during the growing season.
2. Some farmers do not believe that weeds are a problem.

yield (v) - produce, give a result

yield (n) - production, the result
Examples:

1. These varieties tend to yield well.

1. Rice yields in many countries are still too low.

bunds (n) - embankments between fields, also called levees and dikes
puddle (v) - to make wet soil very soft before planting crops
transplant (v) - to take plant from onelocation and put it in soil somewhere else
transplanted (adj)
transplantation (n)
Example:

1. The rice in that area was transplanted last week.

seedlings (n) - a young plant grown from seed as distinct from one grown by other methods
varieties (n) - groups of animals or plants within a species or sub-species. Sometimes also
called breed, race or strain.
varietal (adj)
Examples:

1. Scientists are always working to develop new varieties of plants and animals.
2. Varietal improvement is an important area of crop research.

English for Agriculture unit 3 UPLAND

FARMING reading
Upland Farming
In many upland areas the soil is very poor.
However, local people have indigenous knowledge about their environment.
They know what will grow and what will not grow.
Many people in upland areas use swidden farming.
They clear a piece of forest, burn the vegetation and then plant crops for a few years.
Swidden farming is also called ‘slash-and-burn’ or ‘shifting cultivation’.
This type of farming was once common in all areas.
Now, it is found mainly in the uplands.
Most of the nutrients in a tropical forest are stored in the living vegetation, not in the soil.
Burning the vegetation releases the majority of these nutrients into the soil.
The fire kills weeds, pests and diseases.
The ash improves the soil structure.
The yields in the first year or two are good.
But soon, the nutrients are used up or washed away.
After a few years of farming, the soil is exhausted, and pests and weeds threaten the crops.
Traditional farmers leave the land fallow - to rest for a while and recover.
It takes several years for the soil to recover so the land can again be cleared for crops.

English for Agriculture unit 3 UPLAND

FARMING grammar
Active Voice / Passive Voice
Look at the following sentences:

1. Most rice is grown in the lowlands.

2. Swidden farming is also called ‘shifting cultivation’.
3. It is found mainly in the uplands.
4. Most of the nutrients are stored in the living vegetation.
5. Soon, the nutrients are used up.
6. The land can be cleared for crops.

Please note that:

 These sentences are all examples of passive voice constructions.

 In passive voice, the emphasis is on what is done, not on who or what did it. Whereas, in the active
voice, there is more emphasis on who is 'doing' the action.
 Passive voice is very common in agricultural English, especially in writing.

Active and Passive Voice Constructions

Structure
Active Voice subject + verb + object
example: Farmers grow rice
object
Passive Voice changes to + verb + 3rd
subject 'to be' verb
example: Rice is grown (by farmers)
Using the above illustration, please note that:

 The '3rd verb' is often called the 'past participle'.

 In passive voice we often leave out who/what does the action (in this case, farmers) because we are
more interested in what was done than who did it.

Examples:

Active Voice Passive Voice

 Many people eat rice every Rice is eaten by many people
day. every day.
Many people are eating rice Rice is being eaten by many
now. people now.
Many people will eat rice now. Rice will be eaten by many
people tomorrow.
Many people are going to eat Rice is going to be eaten by
rice tomorrow. many people tomorrow.
Many people ate rice Rice was eaten by many
yesterday. people yesterday.
Many people have eaten rice. Rice has been eaten by many
people.
Many people can eat rice. Rice can be eaten by many
people.

Active and Passive Voice with Verb Tenses

Active voice and passive voice can be made in all tenses. But passive voice is difficult to construct because:

 The verb 'to be' is different for every tense

Tense 'to be' Example

Present is / Rice is grown.
Simple are Potatoes are grown.
Present is being / Rice is being grown.
Continuous are being Potatoes are being grown.
Future will be Rice will be grown.
Simple Potatoes will be grown.
Future with is going to be / Rice is going to be grown.
'going to' are going to be Potatoes are going to be
grown.
Past Simple was / Rice was grown.
were Potatoes were grown.
Present has been / Rice has been grown.
Perfect have been Potatoes have been grown.
Auxilliary may be / can be Rice can be grown.
Construction / Potatoes can be grown.
should be / etc.

 The 3rd verb (past participle) is often different to the 2nd verb (past tense).
English for Agriculture unit 3 UPLAND
FARMING vocabulary

KEY VOCABULARY

allow (v) - let something happen, permit something to happen

Examples:

1. Will you allow me to do this?

2. We should allow enough time so that we can finish this work.

ash (n) - material produced when something is burned

burn (v) - to damage by fire or heat
Examples:

1. Take the rubbish out to the field and burn it.

2. Burning of forests for agricultural land is now a serious problem.

clear (v) - to make clean, to remove everything

Examples:

1. Please clear the table. (same as Please take everything off the table.)
2. After they burned the trees, the land was completely cleared.

emphasis (n) - the important part, the part made to stand out
emphasize (v) - to make something look important, to make one part stand out
Examples:

1. I must emphasize that this is very important.

2. He does not think this is important. He wants a different emphasis.

especially (adv.) - very, in particular

Examples:

1. Many people, especially those in Asia, depend on rice.

2. My son likes all food, but he especially likes pizza.

exhausted (adj.) - very tired, no energy left, used up

exhaust (v) - to use up completely
exhaustion (n)
Examples:

1. After the 10 km race, all the runners were exhausted.

2. We have tried everything (same as We have exhausted all the possibilities.)

common (adj.) - found in many places, not rare, easy to find

commonly (adv.)
Examples:
 1. These plants are very common in my country.
2. These varieties are commonly found all over Asia.

fertilizer (n) - material used to improve soil fertility

forest (n) - large area of trees
indigenous (adj.) - from a particular country or region
Examples:

1. These plants are indigenous to this region.

2. The "Aka" people are indigenous to northern Thailand.

local (adj.) - in a particular place, similar to 'indigenous'

locality (n) - place
localized (adj. - made local
Examples:

1. The local people are very friendly. (i.e. the people from that area).
2. Most farmers in the north use local varieties. (i.e. varieties from the north).

majority (n) - most

Examples:

1. In most countries, the majority of people can read and write (i.e. most people).
2. We have completed the majority of the work. (i.e. most of the work).

recover (v) - to improve after some problem, e.g. disease, accidents, etc.
recovery (n)
Examples:

1. After the accident, he spent 6 weeks recovering in hospital.

2. I am sorry to say that your friend is very sick. I don't think he will recover.

release (v) - let go, send out, make free

Examples:

1. After 5 years, the prisoner was released from jail.

2. I'm sorry, but I cannot give you that information. I cannot release it to anybody.

several (adj.) - many

Examples:

1. In some countries, a man can have several wives.

2. I have written to him several times, but he never replies.

store (v) - to keep in one place

store (n) - place where things are kept
Examples:

1. You can store your things in the small room next to the bedroom.
2. Our rice store can hold 400 sacks of rice.

structure (n) - building, the way something is built

Examples:

1. The bridge fell down because the structure was not strong enough.
 2. Scientists study the structure of plants.

threaten (v) - make dangerous for the future

threat (n) - a future danger
Examples:

1. Look at the black sky over there! I think it is threatening to rain.

2. There are many threats to world peace.

tropical (adj.) - of hot, wet regions located in the tropics

tropics (n) - region between 23o 27’ north and 23o 27’ south
Examples:

1. These plants grow well in tropical climates.

2. These plants grow well in the tropics.

vegetation (n) - plants, leaves, flowers, trees, bushes, etc.

TECHNICAL VOCABULARY

characteristic (n) - a feature of a plant or animal transmitted from generation to generation.

Sometimes also called 'character'.
characteristic (adj.)
Example:

1. This variety has many good characteristics.

fallow (adj.) - land which is not used, usually for a season, during which it is often plowed to kill
weeds.
Example:

1. We will not use that land next season. We will leave it fallow.

upland farming (n) - farming in high areas. In rice cultivation, often used to mean slash-and-
burn cultivation, or growing rice in fields with no bunds.
nutrient (n) - substance providing nourishment, especially for plants or animals
Example:

1. That soil is rich in nutrients.

English for Agriculture unit 4 STAPLE CROPS

reading
Staple Crops
source: Dimensions of Need- FAO, 1995
Most people live on a diet of one or more of the following staples: rice, wheat, maize (corn), millet, sorghum,
roots and tubers (potatoes, cassava, yams and taro), and animal products such as meat, milk, eggs, cheese and
fish.

Of more than 50,000 edible plant species in the world, only a few contribute significantly to food supplies.
Just 15 crop plants provide 90 percent of the world’s food energy intake. Of these, just three - rice, wheat and
maize, provide 60 percent of the world’s food energy intake.

Although there are over 10,000 species in the Granineae (cereal) family, few have been widely introduced into
cultivation over the past 2,000 years.

Rice feeds almost half of humanity.

Per capita rice consumption has generally remained stable or risen slightly since the 1960s.

It has declined in recent years in many of the wealthier, rice-consuming countries such as Japan, the Republic
of Korea and Thailand, because increased incomes have enabled people to eat a more varied diet.

A staple food is one that is eaten regularly, constitutes a major part of the diet and supplies a major portion of
energy and nutrient needs.

A staple food does not meet a population’s total nutritional needs: a variety of foods is required.

Typically, staple crops are well adapted to the conditions in their source areas. For example, they may be
tolerant of drought, pests or soils low in nutrients.

English for Agriculture unit 4 STAPLE CROPS

grammar
Compound Sentences
using although / though / even though
Remember this sentence from the reading in this lesson:
Although there are thousands of cereal types, only a few are cultivated.
This is an example of a compound sentence. This sentence could be written as two sentences using 'However,'
to start the second sentence, like this:
There are thousands of cereal types. However, only a few are cultivated.
Compound sentences contain two verbs and sometimes two subjects. They express two ideas or points.
If we want to make a compound sentence, we use but or although.

 although is similar to but

 although can be used at the start of sentences or between phrases.
 but should not be used at the start of sentences.

Examples:
 1. There are thousands of cereal types, but only a few are cultivated.
2. There are thousands of cereal types, although only a few are cultivated.
3. Although there are thousands of cereal types, only a few are cultivated.

Please note:

 the position of the comma (,)

 although can be replaced with though or even though.

To illustrate, Example 2 can also be written as follows:

There are thousands of cereal types, though only a few are cultivated.

using such as / for example

Look at these sentences taken from the reading in this lesson:

1. Many people eat animal products such as meat, milk, eggs and fish.
2. Rice consumption has declined in wealthier countries such as Japan, the Republic of Korea and
Thailand.

Please note that:

 such as has the same meaning as for example, including and like.
 such as and including have the same usage
 like is more common in spoken English
 for example is usually placed between a comma and a colon (:) .

To illustrate,
Many people eat animal, for example: meat, milk, eggs and fish.
Rice comsumption has declined in wealthier countries, for example: Japan, the Republic of Korea and
Thailand.

 such as and for example introduce a partial account - not a complete one. In the above examples, there
are more animal products than the 4 mentioned, and there are more wealthier rice-consuming
countries than the 3 mentioned.

To illustrate,
ASEAN is comprised of many countries, such as Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. (partial account)
ASEAN is comprised of 10 countries. These are Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore, the
Philippines, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar and Cambodia. (complete list)

 we cannot use such as, including or for example when we provide the complete list.

English for Agriculture unit 4 STAPLE CROPS

vocabulary

balanced (adj.) - in equal amounts, in correct amounts

balance (v) - to keep steady, to keep safe
balance (n) - equal weight
Examples:

1. We should preserve the balance of nature.

2. This newspaper gives us a balanced account of the news.

contribute (v) - to give a part of the whole

contribution (n)
Examples:

1. Carbon dioxide contributes to global warming.

2. Bill Gates gave a large contribution of $3 billion to help computer education.

creature (n) - animal, including people, birds, fish, insects, etc.

decline (v) - to reduce, to fall, to decrease
decline(n)
Examples:

1. In some countries, the birth rate is now declining.

2. There has been a decline in the number of people using the library.

diet (n) - the food we usually eat

diet (v) - to eat special food for health reasons
Examples:

1. Many Europeans do not eat a healthy diet.

2. Some animals live on a diet of leaves.

disaster (n) - very serious accident affecting many people

disastrous (adj.)
Examples:

1. The effects of global warming could be disastrous.

2. Bangladesh suffers many natural disasters each year.

drought (n) - situation of no rain for a long time

Examples:

1. Drought is one kind of natural disaster.

2. Many areas are affected by drought.

edible (adj.) - can be eaten, good enough to eat

Examples:

1. Are these mushrooms edible?

2. Not all plants are edible.

enable (v) - make possible

Examples:

1. The new equipment will enable us to improve our work.

2. Modern transport enables us to travel very quickly.

humanity (n) - all the people in the world

Examples:
 1. This is a problem for humanity (i.e. all people)
2. Humanity has produced many varied societies.

intake (n) - consumption, what is taken in

Examples:

1. You should reduce your intake of alcohol!

2. In some areas, school intake is declining. (i.e. fewer children are going to school)

meet (v) - supply enough

Examples:

1. This work is not good enough! It does not meet my requirements.

2. We should have enough food to meet our daily needs.

nutritional (adj.) - high in nutrients

nutrition (n) - process of giving nutrients
nutrients (n) - substances or food which allow plants and animals to live
Examples:

1. Plants get their nutrients from the soil.

2. This food is not very good. It is not very nutritional.
3. Good nutrition is essential for good health.

per capita (adj.) - per person, for one person

Examples:

1. In some countries, per capita income is declining.

2. Per capita consumption of food increases in most years.

regularly (adv.) - happening at times which are the same distance apart
regular (adj.) - always the same

1. I am a regular customer of that shop.

2. You should practice your English regularly.

risen (v) -(rise-rose-risen), to come up

rise (n) - an increase
Examples:

1. The sun rises in the east.

2. The number of accidents has risen recently.

significantly (adv.) - a lot, substantially, importantly

significant (adj.) - large, substantial, important
Examples:

1. There has been a significant improvement recently.

2. Incomes have risen significantly. (i.e. risen a lot)

slightly (adv.)
slight (adj.) - a little
Examples:

1. There has only been a slight improvement. (i.e. a little improvement)

 2. These ones are slightly better than those ones.

source (n) - place where something comes from

Examples:

1. The source of the Mekong River is in Tibet.

2. What was the source of this information? (i.e. Where did it come from?)

stable (adj.) - staying the same, not going up or down

stability (n)
stabilize (v)
Examples:

1. Incomes have not increased or decreased this year – they have remained stable.
2. The doctors said his condition has now stabilized.

typically (adv.) - usually, most commonly

typical (adj.) - usual, common
Examples:

1. He is a typical man – always talking about sports!

2. He greeted me with typical Asian friendliness.

well-adapted (adj.) - changed to become comfortable or suitable

Examples:

1. He found living in a foreign country difficult at first, but he is well-adapted now.

2. Most animals are well-adapted to their environment.

wealthy (adj.) - rich, having a lot of money or resources

wealth (n)
Examples:

1. When he was young, he was very poor, but he became wealthy in later life.
2. The wealth of many poor countries is in their natural resources.

widely (adv.) - happening over a large area

wide (adj.)
Examples:

1. These varieties are widely used in our country.

2. Technical words are not widely understood.

TECHNICAL VOCABULARY

staple (n) - the main crop produced or consumed in a country

Example:

1. Rice is the staple food in most Asian countries.

wheat (Triticum sativum) - cereal grass with spikes filled with seeds. The seeds are used to
make flour (for bread), cereals, etc. Next to rice, it is the world's most widely used grain.
maize (Zea mays) - the native corn plant of America, cultivated for its food, producing yellow
ears.
corn - any plant producing edible grains but in America meaning 'maize' and in England
meaning 'wheat'
millet (Panicum miliaceum) - cereal grass. Its small grains are used for food in Europe and
Asia. Also used for hay iin the United States and Europe.
sorghum (Sorghum vulgare) - type of grass known by the general name 'millet'. The grasses
are tall with edible stems and are found in the warmer parts of Europe, Asia and America.
roots - the parts of plants which keep them in the soil and absorb water and nutrients from the
soil
tuber - short, thick part of an underground stem which stores food and produces buds from
which new plants will grow
cassava (Manihot utillssima) - tropical plant producing large thick roots used in making
tapioca and bread. Also called 'manioc'.
taro (Colocasia esculents) - tropical plant of the arum family, cultivated for its starchy, edible
tuberous root.
tolerant of - able to exist in difficult conditions without damage
Example:

1. These plants are tolerant of cold weather. (same asThese plants are not damaged by cold
weather.)

yam (Dioscorea alata) - often referred to as 'sweet potato'. Grows in tropical climates and is a
valuable food source.

Monoculture
Monoculture is a cropping system in which fields of single crops are cultivated.
It is the predominant agricultural system in the temperate zone and is also practiced in large areas of the
tropics.

In general, it is easier to mechanize planting, pest management and harvesting by planting one crop at a
time.

The wheat belt of North America and the irrigated ricelands of Southeast Asia are good examples of
monoculture.
In monocultural farming systems, one or more crops per year may be grown.
In North America, there is only one annual maize crop, while in the Philippines, there are often two rice
crops.

In both instances, the crops are grown under monocultural practices.

Monoculture is a suitable system for mechanization since only one plant type is used.

Mechanization requires uniformity: the farmer with a hoe does not require straight and uniform rows, but
the farmer using a tractor needs an unobstructed field with uniform soil condition.
 In monocultural systems, it is important for soil tilth that crops be rotated.

Rotation is the practice of not growing the same crop in the same field every year.
With the exception of wetland rice,rotation should be used whenever possible.

Soil is a complex mixture of clay,silt, sand, and organic matter in various stages of decomposition.

By rotating crops, the farmer is able to improve soil structure, break insect and disease cycles, and improve
fertility.

A legume, such as alfalfa, is a suitable crop for rotation.

English for Agriculture unit 5

MONOCULTURE GRAMMAR AND ASSIGNMENT
GRAMMAR
This section explains the grammar that was introduced in the reading. Study the grammar
carefully and complete the practice exercises to test your understanding. You may find it
helpful to read the Reading again once you have practiced the grammar.

Modifiers, Noun Phrases and Verb Phrases

Remember the following sentences from the reading in this lesson:
1. In monocultural farming systems, one or more crops per year may be grown.
2. In both instances, crops are grown under monocultural practices.
3. In monocultural systems, rotation is important for soil tilth.

These sentences all have the pattern:

(Modifiers) + Noun Phrase + Verb Phrase + (Noun Phrase) + (Modifier)

Modifiers Noun Phrases Verb Phrases

In monocultural one or more may be grown
farming systems, crops
In both crops are grown
instances,
for soil tilth rotation is important

Please note that:

 Sentences must start with a modifier (usually a time phrase or a place phrase) or a noun
phrase.

Examples of place and noun phrase:

Place Phrase Noun Phrase
In Thailand Thailand
At the meeting The meeting
All over the country The country

 Sentences cannot start with a verb phrase.

 Modifiers are usually put at the start or end of sentences.
 Sentences must have a noun phrase and a verb phrase.
 The verb phrase must be after the noun phrase.
 When sentences start with a place phrase or time phrase (modifiers) these are followed
by a comma (,).

ASSIGNMENT

Write a short description of monocultural practices in your country (about 100 words). Try to
use at least 10 terms introduced in this lesson. Make use of modifiers, noun phrases and verb
phrases in constructing your sentences. Write your answers in the comment box for comments
and feedback.
The following questions may help you get started:

Do farmers in your country concentrate on one crop, or do they grow many types of crops?

Discuss any regional differences.

What do you think are the advantages and disadvantages of growing only one crop?

How does the present situation compare with the past?

What is monoculture?

Where is it practised?

How important is this agricultural system in your country?

What are some of the main advantages of monocultural practices

English for Agriculture Unit 5 MONOCULTURE
VOCABULARY

KEY VOCABULARY

annual (adj.) - every year

annually (adv.) - done or happening every year
Examples:

1. His salary is increased annually.

2. He receives an annual increase in his salary.

cycles (n) - events that follow regularly

Examples:

1. We are born, we get old and we die – this is our life cycle.
2. Water moves from the land to the air and back to the land – this is the water cycle.

exception (n) - the different one, the only one that is different
Examples:

1. All the women in our village are beautiful. My wife is the only exception. (i.e. My wife is
not beautiful)
2. With the exception of mathematics, all my son's grades were good. (i.e. His mathematics
grade was not good)

hoe (n) - farm tool used for cutting soil and removing weeds
instances (n) - examples, cases, times
Examples:

1. I can think of many instances when my old computer did not work.
2. There are many instances of people recovering from cancer.

mechanization (n) - using machines

mechanize (v) - to use machines
mechanized (adj.)
mechanical (adj.)
Examples:

1. In Europe, most farms are highly mechanized.

2. Many Asian farmers are not wealthy enough to be able to mechanize their operations.

mud (n) - soft, wet soil

muddy (adj.)
predominant (adj.) - most important
predominantly (adv.)
Examples:

1. Maize is the predominant crop in many parts of America.

2. The population of Laos is predominantly Buddhist.
suitable (adj.) - good or correct for the situation, appropriate
suitably (adv.)
Examples:

1. This is a suitable book for young children.

2. Am I suitably dressed for the party?

uniform (adj.) - the same

uniformly (adv.)
uniformity (n)

1. These varieties do not produce similar yields – they are not uniform.
2. We conducted 5 experiments, but the results were not the same – they were not uniform.

unobstructed (adj.) - not obstructed, with nothing in the way

Examples:

1. My hotel room had an unobstructed view of the sea.

2. You can drive on now – the road is unobstructed.

zone (n) - area

Examples:

1. Many countries have special industrial zones.

2. Some countries say they don't want nuclear bombs – they say they are nuclear-free
zones.

TECHNICAL VOCABULARY AND EXPRESSIONS

cropping system - the method and techniques of growing crops

pest management - the understanding and control of pests

wheat belt - a long, narrow area where wheat is grown

soil tilth - the physical condition of the topsoil. A fine tilth consists of small, loose soil particles.
A coarse tilth consists mostly of large clods.

rotation (n) - a cropping system in which two or more crops are grown in the same field but at
different times.
rotate (v)
rotated (adj.)

clay (n) - sticky soil that becomes hard when dry

clayey (adj.)

silt (n) - sand and mud carried by flowing water

siltation (process)
organic matter (n) - material containing remains of living things, e.g. plants, animals, insects

decompose (v) - to become bad or rotten after dying (also: decay, rot)
decomposed (adj.)
decomposing (adj.)
decomposition (process)

soil structure - the physical condition of soil, how it is constructed

temperate zone - area of the world which does not get very hot or very cold
tropics - regions with hot climates between latitudes 23o north and 23o south

fertile (adj.) - able to produce, rich in nutrients

fertility (n) - level of nutrients in the soil
fertilize (v) - to put nutrients into the soil
fertilizer (material)
Example:

1. Soils in that area are extremely fertile.( i.e. The soils are very good. They can produce
large amounts of crops.)

alfalfa (Medicago sativa) - also called 'lucerne'. A deep-rooted plant of the pea family. Used
extensively in the United States for fodder, pasture and as cover crop.

English for Agriculture unit 6 READING:

POLYCULTURE

Polyculture
Polyculture is a system in which two or more useful plants are grown on the same land. Variations within the
system are multiple cropping, mixed cropping, intercropping, relay planting, interplanting, and interculture.
Multiple cropping is the growing of more than one crop in the same land in one year. For example,
buckwheat may be grown after harvesting peas . Both crops are grown as monoculture crops, but they are
planted and harvested within one year.
Mixed cropping is the growing of two or more crops simultaneously and intermingled , with no row
arrangement.
Intercropping is the growing of two or more crops in alternate rows , for example, maize alternating with
soybean.
Relay planting is the practice of interplanting of the maturing crop with seeds or seedlings of the following
crop.
Interplanting is the practice of planting a short-term annual crop with a long-term annual or biennial crop.
Oats and alfalfa, for example, are commonly interplanted in the temperate zone.
Interculture is the cultivation of one crop underneath a perennial crop, such as rice under coconut palm.
Polyculture is the dominant farming system in many areas of the tropics, where the degree of mechanization
and the use of agricultural chemicals remain low.
English for Agriculture unit 6 POLYCULTURE
GRAMMAR
Relative Pronouns
Look at the following sentences:
Polyculture is an agricultural system.
In this system, two or more useful plants are grown on the same land.
Please note that:

 We don't want to repeat 'agricultural system' and thus we substitute the relative pronoun which to
combine the two sentences into one, as shown below:

Polyculture is an agricultural system in which two or more useful plants are grown on the same land.

The relative pronouns and its use:

that (used for things)
which (used for things)
who (used for people)
whom (used for people)
whose (usually used for people - shows possession)
where (used for places)
Note:

 In speaking, 'that ' can be used for people, but not in formal, written English.

Examples:
1. where (used for places)
Look at these sentences:
Polyculture is the dominant farming systems in many areas.
In these areas, the degree of mechanization is low.
Note:

 Because we don't want to repeat 'areas', we substitute the relative pronoun where and combine the two
sentences into one sentence with 2 phrases (i.e. a compound sentence). The sentences could be wriiten
as follows:

Polyculture is the dominant farming system in many countries where the degreee of mechanization remains
low.
2. that (used for things)
Look at these sentences:
These are seeds.
I bought them yesterday.
Combining the sentences using the relative pronoun that, you might come up with the following sentence:
These are seeds that I bought them yesterday.
Please note that:

 This is incorrect. We don't need the pronoun them.

 Using a relative pronoun helps us to avoid repeating a noun phrase, or using a pronoun. In this case,
using the pronoun them.
The correct sentence is
These are the seeds that I bought yesterday.
Please note that:

 We added the before the word seed.

 With these types of sentences we need to use the.

________________________________________________________

COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES WITHTHE APROPRIATE PRONOUN.

(THAT,WHICH,WHO,WHOM)

1. The book she wrote was a best-seller.

2. The book inspired many students was written many years ago
3. The teacher I was talking about now lives in Canada.--that
4. The teacher inspired many students was well-known.
5. Ms Tate's publications, have inspired many, are all on my bookshelves.
6. The book many readers have learnt a lot from was written by that teacher.
7. The teacher many students were inspired by taught English literature.
8. The teacher every student looked up to retired 10 years ago.
9. The teacher now lives in Canada was respected by many of her students.
10. The book was written by her is still talked about.
11. The teacher everybody respected remains single all her life.
12. The book she wrote is used as a textbook in many literature courses.
13. The book many courses use is published in only paperback editions.
14. The book everybody is talking about does not cost much.
15. The teacher every student loved is still writing to her students.
16. Ms Tate, was trained in literature, has taught literature all her life.
17. The teacher to many students owe their success has taught in many countries.
18. The teaching to many students owe their technique is captured in this book.
19. Ms Tate's letters, her students are still inspired by, show how much she still cares for her students.
20. Ms Tate, many past students are still writing to, replies to all the letter.
21. Ms Tate's letters, her students all treasure, contain words of wisdom.
22. Ms Tate, to many of her students are writing, is living happily and peacefully in Canada.

English for Agriculture Unit 6 POLYCULTURE

VOCABULARY
POLYCULTURE

VOCABULARY:

alternate (adj.) - different

alternatively (adv.) - on the other hand, doing something a different way
alternative (n) - a differant choice
Examples:

1. I don't want to do it this way. Is there another alternative?

2. You can park here on alternate days, i.e. Monday, Wednesday, Friday; or Tuesday, Thursday,
Saturday.
 3. You can start next week. Alternatively, you could start tomorrow.

arrangement (n) - system, organization

arrange (v) - to put things in a system
Examples:

1. Please arrange the chairs so that everyone can see.

2. This is not a good arrangement. Let's do it a different way.

dominant (adj.) - strongest, most important

dominate (v) - to be the strongest, to control
Examples:

1. He is not strong. He is dominated by his wife.

2. English is the dominant second language in many countries.

intermingled (adj.) - mixed

intermingle (v) - to mix, to put together with no system
Examples:

1. At the party, people from different countries intermingled with each other.
2. He sang French songs intermingled with English ones.

mature (v) - to grow to maturity, to become ripe, to develop

mature (adj.) - old enough, ripe enough, (for fruit) ready to be eaten, sufficiently developed
maturity (n) - the age at which someone/something is fully developed
Examples:

1. When will these plants mature?

2. Only pick the mature fruits.
3. It will take 20 years for these trees to grow to maturity.

multiple (adj.) - many

multiply (v) - to increase many times
multiplication (n) - process of increasing many times
Examples:

1. He has been in hospital many times and had multiple operations.

2. Tests where you can choose from many possible answers are called multiple choice tests.

relay (n) - moving forward after being in the same position for some time
relay(v) - to move something forward
Examples:

1. Can you relay this information to the Director?

2. The computer will hold the information for 5 minutes and then relay it to another site.

row (n) - line of plants or other things/people

Examples:

1. Rice is usually planted in straight rows.

2. We sat in the third row of the meeting room.

short-term (adj.) - short time (as opposed to medium-term and long-term)

Examples:
 1. What are the short-term objectives?
2. I think this will be successful over the short-term, but later we will have to think of another
alternative.

simultaneously (adv.) - done at the same time

simultaneous (adj.) - at the same time
Examples:

1. Can you walk and read simultaneously?

2. At the sports competition, the men's and women's games will be held simultaneously.

within (prep.) - inside

Examples:

1. All the experiments were conducted within the same farmer's fields.
2. Please try to finish this within 3 days.

TECHNICAL VOCABULARY AND EXPRESSIONS:

biennial - every two years, lasting for two years

bi-annual - two times a year

buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculenium) - plant grown for its triangular seeds. It is a native of
central Asia but is now grown in both Europe and the United States as food for horses, cattle
and poultry. Also used as human food.

peas (Pisum) - leguminous plant with pinkish flowers and green seed pod. Its small, round
seeds are used as a vegetable.

perennial - lasting a long time (in plants: living for more than two years)

soybean (Glycine max) - annual leguminous crop native to China and Japan. It is widely grown
for its seeds which contain substantial protein and oil. It is also grown as forage and cover crop.

oats (Avena sativa) - common cereal plant with edible seeds grown throughout the temperate
zone.